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Exploratory Research – Types, Methods and Examples

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Exploratory Research

Definition:

Exploratory research is a type of research design that is used to investigate a research question when the researcher has limited knowledge or understanding of the topic or phenomenon under study.

The primary objective of exploratory research is to gain insights and gather preliminary information that can help the researcher better define the research problem and develop hypotheses or research questions for further investigation.

Exploratory Research Methods

There are several types of exploratory research, including:

Literature Review

This involves conducting a comprehensive review of existing published research, scholarly articles, and other relevant literature on the research topic or problem. It helps to identify the gaps in the existing knowledge and to develop new research questions or hypotheses.

Pilot Study

A pilot study is a small-scale preliminary study that helps the researcher to test research procedures, instruments, and data collection methods. This type of research can be useful in identifying any potential problems or issues with the research design and refining the research procedures for a larger-scale study.

This involves an in-depth analysis of a particular case or situation to gain insights into the underlying causes, processes, and dynamics of the issue under investigation. It can be used to develop a more comprehensive understanding of a complex problem, and to identify potential research questions or hypotheses.

Focus Groups

Focus groups involve a group discussion that is conducted to gather opinions, attitudes, and perceptions from a small group of individuals about a particular topic. This type of research can be useful in exploring the range of opinions and attitudes towards a topic, identifying common themes or patterns, and generating ideas for further research.

Expert Opinion

This involves consulting with experts or professionals in the field to gain their insights, expertise, and opinions on the research topic. This type of research can be useful in identifying the key issues and concerns related to the topic, and in generating ideas for further research.

Observational Research

Observational research involves gathering data by observing people, events, or phenomena in their natural settings to gain insights into behavior and interactions. This type of research can be useful in identifying patterns of behavior and interactions, and in generating hypotheses or research questions for further investigation.

Open-ended Surveys

Open-ended surveys allow respondents to provide detailed and unrestricted responses to questions, providing valuable insights into their attitudes, opinions, and perceptions. This type of research can be useful in identifying common themes or patterns, and in generating ideas for further research.

Data Analysis Methods

Exploratory Research Data Analysis Methods are as follows:

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing text or other forms of data to identify common themes, patterns, and trends. It can be useful in identifying patterns in the data and developing hypotheses or research questions. For example, if the researcher is analyzing social media posts related to a particular topic, content analysis can help identify the most frequently used words, hashtags, and topics.

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying and analyzing patterns or themes in qualitative data such as interviews or focus groups. The researcher identifies recurring themes or patterns in the data and then categorizes them into different themes. This can be helpful in identifying common patterns or themes in the data and developing hypotheses or research questions. For example, a thematic analysis of interviews with healthcare professionals about patient care may identify themes related to communication, patient satisfaction, and quality of care.

Cluster Analysis

This method involves grouping data points into clusters based on their similarities or differences. It can be useful in identifying patterns in large datasets and grouping similar data points together. For example, if the researcher is analyzing customer data to identify different customer segments, cluster analysis can be used to group similar customers together based on their demographic, purchasing behavior, or preferences.

Network Analysis

This method involves analyzing the relationships and connections between data points. It can be useful in identifying patterns in complex datasets with many interrelated variables. For example, if the researcher is analyzing social network data, network analysis can help identify the most influential users and their connections to other users.

Grounded Theory

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected during the exploratory research process. The researcher develops a theory or explanation that is grounded in the data, rather than relying on pre-existing theories or assumptions. This can be helpful in developing new theories or explanations that are supported by the data.

Applications of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research has many practical applications across various fields. Here are a few examples:

• Marketing Research : In marketing research, exploratory research can be used to identify consumer needs, preferences, and behavior. It can also help businesses understand market trends and identify new market opportunities.
• Product Development: In product development, exploratory research can be used to identify customer needs and preferences, as well as potential design flaws or issues. This can help companies improve their product offerings and develop new products that better meet customer needs.
• Social Science Research: In social science research, exploratory research can be used to identify new areas of study, as well as develop new theories and hypotheses. It can also be used to identify potential research methods and approaches.
• Healthcare Research : In healthcare research, exploratory research can be used to identify new treatments, therapies, and interventions. It can also be used to identify potential risk factors or causes of health problems.
• Education Research: In education research, exploratory research can be used to identify new teaching methods and approaches, as well as identify potential areas of study for further research. It can also be used to identify potential barriers to learning or achievement.

Examples of Exploratory Research

Here are some more examples of exploratory research from different fields:

• Social Science : A researcher wants to study the experience of being a refugee, but there is limited existing research on this topic. The researcher conducts exploratory research by conducting in-depth interviews with refugees to better understand their experiences, challenges, and needs.
• Healthcare : A medical researcher wants to identify potential risk factors for a rare disease but there is limited information available. The researcher conducts exploratory research by reviewing medical records and interviewing patients and their families to identify potential risk factors.
• Education : A teacher wants to develop a new teaching method to improve student engagement, but there is limited information on effective teaching methods. The teacher conducts exploratory research by reviewing existing literature and interviewing other teachers to identify potential approaches.
• Technology : A software developer wants to develop a new app, but is unsure about the features that users would find most useful. The developer conducts exploratory research by conducting surveys and focus groups to identify user preferences and needs.
• Environmental Science : An environmental scientist wants to study the impact of a new industrial plant on the surrounding environment, but there is limited existing research. The scientist conducts exploratory research by collecting and analyzing soil and water samples, and conducting interviews with residents to better understand the impact of the plant on the environment and the community.

How to Conduct Exploratory Research

Here are the general steps to conduct exploratory research:

• Define the research problem: Identify the research problem or question that you want to explore. Be clear about the objective and scope of the research.
• Review existing literature: Conduct a review of existing literature and research on the topic to identify what is already known and where gaps in knowledge exist.
• Determine the research design : Decide on the appropriate research design, which will depend on the nature of the research problem and the available resources. Common exploratory research designs include case studies, focus groups, interviews, and surveys.
• Collect data: Collect data using the chosen research design. This may involve conducting interviews, surveys, or observations, or collecting data from existing sources such as archives or databases.
• Analyze data: Analyze the data collected using appropriate qualitative or quantitative techniques. This may include coding and categorizing qualitative data, or running descriptive statistics on quantitative data.
• I nterpret and report findings: Interpret the findings of the analysis and report them in a way that is clear and understandable. The report should summarize the findings, discuss their implications, and make recommendations for further research or action.
• Iterate : If necessary, refine the research question and repeat the process of data collection and analysis to further explore the topic.

When to use Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is appropriate in situations where there is limited existing knowledge or understanding of a topic, and where the goal is to generate insights and ideas that can guide further research. Here are some specific situations where exploratory research may be particularly useful:

• New product development: When developing a new product, exploratory research can be used to identify consumer needs and preferences, as well as potential design flaws or issues.
• Emerging technologies: When exploring emerging technologies, exploratory research can be used to identify potential uses and applications, as well as potential challenges or limitations.
• Developing research hypotheses: When developing research hypotheses, exploratory research can be used to identify potential relationships or patterns that can be further explored through more rigorous research methods.
• Understanding complex phenomena: When trying to understand complex phenomena, such as human behavior or societal trends, exploratory research can be used to identify underlying patterns or factors that may be influencing the phenomenon.
• Developing research methods : When developing new research methods, exploratory research can be used to identify potential issues or limitations with existing methods, and to develop new methods that better capture the phenomena of interest.

Purpose of Exploratory Research

The purpose of exploratory research is to gain insights and understanding of a research problem or question where there is limited existing knowledge or understanding. The objective is to explore and generate ideas that can guide further research, rather than to test specific hypotheses or make definitive conclusions.

Exploratory research can be used to:

• Identify new research questions: Exploratory research can help to identify new research questions and areas of inquiry, by providing initial insights and understanding of a topic.
• Develop hypotheses: Exploratory research can help to develop hypotheses and testable propositions that can be further explored through more rigorous research methods.
• Identify patterns and trends : Exploratory research can help to identify patterns and trends in data, which can be used to guide further research or decision-making.
• Understand complex phenomena: Exploratory research can help to provide a deeper understanding of complex phenomena, such as human behavior or societal trends, by identifying underlying patterns or factors that may be influencing the phenomena.
• Generate ideas: Exploratory research can help to generate new ideas and insights that can be used to guide further research, innovation, or decision-making.

Characteristics of Exploratory Research

The following are the main characteristics of exploratory research:

• Flexible and open-ended : Exploratory research is characterized by its flexible and open-ended nature, which allows researchers to explore a wide range of ideas and perspectives without being constrained by specific research questions or hypotheses.
• Qualitative in nature : Exploratory research typically relies on qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, or observation, to gather rich and detailed data on the research problem.
• Limited scope: Exploratory research is generally limited in scope, focusing on a specific research problem or question, rather than attempting to provide a comprehensive analysis of a broader phenomenon.
• Preliminary in nature : Exploratory research is preliminary in nature, providing initial insights and understanding of a research problem, rather than testing specific hypotheses or making definitive conclusions.
• I terative process : Exploratory research is often an iterative process, where the research design and methods may be refined and adjusted as new insights and understanding are gained.
• I nductive approach : Exploratory research typically takes an inductive approach to data analysis, seeking to identify patterns and relationships in the data that can guide further research or hypothesis development.

Advantages of Exploratory Research

The following are some advantages of exploratory research:

• Provides initial insights: Exploratory research is useful for providing initial insights and understanding of a research problem or question where there is limited existing knowledge or understanding. It can help to identify patterns, relationships, and potential hypotheses that can guide further research.
• Flexible and adaptable : Exploratory research is flexible and adaptable, allowing researchers to adjust their methods and approach as they gain new insights and understanding of the research problem.
• Qualitative methods : Exploratory research typically relies on qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, which can provide rich and detailed data that is useful for gaining insights into complex phenomena.
• Cost-effective : Exploratory research is often less costly than other research methods, such as large-scale surveys or experiments. It is typically conducted on a smaller scale, using fewer resources and participants.
• Useful for hypothesis generation : Exploratory research can be useful for generating hypotheses and testable propositions that can be further explored through more rigorous research methods.
• Provides a foundation for further research: Exploratory research can provide a foundation for further research by identifying potential research questions and areas of inquiry, as well as providing initial insights and understanding of the research problem.

Limitations of Exploratory Research

The following are some limitations of exploratory research:

• Limited generalizability: Exploratory research is typically conducted on a small scale and uses non-random sampling techniques, which limits the generalizability of the findings to a broader population.
• Subjective nature: Exploratory research relies on qualitative methods and is therefore subject to researcher bias and interpretation. The findings may be influenced by the researcher’s own perceptions, beliefs, and assumptions.
• Lack of rigor: Exploratory research is often less rigorous than other research methods, such as experimental research, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Limited ability to test hypotheses: Exploratory research is not designed to test specific hypotheses, but rather to generate initial insights and understanding of a research problem. It may not be suitable for testing well-defined research questions or hypotheses.
• Time-consuming : Exploratory research can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, particularly if the researcher needs to gather data from multiple sources or conduct multiple rounds of data collection.
• Difficulty in interpretation: The open-ended nature of exploratory research can make it difficult to interpret the findings, particularly if the researcher is unable to identify clear patterns or relationships in the data.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Home Market Research

Exploratory Research: Types & Characteristics

Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels that increasing the variety of juices will enable an increase in customers. However, he is not sure and needs more information. The owner intends to conduct exploratory research to find out; hence, he decides to do exploratory research to find out if expanding their juices selection will enable him to get more customers or if there is a better idea.

Another example of exploratory research is a podcast survey template that can be used to collect feedback about the podcast consumption metrics both from existing listeners as well as other podcast listeners that are currently not subscribed to this channel. This helps the author of the podcast create curated content that will gain a larger audience. Let’s explore this topic.

LEARN ABOUT: Research Process Steps

Content Index

Exploratory research: Definition

Primary research methods, secondary research methods, exploratory research: steps to conduct a research, characteristics of exploratory research, advantages of exploratory research, disadvantages of exploratory research, importance of exploratory research.

Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing research problem , but will not provide conclusive results. For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses this research as a medium to identify issues, that can be the focus for future research. An important aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data or insight. Such a research is usually carried out when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is often referred to as grounded theory approach or interpretive research as it used to answer questions like what, why and how.

Types and methodologies of Exploratory research

While it may sound difficult to research something that has very little information about it, there are several methods which can help a researcher figure out the best research design, data collection methods and choice of subjects. There are two ways in which research can be conducted namely primary and secondary.. Under these two types, there are multiple methods which can used by a researcher. The data gathered from these research can be qualitative or quantitative . Some of the most widely used research designs include the following:

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

Primary research is information gathered directly from the subject.  It can be through a group of people or even an individual. Such a research can be carried out directly by the researcher himself or can employ a third party to conduct it on their behalf. Primary research is specifically carried out to explore a certain problem which requires an in-depth study.

• Surveys/polls : Surveys /polls are used to gather information from a predefined group of respondents. It is one of the most important quantitative method. Various types of surveys  or polls can be used to explore opinions, trends, etc. With the advancement in technology, surveys can now be sent online and can be very easy to access. For instance, use of a survey app through tablets, laptops or even mobile phones. This information is also available to the researcher in real time as well. Nowadays, most organizations offer short length surveys and rewards to respondents, in order to achieve higher response rates.

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For example: A survey is sent to a given set of audience to understand their opinions about the size of mobile phones when they purchase one. Based on such information organization can dig deeper into the topic and make business related decision.

• Interviews: While you may get a lot of information from public sources, but sometimes an in person interview can give in-depth information on the subject being studied. Such a research is a qualitative research method . An interview with a subject matter expert can give you meaningful insights that a generalized public source won’t be able to provide. Interviews are carried out in person or on telephone which have open-ended questions to get meaningful information about the topic.

For example: An interview with an employee can give you more insights to find out the degree of job satisfaction, or an interview with a subject matter expert of quantum theory can give you in-depth information on that topic.

• Focus groups: Focus group is yet another widely used method in exploratory research. In such a method a group of people is chosen and are allowed to express their insights on the topic that is being studied. Although, it is important to make sure that while choosing the individuals in a focus group they should have a common background and have comparable experiences.

For example: A focus group helps a research identify the opinions of consumers if they were to buy a phone. Such a research can help the researcher understand what the consumer value while buying a phone. It may be screen size, brand value or even the dimensions. Based on which the organization can understand what are consumer buying attitudes, consumer opinions, etc.

• Observations: Observational research can be qualitative observation or quantitative observation . Such a research is done to observe a person and draw the finding from their reaction to certain parameters. In such a research, there is no direct interaction with the subject.

For example: An FMCG company wants to know how it’s consumer react to the new shape of their product. The researcher observes the customers first reaction and collects the data, which is then used to draw inferences from the collective information.

LEARN ABOUT: Causal Research

Secondary research is gathering information from previously published primary research. In such a research you gather information from sources likes case studies, magazines, newspapers, books, etc.

• Online research: In today’s world, this is one of the fastest way to gather information on any topic. A lot of data is readily available on the internet and the researcher can download it whenever he needs it. An important aspect to be noted for such a research is the genuineness and authenticity of the source websites that the researcher is gathering the information from.

For example: A researcher needs to find out what is the percentage of people that prefer a specific brand phone. The researcher just enters the information he needs in a search engine and gets multiple links with related information and statistics.

• Literature research : Literature research is one of the most inexpensive method used for discovering a hypothesis. There is tremendous amount of information available in libraries, online sources, or even commercial databases. Sources can include newspapers, magazines, books from library, documents from government agencies, specific topic related articles, literature, Annual reports, published statistics from research organizations and so on.

However, a few things have to be kept in mind while researching from these sources. Government agencies have authentic information but sometimes may come with a nominal cost. Also, research from educational institutions is generally overlooked, but in fact educational institutions carry out more number of research than any other entities.

Furthermore, commercial sources provide information on major topics like political agendas, demographics, financial information, market trends and information, etc.

For example: A company has low sales. It can be easily explored from available statistics and market literature if the problem is market related or organization related or if the topic being studied is regarding financial situation of the country, then research data can be accessed through government documents or commercial sources.

• Case study research: Case study research can help a researcher with finding more information through carefully analyzing existing cases which have gone through a similar problem. Such exploratory data analysis are very important and critical especially in today’s business world. The researcher just needs to make sure he analyses the case carefully in regards to all the variables present in the previous case against his own case. It is very commonly used by business organizations or social sciences sector or even in the health sector.

LEARN ABOUT: Level of Analysis

For example: A particular orthopedic surgeon has the highest success rate for performing knee surgeries. A lot of other hospitals or doctors have taken up this case to understand and benchmark the method in which this surgeon does the procedure to increase their success rate.

• Identify the problem : A researcher identifies the subject of research and the problem is addressed by carrying out multiple methods to answer the questions.
• Create the hypothesis : When the researcher has found out that there are no prior studies and the problem is not precisely resolved, the researcher will create a hypothesis based on the questions obtained while identifying the problem.
• Further research : Once the data has been obtained, the researcher will continue his study through descriptive investigation. Qualitative methods are used to further study the subject in detail and find out if the information is true or not.

LEARN ABOUT: Descriptive Analysis

• They are not structured studies
• It is usually low cost, interactive and open ended.
• It will enable a researcher answer questions like what is the problem? What is the purpose of the study? And what topics could be studied?
• To carry out exploratory research, generally there is no prior research done or the existing ones do not answer the problem precisely enough.
• It is a time consuming research and it needs patience and has risks associated with it.
• The researcher will have to go through all the information available for the particular study he is doing.
• There are no set of rules to carry out the research per se, as they are flexible, broad and scattered.
• The research needs to have importance or value. If the problem is not important in the industry the research carried out is ineffective.
• The research should also have a few theories which can support its findings as that will make it easier for the researcher to assess it and move ahead in his study
• Such a research usually produces qualitative data , however in certain cases quantitative data can be generalized for a larger sample through use of surveys and experiments.

LEARN ABOUT: Action Research

• The researcher has a lot of flexibility and can adapt to changes as the research progresses.
• It is usually low cost.
• It helps lay the foundation of a research, which can lead to further research.
• It enables the researcher understand at an early stage, if the topic is worth investing the time and resources  and if it is worth pursuing.
• It can assist other researchers to find out possible causes for the problem, which can be further studied in detail to find out, which of them is the most likely cause for the problem.
• Even though it can point you in the right direction towards what is the answer, it is usually inconclusive.
• The main disadvantage of exploratory research is that they provide qualitative data. Interpretation of such information can be judgmental and biased.
• Most of the times, exploratory research involves a smaller sample , hence the results cannot be accurately interpreted for a generalized population.
• Many a times, if the data is being collected through secondary research, then there is a chance of that data being old and is not updated.

LEARN ABOUT: Projective Techniques & Conformity Bias

Exploratory research is carried out when a topic needs to be understood in depth, especially if it hasn’t been done before. The goal of such a research is to explore the problem and around it and not actually derive a conclusion from it. Such kind of research will enable a researcher to  set a strong foundation for exploring his ideas, choosing the right research design and finding variables that actually are important for the in-depth analysis . Most importantly, such a research can help organizations or researchers save up a lot of time and resources, as it will enable the researcher to know if it worth pursuing.

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Exploratory Research: Definition, Types, Examples

Appinio Research · 12.10.2023 · 28min read

Are you ready to unlock the power of exploration in research? In this guide, we'll navigate the fascinating realm of exploratory research, demystifying its techniques and shedding light on its real-world applications.

Whether you're a seasoned researcher seeking to broaden your methodological toolkit or a novice embarking on your first research endeavor, this guide will equip you with the knowledge and insights to harness the full potential of exploratory research. Join us as we dive deep into the intricacies of understanding, planning, conducting, and reporting exploratory research, with real-life examples illuminating the way.

What is Exploratory Research?

Exploratory Research is an investigative method used in the early stages of a research project to delve into a topic when little to no existing knowledge or information is available. It is a dynamic and flexible approach aimed at gaining insights, uncovering trends, and generating initial hypotheses. The primary purposes of exploratory research are:

• Understanding Complexity: Exploratory research helps researchers understand the intricate and multifaceted nature of a research topic, especially when the subject matter is not well-defined.
• Idea Generation: It serves as a fertile ground for generating new ideas, hypotheses, and research questions that can guide more focused studies in the future.
• Problem Identification: It helps identify research problems or gaps in existing knowledge, allowing researchers to refine their research objectives.
• Decision Support: Exploratory research provides valuable information for making informed decisions about the direction and scope of a research project.

Importance of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research holds immense significance in the world of research and problem-solving for several reasons:

• Risk Reduction: By exploring a topic before committing to a specific research path, exploratory research helps reduce the risk of pursuing unproductive or irrelevant research.
• Informed Research: It lays the groundwork for subsequent phases of research, ensuring that subsequent studies are well-informed and more likely to yield meaningful results.
• Creative Exploration: It encourages creative and open-minded exploration of topics, making it particularly useful when dealing with novel or emerging issues.
• Adaptability: Exploratory research methods are adaptable and can be tailored to the unique characteristics of a research question or problem.

Types of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research encompasses various methodologies, each designed to suit specific research objectives and contexts. Let's explore these types in more detail:

Literature Review

Literature Review involves a systematic examination of existing research, publications, and sources related to a specific topic. It serves as a comprehensive exploration of the current state of knowledge.

• Purpose: To identify existing theories, concepts, and gaps in the literature related to a research topic.
• Methods: Researchers review academic papers, books, articles, and other scholarly sources. They synthesize and analyze the findings and theories presented in these sources.
• Benefits: A literature review provides a solid foundation for understanding the historical context and key debates surrounding a topic. It helps researchers identify areas where further investigation is needed.

Pilot Studies

Pilot Studies are small-scale research projects conducted before a full-scale study. They serve as test runs to assess the feasibility of research methods and data collection tools.

• Purpose: To test research procedures, instruments, and methodologies in a controlled environment.
• Methods: Researchers select a smaller sample and conduct data collection and analysis as if it were a full study.
• Benefits: Pilot studies help identify potential problems, refine research designs, and improve the quality of data collection.

Case Studies

Case Studies involve an in-depth examination of a specific individual, group, organization, or event. They offer a holistic view of a particular phenomenon.

• Purpose: To explore real-life contexts and understand complex, unique situations.
• Methods: Researchers gather data through interviews, observations, and document analysis, providing rich, contextual insights.
• Benefits: Case studies provide a deep understanding of specific instances, allowing researchers to extract valuable lessons or generate hypotheses for broader research.

Focus Groups

Focus Groups bring together a small group of participants to engage in open and structured discussions about a particular topic.

• Purpose: To explore group dynamics, collective opinions, and shared perceptions on a specific subject.
• Methods: Researchers facilitate group discussions with carefully designed questions, encouraging participants to express their thoughts and experiences.
• Benefits: Focus groups reveal diverse perspectives, uncover latent issues, and provide qualitative data for further investigation.

In-depth Interviews

In-depth Interviews involve one-on-one conversations between a researcher and a participant, allowing for detailed exploration of experiences, opinions, and perceptions.

• Purpose: To gain in-depth insights into individual perspectives and experiences.
• Methods: Researchers use open-ended questions to guide interviews, creating a conversational and exploratory atmosphere.
• Benefits: In-depth interviews provide rich, nuanced data and are well-suited for studying sensitive topics or personal experiences.

Observational Research

Observational Research entails the systematic observation and recording of behaviors, events, or phenomena in their natural settings.

• Purpose: To understand behavior or phenomena as they naturally occur in their real-world context.
• Methods: Researchers select settings, define variables, and record data through direct observations.
• Benefits: Observational research captures authentic behavior and context, offering insights that might be missed in controlled environments.

Content Analysis

Content Analysis is a method for analyzing textual, visual, or audio content to uncover patterns, themes, or trends.

• Purpose: To explore and understand the content and communication surrounding a particular topic or media.
• Methods: Researchers define coding categories, code content based on these categories, and analyze the frequency and patterns of codes.
• Benefits: Content analysis provides quantitative and qualitative insights into the content of documents, media, or communication channels.

These various types of exploratory research methods offer researchers a versatile toolkit for diving into the unknown and gaining valuable insights, setting the stage for further investigation and discovery.

How to Plan and Design Exploratory Research?

In the planning and design phase of exploratory research, careful consideration of key elements is crucial to ensure the research objectives are met effectively. Let's delve into these elements:

1. Research Objectives

Before embarking on exploratory research, it's essential to define clear and specific research objectives.

• Purpose: Research objectives should clarify what you aim to achieve through your exploratory study. Are you looking to understand a phenomenon, generate hypotheses, identify research gaps, or explore new concepts?
• Specificity: Objectives should be well-defined, leaving no room for ambiguity. They should guide your research process and serve as a benchmark for success.
• Alignment: Ensure that your research objectives align with the broader goals of your research project and contribute to the generation of valuable insights.

