creative learning environments in education

Creative learning environments in education: a systematic literature review

Davies, D , Jindal-Snape, D , Collier, C , Digby, R , Hay, P and Howe, A (2013) 'Creative learning environments in education: a systematic literature review.' Thinking Skills and Creativity , 8 (April). pp. 80-91. ISSN 1871-1871

This paper reports on a systematic review of 210 pieces of educational research, policy and professional literature relating to creative environments for learning in schools, commissioned by Learning and Teaching Scotland (LTS). Despite the volume of academic literature in this field, the team of six reviewers found comparatively few empirical studies published in the period 2005–2011 providing findings addressing the review objectives. There was, however a reasonable weight of research evidence to support the importance of the following factors in supporting creative skills development in children and young people: flexible use of space and time; availability of appropriate materials; working outside the classroom/school; ‘playful’ or ‘games-bases’ approaches with a degree of learner autonomy; respectful relationships between teachers and learners; opportunities for peer collaboration; partnerships with outside agencies; awareness of learners’ needs; and non-prescriptive planning. The review also found evidence for impact of creative environments on pupil attainment and the development of teacher professionalism. LTS intend to use the review as a basis for recommendations to Scottish schools in promoting creativity within Curriculum for Excellence. However, the findings of the review and methodological gaps in the reviewed studies have implications for policy, practice and research internationally.

• What Is This Thing Called Instructional Design?
• A Brief History of Educational Technology
• A Short History of the Learning Sciences
• LIDT Timeline
• Programmed Instruction
• Edgar Dale and the Cone of Experience
• Intelligence
• Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism
• Sociocultural Perspectives on Learning
• Motivation Theories on Learning
• Informal Learning
• Connectivism
• Using the First Principles of Instruction to Make Instruction Effective, Efficient, and Engaging
• Bloom's Taxonomy
• Instructional Design Models
• ISD and Functional Design Layering
• Design Thinking and Agile Design
• Human Performance Technology for Instructional Designers
• Gamification and the Way It Can be Used to Influence Learning

Designing for Creative Learning Environments

• Learning Experience Design
• Evaluation Methods for Learning Experience Design
• How Do We Solve a Problem Like Media and Methods?
• United States National Educational Technology Plan
• Distance Learning
• How Learning Analytics Can Inform Learning and Instructional Design
• Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
• The Future of the Field is Not Design
• Translations

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Creativity is one of the most coveted qualities of thinking, (Lewis, 2009) bringing social, emotional, cognitive, and professional benefits (Sternberg, 2006). While education has increasingly framed creativity as a key element of teaching and learning, this rhetoric has rarely been realized in formal learning settings, partly due to traditional school limitations. In schools, the steady march of standardized testing restricts teachers’ and students’ creativity. Even in higher education, traditional structures and assumptions still permeate learning settings and designs. Creativity is not a discrete subject matter to be taught, memorized, or drilled—rather, it develops when the learning environment is deliberately designed to encourage and nurture it. Most of the attention on classroom creativity has focused on pedagogical practices or curricula. Teachers’ roles in designing learning environments to support creative expression are often overlooked. This gap becomes starker when we consider the design of online/virtual learning environments, where even less scholarship exists on the design of creative spaces.

In this chapter, we delve into the fundamental principles that define a creative learning environment and how these can be integrated into pedagogical design. Utilizing research, a creative environment instrument, and diverse learning settings as a springboard, we underscore the pivotal link between a learning environment’s design and the nurturing of creativity. We propose the use of the SCALE (Support for Creativity in a Learning Environment) instrument (Richardson & Mishra, 2018) as a frame for understanding and evaluating the characteristics of creative learning environments. Using the SCALE’s core constructs—characteristics of the environment, learning climate, and learner engagement—as benchmarks, we consider how the constructs might be seen as criteria to be embedded in the design of learning environments. We examine the theoretical underpinnings of creativity, creative environments, and learning, identifying gaps in classroom research that the SCALE instrument can bridge. Then, we share applications of these principles across various environments, including online and blended spaces, acknowledging that different environments present distinctive affordances, opportunities, constraints, and possibilities. Our implications take a future-oriented perspective on online creative learning environment design in both research and practice.

Theoretical Foundations

Creativity: the myths and realities.

Creativity is often defined as the process of creating ideas, artifacts, processes, and solutions, that are novel and effective (Cropley, 2003); or, as Runco and Jaeger (2012) articulated as “original” and “effective” in their standard definition. This two-part definition is deceptively simple. The very notion of creativity intimidates many people, as it is often seen as only available to the special or gifted. But, this view of creativity, as only for a select few, is problematic. According to Starko (2013), learning is integral to the creative process, and Guilford (1950) argued that creativity is a form of learning. Creative learning goes beyond academic knowledge and skills to help address the ever-evolving challenges of a changing world. It emphasizes learning creatively and applying knowledge in uncertain contexts (Beghetto, 2021), rejecting the notion of one correct answer. Allowing for uncertainty cultivates creative identities that embrace the complexity of creative processes (Craft et al., 2007).

This complexity can be daunting. When faced with creative thinking or problem-solving challenges, people often hesitate to self-identify as “creative” or are uncomfortable engaging in intellectual risk-taking and open-endedness (Weisberg, 2006). The inherent uncertainty and open-endedness of creative work can be emotionally and mentally taxing, requiring environments that are psychologically safe and supportive as well as dynamic and interesting.