2. Data Collection Methods

Selecting appropriate data collection methods is a critical step in planning exploratory research.

The choice of methods should align with your research objectives.

• Method Suitability: Consider the nature of your research question. Qualitative methods like interviews and focus groups are ideal for exploring subjective experiences, while quantitative methods may be more suitable for gathering numerical data.
• Data Sources: Identify the sources of data you will tap into, whether it's primary data (collected directly) or secondary data (existing sources).
• Data Collection Tools: Determine the specific tools and instruments you will use for data collection. This may include interview guides, questionnaires, or observation protocols.

3. Sampling Techniques

Choosing the proper sampling techniques is crucial to ensure that your exploratory research represents the target population or context effectively.

• Purposeful Sampling: When using qualitative methods like interviews and focus groups, purposeful or selective sampling helps identify participants who can provide valuable insights based on specific criteria, such as expertise or experience.
• Random Sampling: If your exploratory research involves quantitative data collection, consider random sampling methods to ensure that your sample is representative of the larger population.
• Snowball Sampling: In cases where it's challenging to identify participants through traditional methods, snowball sampling allows initial participants to refer others, creating a chain of referrals.

4. Data Analysis Approaches

Determining the data analysis approaches is essential for making sense of the information collected during exploratory research.

• Qualitative Data Analysis: For qualitative data, approaches like thematic analysis , content analysis, or narrative analysis help identify patterns, themes, and trends within the data.
• Quantitative Data Analysis: If you have quantitative data, statistical analysis and data visualization techniques can reveal trends, correlations, and significant findings.
• Mixed-Methods Analysis: In cases where both qualitative and quantitative data are collected, a mixed-methods analysis approach can provide a more comprehensive understanding.

5. Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations are paramount in exploratory research, as they ensure the well-being and rights of participants are protected.

• Informed Consent: Obtain informed consent from participants, explaining the purpose of the research, their role, and the potential risks and benefits. Consent forms should be clear and voluntary.
• Privacy and Anonymity: Protect the confidentiality and anonymity of participants by avoiding disclosing personal or sensitive information without explicit consent.
• Data Security: Safeguard research data to prevent unauthorized access or breaches of confidentiality.
• Conflict of Interest: Disclose any conflicts of interest or potential biases that may affect the research process or findings.
• Compliance: Adhere to ethical guidelines and regulations established by relevant institutions or governing bodies, such as institutional review boards (IRBs).

With a well-planned approach that includes clearly defined research objectives, appropriate data collection methods, thoughtful sampling techniques, robust data analysis approaches, and ethical considerations, you can set the stage for a successful exploratory research endeavor.

How to Conduct Exploratory Research?

In this section, we will delve into the practical aspects of conducting exploratory research, which involves data collection and analysis. These steps are vital to uncover insights and generate hypotheses. Let's explore each component in detail:

Data Collection

Effective data collection is the cornerstone of exploratory research. Here are various methods you can use to collect data:

1. Literature Review Process

Literature review is the process of systematically searching, reviewing, and summarizing existing academic literature related to your research topic. This step is crucial as it provides a foundation for understanding the current state of knowledge and identifying research gaps:

• Identify Relevant Sources: Begin by searching for relevant academic papers, books, articles, and reports. Online databases like PubMed, Google Scholar, and academic library catalogs are excellent resources.
• Synthesize Information: Summarize the essential findings and ideas from the sources you've collected. Create a literature review matrix or summary to organize your results and identify common themes.
• Identify Research Gaps: As you review the literature, pay attention to areas where there's a lack of research or conflicting findings. These gaps can inform your exploratory research objectives.

2. Conducting Pilot Studies

Pilot studies are small-scale research projects designed to test and refine your research methods and instruments. They provide valuable insights and help identify potential issues before embarking on a full-scale study.

• Define Objectives: Clearly define the objectives of your pilot study. What specific aspects of your research design are you testing? What do you hope to learn from the pilot?
• Select Sample: Choose a small, representative sample for your pilot study. This sample should reflect your target population as closely as possible.
• Collect Data: Implement your research methods on the selected sample. Pay close attention to any challenges or issues that arise during data collection.
• Analyze Results: After collecting data, analyze the results. Look for any anomalies or unexpected findings that may require adjustments to your research design.

3. Running Case Studies

Case studies involve in-depth investigations into specific individuals, groups, organizations, or events. They provide rich, contextual data.

• Select a Case: Choose a relevant case that aligns with your research objectives. Consider cases that offer unique insights or perspectives on your topic.
• Gather Data: Collect data through a combination of interviews, observations, and document analysis. Triangulate your data sources for a comprehensive view.
• Analyze Data: Analyze the collected data to identify patterns, themes, and insights. Use coding or thematic analysis to categorize information.

4. Organizing Focus Groups

Focus groups bring together a small group of participants to engage in open and structured discussions about a particular topic.

• Recruit Participants: Recruit a diverse group of participants who can provide valuable insights into your research questions. Ensure that the group dynamics are conducive to open discussion.
• Design Questions: Prepare a set of open-ended questions that guide the discussion. Encourage participants to share their perspectives and experiences.
• Conduct the Session: Facilitate the focus group session, making sure everyone has an opportunity to speak. Take detailed notes and consider using audio or video recording.
• Analyze Findings: Transcribe and analyze the focus group discussions. Look for common themes, opinions, and areas of agreement or disagreement among participants.

5. Performing In-depth Interviews

In-depth interviews involve one-on-one conversations between a researcher and a participant, allowing for detailed exploration of experiences, opinions, and perceptions.

• Prepare Interview Guide: Develop a structured interview guide with open-ended questions that align with your research objectives. The guide provides a framework for the interview.
• Select Participants: Choose participants who can offer in-depth insights into your research questions. Establish rapport and build trust during the interviews.
• Conduct Interviews: Conduct one-on-one interviews, following the interview guide but allowing for flexibility to explore unexpected topics. Encourage participants to share their thoughts and experiences.
• Transcribe and Analyze: Transcribe the interviews and analyze the responses. Look for common themes, patterns, and noteworthy quotes that support your research objectives.

6. Observational Research Techniques

Observational research involves the systematic observation and recording of behaviors, events, or phenomena in their natural settings.

• Select the Setting: Choose a setting that allows for unobtrusive observation of the behavior or phenomena you're studying. Ensure that your presence does not influence the behavior.
• Define Variables: Clearly define the behaviors or phenomena you're observing. Create an observation checklist or coding scheme to record data systematically.
• Record Data: Systematically record your observations, either in real-time or through video/audio recordings. Be objective and avoid making interpretations during the observation.
• Analyze Data: After data collection, analyze the recorded observations to identify patterns, trends, and any noteworthy behaviors. Consider interrater reliability if multiple observers are involved.

7. Content Analysis Methods

Content analysis is a method for systematically analyzing textual, visual, or audio content to uncover patterns, themes, or trends.

• Define Coding Categories: Determine the coding categories or themes that align with your research objectives. Create a coding scheme that can be applied consistently.
• Code Content: Apply the coding scheme to the content you're analyzing. This may involve categorizing text passages, images, or audio segments based on predefined criteria.
• Record and Analyze Data: Record the coded data systematically and analyze it to identify patterns, trends, or recurring themes. Consider using software tools to assist in content analysis.

Data Analysis

After collecting data through the various methods, it's essential to analyze it effectively to extract meaningful insights:

1. Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis involves the examination of non-numeric data, such as text, interviews, and observations.

• Data Coding: Begin by coding the qualitative data, which involves categorizing information into themes or codes. This step helps organize the data for analysis.
• Thematic Analysis: Conduct thematic analysis to identify recurring themes, patterns, and trends within the data. Look for connections and relationships between themes.
• Constant Comparison: Use constant comparison, where you compare new data with existing codes and themes to refine your understanding of the data.
• Interpretation: Interpret the qualitative data in the context of your research objectives. Explore the implications of your findings and consider how they contribute to your research goals.

2. Quantitative Data Analysis

Quantitative data analysis involves the examination of numerical data gathered through surveys, experiments, or other structured methods.

• Data Cleaning: Begin by cleaning the data and addressing any missing values, outliers, or inconsistencies. Ensure that the data is in a usable format for analysis.
• Descriptive Analysis : Perform descriptive analysis to summarize the main characteristics of the data. This includes calculating measures like mean, median, and standard deviation.
• Inferential Analysis: If applicable, conduct inferential analysis to test hypotheses or determine relationships between variables. Common statistical tests include t-tests, ANOVA, and regression analysis.
• Data Visualization: Create visual representations of your quantitative data using charts, graphs, and tables to illustrate key findings.

3. Identifying Patterns and Themes

Across both qualitative and quantitative data analysis, the process of identifying patterns and themes is essential.

• Pattern Recognition: Look for recurring patterns, trends, or regularities in the data. These patterns may be related to your research objectives or unexpected discoveries.
• Theme Identification: In qualitative data analysis, identify themes or categories that emerge from the data. Themes represent commonalities in participants' responses or behaviors.
• Cross-Referencing Data: Compare findings from different data collection methods (e.g., interviews, surveys) to triangulate your results and gain a more comprehensive understanding.
• Iterative Process: Data analysis is often an iterative process. You may revisit and refine your analysis as you uncover new insights or refine your research questions.

By effectively collecting and analyzing data, you can extract meaningful insights, identify trends, and generate hypotheses that will guide your exploratory research and inform future research endeavors.

How to Report and Present Exploratory Research Findings?

Effectively reporting and presenting exploratory research findings is vital to communicate insights and guide future actions. Let's explore the components of this phase in more detail.

Structure of Research Reports

Creating a well-structured research report ensures that your exploratory findings are communicated clearly and effectively.

• Title Page: Begin with a title page that includes the title of the report, your name, affiliation, and the date of publication.
• Executive Summary: Provide a concise summary of the research objectives, methods, key findings, and recommendations. This section should be informative yet brief.
• Table of Contents: Include a table of contents to help readers navigate through the report easily.
• Introduction: Introduce the research topic, objectives, and the importance of exploratory research in addressing your research questions.
• Methodology: Describe the methods used for data collection, including sampling techniques, data analysis approaches, and ethical considerations.
• Findings: Present your research findings, organized by research method (e.g., literature review, pilot study, focus groups, interviews, etc.).
• Discussion: Interpret your findings, discuss their implications, and relate them to your research objectives. Consider addressing any limitations.
• Recommendations: Offer recommendations based on your exploratory research. What actions or further research should be pursued?
• Conclusion: Summarize the key points of your study, emphasizing its significance.
• Appendices: Include any supplementary materials, such as interview transcripts, survey questionnaires, or additional data.
• References: Cite all the sources you referenced in your report using a consistent citation style (e.g., APA, MLA).

Visualizing Data

Effective data visualization enhances the understanding of your exploratory findings.

• Tables: Organize data in tabular format for easy comparison.
• Charts and Graphs: Use bar charts, line graphs, pie charts, or scatter plots to represent quantitative data.
• Infographics: Create visual summaries of key findings using infographics.
• Images and Visuals: Include relevant images, photographs, or screenshots to illustrate points.

Interpreting Results

Interpreting your exploratory research results involves:

• Contextualizing Findings: Explain the significance of your findings within the broader context of your research objectives.
• Discussing Implications: Consider the practical implications of your findings. How do they impact the research area or field?
• Addressing Limitations: Acknowledge any limitations or constraints in your study, such as sample size or data collection challenges.
• Comparing with Hypotheses: If applicable, compare your findings with any initial hypotheses you may have developed during the exploratory phase.
• Suggesting Future Research: Identify areas where further research is needed, building upon the insights gained in your exploratory study.

Making Recommendations

Based on your exploratory research, provide actionable recommendations.

• Practical Steps: Offer specific actions or decisions that can be made based on your findings.
• Policy Recommendations: If relevant, suggest changes or improvements to policies or practices.
• Further Research: Highlight areas where more in-depth research is required to build upon your exploratory findings.
• Implementation Plan: Outline a plan for implementing the recommendations, if applicable.

Remember that the clarity of your report and the persuasiveness of your recommendations are crucial in making your exploratory research valuable to your audience. Effective communication ensures that your insights lead to informed decisions and further exploration in your field of study.

Exploratory Research Advantages and Limitations

Exploratory research offers valuable insights into various aspects of a research topic, but it also comes with its own set of advantages and limitations. Understanding these factors is essential for making informed decisions about using exploratory research in your projects. Let's explore both sides of the coin.

Exploratory Research Advantages

• Insight Generation: Exploratory research excels at discovering the unknown. It allows you to explore and uncover new phenomena, trends, or perspectives that may have been previously unknown or overlooked.
• Hypothesis Generation: By investigating a topic with an open mind, you can generate hypotheses and research questions that can guide more focused research in the future. These initial hypotheses can serve as a valuable starting point.
• Flexibility: Exploratory research is well-suited for complex and multifaceted topics where a structured approach may not be appropriate. It provides the flexibility to adapt to evolving research objectives.
• Qualitative Understanding: Methods like interviews, focus groups, and content analysis provide rich qualitative data. This qualitative understanding is crucial for exploring nuances and complexities in human experiences and behaviors.
• Contextual Understanding: Exploratory research often takes place in real-world contexts. Case studies and observational research, for example, allow you to understand how phenomena operate in their natural environments, providing valuable context.
• Pilot Testing: Exploratory research, including pilot studies, helps in refining research methodologies and instruments. By uncovering potential issues early on, it reduces errors in subsequent studies.

Exploratory Research Limitations

• Lack of Generalizability: Exploratory research often uses small, non-representative samples. This makes it challenging to generalize findings to larger populations or broader contexts. The insights gained may be specific to the participants or conditions involved.
• Subjectivity: The qualitative nature of many exploratory research methods can introduce subjectivity in data analysis and interpretation. Researchers' biases and perspectives may influence the findings.
• Time and Resource Intensive: Some exploratory research methods, such as in-depth interviews or case studies, can be time-consuming and resource-intensive. This can limit the scalability of exploratory studies.
• Limited Quantitative Data: If your research requires precise numerical data, exploratory research may not be sufficient. It primarily focuses on qualitative insights and quantitative data may be limited in scope.
• Potential for Bias: The choice of research methods and participants can introduce bias into your findings. For example, purposive sampling in qualitative research may inadvertently select participants with similar perspectives.
• Incomplete Picture: Exploratory research may provide an insufficient or preliminary picture of a topic. It often requires further investigation for validation and a more comprehensive understanding.
• Ethical Challenges: The open-ended nature of exploratory research can raise ethical challenges, especially in sensitive research areas. Ensuring participant consent and privacy is essential.

Understanding these advantages and limitations is crucial for researchers to make informed decisions about when and how to apply exploratory research methods. It's essential to carefully consider these factors in the context of your research objectives and the specific challenges and opportunities presented by your research topic.

Exploratory Research Examples

Exploratory research is a versatile approach employed across various fields to gain insights, uncover trends, and generate hypotheses. Let's explore real-world examples of how different exploratory research methods have been applied effectively:

1. Real-Life Case Studies

Facebook's emotional contagion study.

Background: In 2014, Facebook conducted a controversial exploratory research study to investigate emotional contagion. The study involved manipulating the content that appeared in users' newsfeeds to measure how emotional content impacted their own posts.

Method: Facebook used large-scale data analysis to conduct this study, which involved over 689,000 users. They manipulated the visibility of positive and negative posts to examine whether emotional states could be influenced online.

Findings: The study found that when users saw fewer positive posts in their newsfeeds, they tended to post fewer positive updates themselves, and vice versa for negative posts. This research sparked discussions about ethical considerations in online experimentation and the power of social media platforms to influence emotions.

Harvard Business School's Airbnb Case Study

Background: Harvard Business School conducted an exploratory case study on Airbnb, a disruptive platform in the hospitality industry. The goal was to understand how Airbnb disrupted traditional lodging markets and its impact on the hotel industry.

Method: Researchers collected data from various sources, including interviews with Airbnb hosts, surveys of travelers, and publicly available data on Airbnb listings and hotel occupancy rates. They analyzed the data to identify trends and insights.

Findings: The study found that Airbnb significantly impacted the hotel industry by offering unique, affordable, and personalized lodging options. It also highlighted challenges such as regulatory issues and concerns about safety and quality control.

2. Focus Groups

Apple's product development.

Background: Apple Inc. frequently conducts exploratory research through focus groups to gather insights and opinions from potential users before launching new products or features.

Method: Apple assembles small groups of potential users and conducts moderated discussions. Participants are encouraged to share their thoughts, preferences, and concerns about prototypes or concepts.

Findings: Apple gains valuable feedback about user preferences and pain points by engaging with focus groups. For example, before launching the Apple Watch, focus groups provided insights into desired features like health tracking and customization.

Political Campaign Strategy

Background: In politics, campaign teams often use focus groups to explore voters' opinions, reactions to candidates, and key campaign issues.

Method: Focus groups consist of a diverse set of voters who engage in discussions about campaign messages, policies, and candidate attributes. Campaign teams use these insights to tailor their strategies.

Findings: Focus groups help political campaigns understand which messages resonate with different voter demographics. For instance, a focus group may reveal that a candidate's stance on a specific policy particularly appeals to a specific age group, influencing campaign messaging.

3. Content Analysis

Climate change discourse in media.

Background: Exploratory content analysis has been employed to study media coverage of climate change. Researchers aim to understand how different media outlets frame climate change issues.

Method: Researchers collect articles and news reports from various sources and then analyze the content to identify recurring themes, framing, and the use of language. This helps determine how climate change is portrayed in the media.

Findings: Content analysis has revealed that media outlets may use different frames when discussing climate change, such as "economic impact," "environmental consequences," or "scientific consensus." These frames can influence public perception and policy discussions.

Social Media Sentiment Analysis

Background: Companies and organizations use content analysis of social media posts to gauge public sentiment and gather insights into customer opinions and preferences.

Method: Automated tools are used to collect and analyze social media posts, comments, and mentions related to a specific brand, product, or topic. Natural language processing techniques identify sentiment (positive, negative, neutral) and key themes.

Findings: By analyzing social media content, companies can identify customer complaints, emerging trends, or public sentiment shifts in real time. For example, a restaurant chain may use sentiment analysis to track customer reactions to new menu items.

4. Observational Research

Supermarket shopping behavior.

Background: Observational research is frequently used in the retail industry to understand consumer behavior. One example is studying how shoppers navigate supermarkets.

Method: Researchers observe shoppers in a supermarket, noting their paths through the store, product choices, and interactions with displays. This data helps retailers optimize store layouts and product placement.

Findings: Observational research has shown that shoppers tend to follow predictable patterns in supermarkets, such as starting with fresh produce. Retailers use this data to design store layouts that encourage specific shopping behaviors and maximize sales.

Child Development Studies

Background: Observational research is crucial in child development studies to understand how children learn and develop through their interactions with the environment.

Method: Researchers use video recordings or live observations to document children's behaviors in various settings, such as classrooms or homes. They analyze these observations to identify developmental milestones and learning patterns.

Findings: Observational research in child development has contributed to our understanding of how children acquire language, social skills, and cognitive abilities. For example, it has revealed how peer interactions influence language development in preschoolers.

These real-world examples illustrate the diverse applications of exploratory research methods, from understanding user preferences for tech giants like Apple to analyzing media discourse on critical issues like climate change. Exploratory research empowers organizations and researchers with valuable insights that inform decision-making and shape future research directions.

Exploratory research is a dynamic tool that opens doors to discovery. It helps us uncover hidden insights, generate fresh ideas, and better understand the world around us. By delving into the unknown and embracing its flexibility, we can embark on journeys of exploration that enrich our knowledge and inform future endeavors.

So, whether you're exploring uncharted territories in academia, industry, or any field, remember that the spirit of curiosity and the methods of exploratory research can be your compass. With the right strategies and ethical considerations, you'll not only navigate the challenges but also uncover the treasures of knowledge that await. As you embark on your own exploratory research adventures, may you find answers to your questions, ignite new inquiries, and, above all, revel in the joy of discovery.

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Exploratory Research – Guide, Definition & Examples

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Exploratory research deals with undiscovered or unfamiliar issues, frequently making up the foundation for further structured research. Within research methodology , it can be identified by its open-ended and flexible approach with the goal to explore new horizons, create ideas, or bringing clarity to debatable topics. Exploratory research does not test hypotheses but rather asks questions and collects first data, where further valuable and more in-depth investigations can be conducted.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Exploratory Research – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Exploratory research
• 3 The usage of exploratory research
• 4 Exploratory research questions
• 5 Exploratory research data collection
• 6 The five steps of exploratory research with examples
• 7 Exploratory vs. explanatory research
• 8 Advantages vs. disadvantages

Exploratory Research – In a Nutshell

• Exploratory research investigates issues that don’t have thorough studies yet.
• It provides an onset of an existing problem to explore further.
• It is usually structured as qualitative research and refers to a primary source.

Definition: Exploratory research

Exploratory research is a study methodology that explores an issue that has not been extensively studied in the past or a new topic or subject. It explores specific elements of an existing phenomenon and gets more insight into it.

Your university library is considering adding an alternative medicine section to it. However, the institution is hesitant because of concerns that the decision may cause backlash from students, which may lead to unrest in the school. Therefore, the plan will only proceed if there is concrete proof that the reception from the students will be positive.

The usage of exploratory research

This method is often applied when the study issue is novel or when the data collection process for the study issue is challenging. You can also use this method if you have a general notion about a subject or a specific question that you would like to explore, but there is no existing knowledge with which to explore it.

Exploratory research questions

Academic studies usually begin with research questions. These questions are usually constructed to assist you to understand more about a particular subject. Therefore, they help you put together notions to master the footing of your investigation without adding any predetermined philosophies or assumptions.

• What elements influence drug use in university students?
• What effect does using digital learning tools have on the attention span of undergraduates?
• What outcomes are connected with the gentle parenting style?

Exploratory research data collection

Data collection in this form of research is challenging because it involves working with a previously unexplored subject. However, exploratory research allows you to narrow down your subject of interest and come up with a distinct premise and problem statement.

You can use primary and secondary research questions to gather data. Primary research collects data directly from primary sources. Some examples of these sources are:

• Focus groups

On the other hand, secondary research collects data from existing materials. Examples of secondary research data collection techniques are:

• Case studies
• Literature review
• Online polls

The five steps of exploratory research with examples

The way you conduct this research usually depends on your chosen data collection method. However, this research features five standard steps.

You teach English to non-native speakers. Your current oral proficiency technique focuses on reducing your student’s foreign accent. However, you suspect that a foreign accent does not affect intelligibility. So, you want to shift your attention to increasing intelligibility. Nevertheless, there is no pre-existing research on the link between accent and intelligibility. Therefore, you decide to develop an exploratory research design to explore this issue.

Step 1 of exploratory research: Problem identification

The first step is narrowing down the problem and determining if using an exploratory study is an ideal course of action.

You notice that there is no difference in intelligibility between individuals that speak English with a foreign accent and those with a native accent. Also, you realize that trying to eliminate a student’s accent is not suitable because it is part of their identity. Unfortunately, all current teaching approaches focus on accent reduction.

Step 2 of exploratory research: Hypothesize a solution

The next step is establishing a solution to the challenge you are investigating. This involves articulating a hypothetical statement that will guide your study.

You anticipate that foreign English students would benefit from focusing on promoting intelligibility instead of reducing their accent. You think that it would be wiser to have an oral proficiency technique that echoes this.

Step 3 of exploratory research: Methodology design

This is where you conceptualize your data collection and analysis techniques and use them to develop a research design.

You choose to conduct formal interviews with other English teachers. You design interview questions that focus on issues to do with training oral proficiency. You ensure that the questions focus on the link between accent and intelligibility.

Step 4 of exploratory research: Data collection and analysis

Now you collect and analyze your data from the third step. Next, you can decide if your pilot results support your hypothesis. This research technique allows you to change your hypothesis depending on your findings.

Because of the interview analysis, you conclude that other teachers have similar thoughts as your hypothesis.

Step 5 of exploratory research: Avenues for future research

At this stage, you can determine if you would like to pursue the topic further. If you choose to do so, you will need to switch to another research design, like quantitative research with a larger sample size. Note that exploratory research does not usually give conclusive or generalizable results.

Your pilot outcomes prove your expectations to be right. However, you decide to pursue the study further with a more extensive study. So, you choose an experiment where subjects listen to audio samples of non-English speakers with foreign accents in different degrees. Ask the subjects to note mistakes in the transcript and use the data to determine if your hypothesis is correct.

Exploratory vs. explanatory research

Exploratory research explores research questions that have not been studied extensively in the past. The preliminary outcomes form the foundation for future explorations of the subject. In contrast, explanatory research questions focus on the ‘whys’ and ‘hows’.

Advantages vs. disadvantages

Here are the pros and cons of exploratory research:

What is the main purpose of explanatory research?

This form of research seeks to explore a topic that has not been previously studied in-depth. Its results form the foundation for further studies.

What is the value of exploratory research?

It is easy to conduct and gives more insight into an unexplored issue. It guides further studies on the subject.

What is exploratory research?

Exploratory research is a study methodology that explores an issue that has not been extensively studied in the past or a new topic or subject.

How is exploratory research conducted?

It features five steps: problem identification, hypothesizing, research design, data collection and analysis, and further research.

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Exploratory Research

Exploratory research, as the name implies, intends merely to explore the research questions and does not intend to offer final and conclusive solutions to existing problems. This type of research is usually conducted to study a problem that has not been clearly defined yet. Conducted in order to determine the nature of the problem, exploratory research is not intended to provide conclusive evidence, but helps us to have a better understanding of the problem.

When conducting exploratory research, the researcher ought to be willing to change his/her direction as a result of revelation of new data and new insights. [1] Accordingly, exploratory studies are often conducted using interpretive research methods and they answer to questions such as what, why and how.

Exploratory research design does not aim to provide the final and conclusive answers to the research questions, but merely explores the research topic with varying levels of depth. It has been noted that “exploratory research is the initial research, which forms the basis of more conclusive research. It can even help in determining the research design, sampling methodology and data collection method” [2] . Exploratory research “tends to tackle new problems on which little or no previous research has been done” [3] .

Unstructured interviews are the most popular primary data collection method with exploratory studies. Additionally, surveys , focus groups and observation methods can be used to collect primary data for this type of studies.

Examples of Exploratory Research Design

The following are some examples for studies with exploratory research design in business studies:

• A study into the role of social networking sites as an effective marketing communication channel
• An investigation into the ways of improvement of quality of customer services within hospitality sector in London
• An assessment of the role of corporate social responsibility on consumer behaviour in pharmaceutical industry in the USA

Differences between Exploratory and Conclusive Research

The difference between exploratory and conclusive research is drawn by Sandhursen (2000) [4] in a way that exploratory studies result in a range of causes and alternative options for a solution of a specific problem, whereas, conclusive studies identify the final information that is the only solution to an existing research problem.

In other words, exploratory research design simply explores the research questions, leaving room for further researches, whereas conclusive research design is aimed to provide final findings for the research.

Moreover, it has been stated that “an exploratory study may not have as rigorous as methodology as it is used in conclusive studies, and sample sizes may be smaller. But it helps to do the exploratory study as methodically as possible, if it is going to be used for major decisions about the way we are going to conduct our next study” [5] (Nargundkar, 2003, p.41).

Exploratory studies usually create scope for future research and the future research may have a conclusive design. For example, ‘a study into the implications of COVID-19 pandemic into the global economy’ is an exploratory research. COVID-19 pandemic is a recent phenomenon and the study can generate an initial knowledge about economic implications of the phenomenon.

A follow-up study, building on the findings of this research ‘a study into the effects of COVID-19 pandemic on tourism revenues in Morocco’ is a causal conclusive research. The second research can produce research findings that can be of a practical use for decision making.

Advantages of Exploratory Research

• Lower costs of conducting the study
• Flexibility and adaptability to change
• Exploratory research is effective in laying the groundwork that will lead to future studies.
• Exploratory studies can potentially save time by determining at the earlier stages the types of research that are worth pursuing

Disadvantages of Exploratory Research

• Inclusive nature of research findings
• Exploratory studies generate qualitative information and interpretation of such type of information is subject to bias
• These types of studies usually make use of a modest number of samples that may not adequately represent the target population. Accordingly, findings of exploratory research cannot be generalized to a wider population.
• Findings of such type of studies are not usually useful in decision making in a practical level.

My e-book,  The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance  contains discussions of theory and application of research designs. The e-book also explains all stages of the  research process  starting from the  selection of the research area  to writing personal reflection. Important elements of dissertations such as  research philosophy ,  research approach ,  methods of data collection ,  data analysis  and  sampling  are explained in this e-book in simple words.

John Dudovskiy

[1] Source: Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) “Research Methods for Business Students” 6 th  edition, Pearson Education Limited

[2] Singh, K. (2007) “Quantitative Social Research Methods” SAGE Publications, p.64

[3] Brown, R.B. (2006) “Doing Your Dissertation in Business and Management: The Reality of Research and Writing” Sage Publications, p.43

[4] Sandhusen, R.L. (2000) “Marketing” Barrons

[5] Nargundkar, R. (2008) “Marketing Research: Text and Cases” 3 rd edition, p.38

Exploratory Research: Definition, Types, Examples

What is Exploratory Research or Exploratory Studies?

Exploratory research (exploratory study) is a small-scale study of relatively short duration, undertaken when little is known about a situation or problem. An exploratory study helps a researcher to

• Diagnose a problem;
• Search for alternatives;
• Discover new ideas;
• Develop and sharpen his concepts more clearly;
• Establish priority among several alternatives;
• Identify variables of interest;
• Set research questions and objectives;
• Formulate hypotheses;
• Develop an operational definition of variables;
• Improve his final research design.

The exploratory study helps to save time and money. If the problem appears not as important at first sight, a research project may be abandoned at the initial stage.

Exploratory study progressively narrows down the scope of the research topic and transforms the undefined problems into defined ones, incorporating specific research objectives.

An exploratory study comes to an end when the researcher is fully convinced that he has established the major dimension of the research, and no additional research is needed to conduct the larger study.

Examples of Exploratory Research

Tribal people in Bangladesh have some peculiar and uncommon background characteristics that distinguish them from the rest of the population.

Sporadic information suggests that they have a large family size, low age at marriage, and high mortality.

Because of the fact that researchers in the past did not have easy access to this population, the above conjectures could not be examined scientifically.

A small-scale study was planned to examine these in the face of these peculiarities to launch a large-scale survey.

The planned study is explorative, which will help the researchers to formulate objectives and hypotheses, keeping in view the above peculiarities regarding their distinct demographic characteristics.

The government-supplied oral contraceptive pills (OCP) and condoms are provided free of charge through government field workers and clinics.

Even then, why a significant proportion of women in the lowest quintile prefer to purchase contraceptives produced by Social Marketing Company (SMC) rather than availing of free services is very critical and valuable information for SMC. To explore this, the SMC wants to conduct a study.

They intend to prepare a profile of the SMC brand contraceptive users of the poorest and poor quintile to gather their perception of SMC product and their views on the govt, supplied contraceptives.

We cite one more example from business research (Saleh, 1995)

Nowadays, entrepreneurship has become a focal point in the business community in both government and non-government agencies and in business education in Bangladesh.

This has led to a greatly accelerated effort among researchers to undertake studies on entrepreneurship and small business growth and development.

Although there has been quite a good number of studies focusing on entrepreneurs’ characteristics, there is still a great deal of mystery about women in business, and queries remain about their entrepreneurial characteristics, motivation, and business success.

An exploratory study, therefore, is planned to be conducted with the sole objective of identifying the motivation of women entrepreneurs for business and assessing their entrepreneurial skills.

Types of Exploratory Research Methods

Secondary data analysis, experience survey, pilot study, focus group discussion.

The exploratory study offers an opportunity to obtain insights into the problem in major ways:

• Analyzing any existing documents or studies. This is secondary data analysis;
• Sharing experiences with knowledgeable individuals. This is an experience survey;
• Investigating the situations informally. This falls under a pilot study;
• Conducting a case study. The case may be an individual or a group of individuals;
• Designing a focus group.

Electronic data processing dates back to about 50 years, and the large-scale collection and analysis of social science data are not much older.

The most emerging barrier now is the cost of data collection for any scientific study. In recent years, the data processing cost has considerably decreased owing to the availability of increased facilities. This is seriously limiting the research endeavor of the students and professionals.

More and more researchers, however, are overcoming this cost obstacle by engaging in secondary analysis-building research projects around re-analyzing data originally collected by someone else for another purpose.

Secondary data, sometimes also called historical data, are data previously collected and assembled for some project other than one at hand. Studies based on secondary data do not need access to respondents or subjects.

The process thus enables you to avoid the cost of data collection by producing a new set of findings out of old data.

In recent years, survey data are increasingly likely candidates for secondary analysis because of the volume of such data and because of their availability in an inexpensive and well-organized form.

Scientists of various disciplines and students are taking advantage of this abundant database for their research.

The chief advantage of secondary data analysis is that data for such studies are almost always less expensive to collect than acquiring primary data.

Also, secondary analysis can be completed relatively more quickly since it involves less time in the collection procedure. These data are very often available on soft copies.

Studies based on secondary data can help you to explore and decide what further research needs to be done. It further contributes to enriching your research proposal with specific references and citations.

Analysis of available records may often be the only way to obtain quantitative data about the past.

As more and more survey data accumulate, trend studies comparing responses to similar survey questions asked over many years become more practical and valuable for testing or developing theory.

Secondary analysis can often be the basis for an important pilot study.

Before embarking on an extensive and costly study, researchers may use secondary analysis of past research to assess the soundness of their research design, pretest the plausibility of their hypotheses, and determine the strengths and weaknesses of formerly used indicators and question wordings.

More importantly, a secondary study may be used as the sole basis for a research study since in many research situations, one cannot conduct primary research because of physical, legal, or cost constraints.

The most important limitation of secondary analysis is that the information may not meet your specific needs. The most common problems are;

• The data may be outdated;
• There may be variations in the operational definition of terms;
• The units of measurement may be different;
• The research design and sampling design may not be known or may be inappropriate;
• There may be no codebook available for re-analyzing the data.

Although the objectives of an exploratory study may be accomplished with both qualitative and quantitative techniques, yet it relies more heavily on qualitative techniques.

When studies based on secondary data become difficult, researchers may well profit by seeking information from persons experienced in the area of study, tapping into their collective memories and experiences.

A survey involving such persons is referred to as an experience survey.

In essence, they are the key informants (KI) with abundant experience in their area, and the interview with them is known as the key informant interview (K1I).

The purpose of surveying such experts and seeking their opinions is to help sharpen the research problems and clarifying concepts rather than develop conclusive evidence. The outcome of an experience survey may result in a new hypothesis, discarding the old one, or may give information about the practicality of doing the study.

Sharing experiences with the experts may indicate whether certain facilities are available or not, what factors need to be controlled, and who is supposed to cooperate in the study.

An experienced survey is usually informal and involves a small number of people who have been carefully selected. The investigating format to be used in the survey should be flexible enough so that we can explore various avenues that emerge during the interview.

A case study is an exploratory social research methodology aimed at intensively investigating one or a few situations identical to the researcher’s problem situations.

Rather than using random samples and following a rigid protocol (strict set of rules) to examine a limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single instance or event: a case.

They provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing data, and reporting the results.

As a result, the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what might become important to look at more extensively in future research.

Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses.

When selecting a case for the case study, researchers often use information-oriented sampling instead of random sampling. This is because the average case is often not the richest in the information.

Extreme or atypical cases reveal more information because they activate more basic mechanisms and more actors in the situation studied.

Since a case study places emphasis on detail, it provides valuable insight for problem-solving, evaluation, and strategy. In the case of studies, researchers are not trying to establish a representative probability sample, and no attempt is made to meet the minimum design requirements.

Despite these limitations, case studies have a significant scientific role.

A single, well-designed case study can provide a major challenge to theory and provide a source of new hypotheses and direction of research.

When discussed in the context of an exploratory study, a pilot study refers to a small-scale research study that uses sampling but does not apply the rigorous standard. A pilot study generates primary data, usually for qualitative analysis.

This feature distinguishes a pilot study from secondary data analysis, which gathers background information. A pilot study is a tentative study using relatively unstructured interviews of a handful of respondents or subjects who are similar to those who will be the target of the later survey.

A pilot study is often compared to a theatrical dress rehearsal before a final theatre is staged. These studies are intended to allow the researchers to try out various possibilities before deciding which ones to adopt.

A pilot study nearly always results in a considerable improvement to the survey documents leading to a general increase in the efficiency of the research design.

Such studies can often stimulate new lines of inquiry, prompted by the researchers or unsolicited responses of the respondents or subjects.

They can also suggest new types of data that should be collected, point out and resolve ambiguities in the way that questions are being asked indicate modifications needed in the order of topic covered and help to eliminate fruitless lines of inquiry.

A well- planned pilot study offers an opportunity to the researchers based on its results, as to whether the main study is still worth to carry out or not. Any investigator, who contemplates an exclusive survey, should conduct the pilot study as an opportunity to discover and correct mistakes before they become serious and incurable.

A focus group discussion (FGD) is a way of reducing the amount of time and personnel required for conducting and analyzing in-depth study and yet getting detailed qualitative information by interviewing a panel of a relatively large number of respondents.

The focus group interview has become so popular that many researchers now consider it to be the only exploratory research tool.

Typically, the panel is made up of 6 to 10 respondents.

The panel is led by a trained moderator or facilitator who meets for 90 minutes to 2 hours at a designated time. The moderator uses group dynamics principles to focus or guide the group in an exchange of ideas, feelings, and experiences on a single topic.

The moderator introduces the topic using a general discussion guide and encourages the group members to discuss the subjects.

In ideal situations, the group discussion will proceed uninterrupted.

Depending on the subject matter of discussion, forming separate groups for different population subsets is often rewarding. This type of homogeneous grouping tends to promote more intense and freer discussions.

It may also be conducted by telephone as an alternative to the face-to-face focus group discussion. This is particularly effective when;

• It is difficult to reach the target group, particularly when the group members represent experts, professionals, high-level executives, etc.
• When the target group members are rarely found, and
• When the group members are so sensitive that anonymity is warranted.

The primary advantage of the focus group interview as an exploratory research tool is its relative flexibility and its ability to quickly and inexpensively understand the core issue of the topic, especially when compared with the rigidity of a formal study.

However, because they are qualitative devices with limitations of sampling accuracy, results from focus group discussions should not be considered a replacement for quantitative analyses.

Exploratory research is conducted when little is known about a situation or problem. Its main purpose is to diagnose problems, search for alternatives, discover new ideas, sharpen concepts, and improve the final research design.

How does exploratory research assist in the research process?

Exploratory research helps in narrowing down the scope of the research topic, transforming undefined problems into defined ones, and determining the major dimensions of the research. It can lead to the decision of whether to proceed with a larger study or abandon a research project at an early stage.

What are the main methods utilized in exploratory research?

The primary methods in exploratory research include secondary data analysis, experience surveys, pilot studies, case studies, and focus group discussions.

What is the role of a case study in exploratory research?

A case study offers an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a specific instance or event. It provides a systematic way to observe events, gather and analyze data, and report results, leading to insights for problem-solving, evaluation, and strategy formulation .

How does a focus group discussion function in exploratory research?

A focus group discussion involves interviewing a panel of 6 to 10 respondents to gain detailed qualitative insights. Led by a trained moderator, the group discusses a single topic, sharing ideas, feelings, and experiences. It’s a flexible method that quickly provides core insights into a topic.

• Exploratory Research: What are its Method & Examples?

Research is a continuous process that needs improvement as time goes by, and as such is non-exhaustive. Although, a lot of researchers working on novel projects, most researchers work on existing theories or formulations and build on them.

Researchers may decide to work on a problem that has not been studied very clearly to establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improving the final research design. This type of research is what is called exploratory research. 

What is Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is the process of investigating a problem that has not been studied or thoroughly investigated in the past . Exploratory type of research is usually conducted to have a better understanding of the existing problem, but usually doesn’t lead to a conclusive result. 

Researchers use exploratory research when trying to gain familiarity with an existing phenomenon and acquire new insight into it to form a more precise problem. It begins based on a general idea and the outcomes of the research are used to find out related issues with the topic of the research.

In exploratory research, the process of the research varies according to the finding of new data or insight. Also referred to as interpretative research or grounded theory approach, the outcomes of this research provide answers to questions like what, how and why. 

Characteristics of Exploratory Research 

• Exploratory research is inexpensive, highly interactive and open-ended in nature.
• There is usually no prior relevant information available from past researchers.
• It has no predefined structure.
• It answers questions like how and why aiding the researcher to acquire more information about the research.
• The absence of relevant information from past research means the researcher will spend a lot of time studying materials in detail. Therefore, spending so much time conducting exploratory research.
• Since there is no standard for carrying out exploratory research, it is usually flexible and scattered.
• There must a few theories which can verify your outcome.
• Researchers cannot form a conclusion based on exploratory research.
• The research problem must be important and valuable
• Exploratory research mostly deals with qualitative data.

Exploratory Research Methods

There are several exploratory research methods available for data gathering and research. However, exploratory research has been classified into two main methods, namely the primary and secondary research methods . The process of conducting research tends to be more difficult when dealing with a problem that hasn’t been deeply investigated before.

Primary Research Methods

In primary research methods , data is collected directly from the subject of investigation. The subject, in this case, maybe a group of people or an individual. 

It doesn’t matter whether the data is collected by the researcher himself or through a third party, the main purpose of the research should be fulfilled. The purpose of conducting this research is to collect information about the problem which requires in-depth analysis.

Some of the primary research methods used in exploratory research include:

• Observations

In this primary research method, the researcher does not come in close contact with the subject. Rather, the subject is being watched from afar. Subject observation can be done in two ways.

The first is that the subject is aware that he/she is being observed while the second way is that the subject is not aware of it. The latter method is said to gather fairer data because the subject may behave differently when he/she is aware that (s)he is being watched. 

Surveys are used to collect data from a predefined subject(s). It can be used collected to study trends, opinions, and behaviour of a group of people.

Online form builders like Formplus have made it easier to conduct surveys online and reach diverse demography of participants from all over the world. Although, rarely in use these days, researchers can also conduct offline surveys. 

Although more stressful and time-consuming than others, the interview technique is the best in terms of collecting detailed and correct data. Interviews can be conducted in person, via phone call or video call.

Interviews can also be recorded by the researcher in case he/she needs to go back to it and confirm specific information. 

• Focus Groups

Focus group is often used by researchers when trying to collect data from a group of people with similar characteristics. The research can be done using any of the three methods explained above.

For example, a focus group of fresh graduates may be investigated on how they spend their time. 

Secondary Research Methods 

Secondary research method uses existing resources on the subject under study. Existing sources like newspapers, magazines, articles, papers, etc. are what researchers conduct for exploratory research. 

All the resources used must be cited in publications. Some of the secondary research methods used in exploratory research include:

Literature research is the process of conducting old resources like publications, textbooks, articles, magazines, etc. All this information can be gathered in both sift copy and hard copy documents.

For example, an undergraduate student conducting his/her final project research will need to conduct textbooks, publications, papers, articles, etc. 

• Online Sources

With the advent of technology, this research has gained much popularity among millennials. Online research sources are the cheapest and easiest method of research.

With access to the internet and a personal computer or mobile phone, a researcher can browse through as many resources as possible. They can also be downloaded for further use in the future. 

The setback of this method is the difficulty of combing through the many online resources to find genuine information. Researchers face the possibility of ending up with incorrect data because false information may be difficult to identify. 

A researcher might find relevant information on the problem under study by studying existing cases. For example, a mathematician trying to formulate a model to solve the queuing problem in an airport may conduct existing research in similar areas.

A case study could be research that solved the queuing problem in a shopping mall. This research will be studied and modified to suit that of the airport queuing problem. 

A researcher may decide to get more creative by using informal sources like email newsletter subscription, RSS feeds, google alerts, google trends or even design a bot that combs through the large repository of data online.

How To Conduct Exploratory Research

Step 1 – identify the problem.

This is a common starting point for all types of research. Here, the researcher identifies the purpose of the research by answering the “what question”.For example, when investigating a crime scene, the FBI needs to first identify what happened. Was it theft, murder or a case of child abuse? 

Step 2 – Create the hypothesis

After identifying the problem, the researcher goes ahead to check whether there have been prior investigations regarding the subject matter. But when the researcher realizes that there are no previous investigations, he/she arrives at a hypothesis based on the questions obtained while identifying the problem.

If you are investigating a crime scene, an autopsy will be performed on the dead body to answer how he/she was killed. Questions like, Was he in a gang?, Fighting over a business deal? or very rich? will answer the question of why he was killed. 

With this information, the investigator can arrive at a hypothesis. 

Step 3 – Conduct further research 

To conduct further research, the researcher needs to first obtain relevant data that will assist in the research process. Some of the methods of collecting data include interviews, surveys, online sources, etc. 

Once the data has been collected, the researcher will continue the investigation through descriptive methods. This process uses qualitative data. 

Examples of Exploratory Research 

In this section, we shall be considering three examples of exploratory research and will be going through the research process as explained above. 

Exploratory Research Example on Murder Investigation

A fresh or inconclusive murder case will be investigated using exploratory research because it has not been investigated clearly in the past. To gain a better understanding of how exploratory research is used to conduct a murder investigation, let us review this popular crime movie titled Murder on the Orient Express .  

Adapted from Agatha Christie’s novel , we see in this movie that the first thing detective Hercule Poirot did was to identify the problem which is the murder of Ratchett. After that was the question of how he was killed. 

The how consists of the murder weapon, how it was used, the time he was murdered, etc. The last piece of information the detective needed to nail the culprit was the why. 

By discovering why Ratchett was murdered, the detective can easily arrive at a hypothesis on who the murderer is. In the search for why the detective used a primary research approach to collect relevant data that will aid the investigation. 

When an avalanche stops the Orient Express dead in its tracks, the world’s greatest detective–Hercule Poirot–arrives to interrogate all passengers and search for clues before the killer can strike again. After a series of interviews, the detective was able to arrive at a hypothesis on who the killer was. 

The results of any criminal investigation will remain a hypothesis until tried under a court which will either confirm or nullify the hypothesis. The evidence acquired during the investigation is what will assist the court in making a decision. 

Exploratory Research Example on Product Research

Organizations conduct two major research when working on a new product or service. The first one is conducted before developing the product while the second one is conducted after product development. 

Our focus will be on the exploratory research conducted after product development. For tech products, it is called the beta testing stage of product development. 

If a new feature is added to an existing app, for example, product researchers will want to investigate whether the feature will be well received among the users. If the feature added to the app is something that is already in existence, then the research is not exploratory. 

For example, if telegram adds a status feature to its app, the beta research stage of the app is not exploratory. This is because this feature is something that is already in existence, and they can easily get enough information from WhatsApp.

However, if it is a new feature like the Snapchat filters when they just came out, the research is explanatory. In this case, exploratory research is carried out using a focus group of beta testers. 

Trend Analysis

A good example of trend analysis research is studying the relationship between an increased rate of charity and crime rate in a community. Will giving food, clothes, etc. to the people in a community help decrease the rate at which people steal?

This exploratory research may be conducted through observations. A sample crime laden community will be given charity for a certain period, while the crime rate during this period will be observed. 

This kind of research is better carried out when the subject is not aware they are under observation. An alternative to this approach is using the case study method. 

Although this research may not have been done in this specific community, something similar may have been done in the past. If that is the case, the research can be easily carried out by investigating the case study to get relevant information. 

This will make the research process easier and a hypothesis easier to come by. 

How to use Formplus for Exploratory Surveys 

Start creating exploratory surveys with Formplus in three easy steps.

Step 1: Register or Sign up

• Visit www.formpl.us on your desktop or mobile device.
• Sign up through your Email, Google or Facebook in less than 30 seconds.

Step 2: Create Your Exploratory Survey

We will be creating a product research exploratory survey in this guide. Consider a software company that just added some new features to their app. The app is currently in the beta testing stage and they are taking an exploratory survey to get feedback from the beta testers.

Radio Choice Multiple Choice Question

• Click on the Choice Options section of the form builder menu.
• Create Radio multiple choice questions by clicking on the radio tab.
• Edit the question with your preferred stem and choice options.

Open-Ended Question

• Click on the Inputs section of the form builder menu.
• Create a short text open-ended question by clicking on the Short Text tab.

• Edit the label and placeholder text as preferred.

Checkbox Multiple Choice Question

• Create a checkbox multiple choice question by clicking on the radio tab.

Matrix Rating Multiple Choice Question

• Click on the Ratings section of the form builder menu.
• Create a matrix rating by clicking on the Matrix tab.
• Edit the table as preferred.

• Save your exploratory survey.

You can also add more questions as preferred. 

Step 3: Customise and Share

This is the final stage where you customise your form and start sharing with respondents.

Feel free to customise your forms as you please. You can also add logic in the settings before sharing.

• Copy the link or click on the “Preview Form” button to see how your form looks like.

Advantages of Exploratory Research

• Exploratory research is inexpensive to perform, especially when using the second method for research.
• Exploratory does not have a standard process and as such is very flexible.
• Information gathered from exploratory research is very useful as it helps lay the foundation for future research.
• It gives researchers more insight into the problem under study.
• Researchers don’t have to waste time conducting irrelevant research when using an exploratory approach. It helps the researcher if the topic is worth investigating at an early stage.