The hesitancy that many feel about identifying as “creative” may relate to how creativity has historically been mythologized as an inherent trait, rather than a developed habit of mind or approach to the world (Cropley, 2016). For thousands of years, creativity has been seen as enigmatic, with Plato once attributing it to the influences of “the muse” (Rothenberg & Hausman, 1976). This myth contrasts with views of many creativity researchers today, who see it as an ability that may grow, flex, and expand through intentional development. Yet, popular myth still views creativity as innate—impervious to development or augmentation (Henriksen et al., 2017). Despite rhetoric about the importance of fostering creativity, most education systems still default to an instrumentalist view of teaching and learning. Prevailing policy tends to constrain or offer no support for teacher creativity, leaving many people uncertain about their individual creative potential. By viewing teachers as empowered designers of creative learning environments, rather than enactors of pre-set content, we might create the conditions for creativity to thrive in education (Benedek et al., 2021)—especially in the design of online learning environments, which are sometimes seen as more remote, removed, and less creative. However, we need to be aware of conditions that support learner creativity—e.g., what does creativity research suggest about creative learning environments?

Creative Environments

Creative environment refers to how a particular context or setting facilitates or influences creativity (Richardson & Mishra, 2018). This includes the psychological, pedagogical, and physical factors of a formal learning environment (in-person or online) or non-traditional learning spaces like museums or gardens (Jindal-Snape et al., 2013). Considering the architecture of an environment, we are influenced by Latour’s (2005) actor-network-theory (ANT), Gibson’s affordance theory (1979), and Dirkin and Mishra’s (2010) idea of “zone of possibility.” Though closely aligned, these frameworks differ subtly in emphasis. ANT suggests that all elements within a network, including non-human entities like the physical environment or technology, play an active role in shaping interactions and outcomes. Gibson’s affordance theory emphasizes the interaction between the possibilities an environment offers (i.e., its “affordances”), and the resulting effect on individuals’ capabilities within that space. Finally, Dirkin and Mishra suggest that every technology works within the “zone of possibility”—or the range of potential actions, behaviors, or outcomes that are achievable within a given context or set of conditions. Each of these theories or approaches is neutral regarding the nature of the “space,” whether physical, online, or blended. The key is that the architecture of the environment can facilitate or hinder communication, collaboration, exploration, and innovation, influencing the quality and nature of learning and creative outcomes.

Creative environments support the pursuit of interests and passions, engage students in co-creation/collaboration, value students’ ideas, and embrace mistakes as a part of learning (Chan & Yuen, 2014). Curiosity-driven activities like exploring new media technologies, fantasy play, outdoor activities, model making, building, planning, and engaging in other design tasks can also foster creativity. Creative environments benefit students in many ways, including increasing personal achievement, GPAs, reasoning abilities, confidence, resilience, motivation, engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills (Jindal-Snape et al., 2013). Such environments promote cooperation and encourage students to take reasonable risks and learn from mistakes. A learning environment is a community, and the values embodied within that community influence members’ behaviors. Values, such as those that support creativity, can be operationalized and embedded within explicit roles, norms, and designed elements of a community. Learning designers, teachers, and students have a part to play in supporting or constraining creativity (Peppler & Solomou, 2011).

The role of the environment encompasses the physical space, interpersonal relationships, and the availability of resources and support (Beghetto & Kaufman, 2014). But, despite the growing interest in creativity research, creativity assessment tools have often overlooked the impact of environments, focusing instead on personality factors or psychological elements, which teachers have less influence over. For instance, in a review of creativity instruments, Henriksen et al. (2015) found that only 3% of existing creativity instruments measured creative environments, which is surprisingly low considering the environment’s influence on creativity (Beghetto & Kaufman, 2014). Moreover, less than 20% of the already small portion of creative environment measures were specifically designed for K-12 students. Speaking to this gap, Richardson and Mishra (2018) designed a tool known as the SCALE, which identifies and evaluates the elements of creativity within learning environments. This tool has become a highly cited and widely used measure for assessing creative learning environments, offering a structure of constructs that pinpoint creative environment characteristics that teachers and learning designers can focus on to support creativity (Cullingford, 2007; Cheng, 2019; Hamid & Kamarudin, 2021; Huang, 2020; Jaatinen & Lindfors, 2019; Katz‐Buonincontro & Anderson, 2020; Ovbiagbonhia et al., 2019). Since practitioners can benefit from clear principles or a frame to guide their efforts in the design of creative learning spaces, we outline key principles from the SCALE. From there, we consider how they might be applied to more varied learning settings.

Framing the Principles of Creative Learning Environments: The SCALE

What is the scale.

The Support for Creativity in a Learning Environment (SCALE) is a practical tool that assists education professionals in designing creative learning environments by identifying and measuring aspects of the physical environment, learning climate, and learner engagement (Richardson & Mishra, 2018). The SCALE tool consists of 14 items related to the (a) physical space and available resources and materials (4 items), (b) classroom atmosphere and relationships (4 items), and (c) tasks and activities that students are engaged in (6 items) (see Table 1). These items are rated on a four-point Likert scale from “no evidence” (0) to “high evidence” (3).

Although the SCALE instrument was developed in the context of K-12 education, we believe the underlying principles apply across contexts and learner ages—i.e., in-person, online and blended; and for learners in K-12, higher education, and adult education spaces. Context and setting clearly matter, but we believe that these principles are adaptable and flexible. Although their instantiations may vary across settings and contexts, the core ideas are transferable and applicable beyond K-12. These broader principles hold true, even while playing out differently in a 4th grade math class or a college English course, or in-person classrooms versus online/blended contexts. In various settings from K-12 to higher education, cases’ contextual variables may influence or constrain the implementation of the core ideas. However, the core ideas provide a valuable foundation for teachers and learning designers to create, build on, and contextualize environments that support creativity.

Key Ideas Supporting the SCALE Principles

The SCALE tool aims to assist teachers and administrators in identifying, measuring, and adjusting learning environmental variables that directly impact creativity as well as individuality, independence, and risk-taking (Lilly & Bramwell-Rejskind, 2004).