Disadvantages of Exploratory Research

• It produces an inconclusive result.
• Exploratory research provides qualitative data, which may be difficult to interpret. The interpretation of qualitative data may be bias and/or judgemental.
• Many of the data collected through secondary sources may be old and outdated.
• If collected through online sources, the researcher may be prone to collecting false information.
• Exploratory research mostly involves a smaller sample whose results may be incorrect for a larger population.

Conclusion  

Research is built on the incredible inquisitive and resourceful minds of researchers and the urge to solve problems. This stems from the child-like tendency to frequently ask questions like what, why, and how—a trademark of exploratory research. 

Exploratory research is one of the three main objectives of market research, with the other two being descriptive research and causal research. It is commonly used for various applied research projects. 

Applied research is often exploratory because there is a need for flexibility in approaching the problem. Also, there are often data limitations and a need to decide within a short period. 

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• What is exploratory research: Definition, types & examples

Defne Çobanoğlu

Imagine that you are an owner of a bakery that is successfully selling cupcakes and birthday cakes. And you have a business idea about adding donuts to your inventory to sell to your customers. But before investing in that idea, you want to have some information to see whether or not this is a good idea for your business. But how do you obtain such data?

In this scenario, the research method you should go with is exploratory research design. It is a form of research that lets you explore new areas while looking at new sources and old databases. Let us start with the definition of explorer research.

• What is exploratory research?

As the name implies, exploratory research is about “exploring.” It is a type of research design where the researcher is trying to understand a subject matter that has not been explained before . 

Or, in some cases, exploratory research is used when a research topic does not effectively answer questions, and it should be researched further. (Because it is quite difficult to find a topic that was not touched on before.) For example, your research problem could be about selling items or marketing research.

In Layman’s terms, exploratory research is trying to discover new things or discover more stuff about anything.

• Exploratory research examples

Exploratory research can be used in many fields, from medicine to marketing to education. Exploratory research is used when the administrators want to come up with new marketing strategies and when a new medical discovery will be made. Much like the exploration itself, the possibilities are endless. Let us see some exploratory research question examples:

• Does distributing contraceptives to high schoolers have a positive impact on eliminating teen pregnancies?
• Are unmarried women less likely to get heart diseases?
• What type of video marketing method works the best on middle-class workers?
• What are the key motivations and barriers to using digital devices for the education of children?
• What are the main reasons behind the decline in customer satisfaction with a specific service?
• What are the main challenges faced by women-owned small businesses?
• What factors contribute to employee turnover, and what strategies can be implemented?
• What are the different segments within the target market and what unique preferences and behaviors make up the characteristics of each segment?
• What factors contribute to the customer perception at the moment?
• Data collection in exploratory research

Data collection is a critical part of exploratory research, even though it can be challenging to obtain data on a never-explored subject. Data collection helps narrow down the subject and figure out what kind of research has been done before. Data collection for exploratory research can be done in two different ways. The researcher can use primary research and secondary continue.

Data collection methods in exploratory research

Primary research methods

Primary search is a type of research method where, during this method, you obtain knowledge directly from the source . It means talking to research participants, surveying a target audience , and doing observations without interference. Let us learn more about them:

1. Focus groups

Using focus groups can give you unbiased and fast data about the subject you want to explore. You can have two groups of people and see how different groups react to different elements. With this research approach, you can get a good idea of which of the two ways is better for your company.

Surveys are a great way to reach your audience and directly communicate with them. You can ask your questions and get immediate answers. When you use an online survey maker and create your surveys with your unique questions, you can collect answers without a sweat!

3. Interviews

Interviews can be done both spontaneously and preplanned. When constructed with open-ended questions, it gives valuable insight to researchers. For example, the bakery owner mentioned above can briefly ask their loyal customers what more they would like to see in their shop. That is a great way to use exploratory research for marketing purposes.

4. Observations

Observation is a type of method where you gather the appropriate information from sheer observation when there is no interference. The searcher can set up cameras and observe the people in their own environments, or they can set up an environment where they can see the people’s reactions to something.

Secondary research methods

Secondary research is a type of research method you do not go to the source. You obtain the appropriate data about the subject from already published documents and studies completed. 

The secondary research method is mostly done when doing primary research will be unethical or impractical. There are different source materials a researcher can make themselves. They can be physical copies of documents or books or online citations. You can also learn about secondary research on the blog of forms.app.

1. Collecting data from the internet

There are many useful academic papers and documents that can be found online. When the subject to be researched is clear, the researchers can look through online papers. Other online sources include the websites of competitors and social media platforms.

2. Reviewing publications

This method is quite similar to collecting data from the Internet, except these publications are physical copies. The published sources can be textbooks, journals, magazines, case studies, newspapers, and business journals. If you are operating a business and want to improve your sales in a way, you can go through annual reports of similar businesses to get a good idea.

Advantages & disadvantages of exploratory research

When trying to discover new aspects on a certain subject, exploratory research gives a good starting point. The researcher does not know where they will end up, that is why they are not limited to the framework of their research methods. 

However, this does not mean exploratory research is the only way. The researcher should always be mindful when it comes to the positive and negative sides of this research type. Here are the advantages and disadvantages of exploratory research:

Advantages of exploratory research

• Exploratory research enables researchers to be flexible, as the direction of the study can change according to what is found. As they try to “explore” and not reach a goal, there are not many limitations.
• Exploratory research is usually low in cost as the study can proceed however you think is the best.
• Exploratory research enables researchers to find out whether or not the topic is worth exploring further . It is an effective way to see where the subject will go.
• The researcher is saved from spending more time and resources if the topic is deemed impractical to study.

Disadvantages of exploratory research

• As the research is done on a small number of subjects, the study is usually not externally valid and can not be generalized to all.
• Exploratory research gives a good idea on the topic, but it is mostly inconclusive .
• The results of exploratory research consist of qualitative data, and the interpretation of such data can be biased .
• When a secondary research method is used, the sources used can be outdated or old.
• How to conduct exploratory research (step-by-step guide)

Essential steps to conduct exploratory research

Until this part, we learned when to use exploratory research design, how to collect data, and the advantages and disadvantages of exploratory research. And now, if you believe this is the method for you, we can go through how to create one. Let us see the step-by-step guide:

Step 1: Identify the problem

First, identify the question you want answered. It does not have to be a specific question but a broad one. Because exploratory research is about exploring and finding out new things, it is perfectly okay to change direction according to your findings. 

Step 2: Create the hypothesis

When you clearly identify the problem, you can create an initial hypothesis. Basically, you make an estimation of the outcome of the study. This allows you to go to the next step smoothly. And do not forget that you can change the theory according to what you find.

Step 3: Design the methodology

Determine the most suitable methodology for your problem. When it involves people and requires immediate answers, you can try surveys and interviews. But if it is a question about statistics and long-time manners, you can go through existing secondary sources.

Step 4: Report findings

After using the data you collected to identify patterns, themes, and trends, you can confidently report your findings. The findings will allow you to act accordingly, and you can make the best decision for your business.

When there is a study question needs to be answered, one of the effective research methods is exploratory research. During this method, the researcher tries to answer a question that has never been asked before. Or, they can build on a previously studied subject if they think the findings are not enough or are outdated. 

This researcher can go with either a primary research method, a secondary research method, or even a mix of the two. If you are starting your own research, forms.app is a powerful tool that has many useful features. Be sure to check it out!

Defne is a content writer at forms.app. She is also a translator specializing in literary translation. Defne loves reading, writing, and translating professionally and as a hobby. Her expertise lies in survey research, research methodologies, content writing, and translation.

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• Exploratory Research | Definition, Guide, & Examples

Exploratory Research | Definition, Guide, & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on 20 January 2023.

Exploratory research is a methodology approach that investigates topics and research questions that have not previously been studied in depth.

Exploratory research is often qualitative in nature. However, a study with a large sample conducted in an exploratory manner can be quantitative as well. It is also often referred to as interpretive research or a grounded theory approach due to its flexible and open-ended nature.

Table of contents

When to use exploratory research, exploratory research questions, exploratory research data collection, step-by-step example of exploratory research, exploratory vs explanatory research, advantages and disadvantages of exploratory research, frequently asked questions about exploratory research.

Exploratory research is often used when the issue you’re studying is new or when the data collection process is challenging for some reason.

You can use this type of research if you have a general idea or a specific question that you want to study but there is no preexisting knowledge or paradigm with which to study it.

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Exploratory research questions are designed to help you understand more about a particular topic of interest. They can help you connect ideas to understand the groundwork of your analysis without adding any preconceived notions or assumptions yet.

Here are some examples:

• What effect does using a digital notebook have on the attention span of primary schoolers?
• What factors influence mental health in undergraduates?
• What outcomes are associated with an authoritative parenting style?
• In what ways does the presence of a non-native accent affect intelligibility?
• How can the use of a grocery delivery service reduce food waste in single-person households?

Collecting information on a previously unexplored topic can be challenging. Exploratory research can help you narrow down your topic and formulate a clear hypothesis , as well as giving you the ‘lay of the land’ on your topic.

Data collection using exploratory research is often divided into primary and secondary research methods, with data analysis following the same model.

Primary research

In primary research, your data is collected directly from primary sources : your participants. There is a variety of ways to collect primary data.

Some examples include:

• Survey methodology: Sending a survey out to the student body asking them if they would eat vegan meals
• Focus groups: Compiling groups of 8–10 students and discussing what they think of vegan options for dining hall food
• Interviews: Interviewing students entering and exiting the dining hall, asking if they would eat vegan meals

Secondary research

In secondary research, your data is collected from preexisting primary research, such as experiments or surveys.

Some other examples include:

• Case studies : Health of an all-vegan diet
• Literature reviews : Preexisting research about students’ eating habits and how they have changed over time
• Online polls, surveys, blog posts, or interviews; social media: Have other universities done something similar?

For some subjects, it’s possible to use large- n government data, such as the decennial census or yearly American Community Survey (ACS) open-source data.

How you proceed with your exploratory research design depends on the research method you choose to collect your data. In most cases, you will follow five steps.

We’ll walk you through the steps using the following example.

Therefore, you would like to focus on improving intelligibility instead of reducing the learner’s accent.

Step 1: Identify your problem

The first step in conducting exploratory research is identifying what the problem is and whether this type of research is the right avenue for you to pursue. Remember that exploratory research is most advantageous when you are investigating a previously unexplored problem.

Step 2: Hypothesise a solution

The next step is to come up with a solution to the problem you’re investigating. Formulate a hypothetical statement to guide your research.

Step 3. Design your methodology

Next, conceptualise your data collection and data analysis methods and write them up in a research design.

Step 4: Collect and analyse data

Next, you proceed with collecting and analysing your data so you can determine whether your preliminary results are in line with your hypothesis.

In most types of research, you should formulate your hypotheses a priori and refrain from changing them due to the increased risk of Type I errors and data integrity issues. However, in exploratory research, you are allowed to change your hypothesis based on your findings, since you are exploring a previously unexplained phenomenon that could have many explanations.

Step 5: Avenues for future research

Decide if you would like to continue studying your topic. If so, it is likely that you will need to change to another type of research. As exploratory research is often qualitative in nature, you may need to conduct quantitative research with a larger sample size to achieve more generalisable results.

It can be easy to confuse exploratory research with explanatory research. To understand the relationship, it can help to remember that exploratory research lays the groundwork for later explanatory research.

Exploratory research investigates research questions that have not been studied in depth. The preliminary results often lay the groundwork for future analysis.

Explanatory research questions tend to start with ‘why’ or ‘how’, and the goal is to explain why or how a previously studied phenomenon takes place.

Like any other research design , exploratory research has its trade-offs: it provides a unique set of benefits but also comes with downsides.

• It can be very helpful in narrowing down a challenging or nebulous problem that has not been previously studied.
• It can serve as a great guide for future research, whether your own or another researcher’s. With new and challenging research problems, adding to the body of research in the early stages can be very fulfilling.
• It is very flexible, cost-effective, and open-ended. You are free to proceed however you think is best.

Disadvantages

• It usually lacks conclusive results, and results can be biased or subjective due to a lack of preexisting knowledge on your topic.
• It’s typically not externally valid and generalisable, and it suffers from many of the challenges of qualitative research .
• Since you are not operating within an existing research paradigm, this type of research can be very labour-intensive.

Exploratory research is a methodology approach that explores research questions that have not previously been studied in depth. It is often used when the issue you’re studying is new, or the data collection process is challenging in some way.

You can use exploratory research if you have a general idea or a specific question that you want to study but there is no preexisting knowledge or paradigm with which to study it.

Exploratory research explores the main aspects of a new or barely researched question.

Explanatory research explains the causes and effects of an already widely researched question.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

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Exploratory Research: A Guide to Unlocking Insightful Data

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You can’t just develop a new product without understanding the need or interest for it in the market. So how do begin with such research? Which research should you even conduct?

This brings us to the topic of exploratory research. Exploratory research helps us gain an understanding of a topic, defines the variables of the problem, and establishes a basis for a more specific research question. 

Read the article to learn what exploratory research is, its characteristics, & the methods used to perform it.

What is Exploratory Research?

Exploratory research investigates problems that are not clearly defined. It is conducted to gain insight into the existing problem, however, exploratory research does not provide a conclusive answer to these problems. 

A researcher starts with an idea that is general in nature and uses this as a means to recognize issues that can become the focus of future research. An important feature of exploratory research is that the researcher should keep an open mind and be willing to change the direction of their research as they collect more and more insightful data.

Exploratory research uses the grounded theory approach, also known as interpretive research. It aims to answer questions such as: “What is happening?” “Why is this happening?” “How is this happening?”

For example, if a researcher wants to know how the target audience of their app perceives a particular filter, they can first find out which section uses their app. Then proceeding to find out which filters are most used, why they are used, and decide whether adding an additional filter similar to the existing ones will be a good idea.

Read how Voxco helped Walmart conduct customer research and expand their online Grocery Pick-Up services.

What are the characteristics of exploratory research.

Now that we have defined exploratory research, it is important to be familiar with its attributes. Exploratory research has several features that researchers need to learn to understand when to use it. 

The following are the characteristics of exploratory research: 

1. They are not structured in nature.

2. Exploratory research design is interactive, open-ended, and usually accessible within the budget of the organization.

3. It helps researchers uncover answers to questions such as: what is the problem being studied? What is the need for this study? What topics should be included in the study?

4. It is time-consuming and thus requires patience and persistence on the part of the researcher.

5. Exploratory research is broad, flexible, and adaptive in nature.

6. The researcher needs to go through all the information and data collected through the research.

7. Exploratory research needs to have an important cost or value; if not, it is ineffective.

8. The researcher should have some theories that will help in supporting the findings uncovered during the exploratory research.

9. Exploratory research generally produces qualitative data.

10. In some instances, where the study sample is large, and data is collected through surveys and experimentation, explorative research can be quantitative.

Now, that we have cataloged the characteristics, the question is how to go about collecting the data for your exploratory research. The following section explains the two methods you can use to conduct your research.

What are the Types of Exploratory Research?

Carrying out research on something that one has limited information about sounds and feels difficult. However, several methodologies can help you decide the best research design, how to collect data, and the variables to study. 

There are two main methods of conducting exploratory research – primary research and secondary research . Under these two broad types, various methods can be used depending on the nature of your study. 

The data can be of quantitative or qualitative nature. Let’s look at each of the research methods in detail.

1. Primary Research Methods 

In the primary research , the information is collected directly from the respondents. This data can be collected from a group of people or just an individual.  It is usually done to explore a problem that needs in-depth analysis.

A) Surveys:

Surveys or polls can gather large amounts of data, usually from a predetermined group of respondents. They are one of the most popular quantitative research methods. Surveys or polls are used in exploratory research to explore the opinions, trends, or beliefs of the target population. 

Surveys can now be conducted online and thus be made more accessible, thanks to technology! Nowadays, organizations have started offering shorter surveys and rewards to the respondents who fill them to increase the response rates and gain more insights. Short surveys can be sent to respondents through text messages right after they make a purchase and are asked to fill it for a coupon/discount in return, so organizations can understand their views on the product under study. 

Voxco lets you conduct omnichannel surveys to gather insightful market research data anywhere, anytime. 

B) Focus Groups:

Another widely used methodology in exploratory research is focus groups. In this method, a group of respondents is chosen and asked to express their opinions on the topic of interest. One important consideration when making a focus group is choosing people with a common background and similar experiences to get unified and consistent data. 

An example of a focus group would be when a researcher wants to explore what qualities consumers value when buying a laptop. This could be the display quality, battery life, brand value, or color. The researcher can make a focus group of people who buy laptops regularly and understand the dynamics a consumer considers when buying electronic devices.

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C) Observation:

Observational research can be quantitative or qualitative. It involves observing an individual and making inferences from their reactions to certain variables. 

This research does not require direct interaction with the participants. For instance, a researcher can simply record the observations of how people react at the launch of a new product.

D) Interviews:

Surveys provide huge amounts of information in a relatively short period of time, but an interview with one person can provide in-depth information that can otherwise be overlooked in surveys. Interviews are a methodology for collecting data for qualitative research. 

You can conduct the interview face-to-face or even on the telephone. For example, an interview with an employee about their job satisfaction can offer valuable insights that would otherwise go unnoticed in the closed-ended questions asked in a survey.

2. Secondary Research Methods:

In secondary research, information is gathered from primary research that has been published before. For instance, gathering information from case studies, newspapers, online blogs or websites, or government sources.

A) Online Resources:

The quickest way to find information on any topic is through the internet. A huge amount of data is available on the internet that you can download and use whenever you need it. One important factor to consider when acquiring data online is to check the authenticity of the sources provided by the websites. 

For example, a researcher can find out the number of people using a preferred brand of clothing through a poll conducted by an independent website online.

B) Literature review:

Reviewing the existing literature on a particular topic from online sources, libraries or commercial databases is the most inexpensive method of collecting data. The information in these sources can help a researcher discover a hypothesis that they can test. 

Here, sources can include information provided by newspapers, research journals, books, government documents, annual reports published by organizations, etc. However, the authenticity of the sources needs to be considered and examined. 

Government sources can provide authentic data but may require you to pay a nominal price to acquire it. Research agencies also produce data that you can acquire at a nominal cost, and this data tends to be quantitative in nature.   

C) Case studies:

Another way researchers can gather information for their exploratory research design is by carefully analyzing the cases that have been through a similar problem the researcher wishes to study. These cases are important and critical in the business world, especially. 

The researcher should be cautious in reviewing and analyzing a case that is similar to the variables of concern in the present study. This methodology is commonly used in the health sector, social sciences, and business organizations. 

For example; let’s assume that a researcher is interested in understanding how to effectively solve the problems of turnover in organizations. While exploring, he came across an organization that had high rates of turnover and was able to solve the problem by the end of the year. The researcher can study this case in detail and come up with methods that increase the chances of success for this organization. 

[Related read: Primary Vs. Secondary Research ]

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What are the Steps to Conduct Exploratory Research?

Let’s explore the practical aspect of how you can conduct exploratory research from design to data analysis. Follow the steps as per your research requirements to uncover insights and validate your research question. 

1. Identifying the problem area – 

The very first step is for the researcher to identify the area of research and the problem can be addressed by finding out ways to solve it.

2. Creating a hypothesis – 

If the researcher is aiming to solve a problem for which there are no prior studies or the problem has not been resolved efficiently in previous research, then the researcher creates his/her own problem statement. This problem statement, also called a hypothesis, will be based on the questions that the researcher came up with while identifying the area of concern.

3. Determining data collection methods – 

While planning your research design, it is important to select the proper data collection methods. In this blog, we have explored the various methods of data collection so you can determine which method aligns with your objective. 

Consider the nature of your research goal and identify the source of data you want to explore. Determine the data collection tools you need, which may include an online survey tool or a phone survey tool. 

4. Choosing sampling method – 

In order to ensure your research findings represent the target population, you need to choose the appropriate sampling method or leverage a market research panel. This step will help you gather data from the audience who have knowledge or experience about the subject, thus allowing you to gather relevant and accurate insights. 

5. Analyzing data and identifying patterns – 

Leverage a survey software that enables you to store and analyze data seamlessly. Conduct quantitative data analysis, text, and sentiment analysis to identify patterns, reveal trends, and discover key findings. By utilizing a robust tool, you can unveil meaningful insights to guide your future research. 

6. Advancing future research –  

Once the data for the current problem has been obtained, the researcher will continue the study through a descriptive investigation. Generally, qualitative methods are used for a detailed study of the data to find out if the information gathered through exploratory research is true or not.

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When to Use Exploratory Research?

Exploratory research design helps you investigate a subject that is vague, new, or poorly understood. Often referred to as grounded theory research, the insights help strategies the foundation of future research.  

1. Define a vague topic: 

This research design is an ideal choice when you have a poorly defined research problem. The exploratory method helps you gain clarity on the subject before you dive deeper. 

2. Explore unexplored topics: 

The research method helps brands delve into emerging or new markets with limited prior data. It helps identify variables, trends, and characteristics. 

3. Conduct market research: 

Brands can utilize exploratory research to gauge market trends, customer preferences, behaviors, and needs. You can use the feedback to guide your marketing strategies and product/service developments. 

4. Study diverse population: 

The research method is valuable in gathering knowledge on diverse cultural groups. It can help you understand the nuances of different cultures, behaviors, needs, and more. 

Advantages of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research provides the researcher an opportunity to keep an open mind and explore the variables affecting their area of interest. Some of the advantages of exploratory research are:

• It allows researchers to be flexible and change their stance on the problem being studied as the research progresses.
• It is cost-effective.
• It lays a foundation and structure for future research.
• It can help researchers find out the causes of the problem being studied, which can be elaborated on in future studies.
• It allows you to adapt the method of data collection as required by the research. 

Now that we have listed the benefits, we can’t forget the limitations. It is important to learn about both before you jump into the research mode. 

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Limitation of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is not without its limitations.

• The research findings are usually inconclusive. 
• Some of the data collected can be biased or subjective as it is mostly qualitative in nature. 
• Since exploratory research has a smaller sample size, there is hesitancy in generalizing the findings to the whole population. 
• If data is collected through secondary sources, there is a chance that the data will be old or outdated.

Wrapping up;

Exploratory research helps you form the foundation of your research project. It lays down the groundwork for a research question you can explore in the future. Exploratory research design is best used when you need insights into a problem or phenomenon before you begin to conduct further research.

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Chapter 3: Developing a Research Question

3.2 Exploration, Description, Explanation

As you can see, there is much to think about and many decisions to be made as you begin to define your research question and your research project. Something else you will need to consider in the early stages is whether your research will be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory. Each of these types of research has a different aim or purpose, consequently, how you design your research project will be determined in part by this decision. In the following paragraphs we will look at these three types of research.

Exploratory research

Researchers conducting exploratory research are typically at the early stages of examining their topics. These sorts of projects are usually conducted when a researcher wants to test the feasibility of conducting a more extensive study; he or she wants to figure out the lay of the land with respect to the particular topic. Perhaps very little prior research has been conducted on this subject. If this is the case, a researcher may wish to do some exploratory work to learn what method to use in collecting data, how best to approach research participants, or even what sorts of questions are reasonable to ask. A researcher wanting to simply satisfy his or her own curiosity about a topic could also conduct exploratory research. Conducting exploratory research on a topic is often a necessary first step, both to satisfy researcher curiosity about the subject and to better understand the phenomenon and the research participants in order to design a larger, subsequent study. See Table 2.1 for examples.

Descriptive research

Sometimes the goal of research is to describe or define a particular phenomenon. In this case, descriptive research would be an appropriate strategy. A descriptive may, for example, aim to describe a pattern. For example, researchers often collect information to describe something for the benefit of the general public. Market researchers rely on descriptive research to tell them what consumers think of their products. In fact, descriptive research has many useful applications, and you probably rely on findings from descriptive research without even being aware that that is what you are doing. See Table 3.1 for examples.

Explanatory research

The third type of research, explanatory research, seeks to answer “why” questions. In this case, the researcher is trying to identify the causes and effects of whatever phenomenon is being studied. An explanatory study of college students’ addictions to their electronic gadgets, for example, might aim to understand why students become addicted. Does it have anything to do with their family histories? Does it have anything to do with their other extracurricular hobbies and activities? Does it have anything to do with the people with whom they spend their time? An explanatory study could answer these kinds of questions. See Table 3.1 for examples.

Table 3.1 Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research differences (Adapted from Adjei, n.d.).

Research Methods for the Social Sciences: An Introduction Copyright © 2020 by Valerie Sheppard is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• May 23, 2022
• 10 min read

Exploratory Research: Definition & How To Conduct This Research

Updated: Mar 26

If you have a lack of understanding of a topic of interest and nothing is known about it or is a challenging process in data collection. This is where exploratory research comes in.