The first component of the SCALE tool consists of four items that identify and measure specific aspects of physical environments. In related literature, examples of environmental variables include “lighting, color, decorations, furniture, resources, sensory variables, space configurations, and class size” (Warner & Myers, 2009, p. 30). One of the environmental variables emphasizes the need to make a variety of resources available and accessible, including tools and materials to experiment with ideas and information to creatively solve problems (Peterson & Harrison, 2005). For instance, hyper-content textbooks—which connect content in books to online learning resources through links, barcodes, and augmented reality—have been used to enrich learning experiences and facilitate differences in learning characteristics (Surahman et al., 2021). Also, furniture designs should be psychologically appealing and provide a sense of comfort and safety. Space configurations should be flexible with areas for students to move around and communicate (Warner & Myers, 2009). For example, classrooms have been redesigned to enable active communication and interaction among students, with wheeled lecterns and chairs, round tables, and LCD screens connected to docking systems on tables (Park & Choi, 2014). Additionally, decorations, such as displays of student work, may prompt creativity and lead to new ideas by offering opportunities for reflection and metacognitive thinking (Eckhoff, 2019; Warner & Myers, 2009).

Learn More About Designing Physical Environments that Support Creativity

Wold Architects and Engineers. (2019, May 24). Innovative learning spaces for the next generation: Centerview Elementary School [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uUisTKQFDho

The second component of the SCALE tool consists of four items that identify and measure aspects of learning climates. These items focus on the influence that classroom atmosphere and teacher-student/student-student relationships have on creativity. Students need opportunities to explore and express ideas in learning climates that encourage “mistakes, risk-taking, innovation, and uniqueness, along with a certain amount of mess, noise, and freedom” (Edwards & Springate, 1995, p. 4). In these climates, teachers can become powerful aids in fostering creativity by exploring alongside students while facilitating meaningful activities with open-ended discussions (Craft, 2001; Edwards & Springate, 1995). For example, in STEM classrooms, teachers have designed and implemented problem-based learning activities (based on engineering design processes) where students reflect on and productively learn from their successes and failures (Henriksen et al., 2021). Moreover, as students often model the behaviors of their teachers (Gillies, 2006), teachers can encourage students to be caring, respectful, and appreciative of differences by (a) making them feel worthy and loved, (b) showing respect for their ideas, and (c) searching for connections between different ideas and ways of knowing (Craft, 2001; Esquivel, 1995). For instance, teachers can promote critical thinking and enhanced engagement in whole-class discussions on controversial questions by prompting reciprocal interactions and respectful exploration of differences (Henriksen et al., 2022).

Learn More About Designing Learning Climates that Encourage Risk-taking and Creativity

TEDx Talks. (2018, June 1). Take Beautiful Risks|Ron Beghetto|TEDxManchesterHighSchool [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=toIJHDxx99A

The third component of the SCALE tool consists of six items that identify and measure aspects of learner engagement. With a focus on the design of tasks that students are involved in, these items examine pedagogical practices, techniques, and methods that can be used to support creativity. As learning is a fundamentally social activity, teachers need to utilize constructivist-based pedagogical practices that enable students to frame and generate meaning with others (Dawson & McWilliam, 2008). Research on creativity in early childhood education has demonstrated that students benefit from long-term, open-ended projects that integrate different subject areas and lead to exploration (Edwards & Springate, 1995). For instance, in STEAM classrooms, teachers have used project-based learning processes to guide students through conducting in-depth research on real-world issues and drawing on information from multiple disciplines to brainstorm possible solutions (Henriksen et al., 2019).

In project-based learning processes, creativity can be supported by giving students more choices regarding what problems they will solve and how much time they will be given to complete work. This support may increase interest, engagement, and learning (Craft, 2001; Greenberg, 1992; Patall et al., 2010). For instance, virtual labs have been designed to let students work at their own pace and address teaching challenges related to (a) simultaneously facilitating learning at preferred paces and (b) maintaining learning motivation and engagement (Lynch & Ghergulescu, 2017). Further, the Creative Problem-Solving method (an active learning process embodying collaborative inquiry concepts within a constructivist paradigm) has been used to foster ingenuity and creativity and enhance motivation. This method utilizes critical reflection, critical thinking, and exploration of possible perspectives and solutions (Samson, 2015). Craft (2001) noted various ways to foster creativity in classrooms—viewing practices, techniques, and methods as an adaptable toolbox to craft each learning environment.

Learn More About Designing Tasks to Increase Learner Engagement

Edutopia. (2016, January 27). STEAM + project-based learning: Real solutions from driving questions [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H7LHsL0iB_w

The SCALE tool was designed to assess student creativity in learning environments and guide teachers in supporting and facilitating creativity (Richardson & Mishra, 2018). Its principles have been applied to diverse learning environments, including teacher education, online education, and STEAM programs (de la Peña et al., 2021; Ozkan & Topsakal, 2021; Wahyudi & Winanto, 2018). The SCALE tool has also been used to better understand ways to enhance creativity-fostering practices with emerging technologies (e.g., virtual/augmented reality, 3D design software) (Bereczki & Kárpáti, 2021; Chen et al., 2022). We propose key implications that can transfer to online environments while also supporting creativity within those same environments.

Implications for Practice

The SCALE is not just a measurement tool. It also embodies, in its structure, a set of principles that can help design environments that support creativity—these principles could be used from a pedagogical design standpoint to shape creative learning environments, both in physical and online/blended spaces. That said, we must recognize that affordances and constraints offered by technologically mediated online or blended spaces can differ significantly from those offered by physical spaces. In the sections below, we take each of the three main constructs of the SCALE instrument (Physical Environment, Learning Climate, and Learner Engagement) and discuss how teachers and learning designers might factor these into online and blended learning.

Physical Environment

The meaning of the “physical environment” changes when we consider online and blended learning spaces. One might argue that online and blended spaces offer greater flexibility to designers since they are relatively unconstrained by the geography of space, the materiality of objects, and maybe even the laws of physics. This gives designers of online/blended systems more flexibility to create a “conceptual” playground for students to engage with each other and with ideas. Yet, designers of online and blended environments are often constrained by capabilities of current technological systems and contextual factors outside of their control, such as the students’ physical surroundings, possible distractions, and disruptions. Thus, online and blended setups may be freeing in some respects and limiting in others. An additional constraint may also be the instructor or learning designers’ inability to imagine possibilities and opportunities in existing technologies. For instance, they may seek to replicate existing processes/structures of in-person learning that may not transfer effectively to technologically mediated contexts. This was evident when teachers were forced to teach online during the pandemic. There was a strong urge to replicate conventional structures instead of opening the classroom to the lived world of students and engaging in more project-based learning experiences and innovative practices.

The underlying principle of adaptability and configurability could be translated into the design of online and blended learning environments, creating digital spaces that allow multiple arrangements and configurations to suit diverse needs and preferences. Yet, many existing online learning tools/platforms or modes offer limited adaptable features and opportunities to completely redesign spaces or rethink assumptions. Ideally, platforms could allow users (i.e., not just learning designers but also teachers and students) to rethink and play with layouts in ways that align with their own preferences or needs, including flexible organization of resources and adjustment of accessibility features.

One of the benefits of online or blended learning environments is that students can easily be given a wide array of readily accessible digital resources and supplies. The goal is to include elements that allow a wider range of creative experimentation, help students appreciate the achievements of peers, and make the learning environment a space for fostering collaboration and improvement. A few suggestions in this regard include:

• utilizing diverse digital resources (e.g., software applications, digital libraries, and creative tools) to give students creative options to explore and experiment; 
• offering different areas, discussion spaces, or online workspaces that cater to different modes of creativity; and
• seeking opportunities for students to share their digital work within learning spaces and, potentially, externally with others in the community and the wider world (e.g., creating blogs, videos, portfolio websites, or public digital articles)

Learning Climate

A learning climate that supports creativity depends on the nature of the relationship between teachers and students. This relationship cannot be based on power and fear but should instead be based on trust and respect. The norms of learning spaces should emphasize that the creative process can be messy and nonlinear, and mistakes and failures are to be expected. Teachers and students must be present—physically, cognitively, and emotionally. In this, online and blended spaces have a fundamental disadvantage. Online tools often do not afford the kind of social presence that being in a physical space with other people provides. Online and blended spaces lack the breadth and depth of communication modalities that physical presence provides, which in turn deepens social and emotional distance between participants. Individuals in learning communities need ways to convey their social and emotional selves as authentic beings engaged in shared tasks.

There are a variety of strategies that teachers and learning designers can utilize to address this limitation of technologically mediated educational spaces. These may include the following:

• providing opportunities for the affective aspect of learning to emerge through meaningful discussions and prompts 
• using video tools to help enhance social presence—e.g., online office hours, video announcements/messages, or video conferenced meetings (though the mere utilization of video as a communication medium is rarely enough)
• establishing norms for respectful and empathetic communication where difference and play are encouraged and valued 
• ensuring students realize it is okay to take risks, explore unconventional solutions, and think divergently—without punishment for mistakes 
• experimenting with formative activities (e.g., ungrading or providing multiple opportunities to generate solutions)

Learner Engagement

Social presence is as important to learner engagement as it is to classroom climate. Assuming that the instructor is focused on enhancing and supporting the learner presence, the next thing to factor in is the design of the tasks and activities. Students are autonomous agents who drive their own learning—they want to learn with rather than be taught to (or at ). Thus, student choice becomes important in designing learning environments that support creativity. This often takes the shape of open-ended tasks where students have some autonomy in selecting the tasks (or aspects of tasks) and the ways they would like to approach them. Engaging students in inquiry-based, project-based, and interdisciplinary activities promotes their creativity, encouraging them to delve deeper, make connections, and generate innovative solutions. Students who engage in activities that encourage a deep dive into a topic, exploring connections across disciplines and developing their own questions and hypotheses, become genuinely interested and are more likely to invest in their creativity and produce meaningful and innovative work.

One advantage of online and blended learning environments is the flexibility that lets students work at their own pace and manage their time effectively during more in-depth projects. Online settings allow students to structure their workflow and pace themselves, with the (possible) ability to customize deadlines to meet individual needs. That said, there must be a balance between structure and flexibility, providing clear expectations that allow students to plan and manage their learning. Several ways teachers can factor these ideas into their teaching include the following:

• designing projects, challenges, and problem-solving activities that allow students to explore different possibilities and leverage their strengths 
• embracing multidisciplinary approaches, letting students apply their creativity to real-world problems, deep investigations, and innovative solutions
• showing genuine interest and enthusiasm through activities that tap into students’ passions through self-directed projects 
• integrating multimedia elements, increasing opportunities for students to pursue projects related to their interests
• providing time for idea development, reflection, and flexible pacing to enhance students’ understanding, connections, and insights

We tend to think of teaching and learning as processes that take place in the minds of students, teachers, and ourselves. Thus, we often think about educational design in terms of how pedagogy influences learning as a mental process. Certainly, cognition is central to learning, but it is important to also consider how human thoughts and behaviors are influenced and driven by the environments we create; and environments are inherently a human construction. At some level, the human environment is “made up,” in that it is constructed by people for a purpose and thus can be remade or shaped differently to fulfill different purposes—like learner creativity. Environments can be changed, shifted, redesigned, recreated, and reimagined.

Think About It!