Table of contents:

What is meant by Exploratory Research?

Exploratory research methods, what is the main purpose of exploratory research, characteristics of exploratory research, advantages of exploratory research, disadvantages of exploratory research.

Examples of Exploratory Research  

How to conduct Exploratory Research

[Disclosure: This post contains affiliate links, meaning we get a commission if you decide to make a purchase through these links at no additional cost to you.]

Exploratory research allows for a better understanding of topics or areas that have limited or no information but will not provide final conclusive evidence for research questions or solutions to issues. This often occurs when phenomena are difficult to measure.

By conducting this kind of research will allow for the subject matter to be more clearly defined, so further research may be carried out that is measured and final. Otherwise, you can explore and understand areas that you are unable to measure such as the atmosphere at an event, looking at things like sound, décor, location, colours and people.

The type of exploratory research methods is split between quantitative research and qualitative research, where the latter is used more often for this type of research. Firstly, quantitative research will be methods like pilot or expert surveys and secondary research (published literature, case studies of similar instances, online sources), while qualitative research will be in-depth interviews, focus groups and observational research. So, as you can see both primary research and secondary research methods are used in exploratory research.

If you want to know more about quantitative and qualitative research methods, this is explained in much more detail in this interesting post – pros and cons of qualitative research vs quantitative research .

Quantitative Research Methods:

Surveys: Using paper or online questionnaires to collect numerical data.

Experiments: Conducting experiments under controlled conditions to observe effects of manipulated variables.

Observational Studies : Observing and recording specific behaviours.

Longitudinal Studies: Long-term studies often conducted over several years or decades.

Cross-sectional Studies: Examines data from a population at a specific point in time.

Correlational Research: Examining relationships between multiple variables.

Causal-comparative Research: Establishing cause-effect relationships among variables.

Secondary research: is a review of existing materials or secondary sources like books, articles, and online resources that give you an insight into the subject of interest and helps build the foundation of further research.

Qualitative Research Methods:

Interviews: Conducting one-on-one or group interviews to gain insights into respondents’ experiences and perspectives.

Focus Groups: Gathering a group of people together to discuss specific topics or issues.

Ethnography: Studying individuals in their natural settings.

Case Studies: In-depth studies of a single individual, group, or event.

The purpose of exploratory research is broken down into three main elements to gain a better understanding of topics or problems that are vague and not clearly defined, to form hypothesises to be examined and test the feasibility of ideas.

The following are 7 reasons for using exploratory research:

1. To identify new opportunities

Exploratory research can help a company to identify new business opportunities. For instance, through exploratory research, a beverage company may discover a growing trend of health-conscious consumers leading them to launch a new line of organic, sugar-free beverages.

2. Understand consumer behaviour

It can also be used to understand consumer behaviour, attitudes, and preferences, enabling organisations to adjust their strategies accordingly. For example, a hotel chain may use exploratory research to find out what amenities or services customers value the most, leading to improvements that increase customer satisfaction and loyalty.

3. Support in diagnosing problems

It can assist in diagnosing a problem in a specific market or business operation. A failing product or a decline in sales might be due to several factors, and exploratory research can help identify those factors. For instance, a tech company witnessing a drop in their software sales might conduct exploratory research and find out that bugs and inefficient customer support are the reasons for the decline.

4. Help to formulate hypotheses

Exploratory research fuels hypothesis generation for future, confirmatory research by revealing tendencies and patterns. For example, researchers might initially explore the effects of social media usage on mental health, noting potential associations which can then be further tested in future research.

5. Assist in market segmentation

It can also aid in market segmentation by exploring customer behaviour and preferences in-depth, companies can identify distinct customer segments and tailor their marketing efforts accordingly. A car manufacturing company, for example, might conduct exploratory research to understand customer preferences regarding electric vehicles. The findings may then be used to segment the market based on environmental awareness, technology inclination, or income levels.

6. Testing feasibility of new ideas

Exploratory research can be used to test the feasibility of new product ideas or concepts before investing significant resources. For example, an e-commerce company might use exploratory research to gauge users’ responses to a proposed new feature before implementing it on their platform. It's also used to identify and explore concepts for different forms of marketing communications .

7. Helps to prepare for large scale research

It often serves as the foundation to larger, more detailed studies. It enables researchers to refine their research questions and select the appropriate research methods for subsequent stages. For example, before launching a nationwide survey on public opinion towards immigration policies, a research organisation might first conduct exploratory research on a smaller scale to fine-tune the survey design and questions.

Offers valuable insights : Exploratory research is frequently utilised to gain valuable insights into the underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations.

Embraces both qualitative and quantitative approaches : This type of research can encompass qualitative techniques such as focus groups and in-depth interviews, as well as quantitative methods like surveys for statistical analysis.

Uncovers fresh perspectives : It is employed to uncover new ideas and hypotheses for future, quantitative research.

Limited knowledge exists : Exploratory research is conducted when there is limited understanding or when a problem area has never been addressed before.

Prone to changes : As the research progresses, the direction and focus of the investigation may undergo significant changes.

Less formal procedures : The procedures used in exploratory research are typically less rigidly structured compared to conclusive research.

Initial phase of research : It usually serves as the first step in the research process, setting the foundation for further studies and experiments.

Utilises smaller sample sizes : Due to its qualitative nature, exploratory research often involves smaller sample sizes.

Not intended for definitive conclusions : The objective of this research type is to explore rather than draw definitive conclusions or make final decisions.

Shapes research questions and hypotheses : The findings of exploratory research are frequently used to define the research questions and hypotheses of larger, more conclusive studies.

1. Helps to uncover new insights

Exploratory research is advantageous because it can uncover new ideas and patterns. For example, a cosmetics company could use this research to discover unexpected trends or attitudes towards skincare among men, helping them develop more targeted marketing strategies and products.

2. Provides flexibility during the research process

This type of research has high flexibility. Researchers can alter their direction based on findings as they progress. For instance, an automobile company might initially be exploring customer preferences for car colours, but upon discovering an interesting trend in preference for electric cars, they might shift their investigation towards this new direction.

3. Gain a deep understanding of motivations and behaviours

Exploratory research dives deep into understanding behaviours and motivations, providing a rich, qualitative perspective. A clothing company could use interviews or focus groups to understand the emotional connections customers have with certain types of clothing.

4. Opportunity to refine research questions

If researchers are unsure what they're looking for, exploratory research allows them to define their research questions more clearly. For example, a tech start-up might start investigating general user behaviour, but through exploration, they can refine their research question to be about user interaction with a specific feature.

1. Can be very time consuming

This research is often open-ended and requires significant time to be spent on data collection and interpretation. For instance, a company studying consumer shopping behaviours might need to collect data over a long period to see trends and patterns.

2. It can lack representativeness of a larger target population

Since exploratory research often involves a smaller sample size, it may not represent the larger target population accurately. For example, a study of coffee preference involving a small, localised group may not accurately reflect the preferences of coffee drinkers nationwide.

3. There can be potential bias drawn from the data

Since this research often requires subjective interpretation from the researcher, it is susceptible to bias. For example, a researcher studying company culture might interpret results based on their own perspective or experiences, skewing the findings.

4. No concrete conclusions

Due to its qualitative and investigative nature, exploratory research often cannot provide definitive answers or statistical proof. For instance, a study exploring why a product is failing in the market might raise several probable reasons, but it may not pinpoint the exact cause.

Examples of Exploratory Research

An example of exploratory research is where a brand is looking to change the packaging for an existing ready meal product to make it more appealing, so gets the thoughts and views from customers and buyers of ready meals in general, on what they think of the current design, things they don’t like, the things they look for or appeal to them and the aesthetics. This is done via focus groups and the feedback from this will help to mock -up new concept designs, which can then be tested in further research in deciding which packaging design to go for.

Another example of exploratory research is in new product development of a new smart phone, where there are a large number of concept ideas that have been drawn up but now need to be scaled down by using both focus groups and an initial pilot survey , so then a couple of popular concepts can then be fully examined and compared in additional research.

This just illustrates the many examples of how exploratory research can be used.

The following are 6 real life examples of exploratory research in practice:

In order to expand and improve its services Airbnb had to conduct exploratory research on potential markets. They looked into different countries and cities, analysing cultural attitudes towards short term rentals, legal constraints, and potential demand. They also researched prospective host communities and their potential needs and concerns. This research was crucial in helping Airbnb identify new markets, understand how they could be competitive, and find ways to ensure their service was attractive to both hosts and guests.

When Spotify wanted to create a personalised playlist feature, ‘Discover Weekly,’ they used exploratory research to understand the listening behaviours and preferences of their users. They analysed listener’s habits, genres, and artists popularity, and song frequency to develop a unique, customized algorithm. This research allowed Spotify to create a highly successful feature that significantly increased user engagement.

3. Coca Cola

Coca Cola has used exploratory research numerous times to develop new products and marketing strategies. For example, in an effort to appeal to a younger demographic, they conducted research on youth lifestyle trends, tastes, and preferences. This research led to the development of Coca Cola Zero, a drink aimed specifically at millennials and Gen Z.

Toyota conducted exploratory research when it was planning to develop and launch its hybrid vehicle, the Prius. The company needed to understand if there was a market for a car that used a different form of technology. They explored consumer concerns about the environment and energy costs, government regulations, and the development in technology. This research enabled Toyota to launch the first mass-produced hybrid vehicle, which was a great success.

5. Facebook

When Facebook planned to introduce the 'Like' button, they used exploratory research to anticipate how it might be received by users. They conducted surveys and interviews, observing how people interacted with the platform and they explored their feelings about different features. This research helped Facebook in refining the 'Like' button concept and eventually in launching it effectively and successfully.

6. Microsoft

Microsoft frequently uses exploratory research to develop and improve its products. For instance, when creating their adaptive controller for the Xbox, they carried out research into how people with mobility limitations interact with technology. They invited people with a range of physical disabilities to participate in trials, working with them to find ways to make gaming more accessible. The insights gained from this research led to a controller that has opened up gaming to a wider audience.

The following are 5 common steps in how to conduct exploratory research:

Step 1: Identify the problem

The very first step in conducting exploratory research is identifying the problem in a clear and concise manner that needs to be addressed and decide if this is the most suitable approach to take, which is most likely if there is little or no information readily available. For example, in designing a new logo and coming up with draft concept ideas that will appeal to customers. So, what kind of things to include in the logo that will have a positive impact, while still retaining the values of the brand.

Step 2: Hypothesis for a possible answer

After you identified the problem and decided this is the correct path to take, you will need to formulate a hypothesis on what the possible answer could be in order to help you manage the research you are doing such as customers will prefer more of a modern type of logo design of the brand.

Step 3: Design the methodology that will be used

Design a research approach that will incapsulate how you envisage the analysis will be and how that will tie in with the chosen data collection method that will be used like in-depth interviews, focus groups or desk research . For example, conducting in-depth interviews with internal stakeholders (suppliers, distributors, staff) and focus groups with customers to discuss whether the brand logo needs modernising.

Step 4: Gather feedback for analysis

Now moving onto collecting the feedback allows you the opportunity to then analyse this information and see if there are common patterns or themes that are emerging. Plus, exploratory research gives you the flexibility to change your initial hypothesis if the results are different to what you were expecting. Using the logo design example, this would be seeing if the common consensus should be moving the brand logo design to a more modern style or does it differ between different groups (customers, non-customers, stakeholders).

Step 5: Possibility of further research

After the results have been analysed, you may decide follow-up research is needed to get a fuller picture and answer the research questions you may have, which could lead to a survey with a large sample of respondents to give something that is more measurable and also statistical comparisons can be made. For example, a concept test survey can then be used to compare the current and new potential logo designs and see which is most preferred.

You can use a simple and inexpensive (from $15) service like PickFu to run a poll across 9 countries like the US, Canada, Australia and the UK to compare, rank and comment on different designs, logos, book covers, webpages, apps and advertising messaging to help you make informed decisions.

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• Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Exploratory and Descriptive Research

The research design is defined as a framework for carrying out research activities in different fields of study. The research design is classified into two important categories i.e. exploratory and conclusive research. Conclusive research is further subdivided into descriptive and casual research. The people often juxtapose exploratory research and descriptive research, but the fact is that they are different.

Take a read of this article to understand the differences between exploratory and descriptive research.

Content: Exploratory Research Vs Descriptive Research

Comparison chart, definition of exploratory research.

As the name implies, the primary objective of exploratory research is to explore a problem to provide insights into and comprehension for more precise investigation. It focuses on the discovery of ideas and thoughts. The exploratory research design is suitable for studies which are flexible enough to provide an opportunity for considering all the aspects of the problem.

At this point, the required information is loosely defined, and the research process is flexible and unstructured. It is used in the situation when you must define the problem correctly, identify alternative courses of actions, develop a hypothesis, gain additional insights before the development of an approach, set priorities for further examination. The following methods are used for conducting exploratory research

• Survey of concerning literature
• Experience survey
• Analysis of insights stimulating

Definition of Descriptive Research

By the term descriptive research, we mean a type of conclusive research study which is concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or group. It includes research related to specific predictions, features or functions of person or group, the narration of facts, etc.

The descriptive research aims at obtaining complete and accurate information for the study, the method adopted must be carefully planned. The researcher should precisely define what he wants to measure? How does he want to measure? He should clearly define the population under study. It uses methods like quantitative analysis of secondary data, surveys, panels, observations, interviews, questionnaires, etc.

Descriptive Research concentrates on formulating the research objective, designing methods for the collection of data, selection of the sample, data collection, processing, and analysis, reporting the results.

Key Differences Between Exploratory and Descriptive Research

The difference between exploratory and descriptive research can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:

• Research conducted for formulating a problem for more clear investigation is called exploratory research. Research that explore and explains an individual, group or a situation, is called descriptive research.
• The exploratory research aims at the discovery of ideas and thoughts whereas the primary purpose of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics and functions.
• The overall design of the exploratory research should be flexible enough so that it provides an opportunity to consider various aspects of the problem. On the contrary, in descriptive research, the overall design should be rigid which protects against bias and also maximise reliability.
• The research process is unstructured in exploratory research. However, it is structured in the case of descriptive research.
• Non-probability sampling i.e. judgment or purposive sampling design is used in exploratory research. As opposed to descriptive research where probability (random) sampling design is used.
• When it comes to statistical design, exploratory research has no pre-planned design for analysis. Unlike, descriptive research that has the pre-planned design for analysis.

Therefore exploratory research results in insights or hypothesis, regardless of the method adopted, the most important thing is that it should remain flexible so that all the facets of the problem can be studied, as and when they arise. Conversely, descriptive research is a comparative design which is prepared according to the study and resources available. Such study minimises bias and maximises reliability.

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An exploratory clinical trial of preoperative non-invasive localization before breast-conserving surgery using augmented reality technology

• Preclinical study
• Open access
• Published: 14 May 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Minah Lee   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0175-4245 1 ,
• Joohyun Woo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2820-8287 2 ,
• Se Hyun Peak   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9206-9897 2 ,
• Hyun Goo Kim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8281-2154 2 ,
• Woo Sung Lim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2863-9346 2 ,
• Jin Chung   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9990-3768 1 ,
• Jee Eun Lee   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4451-7661 1 ,
• Jeoung Hyun Kim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3504-9595 1 ,
• Sanghui Park   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3837-8677 3 ,
• Ji Min Kim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3846-8093 3 &
• Jun Woo Lee   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2309-2177 2  

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This single-center, randomized, prospective, exploratory clinical trial was conducted to assess the clinical efficacy of an augmented reality (AR)—based breast cancer localization imaging solution for patients with breast cancer.

This clinical trial enrolled 20 women who were diagnosed with invasive breast cancer between the ages of 19 and 80, had a single lesion with a diameter ≥ 5 mm but ≤ 30 mm, had no metastases to other organs, and had not received prior chemotherapy. All patients underwent mammography, ultrasound, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging for preoperative assessment. Patients were randomly assigned to ultrasound-guided skin marking localization (USL) and AR-based localization (ARL) groups ( n  = 10 in each group). Statistical comparisons between USL and ARL groups were made based on demographics, radiologic features, pathological outcomes, and surgical outcomes using chi-square and Student t-tests.

Two surgeons performed breast-conserving surgery on 20 patients. Histopathologic evaluation of all patients confirmed negative margins. Two independent pathologists evaluated the marginal distances, and there were no intergroup differences in the readers' estimates (R1, 6.20 ± 4.37 vs. 5.04 ± 3.47,  P  = 0.519; R2, 5.10 ± 4.31 vs. 4.10 ± 2.38,  P  = 0.970) or the readers' average values (5.65 ± 4.19 vs. 4.57 ± 2.84,  P  = 0.509). In comparing the tumor plane area ratio, there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups in terms of either reader's mean values (R1, 15.90 ± 9.52 vs. 19.38 ± 14.05,  P  = 0.525; R2, 15.32 ± 9.48 vs. 20.83 ± 12.85,  P  = 0.290) or the overall mean values of two readers combined (15.56 ± 9.11 vs. 20.09 ± 13.38,  P  = 0.388). Convenience, safety, satisfaction, and reusability were all superior in the AR localization group ( P  < 0.001) based on the two surgeons' responses.

AR localization is an acceptable alternative to ultrasound-guided skin marking with no significant differences in surgical outcomes.

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Breast Imaging Preoperative Localization Procedure

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

As breast-conserving surgery (BCS) has become commonplace, localization has become essential during surgery for non-palpable breast cancer [ 1 ]. With the recent widespread adoption of health checkups, the rate of detection of low-stage, non-palpable breast cancer is increasing [ 2 , 3 ]. In BCS, it is crucial to employ a technique that allows for precise resection of the targeted surgical area while minimizing the extent of tissue removal [ 4 , 5 ]. The tumor’s location is accurately identified to minimize the scope of surgical intervention, and the procedure is carried out with a carefully calculated margin around the tumor. Localization is now part of the process, and a radiologist can perform wire localization or ultrasound (US)–guided skin marking. Wire localization is a method of inserting a wire into the center of a lesion under US or mammography guidance. However, wire localization may cause additional pain in preoperatively anxious patients. Furthermore, wires can become dislodged, shifted, or fractured. Additionally, cosmetic problems may occur due to non-optimal incision arrangement, depending on the position of the wire [ 6 , 7 , 8 ].

US-guided skin marking is a technique that employs US imaging to pinpoint the tumor’s location and mark it on the patient’s skin. As a non-invasive approach, this method offers the benefit of causing no pain to the patient, making it a popular choice for preoperative localization. However, one drawback is that the marked location on the skin and the actual tumor position may shift depending on the patient’s posture, leading to potential inaccuracies.

Augmented reality (AR) is a technology that overlays virtual objects onto the real world after spatial registration. Facilitating the enhancement of real-world environments, AR offers the potential to be integrated into the breast localization process [ 9 ]. Recent studies have shown that visualization of breast lesions using AR can be helpful in breast localization [ 10 ]. SKIA-Breast (SKIA Inc., Seoul, South Korea) uses AR technology to create three-dimensional (3D) models based on breast cancer information shown on chest computed tomography (CT). SKIA-Breast is designed so that the operating surgeon can confirm the lesion’s exact location using information that combines the 3D model and the actual patient’s bodily information in the operating room. Since many people with breast cancer in Korea undergo chest CT for preoperative staging, no additional examination is required to create a 3D model. Additionally, when chest CT is performed, the patient’s posture is similar to the supine position typically required in the operating room, allowing for immediate use of the CT images for modeling purposes.

This study, as an exploratory clinical study of SKIA-Breast, evaluated the effectiveness of the SKIA-Breast surgical guidance system as a non-invasive breast tumor localization tool, in comparison with the US-guided skin marking process.

Ethical approval was obtained from our institutional review board (IRB No. 2021-09-020), and patients provided informed consent for the use of their clinical and imaging data, including randomization into either the study (using ARL) or control group.

Study sample

In a prospective clinical trial conducted at our institution from March 2022 to March 2023, we selected patients diagnosed with invasive breast cancer who were scheduled for breast cancer surgery and were between 19 and 80 years old. Additionally, mammography, US, chest CT, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were all performed for preoperative evaluation, and single lesions between 5 and 30 mm in diameter defined eligibility for participant inclusion. Patients were excluded if the cancer had metastasized to other organs or if they had undergone prior chemotherapy.

Exclusion criteria included patients with contraindications for MRI or CT scans, those who displayed no lesions in CT imaging, pregnant or breastfeeding individuals, biologically male patients, those who had previously undergone chemotherapy or had metastases to other organs, and individuals with pathological biopsy results indicating invasive lobular carcinoma. Eligible patients were randomized within 48 h prior to surgery using a block randomization approach guided by a random number table. Patients were allocated to either the study or control group at a 1:1 ratio with patient consent, with ten patients assigned to each group (Fig. 1 ).

Flow chart of the study population

Imaging evaluation

For preoperative evaluation, mammography, US, MRI, and chest CT were performed. Digital mammography (Dimension, Hologic, Bedford, MA, USA) was performed on both breasts, including craniocaudal and mediolateral oblique views. Breast US was performed using a 7.5–15-MHz linear-array transducer with an iU22 scanner (Philips Medical Systems, Bothell, WA, USA) and the Aixplorer system (Supersonic Imagine, Aix en Provence, France). MRI was performed using a 3.0-Tesla MR system (Magnetom Vida, Siemens Medical Solutions, Forchheim, Germany) using a dedicated 128-channel breast coil. The MRI protocol was a full protocol comprising a T2-weighted sequence, one pre-contrast T1-weighted sequence, and six post-contrast T1-weighted sequences. Diffusion-weighted images (b-value of 0, 800) and kinetics analysis were performed.

Chest CT scans for breast cancer patients before surgery are covered by national health insurance in Korea. Therefore, in our institution, surgeons perform chest CT scans on many breast cancer patients undergoing preoperative evaluations, considering the assumed clinical stage, symptoms, smoking history, medical history, and family history. All CT scans were obtained with the patient in the supine position and using either of two 64-channel CT scanners (Sensation 64; Siemens Medical Solutions, Forchheim, Germany) (SOMATOM Definition Flash; Siemens Medical Solutions, Forchheim, Germany). The CT scans were obtained 40 s after intravenous injection of 100 mL of a non-ionic contrast agent (iohexol, Bonorex 350; CMS, Seoul, Korea) at a rate of 2.3 mL/s with power injection.

AR-based localization using SKIA-breast

The application of SKIA-Breast requires the patient to undergo preoperative contrast-enhanced chest CT. In this study, three board-certified breast radiologists (J.C, L.J.E, K.J.H; 14–16 years of experience) matched the location of breast tumors on chest CT and used the SKIA processor, a web-based software application, to perform segmentation and delineate the breast tumor margins identified using chest CT images. 3D AR models were automatically created by the SKIA processor and uploaded to the SKIA server. On the day of surgery, the patients underwent their respective procedures in the supine position, similar to the posture taken for capturing the preoperative CT scans. After the completion of preoperative preparations, such as disinfection, the surgeon used a 3D camera (mounted on an iPad [Apple, Cupertino, CA, USA]) and the SKIA application to align the patient’s upper body inside a rectangular parallelepiped on the screen. Once the 3D model generated by the SKIA processor was matched with the 3D model created within the SKIA application, the 3D camera was used to project light onto the patient’s body. This allowed the virtual position of the breast tumor, along with the patient’s body, to be displayed on the screen. At that time, depth information was presented numerically on the display. The surgeon then verified the location and used a pen to mark the skin directly above the targeted area. BCS was carried out based on these markings (Fig. 2 ) (Supplementary Information).

Steps of AR-based localization using SKIA-Breast. a Segmentation of the anatomical structure is performed by drawing the border of the breast tumor identified on the chest CT image using the SKIA processor. b An AR 3D model is automatically created by the SKIA processor. c On the day of surgery, after preparations are complete, the surgeon uses the 3D camera mounted on the iPad and the SKIA application to position the patient’s upper body within the rectangular parallelepiped displayed on the screen. d, e capture images from iPads running the SKIA application. After generating data that matches the 3D models created by the SKIA processor and SKIA application, you can use a 3D camera to view the virtual locations of the patient’s body and breast tumors on the screen; depth information is also displayed numerically. The surgeon checks the position on the screen and marks the boundary with a pen directly above the position indicated by the tumor

US-guided skin marking localization

For the patients assigned to the control (US-guided skin marking localization, USL) group, the radiologist performed US-guided skin marking on the breast lesions on the day before or the morning of surgery. Three radiologists with 14–16 years of experience first identified the location of the breast tumor using US (iU22). After the lesion’s position was confirmed, its margins were traced with a pen used to mark the directly overlying skin. These markings were used to guide the BCS.