Consider how education is designed and could be redesigned.

TED Talks. (2023, June 9). How to Design a School for the Future|Punya Mishra|TED [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYRI164Y-_M

In doing design or redesign work, learning designers need thoughtful principles framed by a sense of the environmental factors that influence learning and creativity. This is where we suggest the application of an environmental frame, such as the principles found in the SCALE instrument, to guide the design and construction of creative learning environments from a comprehensive physical/virtual, cognitive, behavioral, and perceptual lens. One of the ultimate goals of education is to prepare students for the future, which is inherently uncertain and requires creativity. In that sense, building creative learning spaces is one of the most important tasks we can undertake toward that fundamental creative purpose of teaching and learning.

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International Journal of Education & the Arts

Volume 25 number 3 january 25, 2024, galit zana sternfeld oranim college, israel, roni israeli oranim college, israel, noam lapidot-lefer oramin college and university of haifa, israel.

Citation: Zana-Sternfeld, G., Israeli, R., & Lapidot-Lefer, N. (2024). Creative education or educational creativity: Integrating arts, social emotional aspects and creative learning environments. International Journal of Education & the Arts, 25 (3). http://doi.org/10.26209/ijea25n3

This paper examines the interplay of creativity, education, and the expressive arts. We begin by presenting a narrative literature review focusing on the use of artistic tools to promote creativity, self-expressiveness, and meaningful aspects of emotional and social learning. This review reveals strong connections between the different components of this interplay, and a special attention is given to the use of arts to promoting creativity and meaningful learning. We then propose the Empowering Creative Education Model (ECEM), which aims to provide a practical framework for employing artistic tools in each of the model's four developmental circles: I, Us, Educational and Community. Each of the four circles includes unique aspects of personal development.

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The International Journal of Education & the Arts currently serves as an open access platform for scholarly dialogue. Our commitment is to the highest forms of scholarship invested in the significances of the arts in education and the education within the arts. Read more about our mission…

IJEA holds strong commitment to research in interdisciplinary arts education. Our editors are respected scholars from different arts fields working together to achieve our high standard. Read more about editors…

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A creative strategy to engage staff in professional learning.

As an education leader, what creative strategies do you use to engage staff in professional learning?

I'm Dave Walker, an Apple Distinguished Educator (Class of 2023), an Apple Learning Coach (2022), and the proud principal of Highland Avenue School No. 10, an Apple Distinguished School since 2019. I believe that for professional learning to be of great value, it must be truly relevant and meaningful to the educators that are partaking in it.

I would like to share with you a strategy that I utilize as a building leader anytime that I am able, which has yielded both great engagement and increased professional learning.

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It was the fall of 2015, on a bright and sunny Saturday morning, when I approached the doors of Jonathan Dayton High School in Springfield, New Jersey for a professional development experience that would change my whole view of how professional development should be done. It's premise was simple... educators sharing with one another and leading the professional learning themselves in an unconference setting - determining what they want to learn about, share insights on, all with the freedom to move to a different session if they felt they needed a different experience, "the rule of two feet." If you feel the session isn't meeting your needs, no worries, get up and move to a different session.

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Posted on May 28, 2024

Your leadership, vision, and process are all inspiring! You have not only shared your story, but have also provided steps to take action and put this concept into practice, adaptable by any leader. We are continuing to seek the best methods to offer professional development in higher education, but haven't found the perfect approach. This helps a lot. The donations/giveaways are a great incentive to entice participants to attend that might need that extra bit of motivation.

Thanks for sharing, Dave!

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As always, I am happy to help, Donnie! Thank you so much for your kind and encouraging words.

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Addressing the Challenge of Hybrid Learning Environment in Foreign Language Education: Training Lecturers for Blended Teaching Approaches

• Abdirahman Abdi Ali Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University
• Khadijah AlQarni King Abdulaziz University
• Hamzah Faleh Migdadi Al-Hussan Group for Education and Training
• Tahani I. Aldosemani Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University
• Shadi Majed Alshraah Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University

This study investigates the effectiveness of training programs in supporting language lecturers in integrating blended learning methodologies. It underscores the significance of Vygotsky's educational theory and involves 126 university educators through a mixed-methods approach. Interviews and surveys were conducted to explore challenges and solutions. Findings reveal the pivotal role of training in enhancing lecturers' digital literacy and content creation skills and ensuring fair access for all students. Notably, 61.3% of participants recognize the value of training in developing engaging digital content, with 29.88% strongly supporting this perspective. Training is essential for creating multimedia resources and designing online courses to foster student engagement. The study emphasizes the need for tailored training to address diverse technological needs, with 59.74% of respondents acknowledging its importance and 31.53% strongly agreeing. Overall, training empowers lecturers to meet the varying digital accessibility needs of students, including through the development of alternative offline materials and the implementation of asynchronous activities. This research highlights the critical role of training programs in facilitating effective blended learning practices among language lecturers.

Author Biographies

Abdirahman abdi ali, prince sattam bin abdulaziz university.

English Department, Preparatory Year Deanship

Khadijah AlQarni, King Abdulaziz University

English Language Institute

Hamzah Faleh Migdadi, Al-Hussan Group for Education and Training

English Language Department

“It is easier to learn when you are out”: an ethnographic study of teaching science subjects through outdoor learning at compulsory school

• Original Paper
• Open access
• Published: 29 May 2024

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• Katarina Haraldsson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8371-218X 1 , 2 ,
• Magnus Göranson 1 &
• Eva-Carin Lindgren   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8345-8994 3  

Previous research has shown that feeling engaged in schoolwork is crucial for pupils to achieve, but engagement and motivation decline with age in many countries. To address these issues, we consider it is important that how we conceive learning include opportunities for learning outside the classroom. This study aimed to explore pupils’ experiences of being taught science subjects using outdoor learning, including the learning they achieved. The research was conducted using an ethnographic research design, a useful method for research in this type of environment where a greater understanding of teaching and learning processes is sought, enabling researchers to explore events more deeply. The study took place during one school year and was conducted for pupils in grade 6 in a school on Sweden’s west coast. This study provides unique insights into how these teacher efforts to offer outdoor learning opportunities have improved pupils’ willingness to participate. Likewise, how the pupils have developed knowledge of and used scientific concepts and skills in different contexts became visible when the pupils were allowed to try, explore, be creative, and observe in real life contexts in various places. In addition, the pupils have been given opportunities to ask, discuss and reflect on questions about various phenomena and processes in nature and humans. From the pupils’ point of view, this has contributed to their easier understanding of the content of the science subjects. These results significantly improve science literacy for science subjects in a school context (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009 ).

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Introduction

Feeling engaged in schoolwork is a crucial factor that impacts pupils’ learning, but in Sweden, as in many other countries, we see that engagement and motivation decrease with age (Inchley et al., 2020 ). Since there is a diversity of pupils and a variety of situational conditions that affect their capacities to succeed in school, we believe there is a need for better ways of arranging learning, with the main aim being to improve the educational experience for all pupils by introducing more flexible teaching methods (Kelly et al., 2022 ; SFS 2010 :800).

We consider it essential that how we conceive of learning is broadened to include opportunities for learning outside the classroom, in accordance with aspects of Dewey’s pragmatist philosophy (Quay & Seaman, 2013 ). This means emphasising the importance of experience and reflection about method and subject matter, i.e., to do and to know, and emotional experience. Teaching needs to be meaningful to pupils as individuals here and now and not just be something they can benefit from in the future; hence teaching outdoors provides great opportunities to embrace Dewey’s reasoning (Quay & Seaman, 2013 ). In addition, when pupils are allowed to reflect and communicate with others based on their own experiences in different outdoor environments relevant to their schoolwork (as emphasised via a sociocultural perspective), we believe it increases their opportunities to connect their experiences to more scientific understanding (Quay & Seaman, 2013 ; Säljö, 2019 ).

Today, school curricula tend not to connect easily with pupils’ authentic worlds outside the classroom (Mann, 2018 ). Therefore, we argue that there is a need for more research supporting the development of teaching practice which strengthens learning outside the classroom (Hawxwell et al., 2019 ). While significant research has been conducted on learning outside the classroom focusing on social and emotional skills, team building, and collaboration, studies that focus on learning the content of the subjects outside the classroom are much less common (Faskunger et al., 2018 ; Hawxwell et al., 2019 ).

In this study regarding outdoor learning, we take our starting point partly from Kelly et al. ( 2022 ), who describes a pedagogy that provides rich opportunities for experience-based, varied and authentic learning where the outdoors provide context. We also lean on a Swedish review that emphasises the importance of the interaction between practice and theory in outdoor learning and where the importance of place for learning is highlighted (Faskunger et al., 2018 ).

If teachers are to be encouraged to consider teaching outside the classroom as a relevant pedagogical method, research must focus on empirical investigation of the challenges and the benefits (Hawxwell et al., 2019 ). When teachers are challenged to expand their subject and methodological competencies to teach successfully beyond the traditional classroom, external partners must also support them through exchange experiences with colleagues and opportunities for methodical freedom (Sahrakhiz, 2018 ). In this context, taking advantage of pupils’ views on the teaching they are offered is important, and something that should be sought after, noting the Convention on the Rights of the Child which gives children extensive rights to be heard and to have their say on issues that concern them (United Nations, 1989 ).

Since there are knowledge gaps in outdoor pedagogical learning for teachers and how the content of particular subjects can be learned outside the classroom, a decision was made in a municipality in Sweden to undertake a research project aimed at pupils in 6th grade, where the teaching of the science subjects (biology, physics, and chemistry) was conducted outdoors during one academic year. This study aimed to explore pupils’ experiences of being taught science subjects using outdoor learning, including the learning they achieved.

Methodology

Design and settings.

Ethnographic research designs are commonly used in educational contexts where a greater understanding of teaching and learning processes is sought, enabling researchers to explore events more deeply (Speldewinde, 2022 ). We used an ethnographic research design (Atkinson et al., 2001 ) to explore and understand practices central to outdoor learning and the meaning participants ascribed to these practices (Atkinson et al., 2001 ). Ethnography also supported the longitudinal nature of this research (Last, 2019 ). We have approached these practices with an outsider’s perspective to critically examine and question what the participants took for granted as insiders, but also be aware of the risk of ‘going native’ (Atkinson et al., 2001 ). This study’s first and last authors are experienced in qualitative research methods, and the second has substantial knowledge of outdoor learning.

The fieldwork conducted by the first and second authors was situated in a “compulsory school” (grundskola; The Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers, n.d.) on Sweden’s west coast. The school´s district is located on the outskirts of a city with approximately 100,000 inhabitants. The area is relatively socio-economically prosperous, with mixed housing, villas, condominiums, and rental properties. The school has approximately 450 pupils from grades 4–9. The fieldwork was conducted during 2020 and 2021 and comprised participant observation, conducted when teaching was occuring in science subjects using outdoor learning in three classes. One of the school’s certified science teachers was responsible for the teaching. However, this teaching was supported by two external teachers with school development expertise focusing on outdoor learning, where one of these were present at each lesson. These teachers were also certified science teachers. This was helpful for the school’s capacity for building outdoor learning.