BCS and resection margin evaluation

SKIA-Breast was applied to 10 patients assigned to the study (AR-based localization, ARL) group, and US-guided skin marking was applied to 10 patients assigned to the control (USL) group before surgery. Two experienced surgeons (J.W.L. and W.S.L) with 11 and 20 years of experience performed the BCS. After BCS, two pathologists (P.S.H. and K.J.M., blinded to the group assignments and other study data) with 5 and 16 years of experience independently evaluated the specimens’ reservation margin distance, gross area, and tumor area. Based on this, the ratio of tumor area to gross plane area (formula: tumor plane area/gross (tumor + margin) plane area × 100; plane area calculation followed the elliptical calculation method (primary axis diameter × minor axis diameter × π/4)) was determined.

Given that it was not feasible to blind the surgeons performing the operations to the group assignments, three independent evaluators (P.S.H., W.J.H., K.H.G., each with 6–11 years of surgical experience) were assigned to assess the need for reoperation. The evaluators were blinded to participant information, including group assignments. If the first and second evaluators disagreed, the opinion of the third evaluator was considered decisive.

For the two surgeons who carried out the procedures, a satisfaction questionnaire was administered to evaluate the preoperative breast tumor localization methods. Aspects such as convenience, safety, satisfaction, and potential for reusability were compared between the two groups. A 5-point Likert scale was employed to measure satisfaction; higher scores indicated greater satisfaction. The scale was as follows: 1 point for “fully disagree,” 2 points for “disagree,” 3 points for ‘neither agree nor disagree,” 4 points for “agree,” and 5 points for “fully agree.”

Statistical methods

The USL and ARL groups were compared based on demographics, clinical factors, and surgical outcomes using chi-square and Student t-tests. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 24.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). P -values < 0.5 were considered statistically significant.

There were no significant differences between the ARL and USL groups in terms of various demographic and clinical characteristics, such as age, height, weight, menopausal status, family history of breast cancer, palpable symptom at the time of breast cancer detection, and histopathologic features (clinical stage, T stage, nodal status, hormone receptor [ER, PR] status, Her-2 status, KI-67 status, and histologic grade) (Table 1 ).

Regarding immunohistological characteristics, among the 20 patients who participated in the study, 16 were categorized as having luminal A subtype, two had luminal B, and two were triple-negative. Radiologically, 19 of the patients displayed a mass indicative of cancer, and one patient presented with a non-mass lesion with no discernible enhancement on chest CT scans. In this patient, there was no problem in identifying the boundaries of the lesion by referring to other modalities, such as US and MRI, so that they could be included in the study. This particular patient was allocated to the USL group during the randomization process (Table 2 ).

During the ARL study, two cases demonstrated the effectiveness of preoperative CT scans in lesion localization. Patient 8, who underwent ARL, the tumor was located in the retromammary fat layer, a location posing challenges for conventional wire-guided localization and ultrasound depth perception. Contrast-enhanced CT imaging, as exemplified in Fig. 3 , proved invaluable in this scenario by providing superior clarity. Patient 4, who also underwent ARL, a second-look ultrasound was performed to investigate additional suspicious lesions initially observed on MRI. Notably, a previously undetectable lesion on ultrasound was clearly visualized on chest CT scans. Consequently, this additional suspicious mass and the primary lesion were segmented for ARL treatment. Both lesions were later histologically confirmed as invasive carcinoma, as shown in Fig. 4 .

A 60-year-old woman with invasive ductal carcinoma, clinical stage 1 A (ARL No.8). a Mediolateral oblique view mammography shows an irregular hyperdense mass in the posterior aspect of the left breast. b US shows a 0.8-cm hypoechoic mass in the retromammary fat layer of the left breast. c T1-weighted contrast-enhanced, fat-suppressed MRI displays an irregular enhancing mass in the posterior aspect of the left breast. d An axial view of contrast-enhanced chest CT shows an enhancing mass in the posterior aspect of the left breast. ARL was applied to the lesion, and the lesion was ultimately diagnosed as invasive breast carcinoma after surgery

A 48-year-old woman with invasive ductal carcinoma, clinical stage 2 A (ARL No.4); an additional suspicious lesion not seen on US was confirmed on CT, and ARL was applied. a Mediolateral oblique view mammography reveals an irregular, spiculated, isodense mass (arrow) in the upper posterior aspect of the right breast. b US shows a 1.7 cm irregular hypoechoic mass in the right breast. c, d MRI displays an irregular enhancing mass confirmed to be malignant. An additional enhancing mass (arrow) measuring 0.5 cm is visible in the lower inner aspect of the confirmed malignant lesion. A second-look US was performed on this lesion, but it could not be differentiated by US. e, f Both the confirmed malignant lesion and an additional suspicious mass (arrow) are visible on CT. ARL was applied to both lesions, and surgery was conducted; both lesions were ultimately diagnosed as invasive breast carcinoma

Upon independent evaluation of tumor margins by two pathologists, no statistically significant differences were observed between the two groups in terms of margin distance. For the first pathologist, the margin distances were 6.20 ± 4.37 in the USL group vs. 5.04 ± 3.47 in the ARL group ( P  = 0.519). For the second pathologist, the corresponding values were 5.10 ± 4.31 vs. 4.10 ± 2.38, respectively ( P  = 0.970). There was no difference between the two groups in the mean values of the two readers (5.65 ± 4.19 vs. 4.57 ± 2. 84, P  = 0.509) (Table 3 ).

In all the cases examined, no patient was found to have positive margins. Upon review by three independent surgeons, it was concluded that reoperation was unnecessary for any of the patients.

Regarding the mean ratio of the tumor plane area to the gross plane area, there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups according to evaluations by the first reader (15.90 ± 9.52 vs. 19.38 ± 14.05, P  = 0.525), the second reader (15.32 ± 9.48 vs. 20.83 ± 12.85, P  = 0.290), or the mean values from both readers (15.56 ± 9.11 vs. 20.09 ± 13.38, P  = 0.388) (Table 4 ).

In the results of the tester satisfaction survey, the ARL group had significantly higher scores than the USL group in terms of convenience, safety, satisfaction, and reusability ( P  = < 0.001). Furthermore, the ARL group’s total scores were statistically higher ( P  = < 0.001) (Table 5 ).

Localization of non-palpable breast lesions before BCS has increasingly become a critical technique for surgeons aiming for precise and expedient procedures. Existing standard methods for localization include wire-guided, US-guided skin marking, radioactive seed localization, radio-occult lesion localization, magnetic seeds, and carbon tattooing [ 11 ]. However, none of these techniques have definitively proven superior in reducing the rate of positive tumor margins. Most are invasive in nature.

Our study employed ARL, a non-invasive technique that enables surgeons to visually confirm the surgical area in the operating room in real time. This method was compared with USL, another non-invasive approach. The study found no significant difference between ARL and USL in terms of margin distance to tumor area ratio on the resected surface. Given its equivalent accuracy and enhanced convenience, ARL offers a valuable alternative to USL for primary users, namely surgeons.

ARL’s distinct advantage lies in its use of preoperative CT scans for localization, making it particularly effective in certain cases. For example, in Patient 8, who underwent ARL, the tumor was located in the retromammary fat layer, a location challenging for wire-guided techniques and depth perception in US. ARL excelled in this context due to the clarity provided by contrast-enhanced CT imaging. The process of AR segmentation using CT scan was simple, and it was a case in which the surgeon could obtain depth information directly by performing ARL (Fig. 3 ).

In the case of Patient No. 4, ARL was used. A second-look US was also performed to further examine an additional suspicious lesion initially observed on MRI. This particular lesion, which we had not detected, was more clearly identified using chest CT scans, and histologically confirmed as additional invasive ductal carcinoma, postoperatively (Fig. 4 ). It is worth noting that lesions surrounded by fat or situated at the periphery may not be easily distinguishable using US alone. When multiple lesions require surgical intervention, the detection process can become complex using US scans alone. In such cases, the ARL method, which uses information from chest CT scans, may offer an easier and potentially more accurate localization approach than US-guided methods.

Numerous previous studies have explored the domain of AR-based localization; however, our research marks the first clinical trial that employs a marker-less AR-based approach for localization. In a preliminary study, Gouveia and colleagues performed AR-based localization on a single patient using an OST (optical see-through) AR headset [ 12 ]. Their study validated the effectiveness of this non-invasive localization technique, confirming that it achieves an overlapping effect similar to that of carbon tattooing. In contrast, the AR display method used in our research is based on a VST (video-see-through) system using an iPad. iPads are more cost-effective than commercially available optical combiners and offer the benefit of immediate accessibility, as the device is readily available for use. Additionally, in multiple papers by Gouveia et al., the tumor location was verified using MRI scans, and 3D modeling was carried out. Notably, the orientation of the tumor can differ between the prone position taken during a standard breast MRI and the supine position of the patient in the operating room [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. As a result, MRI scans in these studies needed to be captured in the supine position. In the Korean context, chest CT scans are typically conducted in the supine position to confirm distant metastases prior to surgery. Therefore, our study did not necessitate additional imaging, as these existing chest CT scans sufficed for 3D modeling purposes.

Duraes et al. conducted research using an AR display based on the VST method, similarly employing an iPad like in our study [ 13 ]. While their investigation compared radioisotopic localization in nine patients and reported successful tumor localization in each breast quadrant, it did not offer a comparison of the actual surgical outcomes. In contrast, our study undertook a more direct comparison by evaluating resection margins for both ARL and USL. We found no significant difference between the two techniques in terms of surgical performance.

When assessing specimen margins across various localization methods in previous studies, the reported accuracy was as follows: carbon marking at 81.1% [ 16 ], wire-guided ranged from 70.8 to 87.4% [ 17 , 18 , 19 ], ROLL (radio-occult lesion localization) 75–93.5% [ 17 , 18 , 19 ], and clip marker 90–92% [ 20 , 21 ]. Notably, the accuracy for US-guided skin localization ranged from 89 to 97% [ 21 , 22 ]. In our study, both groups achieved a 100% accuracy rate. For the USL group, this high accuracy can be attributed to the involvement of an experienced radiologist and effective communication between the radiologist and the surgeons. In the case of ARL, favorable outcomes were achieved because skilled surgeons were able to directly verify the 3D position of the tumor in the operating room using SKIA-Breast before proceeding with the operation.

Although both ARL and USL are non-invasive techniques, USL has limitations, such as the requirement for painless, anxiety-free, and non-bleeding localization methods, along with the necessity for additional depth information and increased communication between the radiologist and the surgeon. Therefore, among the two non-invasive methods examined in our study, ARL offers the advantage of direct verification by the surgeon in the operating room, enhancing convenience and satisfaction for the operator. This was also corroborated by our user convenience survey, which indicated that ARL lessens the workload for radiologists by eliminating the need for procedures like carbon targeting, wire localization, and US marking before surgery.

As our study was exploratory, further studies investigating the clinical applications for AR-based localization are warranted. Most patients included in our study presented with a mass, but there is a need for studies that focus on non-mass presenting lesions that may not be visible on CT scans, as well as follow-up research on conditions like ductal carcinoma in situ and invasive lobular carcinoma. Although our study had a small sample size, it is anticipated that constraints such as selection bias can be mitigated in future studies by involving a larger patient cohort.

BCS employing AR-guided localization demonstrated comparable results to those achieved using the traditional method of US-guided skin marking. We anticipate that surgeons who adopt the AR-based localization technique will find it an intuitive and convenient alternative to the established US skin marking method.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to concerns about exposing sensitive personal information. Still, they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

• Augmented reality

Breast-conserving surgery

Computed tomography

Magnetic resonance imaging

Optical see-through

Radio-occult lesion localization

Video-see-through

Three-dimensional

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Author contribution Protocol writing: Minah Lee, Jun Woo Lee. Conception and design: Jun Woo Lee. Provision of study materials or patients: all authors. Collection and assembly of data: all authors. Data analysis and interpretation: all authors. Manuscript writing: Minah Lee Final approval of manuscript: all authors.

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Financial interests: All authors declare they have no financial interests. Non-financial interests: Dr. Jun Woo Lee has served on advisory boards for Company SKIA.

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Supplementary file1 (mp4 60236 KB) Video: On the day of surgery, a screen recording from the iPad demonstrates the surgeon performing AR-based localization using the SKIA application. The entire process of applying AR-based localization in the operating room takes about 2 min

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Lee, M., Woo, J., Peak, S.H. et al. An exploratory clinical trial of preoperative non-invasive localization before breast-conserving surgery using augmented reality technology. Breast Cancer Res Treat (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10549-024-07272-3

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Development and psychometric properties of an instrument to measure perception of aphrodisiac use among undergraduates in a southwestern Nigerian university

• Olawumi Cecilia Fatade 1 ,
• Gabriel Ifeoluwa Makinde 1 &
• Ayodeji Matthew Adebayo 1  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1331 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

A tool to measure perception of aphrodisiac use by undergraduates students of University of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria was developed and validated. The study was hinged on several theories that could explain potential to use aphrodisiac among the youths. An exploratory mixed methods design was used to develop a scale to measure perception of aphrodisiac use by undergraduate students of University of Ibadan. Qualitative data collection was performed among thirty equally represented male and female students and five key informant interview participants while 919 participants completed the quantitative phase (surveys). Integration of matched qualitative themes from FGD/KII to survey domains was achieved through the ‘building approach’. Qualitative themes assessing perceptions of aphrodisiac use by university undergraduate students were used to develop original survey items as well as new survey items peculiar to research subjects. Exploratory factor analysis was deployed on polychoric correlation matrix of the items using R-statistical packages. Further model fit analysis was conducted using confirmatory factor analysis on the items suggested by EFA as well as composite reliability and construct validity tests for the constructs. Mean Z-scores of factors were computed against socio-demographics and symptoms of aphrodisiac use among respondents that have ever used it. Most respondents (84.3%) were under 25 years, mostly male (58.4%) and singles (96.3%), with 41.3% earning ≤20,000 naira monthly. The enhanced content validity of the items from mixed method analysis yielded two major domains. Two succession of factor analyses and a structural equation modeling suggested that a first-order model is good fit for experimental data (TLI = 0.931; CFI = 0.948; SRMR = 0.047; RMSEA = 0.083). The four-factor solution to the model included: prolonged sexual performance, use without erectile dysfunction or medical advice, treatment of erectile dysfunction and recreational purposes with an internal and composite reliability that ranged from 0.62–0.92 and 0.63–0.92. The validation with socio-demographics and consequences of aphrodisiac use indicated that: Male respondents, those older than 20years, the married, those from poorly educated parent and sufferers of all related consequences had statistically significant differences with poor perception of aphrodisiac use’ domains. This validated instrument is good for assessment of perception of aphrodisiac use among students in tertiary institution albeit with caution. A version of the scale that is broadened with highly refined items and tested for high internal validity is suggested.

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Aphrodisiacs are substances that increase sexual desire [ 1 ]. They can also be defined as any foods or drugs that arouse sexual instinct, induce venereal desire, and increase pleasure and performance [ 2 ]. There are certain animal and plants-based drugs, foods and drinks substances including certain human behaviours which have reputation for making sex more attainable and pleasurable [ 3 ]. However, few of these were subjected to pharmacological processes which include clinical trials protocols for approval or recognized in significant research [ 4 , 5 ].

The main indication for use of aphrodisiac drugs is erectile dysfunction [ 6 ] however, the qualities and benefits of sexual pleasures of enhanced libido and erection have prompted their indiscriminate and excessive use [ 7 ]. A study reported that most of the users are between 15 and 30 years old (Makwana et al., 2013). There is a rising demand and use of aphrodisiacs among young people without any medical indications [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Young people have high desire to explore and increase sexual performance and anecdotal evidence has shown that males are more vulnerable to using recreational aphrodisiacs [ 11 ].

Improper use of aphrodisiac drugs can bring potentially often preventable cause of health hazards that range from disease conditions to death more so evidences are mounting about commonness of adverse reactions to medicines in recent times. Abuse of aphrodisiacs for recreational purpose by young adults with or without knowledge of its debilitating health implications are often done through self-medication (SM) [ 7 ]. Self-medication, which is the selection and use of medicines by individuals to treat self-recognized illnesses or symptoms without consultation of health care professional, was reported in a study among Ghanian men [ 12 ]. Majority were reported to be using sex-enhancing medications without any medical reason [ 12 ]. This act was further substantiated with the fact that about 75% Ghanaians men hold the conviction that intravaginal ejaculatory latency of 7–25 min is adequate as against the 3–7 min sex therapist recommended [ 12 ].

For young adults, the dependency on aphrodisiac for elongating sexual pleasures may have started out of curiosity and experimentation however, it ultimately advance to addiction and other serious risky behaviours such as substance use and engagement in multiple sexual relationships [ 13 ]. According to a survey of US college students, lifetime and past year prevalence of nonmedical prescription benzodiazepine use was 8% and 5%, respectively. Risky factors found among the students included higher rates of substance use and bisexual activities [ 14 ]. In Nigeria, the use of drugs for non-medical purposes by youth is not uncommon, however the rate at which these leaders of tomorrow embrace these drugs for various reasons has been described as alarming [ 15 ].

Young people who persistently abuse aphrodisiacs and other substances are liable to experience array of problems, including academic difficulties, health-related problems (including mental health and sexual and reproductive), poor peer relationships, and involvement with the juvenile justice system [ 16 , 17 ]. These health challenges are definitely with huge burden of concern to an already saturated public health system in Sub-Saharan Africa [18] [ 7 ].

There is a dearth of studies on perception of aphrodisiac use among men. However, a qualitative study among Ghanian men gave indication that combined involvement of a complex interactions between social, psychological and biological factors influence use of aphrodisiac [ 19 ]. The findings on social factor necessitating aphrodisiac use were based on men’s perception that sexual ability is a function of status and prestige in the society [ 19 ]. The psychological and biological reasons for the use of aphrodisiacs were to punish women who materially and financially exploit men and for proving masculinity in bed activities during advancing ages and disease conditions [ 19 ]. The disadvantage of this study was that quantitative measurements to test the external generalizability of the study findings on socio-demographic and symptomatic characteristics was not conducted.

Studies that endeavor to understand perceptive rationale for use of aphrodisiac among young adults are rare in Nigeria. This is because of lack of culturally/locally grounded tools to measure the constructs.

Thus, this study was aimed at determining the psychometric properties of an instrument developed to assess the perception to use of aphrodisiacs among tertiary education students in University of Ibadan. Findings derived from this study can assure of precision and trust in the outcome of evaluation should such a tool be applied in future similar studies.

Methodology

Study design.

The study employed an exploratory mixed methods design, where the qualitative phase of data collection and analysis preceded the quantitative phase of data collection and analysis [ 20 ]. The design was applied to develop an instrument to measure perception of aphrodisiac use among undergraduate youths in a Nigerian university.

Description of the study area

The study was carried out in the University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. The University of Ibadan, situated in Ibadan North Local Government Area is the oldest Nigerian university established in 1948 as an external College of University of London. It’s thirteen faculties currently holds about 35,000 students. The university’s undergraduate halls of residence accommodate over 8,000 female and male students.

Study population

For the qualitative survey, pharmacists and drug peddlers within Ibadan North LGA constituted key informants interview participants while undergraduates in the University of Ibadan comprised the respondents of the Focus Group Discussion in the qualitative aspect of the data collection. The quantitative component of the study consisted of male and female undergraduate students who were aged between16 years and above enrolled into courses at the University of Ibadan. Eligibility criteria for participation was being a male or female undergraduate student of the University of Ibadan and being aged 16 years and above while those who were not students of the university and those below sixteen years of age were excluded from the study.

Qualitative data collection and analysis

Focus group discussion and key informant interview (composition and conduct).

Four sessions (two each in male and female residential halls) of tape recorded FGD were conducted with the permission of the thirty participants whose identities were concealed by denoting them with letter R. Each discussion lasted for 40–50 min. An open-ended interview protocol was used to guide the discussion. The FGD sessions were facilitated by a trained facilitator while two research assistants participated as note taker and observer. More FGD sessions were not conducted because data saturation was reached.

The KII sessions were conducted in English language and each participant’s consent was obtained verbally. Five KII sessions were conducted in Ibadan North LGA. The KII consisted of five key informants; three pharmacists and two drug peddlers. The key infomants were purposively selected. The anonymity of participants in the KII sessions was also protected in the report. An open-ended interview protocol was used to guide the discussion by a trained facilitator.

The audio-recorded FGD sessions were transcribed and analyzed by an independent expert in qualitative methods. Deductive content analysis was conducted on the transcripts to identify and categorize the resulting themes into perception of aphrodisiac use domains. Analysis proceeded until data saturation when no new dimensions were identified in the data.

Mixed method data integration (building approach)

In this exploratory sequential mixed methods design, we used the building approach for our method-level data integration, where the themes on perception of use of aphrodisiac and participant’s quotes from the initial qualitative phase were used to adapt existing survey items of survey (quantitative phase) and development of new survey items and. The existing survey items developed from literature review and FGD were re-written to allow for cultural adaptation for the intended population. Fifteen survey items, including new and adapted items were compiled using this approach. These items were assessed for face and content validity by experts in community medicine including sub-specialties like reproductive and family health, and clinical epidemiology. Other items on the questionnaire are socio-demographic characteristics and psychological and health items perceived to be linked to use of aphrodisiac. From this list, those that prompt poor perception of aphrodisiac use were rightly assigned likert score that ranged from 1 to 5 on a strongly agree to strongly disagree scale. While items that favour good perception were reversely coded. This was aimed at ensuring scores from each domains of aphrodisiac perception use and total scores reflected final categorization of good and poor perception.

Reporting of mixed methods data integration (merging approach)

Finally, a joint presentation of integrated data (merging approach) occurred at the reporting level to create a joint display of qualitative and quantitative data. The initial process required is matching the qualitative themes to their corresponding perception of aphrodisiac use survey item domains because of the mainly deductive approach used to conduct the content analysis of the focus group transcripts. Under each relevant theme, sample quotes that had been used to create the specific culturally adapted items were added to the joint display, along with their corresponding items, showing the integration of the qualitative phase with the quantitative phase. After a preliminary quantitative analysis, mean item scores and item-total correlations were added to the final joint display to evaluate congruence between the two phases.

Sample determination and sampling technique for quantitative aspect

The minimum sample size of 410 male and female students of University of Ibadan was estimated using Leslie Kish sample size formula for determining single proportion for descriptive studies. Multistage sampling technique involving the use of simple random technique by balloting was deplored for data collection at each required stage of recruitment protocol. At stage one, a total of four halls comprising of two male halls out six and two out of three females’ halls of residence were selected. Five blocks were selected from the halls of interest making a total of 20 blocks in the second phase of the multistage sampling process. At least 20 rooms were selected from each of the selected blocks at the third stage of recruitment processes. Finally, at least one respondent was recruited from each selected room that comprised the blocks of interest.

Data analysis

Factor reduction analysis.

Polychoric correlation, used in analyzing ordinal and nominal likert scale, was used to elicit the matrix needed for factor analysis of the original fifteen items [ 21 ]. The assumption behind polychoric correlation coefficient is that pairs of ordinal scores are generated by latent bivariate normally distributed random variables. Measuring the association between ordinal variables entails the estimation of the product moment correlation between the corresponding normally distributed variables. The polychoric correlation matrix was estimated using the two-stage procedure described in Lee et al. [ 22 ] and implemented in R statistical packages [ 21 ]. Note that since the matrix was estimated in a pairwise fashion, it was possible to be non-positive definite. Furthermore, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was then performed on the estimated polychoric correlation in R.

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed from the latent variables obtained from EFA. Here the latent items of the scales must prove their relatedness with their respective unobserved constructs according to acceptable goodness of fit measures. The measurement parameters are: Comparative Fit Index (CFI); Tucker Lewis Index (TLI); Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). CFI analyses the change in fit between the hypothesized model and the multidimensional model [ 23 , 24 ] which ranges between 0 and 1. TLI indicates the total co-variation in the model and ranges between 0 and 1. The values of TLI and CFI greater than 0.90 imply a good fit to the data [ 23 , 24 ]. RMSEA is based on analysis of residuals and its expected value for a good model data fit is one with less than 0.08 [ 23 , 24 ]. The value of (RMSEA) shows sensitivity to degree of freedom and complexity of the proposed model (Kline et al., 2011; Wang, 2012) [ 23 , 24 ]. SRMR is an index of the average of standardized residuals between the observed and the hypothesized covariance. It indicates a good fit when it produces a value less than 0.05 [ 23 ].

Internal reliability

Internal consistency reliability measures the extent to which all items within a scale are indeed capturing the same construct. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients greater than 0.80 indicate high levels of internal consistency, while values that range between 0.70 and 0.61 suggest acceptable internal consistencies [ 25 ]. This was tested in SPSS statistical packages IBM version 20.0.

Further reliability methods of composite reliability and construct validity of convergent/divergent analyses were conducted on the determined constructs to strengthen their validity. The composite reliability was analysed using an online calculator [ 26 ] while convergent/divergent were performed with SPSS statistical packages IBM version 20.0.

External validity

For external generalizability validation of the items, data on socio-demographic characteristics, medical and psychological impact of use of aphrodisiac by respondents were listed in the questionnaire.

Information of a proforma on sociodemographic characteristics of university students was adapted and incorporated into the data collection instruments.

Psychological symptoms of sex addiction, loss of sex performance self-esteem and sexual perversion deduced from focus group discussion and KII were developed for respondents to self-report their certainty that the symptoms they experienced were caused by their dependency on aphrodisiac substances through a yes or no response.

Characteristics of physical symptoms of priapism and fatigue adapted from focus group discussion and KII were developed by asking respondents to self-report their confidence that their use of aphrodisiac substances for sexual performance was responsible for the occurrence of the symptoms in a yes or no response.

Pretest report

Forty-two questionnaires were pre-tested among undergraduates at Lead City University, Ibadan, which were not part of the study population but were similar to the main study subjects by characteristics and socio-demography. The pre-test excluded respondents who were not present on campus as at the time of collecting data. The outcome of the pretest was used to revise ambiguous questions and adding of information found useful for improving the quality of the questionnaire.

Respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics

Majority (84.3%) of the respondents were less than 25 years of age, 58.4% were males, 96.3% singles and 41.3% earned less than or equal 20,000 naira as average monthly income. The largest percentage of the subjects where from Yoruba ethnic background (73.6%) and more than one-half of either of the respondents’ parents had tertiary education (father = 59.8%; mother = 54.2%) Table 1 .

Qualitative result

Three questions that themed on perceived indication for use of aphrodisiac by the youth, perceived benefits of using aphrodisiacs and perceived side effects of using aphrodisiacs were discussed among FGD interviewees and KII.

What are your perceived indication for use of aphrodisiac by the youth?

Respondents’ perceived use of aphrodisiac substances include derivation of prolonged sexual pleasure.

Aphrodisiacs are basically used for sexual pleasure as narrated by one of the participants: ‘You know to gain libido and readiness for sexual action sometimes, students even improvised and go to extent of inventing a concoction of soaked cassava flakes (Garri) and paracetamol. For example, someone told me that one can take ‘Garri’ and put Paracetamol inside it would serve the same purpose of making you sexually active and ready for sexual action. ’ < R6_FGD_Male Undergrad_UI_ Hall 2>. Another said ‘I think it is that mixing that people use the most: like, they mix with drinks and all of that’. < R4_FGD_Male Undergrad_UI_ Hall 2>.

Opinions on indication for aphrodisiac use were split among KII participants. One of them supported use of aphrodisiac for attainment of sexual pleasure.

Yes there are indications for use by youths as well. Usually it is not on medical basis, it is just on leisure basis to improve sexually performance basically. Young or unmarried people uses basically for sexual pleasure to improve performance to impress their partners’ . < KII 2_Pharmacist_UCH_IBNLGA>.

Another group believed there are indications for aphrodisiacs use by young adults.

‘ ‘ There are indications for uses. Actually medically, they are some youths that really need it so it is medically indicated and recommended’ < KII 3_Pharmacist_UI_IBNLGA>. Youths diagnosed with erectile dysfunction or who cannot perform sexually well should be free to use them while only one argued against the use among the subjects. ‘ Yes, why not. I can advise youth to buy and use it because if a young man has a small manhood, we do give them the man power drug. For those with ‘Atosi-Inu‘(internal reproductive system infection), we do give them gonorrhea drugs’ . < KII 4_Drug Peddlar_IBNELGA>.

Some others said there are no indications for the use of aphrodisiacs by youths no matter how it is argued; hence, it is an abuse:

‘ Usually not. There is no indication for aphrodisiac use among the youths. Let’s talk about the youth thing. You know sometimes they want to enhance performance without sex but we don’t have them as many as the middle aged maybe because vigor is still very much in youth… ’ < KII 1_Pharmacist_Moko_IBNLGA>.

What are the perceived benefits of using aphrodisiac?

Participants agreed to varieties of benefits associated with the use of aphrodisiac products interestingly prior to being prompted or probed. Some of the benefits they perceived are obtainable include enhancement and boosting of self-esteem during sexual intercourse, improved sexual performance through sustained and prolonged erection, vaginal tightening, sexual gratification and self-satisfaction.

What are the perceived side effects/implications of use of aphrodisiacs?

Series of implications were highlighted to be associated with the use of aphrodisiacs. To our discussants, the side effects include:

Psychological: participants listed psychological conditions of addiction to aphrodisiac substances, sexual perversion that could lead to pedophilia, low self-esteem, mental illness etc. ‘Because they can get addicted to the usage and the addiction might lead to them having uncontrolled and contnous sexual urge leading them to have sex with anybody available including vulnerable persons like little children   < R5_FDG_Female Undergrad_UI_ Hall 4>, < R6_FDG_Female Undergrad_UI_ Hall 4>. ‘Madness is associated with aphrodisiac’< R1_FGD_Female Undergrad_UI_ Hall 3> - .

Medical: low blood pressure, headaches, unwanted erections, contaminations, disease infections, weakness etc-

‘ Most of the side effects are low blood pressure, headaches, enhanced unwanted erections. Then on long term basis, erectile dysfunction. During sexual activity, there can be penile fracture. There has been reported cases of penile fracture’ < KII 2_Pharmacist_UCH_IBNLGA>. ‘ I would like to say that because it is locally made, it might not be safe, like it might be polluted in any form so that’s also part of this. There are more side effects in local ones compared with medical ones’ < R5_FDG Female Undergrad_UI_ Hall 4>. It could cause fatigue due to abnormally prolonged sexual activity. < R3_FGD_Male Undergrad_UI_ Hall 1>. It could cause alter natural sexual desire due excitatory disruptions caused by the aphrodisiac substances’.

< R4_FGD_Female Undergrad_UI_ Hall 4>.

On the contrary, other FGD discussants did not accept these assertions: affirming none availability of harms in the use of aphrodisiacs. To them, these substances are more profiting , doing good than harm ’. Therefore, it is not as bad as people perceived they were . As such, there are no associated harm. As they opined:

The one I just mentioned are made of herbs, they are naturally made so their side effect is not negative or may not be as much orthodoxly produced ones. Its function is latent . < R6_FGD Male Undergrad_UI_ Hall 2>, < R1_FDG_Female Undergrad_UI_ Hall 4>.

Some KII participants also supported this assertion thus:

‘No side effect because we used only herbs to prepare it…. but for others like man power, orthodox, there are many side effects. I advise men not to be using man power (orthodox medicine) because it has a long term effect on the heart and hormones of men. Also women that have sexual intercourse with men that uses man power, it affects the womb of women because it is a dangerous chemical ’ < KII 5_Drug Peddlar_IBNELGA>, < KII 1_Pharmacist_Moko_IBNLGA>.

Financial/Economical problems

‘ it would render you broke, it would stop your money, it would affect you financially’ . < R8_FGD_Male Undergrad_UI_ Hall 1>.

Mixed method results

The joint display showing the perception of aphrodisiac use domains, qualitative themes and sample quotes, corresponding new culturally adapted items, mean item scores, and item-total correlations are presented in Table  2 . Themes from the FGD which included ‘perceived indication for use of aphrodisiac’, ‘perceived benefits of using aphrodisiac’ and ‘perceived side effects/implications of use of aphrodisiacs’ were assessed against the constructs from the structural equation modelling of the scale. Two constructs of perception on use of aphrodisiac for prolonged sexual performance and recreational purpose matched the deductive theme on perceived benefits of aphrodisiac use. The theme on indication for aphrodisiac use matched two constructs of perception of aphrodisiac use erectile dysfunction or use by medical advice and use for treatment of erectile dysfunction.

Quantitative results

Mean scores on 5-point Likert scale items ranged from 2.06 to 3.44. Table  2 . Mean scores on the new survey items and the percentage of respondents agreeing with the culturally adapted perception of aphrodisiac use survey items indicate similarity between themes from the qualitative data and the subsequent quantitative data. Percentage of participants agreeing to the items ranged from 41.7 to 63.1% across all adapted perception of aphrodisiac use items. Item-total correlations for each adapted perception of aphrodisiac use item indicates the internal consistency of the newly developed items within their respective domains. All item-total correlations were statistically significant, except two reverse coded items. The significant Pearson’s correlation coefficient values ranged from − 0.33 to 0.70, with most items having moderate correlations. As expected, the negative correlations were for items worded to be in the opposite direction as compared to other items within the domain.

• Psychometric analysis

Initial polychoric correlation was analysed (Fig.  1 ) where items C15i, C15ii, and C15iii significantly correlated with one another having values that ranged between 0.66 and 0.73; items C16i and C16ii had a correlation value of 0.89; items C15iv and C16iii with a value of 0.51 moderately correlated with each and all items of C17 subtypes significantly correlated with one another in values that ranged from − 0.55 to 0.97.

Polychoric correlation matrix plot of university student’s perception of aphrodisiac use. Items C15i, C15ii, and C15iii significantly correlated with one another having values that ranged between 0.66–0.73; items C16i and C16ii had a correlation value of 0.89; items C15iv and C16iii with a value of 0.51 moderately correlated with each and all items of C17 subtypes significantly correlated with one another in values that ranged from − 0.55 to 0.97

Exploratory factor analysis was conducted using Maximum likelihood statistics for extracting factors. This yielded four factors from its minimum residual solution that rotated on its default oblimin transformation. These factors explain 66.31% of the variance in the original 15 variables.

The first batch of factor analysis on perception of use of aphrodisiac produced items of Factor 1 (C17v, C17vii, C17viii, C17vi, C17iv, C17ii, C17iii) which constitute “prolonged sexual performance”, questions C15ii, C15i, C15iii and C17i made up the scale “erectile dysfunction or by medical advice use”, questions C16i and C16ii made up the scale “recreational purpose” and questions C15iv and C16iii aggregated for “To treat erectile dysfunction”. The reliability test for the factors indicated excellent improvement when items C17i and C17iii were removed from the items of factors that connote aphrodisiac use for “erectile dysfunction or by medical advice and prolonged sexual performance” and “prolonged sexual performance”. Based on this outcome, a second round of factor analysis without the deleted items still suggested a four-factor solution with Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of 0.89. The factors and their respective Cronbach alpha values are Recreational purpose, α = 0.62; Aphrodisiac use without medical condition or medical advice, α = 0.84; To treat erectile dysfunction = 0.91 and Prolonged and improved sexual performance = 0.84. Table  3 .

A four-dimensional model derived from the exploratory factor analysis of thirteen items was subjected to CFA. All the CFA goodness of fit indices were within acceptable values except RMSEA that was just within marginal range (TLI = 0.931; CFI = 0.948; SRMR = 0.047; RMSEA = 0.083). Figure  2 .

CFA path diagram of four factors of perception of aphrodisiac use of university students (F1 = prolonged sexual performance, F2 = erectile dysfunction or by medical advice use, F3 = recreational purpose, F4 = To treat erectile dysfunction) and their observed variables

Composite reliability

The composite reliability measure of each factor of perception of aphrodisiac use was strong (F1 = 0.90, F2 = 0.85, F4 = 0.92) except for factor 3 which indicated a moderate reliability (F3 = 0.63).

Convergent and divergent validity of constructs

The inter item correlation of each of the constructs was significantly greater than 0.5 thus satisfying the convergence criteria.

The minimum correlation of each construct was greater than the correlations of respective inter-item correlations of adjoining constructs. By calculation, the total number of comparisons is 53 deduced from 6 × 6 + 3 × 3 + 2 × 2 + 2 × 2 and total violations are 0. According to Campbell and Fiske [29] the violation counts should be less than one-half the potential comparisons hence the discriminant holds valid.

Respondents’ perceptions of aphrodisiac use scores were converted to domain Z scores and assessed against respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics. Male students, those of Ibo ethnic group and having mothers with primary educational significantly all had poor perception of the domain of aphrodisiac use for prolonged sexual performance’s Z score. (-0.03 ± 0.02; -0.01 ± 1.00, p  < 0.05; -0.01 ± 1.00). p  < 0.05. Table  4 .

In terms of age, those older than 20 years and male respondents had statistically significant weak differences in perception of use of aphrodisiac for condition of erectile dysfunction or by medical advice (-0.06 ± 1.01, p  < 0.05; -0.11 ± 1.01, p  < 0.05).

Poor Z mean score of perception of aphrodisiac use for treating erectile dysfunction statistically varied among the married, those of Ibo tribe, and educational status of respondents’ parents. Values decreased in a proportional manner to educational status of either parent. (-0.11 ± 1.20, p  < 0.05; -0.40 ± 1.20, p  < 0.05; -0.50 ± 1.14, p  < 0.05, -1.0 ± 1.10). Table  4 .

Significant statistical differences were also found between poor perception of recreational purpose use of aphrodisiac and the male students, Ibo ethnic group, mothers with primary education as well as in those earning above 20000 naira monthly. (-0.10 ± 1.03; -0.20 ± 1.10: -0.10 ± 1.00: -0.21 ± 1.02)

The physical and psychological symptoms of using aphrodisiacs were computed against the Z scores of factors derived from perception of its use. Table  4 . Those with symptoms of sex addiction, priapism, performance, self-confidence and body weakness significantly varied with unsatisfactory Z mean measures of perception of aphrodisiac use for ‘without a medical condition or by medical advice’ construct. (-0.61 ± 0.66; -0.58 ± 0.81; -0.57 ± 0.86; -0.66 ± 0.69) p  < 0.05. Weak standardized mean scores of perceptions of aphrodisiac use for recreational purpose statistically differed among respondents who had problems of sustained erection, body weakness, self-esteem and the perverts (-0.47 ± 1.01; -0.57 ± 0.80; -0.62 ± 0.92; -0.56 ± 0.92) p  < 0.05.

Quantitative

The average item scores and significant item-total correlations were important indicators of the initial validity and reliability of the culturally adapted survey items in this population. Most items had average scores ranging from 2.10 to 3.32, (with the extreme means being 2.00–3.44) an indication that participants in general found the items relevant to their perception of aphrodisiac use. There are no extreme values among the items an indicator of item quality when the goal of the assessment is normative.

Two items (people with erectile dysfunction can use aphrodisiac, use of aphrodisiac should be completely avoided by youth) indicated poor item-total correlation with the domain of indications for use of aphrodisiac. These items were retained for further evaluation in construct validity to determine if they are internally valid with the construct or to be deleted from the survey items if they are not.

Qualitative

The initial qualitative phase was essential to explore perception of aphrodisiac use that may be peculiar to undergraduate youths in Nigeria university. Themes on perception of aphrodisiac use such as indications for using aphrodisiac and benefits of using aphrodisiac and as well as themes on medical and psychological impacts of using aphrodisiac were all informed by environmental awareness and experiences common to students of tertiary institutions. It was important to explore the perception of using aphrodisiac because of the connectedness they have with health and psychological impact on young users [ 14 , 17 ]. By addressing these unique perceptions among students of higher learning, it would allow for creation of evidence based interventions for protective and responsible behaviours in sexual activities.

Most research findings done in West Africa indicated that the major reason for using aphrodisiacs is the excitatory psychological benefits they render to heightening of sexual pleasures and its compensating benefits and challenges that re-trigger the cycle of use [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. The other reason for aphrodisiac use is the medical indication of erectile dysfunction which could be caused by biological and behavioural underlining factors [ 12 , 13 , 19 ]. Participants in this study discussed their views about indication for use of aphrodisiacs by undergraduate youths. They obviously do not reckon with the therapeutic use of except for the diverse opinions of KII participants that ranged between belief that there are indications for the use among youths and no indication for aphrodisiac use by the specified populations. The theme on benefits of aphrodisiac use, however, received huge perceptive agreements among all categories of discussants. The essence of sexual engagements which is not subjected to any particular age groups except among juveniles could explain the strong perception and tendency to usage of aphrodisiacs among discussants which may have been derived from testimonies of peers or personal experimentation [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. These major themes shaping perception of aphrodisiac use are accounted for in the adapted survey instrument.

The remarkable description of knowledge of psychological and medical impacts of aphrodisiac use by majority of participants portray that youths perceive immediate or latter life dangers in uncontrolled and habitual use of the substances [ 14 , 17 ]. This offers a window of opportunity to design public health interventions that will promote health sexual choices and lifestyle for the youth.

Integration

Integration of qualitative and quantitative data occurred at two phases, first when using the building approach to create newly adapted (university undergraduates focused) items and then when using the merging approach to report the results through the joint display. The cultural adaptation evolved from qualitative themes for composition of quantitative survey items, as well as the creation of new items. Creating uniquely adapted items based on in-depth qualitative data resulted in enhanced content validity of the items. Matching the themes to the theoretical domains of perception of aphrodisiac use led to an approach that dovetailed to development and structuring of final survey items.

Although there is no guarantee that research structure of this study for the population of interest will be the same if applied to general population. However, the construct validity evaluated through structural equation modelling of the domains’ items by this study could suffice for the measurement of the perception of aphrodisiac use among the population of interest in any African university. It could be used at such locations after conducting prior pretest for psychometric validity for further fine-tuning of the instrument.

The main objective of the psychometric analysis was to develop and validate perception of aphrodisiac use from university undergraduates from the original survey instrument. A four-factor structure for 13 out of the 15 items was evident, based on a principal components exploratory factor analysis with an oblimin rotation of the scale’s polychoric correlation matrix.

The fitted model for perception of aphrodisiac use among university undergraduates proposed four-factor structure, involving prolonged and improved sexual performance (6 items; 0.915), without medical condition or medical advice (3 items; 0.847), to treat erectile dysfunction (2 items; 0.627), Recreational purpose (2 items; 0.918) factors. This indicates good internal consistency except a questionable factor 3. However, each of the factors could probably be made robust by further refining of items for the purpose of clarity to the target audience. The two items under factor 3 implied the same meaning indicating need to delete one of them and to substitute it with one or more combinations of new items that could align to and elicit same construct.

The four-factor and 13 items scale that were extracted through EFA was validated by CFA to establish a relationship between the exogenous variables (items of perception of aphrodisiac use) and the endogenous latent constructs vis-a-viz acceptable goodness of fit measures. The first and only CFA done as suggested by the EFA produced the fit to the model. Perception in psychology is one of the key attributes of attitude which forms human habit. All components that made up attitude were transactions with one’s physical and social surroundings and that the direction of influence flowed either direction ways—our attitudes are influenced by the social world and our social world is influenced by our attitudes. With respect to the outcome of the psychometrics validation of this study, a theoretical framework has been established as different items on perception of realities of aphrodisiacs aggregated into four constructs that could influence its habitual use. Thus, future studies can examine these domains with respect to use of aphrodisiac substances particularly among youths in institutions of higher learning. This study was also conducted to also assess the validity of the perception of aphrodisiac use among tertiary education students by their socio-demographic characteristics and consequences of its use. This is to determine factors that could influence perception of aphrodisiac use among young adults when the validated instrument is applied. The observed differences in mean scores of the perception of aphrodisiac use among the subjects further underscore the need to use the domains described for comparison of each subgroup of independent variables. With regards to socio-demographic characteristics of respondents, being a male and of Ibo ethnic background presented poorly in all constructs of perception of aphrodisiac use except in respective perception of “aphrodisiac use for treating erectile dysfunction and use of aphrodisiac for condition of erectile dysfunction or by medical advice”. The different findings with the male sex transcend cultural and socioeconomic status since several qualitative and quantitative studies focusing on factors predisposing perception and use of aphrodisiacs established this natural phenomenon [ 11 , 24 ]. Universally, men have the propensity for aiming to achieve sexual satisfaction characterized by prolonged pleasure to prove their phallic capabilities to themselves and to the opposite sex.

The marked variations between the married, young adults and those from non to early educated parents with poor perceptions of use of aphrodisiac for condition of erectile dysfunction or by medical advice and treating erectile dysfunction are realistic associations. For the married, undesirable sexual experience is one of the underlying problems causing marital crisis that could prompt preference for aphrodisiac substances to ameliorate the condition [ 25 , 26 ]. Studies by Oniye et al. (2016) [ 25 ] and Sanni [ 26 ] have investigated the use and pattern of aphrodisiacs by couples to correct sexual dysfunction. The fact that individuals above 20years significantly had poor perception of aphrodisiac use have been reported in previous literature [ 9 , 27 ]. The demand for and dependency on aphrodisiac for sexual pleasure or medical reason is higher among this group [ 9 ]. The indication for mothers’ lowered educational status and the identified domains of aphrodisiac perception among the population of interest could be considered in future assessment of the scale. studies have not been conducted to evaluate this area, it would be interesting to investigate how parental higher level of education influences young adults’ perception of aphrodisiac use and its medical implications. The significant variation of the higher monthly earning of the students with construct of perception of use of aphrodisiac for recreational purposes should be explored in future use of the scale. This could help in understanding how financial wherewithal could shift the perception of aphrodisiac use among undergraduate students.

The scale was able to differentiate between subgroups of physical and psychological consequences of using aphro­disiac, suggesting a good construct validity of this instrument designed to measure the multi-domain perception of aphrodisiac use. Those who have sex addiction, priapism, lack of sexual performance self-confidence, body weakness, loss of self-esteem and perversion from using aphrodisiacs significantly had worse scores on perception of aphrodisiac use without a medical condition or by medical advice and for recreational purposes.

Several studies have linked abuse of aphrodisiac substances to venereal diseases, psychological health conditions and simple to life threatening non-communicable diseases such as heart failure and kidney problems ] [ 17 , 28 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. Manortey et al. [ 7 ] reported that despite health regulatory bodies’ issuance of public awareness on concerns for abuse of unregistered sex enhancing products, purchase remains high amidst menacing side effects. This report corroborated our study’s findings and they all implied that having health problems associated with use of aphrodisiac and the knowledge thereof are not important to having right perception to use of aphrodisiac. Based on this premise, it would be worthwhile, for future use of this scale to assess the significance of health outcomes of aphrodisiac users against the underlying perception to its use.

Limitations

A number of limitations of the study can be spotlighted. The findings of this study cannot yet be fully generalized due to the wording and interpretation of specific items that aggregated to some factors and the restriction to student population of just one university. Nevertheless, research efforts should be extended to detail and thorough exercise on the scales’ items development and testing in a variety of tertiary educational institutions in order to enhance its robustness and flexibility for generalizability purposes. Another limitation of the research is the restricted number of items that statistically constitute some factors, which may cause availability of limited or no options for researchers, should removal of items be required.

This study used a mixed methods design and construct validity analysis to develop and validate a survey instrument on perception of aphrodisiac use among students of a Nigerian tertiary institution. The mixed methods validation of the survey for measuring perception of aphrodisiac use among the undergraduates led to statistically significant integration of quantitative domain items with thematic domains of qualitative analysis. The construct validity indicated that all the domains that emerged from the analysis statistically reflect the stimuli, cognitive, translation, behaviour and performance components of perception to aphrodisiac use. The four-factor generated model showed a good fit, indicating that sexual elongation pleasure, use of aphrodisiac substances without erectile dysfunction, treatment of erectile dysfunction and recreational purpose are adequate components to measure the perception of aphrodisiac use among university undergraduates. The resulted 13 items showed valid factors loadings and high values of internal consistency and reliability reinforced through CFA procedures. There are evidences of statistically significant differences between groups of certain socio-demographic characteristics and consequences of aphrodisiac with domains of perception of aphrodisiac use.

Equally, all the items of the four constructs from the reliable construct validity outcomes also aligned with the integrated mixed method results.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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The university of Ibadan undergraduate students and all the qualitative study participants are appreciated because without them, this study would be impossible.

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Olawumi Cecilia Fatade, Gabriel Ifeoluwa Makinde & Ayodeji Matthew Adebayo

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Fatade, O.C., Makinde, G.I. & Adebayo, A.M. Development and psychometric properties of an instrument to measure perception of aphrodisiac use among undergraduates in a southwestern Nigerian university. BMC Public Health 24 , 1331 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18736-y

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An exploratory study on spatiotemporal clustering of suicide in Korean adolescents

• Won-Seok Choi 1   na1 ,
• Beop-Rae Roh 2   na1 ,
• Duk-In Jon 3 ,
• Vin Ryu 3 ,
• Yunhye Oh 3 &
• Hyun Ju Hong 3 , 4  

Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health volume  18 , Article number:  54 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Adolescent suicides are more likely to form clusters than those of other age groups. However, the definition of a cluster in the space–time dimension has not been established, neither are the factors contributing to it well known. Therefore, this study aimed to identify space–time clusters in adolescent suicides in Korea and to examine the differences between clustered and non-clustered cases using novel statistical methods.