The teaching for all three classes was planned based on the compulsory school curriculum and the syllabuses of the science subjects with the core content for grades 4–6 (Skolverket, 2022 ). During the academic year, teaching was divided into four work areas (biology 1, physics, chemistry, and biology 2) based on what the pupils had left to learn in the science subjects for their grade (Table  1 ). The teaching of the science subjects in these work areas aimed for the pupils to learn more about nature and phenomena and processes in the world as well as the human body (Skolverket, 2022 ).

The teachers made a rough plan for the teaching of each work area, incorporating suggestions for various lessons and associated content to have a more significant outdoor component. It is worth noting that the pupils were not familiar with being taught outdoors. Before each work area, the pupils, to different extents, less at the beginning and more at the end of the school year, participated and gave their opinions on the plan. The teaching was conducted in varying locations and situations, which were selected based on the content of the science subjects (Table  1 ). The extent of the outdoor lessons consisted of an average of 75 min/week/class. When teaching further away from the school, the lesson consisted of 130 min. When taught these science subjects, the pupils also had one more weekly lesson indoors (40 min).

A general layout of the outdoor lessons had the following structure: The lessons began with a gathering in which the class received information about the lesson’s content and structure. Afterwards, the pupils moved (walk, bike, bus) to the different places where the teaching took place (Table  1 ). Additional tasks/assignments, e.g., narrative walk or quiz walk (Table  1 ), were carried out during walks to the school’s immediate area as part of the lesson plan. In this way, steps were taken to maximise the lesson time available for teaching. The teaching at the chosen location began with the teacher explaining and demonstrating practically how the various science subjects’ methods and activities for implementing content were to be carried out (Table  1 ). Then, the pupils went into action, engaging with the different methods and activities, e.g., field studies, using nets, mineral hunting, and different games. The pupils usually worked in groups or pairs but also individually. In connection with the first work area, the pupils in the class participated in creating a shared campsite in a forest clearing within walking distance of the school. According to a blueprint, the pupils had to build one table and two benches per class. Many remaining work area lessons were then carried out at this campsite. During the lessons, the teachers guided the pupils by talking to them, answering questions, challenging them, and confirming, supporting, and praising them. The lessons ended with a joint gathering where the content was discussed.

Complementing the outdoor learning sessions was a research circle (cf. Fändrik et al., 2018 ) involving participating teachers, the school’s principal, and the research group. In this research circle discussion and reflection occurred, focused on teaching experience and research on outdoor learning. Everyone’s knowledge in the research circle was considered equally valuable, where practical and theoretical knowledge enriched each other.

Data collection

The empirical material consisted of field notes from lesson observations and transcripts of focus group interviews. All three classes from grade 6 ( N  = 71) participated in the observations. The pupils were 12 years old, 38 were girls and 33 were boys. Among the participating pupils, there was a need for adaptations for children with special needs. Some of the pupils were also taught Swedish as a second language.

In total, 42 lesson observations were conducted by the study’s first and second authors. The observations covered all work areas and were thus spread out during the school year. They were also evenly distributed between the different classes. The observations were focused on pupils’ actions and learning when they were taught science subjects using outdoor learning. When the pupils built benches and tables and created a campsite, this was not part of the science curriculum. Still, this was included in the observation material due to the close belonging to the lessons later conducted in this place. During the observations, thick, descriptive, and reflective field notes were taken that were written directly in connection with the observation occasion.

Six focus group interviews were conducted with pupils, three groups for girls and three for boys. The selection procedure was expedient (Polit & Beck, 2004 ), where it was the regular science teacher who, based on class lists, asked every third girl and every third boy about possible participation. Altogether, 16 girls and 20 boys volunteered to participate, divided into 5–8 participants per group. All classes were represented during each focus group. The focus group interviews were conducted by the first and second authors, who took turns acting as moderators and observers, in a secluded and undisturbed place on the school premises. Each focus group interview began with background questions about leisure interests to create a good interview atmosphere, helping the pupils to feel comfortable. It then transitioned into open questions about pupils’ experiences when they were taught science subjects using outdoor learning, the advantages and disadvantages of outdoor learning, experiences of different places and their possibility of participation. Follow-up questions were asked continuously based on the pupils’ answers. The length of the focus group interviews varied between 50 and 75 min. All interviews were digitally recorded and then transcribed verbatim.

Data analysis

The analysis followed an abductive approach when interpreting the empirical evidence, resulting in development of themes (inductive) connecting back to theoretical starting points (Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2017 ). First, to analyse the rich body of data collected, the focus group interview transcripts and notes from the observations were read several times to enable researchers to gain an appropriate level of familiarity with the data and to start the process of developing interpretations. Second, the transcripts and notes were organised into units of fundamental meanings relevant to the study’s aims. Third, the meaning units were condensed into codes. These codes enabled discernment of patterns and contradictions in the data set (Bryman, 2016 ). In this step, the field notes supported our understanding of how the perception of meaning was put into practice, and central aspects of the interaction between teachers and pupils and between pupils. Fourth, the first and second authors collated the codes into potential themes separately and then all authors jointly reviewed the tentative themes through alignment of the coded extracts. In doing so they searched for patterns that might help convey what the event or experience was about. Throughout the entire analysis process, constant comparisons were made back and forth in the empirical data. Fifth, to increase the trustworthiness of the results, some preliminary analyses were presented to the members of the research circle, and their reflections on the preliminary results were included in the results. Sixth, all the authors defined the themes by refining the specifics of each theme, using the overall analysis process in the generation of these definitions. The themes were reviewed by all authors to ensure they adequately captured related patterns. Finally, a deductive summary of the process was prepared, conveying this analytic narrative (Bryman, 2016 ). The description of the analytic procedure may appear to be a linear process, but analysis involves important back-and-forth moves between different parts and the whole.

Findings and discussion

In this section we describe pupils’ actions, learning and experiences of being taught science subjects using outdoor learning. The analysis resulted in the following two themes that convey important elements of these actions and experiences, and the learning achieved: (1) willingness to participate, and (2) understanding of the content of the science subjects.