From 2016 to 2020, the dates and locations, including specific addresses from which the latitude and longitude of all student suicides (aged 9–18 years) in Korea were obtained through student suicide reports. Sociodemographic characteristics of the adolescents who died by suicide were collected, and the individual characteristics of each student who died by suicide were reported by teachers using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN) analysis was used to assess the clustering of suicides.

We identified 23 clusters through the data analysis of 652 adolescent suicides using DBSCAN. By comparing the size of each cluster, we identified 63 (9.7%) spatiotemporally clustered suicides among adolescents, and the temporal range of these clusters was 7–59 days. The suicide cluster group had a lower economic status than the non-clustered group. There were no significant differences in other characteristics between the two groups.

This study has defined the space–time cluster of suicides using a novel statistical method. Our findings suggest that when an adolescent suicide occurs, close monitoring and intervention for approximately 2 months are needed to prevent subsequent suicides. Future research using DBSCAN needs to involve a larger sample of adolescents from various countries to further corroborate these findings.

Introduction

Suicide is a global social issue in adolescents aged 15–19 years old, for whom it was the fourth leading cause of death globally in 2019 [ 1 ]. This makes it a great social burden. Post the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, there has been a global increase in suicide attempts and suicidal ideation among youth, making it an even more critical issue today [ 2 ]. Suicide in adolescents is heterogeneous and distinguished from the suicide of adults by complicated factors, including family, school, and individual components [ 3 ].

Suicide incidents do not always occur randomly; sometimes, they occur in clusters. This phenomenon has been described as ‘contagion’ or ‘clustering of suicide.’ Although the two words are often used interchangeably, “contagion” was considered as a mechanism of “clustering of suicide” and more recently, “social transmission” is regarded as a narrower and more explicit mechanism for clustering [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Two main types of suicide clusters are argued in the previous study—mass clusters, which is a media-related phenomenon that suicide rates increase in a wide population in a time period, and space–time clusters, where suicides occur in unusually concentrated within a specific locality of time and space [ 6 , 7 ]. Clinically, space–time clustered suicide may refer to suicides influenced by the suicide of someone around them, such as a friend. Previous studies have shown that suicides of 15–24 years of age are more likely to cluster than other age groups [ 8 ] and account for 1–6% of suicides among youth [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Temporal and spatial definitions are useful in terms of suicide prevention. If a youth suicide occurs, more close monitoring of follow-up suicides, management of risk factors, and crisis intervention during the period and legion corresponding to the cluster may contribute to suicide prevention.

Since the clustering of suicide began to be discussed in the clinical field approximately 40 years ago [ 12 , 13 ], several statistical techniques for detecting and defining of space–time clusters of suicide has been used to detect and define space–time clusters of suicide [ 6 , 8 , 10 , 11 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. However, there is currently no specific definition or gold standard for detecting suicide clusters [ 5 , 17 , 18 ].

The Knox procedure, used in earlier studies, considers all possible pairs of suicide cases and the temporal and spatial distances between them. This method established clustering by demonstrating a positive relationship between the temporal and spatial distances of a pair. The Knox method requires the specification of critical values of time and space to define closeness, and previous studies have set the county level spatially and 7, 14, 30 and 60 days temporally [ 8 , 14 , 15 ].

Scan statistics represents a more advanced method than the Knox procedure. It investigates clustering within a variable time window across varying geographical areas and compares the expected number of cases and actual number of cases inside and outside the scanning window [ 10 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. The results of this type of analysis are a set of cylinders, where the base represents the area of the potential cluster, and the height represents the time period of the cluster. Previous studies analyzed the presence of clustered by setting a specific window of various ranges and a temporal window from 7 days to 2 years [ 10 , 11 , 17 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ]. However, previous studies using scan statistics have some limitations, primarily in their focus on detecting clusters with a circular shape [ 26 ] and its focus on larger spatial regions, such as those represented in county-level data [ 11 , 17 , 22 , 23 , 27 , 28 , 29 ].

In terms of the analytic method, previous studies have defined spatiotemporal parameters in advance and somewhat arbitrarily based on the researchers’ judgment, resulting in the clusters of suicides showing spatiotemporal closeness being confirmed. For example, the temporal parameters were set to 7, 14, 30, and 60 days [ 8 , 14 , 15 ], but suicide clusters could occur outside this window. Therefore, identifying the more sensitive periods for suicide clusters is an important research objective.

Several previous studies targeting the entire population, including adolescents and young adults, have compared the characteristics of clustered and non-clustered suicides and reported that clustering was more common among young men than women [ 23 , 30 ], those living in rural areas, [ 23 , 25 , 30 , 31 ], and those experiencing economic deprivation [ 31 ]. However, when narrowing the target population to include only adolescents, one study found no definite differences in clinical characteristics between the suicide cluster and non-cluster groups [ 5 ], while several studies reported that the suicide cluster group had a lower economic level and included more adolescent boys than the non-cluster groups [ 5 , 6 , 18 ].

A new analytical method using machine learning [ 32 , 33 ] that does not preset spatiotemporal parameters with a narrower unit of spatiotemporal data of adolescents can increase the understanding of the space–time clusters in adolescent suicide, which is not well known.

In Korea, adolescent suicide is a serious social problem and is the leading cause of death among young people aged 10–19 years [ 34 ]. In particular, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the suicide rate among adolescents increased at a faster rate than that of older adults [ 35 ]. The suicide rate among adolescents was higher after the pandemic than before [ 35 ], reaching 9.5 per 100,000 in 2021 for adolescents aged 15–17 years, compared to 5.8 per 100,000 in 2017 and 7.5 per 100,000 in 2018 [ 36 ].

This study analyzed an entire dataset of students who died by suicide from 2016 to 2020 that was collected through the Korean Ministry of Education and included the date of death and the specific address from which latitude and longitude coordinates can be extracted. We hypothesized that there would be space–time clusters of suicides among Korean adolescents, and that if clustered and non-clustered suicides were distinguishable, there would be differences in their characteristics. This study will contribute to suicide prevention efforts by identifying the critical period in which subsequent suicides are most likely.

This study used data from student suicide reports collected by the Korean Ministry of Education from January 1, 2016, to December 31, 2020. In Korea, when a student dies by suicide, the school is required to report the relevant information to the Ministry of Education in the student suicide report, which includes teachers’ observations, parental reports regarding the circumstances of death, and official education records collected by the school. Furthermore, these reports were collated as part of the national student suicide prevention policy during the abovementioned period. The evaluation items and answer format were determined through intensive discussion within the research team and feedback from teachers during the report’s development process. Additionally, specific examples of items and answers were provided in the form to simplify it and enable the teachers to understand and respond better. During the coding process, unclear answers were deciphered through discussion within the research team and confirmed by contacting the teacher directly [ 37 , 38 ]. These data represent the total number of students who died by suicide in Korea during the study period. Details of the student suicide reports have been described previously [ 38 ]. The number of students who died by suicide during the study period was 654, and all cases were included in the analyses except for two students whose death dates could not be determined. Considering that Korea has compulsory education up to middle school and the dropout rate of high school in 2021 is 1.5% [ 39 ], these cases may closely represent the general characteristics of suicides among children and adolescents in Korea.

The variables used in this study were the address of the school, sex, date of death, school type, family structure, economic status, suicide method, usual concerns revealed at school, presence of a psychiatric disorder, history of suicide attempt, and history of self-injury. The teacher-rated Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) [ 40 ] was used to evaluate students' emotional and behavioral status. The teacher-rated SDQ consists of Prosocial Behavior (Cronbach’s α = 0.873), Hyperactivity/Inattention (Cronbach’s α = 0.793), Peer Relationship Problems (Cronbach’s α = 0.770), Emotional Symptoms (Cronbach’s α = 0.681), Conduct Problems (Cronbach’s α = 0.638) subscales and a Total Difficulties score (Cronbach’s α = 0.837). The SDQ has been included in the database since 2018. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Hallym University Sacred Heart Hospital (2021-05-015).

The school addresses of students who died by suicide were converted to latitude and longitude coordinates to examine the proximity of both the space and time of suicidal events, with the time of occurrence set on the day of the event. For cases with incomplete information regarding the date of death, information on the time of discovery was used. As approximately 70% of cases of adolescent suicide in Korea die by jumping from a height, the interval between the time of a suicide attempt and the time of death was expected to be short.

Clustering analysis using density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise (DBSCAN) [ 33 , 41 ] was used to examine the spatiotemporal patterns of suicidal events and define the space–time clusters of suicides. Density-based clustering refers to unsupervised learning methods that identify distinctive groups or clusters in the data based on the idea that a cluster in a data space is a contiguous region of high point density, separated from other clusters by contiguous regions of low point density. The data points in the separating regions of low point density are typically considered noise/outliers [ 33 , 41 ]. In particular, this method is useful when there is an outlier in the spatial information that is included in a cluster and distorted [ 42 ].

The two main conditions to be considered in DBSCAN for the derivation of clusters are the minimum number of cases to be included in the cluster and the cluster radius. In this study, the minimum number of suicide clusters was set at three. The radius of the cluster was selected by examining the change in the distance of the k-nearest neighborhood (kNN). The k value was set to three to simulate the kNN point change, which was equal to the minimum number of clustering cases. R version 4.2.2 was used for analysis and the cluster analysis was performed using the R language DBSCAN package (Hahsler et al.). The proximity among cases within the cluster is represented by the mean distance (mdis), where a lower numerical value indicates closer clustering of cases.

The final step was to compare the characteristics of clustered and non-clustered suicides. It is unreasonable to regard all the clusters derived using DBSCAN as suicide clusters. When a specific metropolitan area has a high population density, such as Seoul, suicide cases can be clustered based on regional density. Therefore, we selected a group with a high probability of suicide clusters based on a comparison of the size of the derived cluster (i.e., the number of suicide deaths) and the radius of the clusters. For group comparisons, data were examined using cross-tabulation and t -tests and finally included binary logistic regression analysis. In the logistic regression analysis, both the size of the region (i.e., metropolitan areas and others) and the year of suicidewere included as independent variables.

Spatiotemporal distribution of suicide

Figure  1 presents the spatiotemporal distribution of the suicide cases. Figure  1 a shows the distribution of suicide case events on the map of South Korea, and the year of the event is also marked in a different color. Many cases were distributed around large cities with dense populations. However, even in areas with relatively sparse populations, suicide cases occur at a certain level. Figure  1 b shows the results of standardizing the latitude, longitude, and time to place the case in 3-dimensional space and demonstrates that the distribution of suicide events does not occur randomly but rather clusters in a specific space–time area.

Spatiotemporal distribution of suicide cases- a The spatial distribution of suicide deaths marked on the map of Korea. b The spatiotemporal distribution of suicide cases. Lat latitude, log longitude

Figure  2 a presents the results of the analyses that examined the change in the distance of the 3-nearest neighborhood to determine the criterion of the radius of the cluster prior to DBSCAN. In the figure, the knee appears around the distance of 60. Figure  2 b presents the clustering results when the radius was set to 60 and the minimum number of cases belonging to a cluster was set to three. Each cluster is presented as a polygon. Outliers that did not belong to any cluster were marked as separate dots. As shown in the figure, the size of the cluster and the number of included cases varied. The largest cluster at the top of the figure reflects spatially concentrated suicide cases in densely populated areas in the Seoul metropolitan area. However, these suicides demonstrated a wide temporal distribution spanning approximately 4 years.

Suicide clusters converted to 2-dimensional image. 3-NN distance 3 nearest-neighborhood distance; PC principal component

This led to a substantial number of cases forming the cluster ( n  = 395). Therefore, these cases cannot be regarded as meaningful spatiotemporal clusters of suicide in this study.

Table 1 presents the characteristics of the clusters derived using DBSCAN. Along with the closeness of the cluster (mdis) and number of cases in each cluster’s data distribution, the table also shows the proportion of males, high school students, middle school students, and mean age. Next, the first occurrence date, last occurrence date, longitude, and latitude of the schools attended by the students who died by suicide are presented. The latitude and longitude of the clusters were determined using the average latitude and longitude of the schools within the clusters. Significant clusters are listed in order of the smallest mdis size. Finally, they are listed based on the size of the clusters. For example, in the case of Cluster 1, which is the cluster with the most substantial spatiotemporal proximity, five cases of suicide centered on a specific area occurred within approximately 3 weeks. All patients in this cluster were high school students, and all but one were adolescent boys.

Characteristics of defined spatiotemporal clusters for student suicide in Korea, 2016–2020

We identified 23 clusters through data analysis of 652 cases using DBSCAN. The largest cluster (class ID = 23) comprised of 395 patients. The period of the events covered approximately 5 years. As mentioned above, this cluster could result from demographic concentration, especially in the context of urban South Korea with high population density, rather than from space–time suicide clusters. Therefore, defining a significant suicide cluster that shows a remarkably high spatiotemporal adjacency.

Comparing closeness of clusters & defining meaningful spatiotemporal clusters

Figure  3 presents the results of comparing the cluster closeness (mdis) and the number of cases in the cluster data. The ranking on the horizontal axis is the result of sorting by area. The upper part of Fig.  3 presents all the clusters, and the lower part shows the figure, excluding the largest cluster. As shown in the figure, the area and number of cases rapidly increased after the 15th cluster. Based on this finding, the meaningful spatiotemporal cluster of suicide was defined as up to the 15th cluster (class ID = 12) based on the rank number. We identified 63 (9.7%) spatiotemporally clustered suicides among adolescents, with a temporal range between 7 and 59 days. In the case of spatial range, each cluster was analyzed in a polygonal form, making it difficult to precisely ascertain the average spatial area. Nonetheless, cases classified into significant clusters were predominantly within the same administrative regions. When considering the top three clusters with the highest spatiotemporal clustering (Ranks 1–3 in Table  1 ), the closest distance between the two suicide cases was approximately 6 km, and the greatest distance observed was approximately 32 km.

Size comparison of each cluster identified by DBCSAN-The 15th cluster is marked with a red dashed line in sequential order of distance

Difference of characteristics between clustered and non-clustered suicides

Table 2 shows the comparison of the characteristics of a group that showed high spatiotemporal clustering in suicide with those of a group that did not. Chi-square analysis revealed that the characteristic that was statistically different between the two groups was economic status (χ 2  = 9.79, df = 2, p < 0.05). The clustered suicide group was relatively low. Although no difference was observed at the stochastic significance level, participants showing clustered groupness were relatively more likely to experience peer problems. In the group without significant spatiotemporally clustered groupness, 15.1% (n = 89) reported peer problems, and in the group with clustering, 23.0% (n = 15) reported problems with peer relationships. The reported rate of psychiatric disorders was 29.7% (n = 19) in the clustering group and 40.8% (n = 231) in the other groups.

Table 3 presents the results of the group comparisons using the SDQ. The results of the t- tests indicated that there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups for SDQ total and subscale scores.

In Table  4 , the binary logistic regression analysis results are presented, with the highly clustered group being the outcome variable and the non-clustered cases being the reference group. The demographic and clinical characteristics that were found to significantly differ based on group included economic status (e.g., poverty) and the presence of a psychiatric disorder ( p  < 0.05). As the economic level decreases (indicative of poverty), there is an increased tendency for spatiotemporal clustering. However, the less likely the cases included reported psychiatric disorders, the more likely they were to be in a highly clustered group. Groups that reported peer problems had a higher likelihood of being highly clustered, even though the statistical significance of this result was low ( p  < 0.10).

This study identified space–time clusters of cases of adolescent suicide using DBSCAN based on Korean student suicide data from 2016 to 2020. As a result, 9.7% ( n  = 63) corresponded to the space–time suicide cluster, and each cluster consisted of 3–9 suicide events and suicides temporally occurring between 7 and 59 days and corresponded to the distances between suicide cases within the top three most concentrated clusters, ranging from 6 to 32 km spatially. The suicide cluster group had low economic status and fewer psychiatric disorders compared to the non-clustered group. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to use latitude and longitude for spatial analysis and exact suicide dates for temporal analysis in the clustering of adolescent suicides, and it uses narrower spatiotemporal units of analysis than previous studies using DBSCAN without pre-setting spatiotemporal parameters.

Clustered suicides of adolescents in Korea during 2016–2020

In this study, 9.7% of adolescent suicides were classified into spatiotemporal suicide clusters, which was a higher percentage than previously reported. This increase could be attributed to differences in the analytic methods. The current findings suggest that interrelated suicides may be more frequent than expected in adolescents [ 5 ]. However, this study statistically identified spatiotemporal suicide clusters but did not confirm that suicides within clusters were actually related to suicides. Suicides that occurred within similar time periods in similar locations could have been classified into this space–time suicide cluster, even if there was no real connection. Future research should include a detailed case study of the suicide cases in these clusters.

The mechanisms leading to suicide clusters include social transmission, particularly person-to-person transmission and the media [ 5 , 6 , 18 ]. In addition, clustered suicide occurs through perceptions that suicidal behavior is widespread and assortative, leading to susceptible young people being likely to socialize with at-risk peers, and the social cohesion of the peer group contributes to the spread of ideas and attitudes [ 5 , 6 ]. The effect of suicide clusters on schools is usually profound, and the early identification of suicide clusters and initiation of appropriate interventions is critical for preventing subsequent suicides. This study suggests that once an adolescent died by suicide, close monitoring and intervention may be needed to prevent subsequent suicides for about 2 months.

Characteristics of clustered adolescent suicides in Korea: Comparison with previous studies

Several features of the clustered adolescent suicides in this study were similar to the socioeconomic characteristics of previously identified clustered suicides. Previous studies have identified deprivation [ 31 , 43 ], poverty [ 22 , 23 , 43 , 44 , 45 ], and geological isolation [ 25 , 30 , 46 ] as significant risk factors for clustered suicide. In this study, economic status was lower among the clustered suicides than the non-clustered suicides in both the chi-square test and logistic regression analysis, which mirrors the results of previous studies.

In previous studies, young men were more frequently included in the clustered suicide groups than were young women [ 24 , 47 , 48 ]. However, this finding has not been replicated in other population-based studies targeting young adults and adolescents [ 5 , 11 , 25 ]. Similarly, there was no difference in the gender ratio between clustered and non-clustered suicides in our study, the first to report the gender characteristics of clustered suicides in Korean adolescents. This could be due to differences in the analytical method (DBSCAN) used to identify suicide clusters between this study and previous studies. Furthermore, 654 suicides were included in the analysis, which is fewer than in previous studies; this could have potentially influenced the results. Hence, future studies that target a larger number of suicides over an extended period are needed.

Regression analysis revealed that the clustered suicide groups had fewer psychiatric disorders than the non-clustered suicide group. This differs from previous findings and suggests that psychiatric history is a risk factor for clustered suicides [ 6 ]. However, it should be noted that the assessment of psychiatric disorders among students who died by suicide was based on parental reports after suicide rather than the direct application of standardized diagnostic tools, thus potentially failing to adequately capture the frequency of psychiatric disorders. Even if the students had clinically diagnosed psychiatric disorders, they may not have visited hospitals because of negative perceptions associated with mental health or that parents did not accurately report due to concerns about potential disadvantages the students might face at school. Additionally, no statistically significant differences were observed regarding the presence of psychiatric disorders between the two groups in the chi-square test. Given the limited number of participants, further research is necessary to address these findings.

Another distinctive characteristic of clustered group was their low economic status, which is consistent with previous studies [ 18 , 22 , 23 , 31 , 43 , 44 , 45 ]. However, earlier studies have not clarified the relationship between socioeconomic status and suicide clustering. In some studies [ 22 ], low economic status has been suggested as a proxy for factors associated with the clustering of suicides, such as limited access to mental health treatment. Since limited information was collected from each participant, our study could not clearly explain the underlying mechanism. Considering the multidimensional risk factors of adolescent suicide [ 49 ], and the general social stigma against psychiatric disorders in South Korea [ 50 ], having a low economic status might also decrease help-seeking behavior for the early detection of mental health problems of clustered suicide adolescents in Korea.

Although differences in peer problems were a non-significant trend ( p  < 0.10) between the groups, the clustered suicide group reported more peer problems than the non-clustered group. When examining each case of clustered suicide, it is apparent that the students included in the clustered suicide did not exhibit considerable vulnerability to suicide on a personal level. Considering the other characteristics mentioned above, this finding may be because they grew up in economically disadvantaged households with vulnerable support systems, delayed their development of introspection and help-seeking behaviors, and lacked resilience, leading to their immersion in peer relationships.

In summary, by using DBSCAN to analyze clustered adolescent suicides in Korea, we found a higher rate (9.7%) than that reported in previous studies. Moreover, the temporal range for the clustered suicides identified was within 2 months. These suicides were characterized by lower economic status, which is consistent with previous studies [ 22 , 23 , 43 , 44 , 45 ]. Our study differs from previous studies in that we used a methodology that did not use a specific window, providing a basis for identifying the critical time and regions for subsequent adolescent suicide prevention.

Limitations

This study has several limitations. First, suicide cases among adolescents used in our study only included those reported by schools; thus, out-of-school adolescents were excluded. Second, our study exclusively focused on Korean students who died by suicide over 5 years, resulting in a limited sample size. This is because our study was a secondary analysis of data collected during a limited period, 2016–2020, as part of a suicide prevention policy in Korea. Correspondingly, given the exclusive focus on Korean adolescents, the distinct attributes of suicide may be influenced by national and cultural contexts, impeding the generalization of this study’s outcomes to diverse international settings. Third, we defined clustering as involving a minimum of three suicides; thus, cases in which two consecutive suicides occurred in a spatiotemporal context similar to clustered suicides were not included. Fourth, we did not account for factors that could link adolescents who died by suicide, even when not in geographically similar spaces, such as the Internet or social network services. Therefore, clustered suicides among adolescents might not have been adequately identified. Finally, the geographic data employed in this study were derived from school addresses rather than the residential addresses of adolescents who died by suicide, consequently failing to accurately reflect the specific locations of suicide incidents. However, Korean students are assigned to schools through a system known as the school district [ 51 ], wherein the proximity of a student’s residence serves as the paramount criterion for school assignment. Therefore, the addresses of the schools utilized in our research can indirectly represent the actual places of residence, and this window is much narrower than the previous studies that used county-level data. Additionally, in the Korean context, the living environment and peer groups of adolescents are often organized on a school-based scale, thereby highlighting the significance of the findings of this study.

In this study, the clustering of suicides was analyzed using a novel analytical method (DBSCAN) that differs from previous studies. As a result, a higher prevalence of clustered suicides (9.3%) among the total population of adolescent suicides was observed compared to previous research. Also, this study suggests that once an adolescent suicide occurs, close monitoring and intervention is needed for approximately 2 months to prevent subsequent suicides. Notably, this clustering was pronounced among those with low social-economic status. Future research using DBSCAN needs to involve a larger sample of adolescents from various countries. Clarifying the underlying mechanisms behind clustered suicides among adolescents could help enhance efforts to prevent adolescent suicide.

Availability of data and materials

The data from the Korean student suicide reports used in our study will not be publicly available. Interested parties can obtain the data by contacting the corresponding author (HJH) through a reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Strengths and difficulties questionnaire

Clustering analysis using density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise

K-Nearest neighborhood

Mean distance

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Acknowledgements

We thank the Korean Ministry of Education, regional offices of education, and all schools that reported the student suicide reports as well as the Suicide and School Mental Health Institute for managing the database.

This study was supported by the Jisan Cultural Psychiatry Research Fund (2021) from the Korean Foundation of Neuropsychiatric Research.

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Won-Seok Choi and Beop-Rae Roh have authors contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Psychiatry, Yeouido St. Mary’s Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea

Won-Seok Choi

Department of Social Welfare, Pukyong National University, Busan, Republic of Korea

Beop-Rae Roh

Department of Psychiatry, Hallym University Sacred Heart Hospital, Hallym University, 22, Gwanpyeong-ro 170Beon-gil, Dongan-gu, Anyang, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea

Duk-In Jon, Vin Ryu, Yunhye Oh & Hyun Ju Hong

Hallym University Suicide and School Mental Health Institute, Anyang, Republic of Korea

Hyun Ju Hong

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Authors HJH, WSC, BR, DIJ, VR, and YO designed the study and made conception of this work. WSC and BR drafted and prepared the manuscript. BR contributed to data analysis and interpretation. DIJ, VR and YO revised the manuscript. HJH supervised the entire work, including the data analysis.

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Correspondence to Hyun Ju Hong .

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Choi, WS., Roh, BR., Jon, DI. et al. An exploratory study on spatiotemporal clustering of suicide in Korean adolescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health 18 , 54 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-024-00745-9

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Received : 18 February 2024

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-024-00745-9

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