Willingness to participate

The willingness to participate concerns pupils’ interest and motivation in outdoor learning situations with the associated lesson content, as well as their influence in lesson structure and implementation.

Interest and motivation

During the observations, we saw pupils’ joy and interest aroused when they came to a new place for teaching and learning, while practically performing various tasks and exploring the content of the science subjects (Table  1 ). The pupils showed with their whole bodies that participating was fun and exciting by laughing, jumping, and running. At the same time, we heard expressions such as “Wahoo!” “Oh, so cool!” “Oh, my God!” “Look here!” “I’m the king of this!” “I’m glad I created this!”, along with curious questions, conversations, and reflections on the lesson content between pupils and between pupils and teachers. All observed lessons had continuous movement moments, which the pupils also expressed as fun, and which in turn had an impact on their willingness to participate in the lessons. The willingness to participate also became apparent when the pupils asked if they could redo certain elements or did not want to finish the lesson or the task they were doing. “Just wait a minute,” or “No, we have more to show,” were signals of this.

The pupils also made comments that highlighted the importance of being in a real place in the learning situation, linked to the lesson content, as contributing to their willingness to participate. In one of the focus group interviews, a boy shared that “at some point, we talked about bees …. So, we went to a bee place like this …, and then what you are doing became more vital …, you get more interested in it … because you are where there are bees.”

The basis of authentic learning is teaching that arouses children’s joy and interest (Engel, 2011 ). Access to varied environments and places (Jansson et al., 2022 ) that are relevant to what is to be learned provides rich opportunities for varied teaching (Kelly et al., 2022 ), where pupils get the chance to experience for themselves and practically try, explore, and be creative (Becker et al., 2017 ). It can also reinforce pupils’ engagement and internal motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020 ) and lead, as in this study, to pupils’ willingness to participate.

For example, we saw the pupils’ joy and interest aroused when they were on a walk and discovered things they were not expecting to see, such as hares and deer, during a lesson in the school’s immediate area. On this occasion pupils and teachers were heard discussing, reflecting, and exchanging experiences about the animals’ behaviour. During the focus group interviews, the pupils returned to occasions such as this as something positive. They said that when they got to experience something for real, their interest in knowing more and their opportunities to remember the lesson content were awakened. The pupils expressed that memorising was easier when based on their own experiences than when reading things in a book. A combination of internal and external motivation, which is not controlling, can strengthen pupils’ study motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020 ). It is about being motivated in the moment and about motivation being strengthened; both help them remember the lesson content.

Dettweiler et al. ( 2015 ) shows that when pupils’ motivation in different teaching contexts was examined, the results showed a significantly higher level of motivation for pupils who were taught outdoors, regardless of gender. During the observations, we noticed that outdoor learning seemed to benefit all pupils’ willingness to participate, both boys and girls, even when differences between pupils were acknowledged. For an example, in the focus group interviews, a boy shared that “Before, I didn’t like the science subjects that much, but it’s become much more fun now that we’ve been outdoors doing new things …, and been on small excursions that have been fun and you get to see new things.” Also, a girl shared that “I really liked to learn outdoors because I got more … I have not been so interested in science before, but it has become more interesting.” Pupils with visible needs for special support or extra adaptations in teaching showed joy and interest similar to pupils without these needs (Dettweiler et al., 2015 ). A boy was one such pupil who had special support needs related to attention deficit disorder, and who revealed his joy when learning with and about tadpoles. “I thought it was fun when we walked and talked about tadpoles,” he said in one focus group. “I thought it was very exciting. I wanted to learn more …. And I’d like us to work more with tadpoles, because it is easier when you see what we’re talking about.”

However, we noticed that cold, windy, or rainy weather could negatively affect some pupils’ willingness to participate, something the pupils also highlighted during the focus group interviews, where they expressed that they then froze or that it was more challenging to concentrate and to hear. Previous studies confirm that it can take time for some pupils to get used to outdoor learning conditions (Fägerstam, 2014 ). But there were exceptions to this. When the teaching aroused the pupils’ joy and interest, challenging weather did not seem to matter that much, because “then you don’t think about being hungry or cold,” one girl shared in a focus group interview; “so many things happen, and it’s much fun.” Thus, when teaching is relevant to pupils’ learning and meets their needs, it becomes a trigger to motivate pupils (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009 ).

Influence in lesson structure and implementation

We observed, and the pupils described during the focus group interviews, that the pupils had been involved in influencing the planning of activities and parts of the lesson content in the teaching, which positively contributed to their willingness to participate in outdoor learning in the science subjects during the school year. The pupils said that this was also helpful for the teachers. “What we thought was good,” reported a girl, “is that they [the teachers] learned how we like to have our lessons [organised], so that they could plan better, and we could learn better.”

Increased flexibility in the education system would be needed to take advantage of pupils’ views about their schooling and how they become motivated and learn (Ryan & Deci, 2020 ), something to which they are also entitled (United Nations, 1989 ) and adolescents want their listened too (Haraldsson et al., 2010 ). When introducing outdoor learning, we drew attention to the fact that pupils needed to gain some experience in what it means to be taught outdoors to have some opinion on what works best for them. Pupils were able to express relevant opinions to a greater extent as the year progressed.

Understanding the content of the science subjects

Understanding the content of the science subjects in outdoor learning situations concerns pupil’s knowledge and skills, as well as a science promoting learning environment.

Knowledge and skills

The pupils’ accounts of their discoveries showed they could give examples of and describe scientific concepts linked to real life contexts. Outdoor learning allowed pupils to start from an everyday event they discover for themselves to understand the more scientifically abstract concepts. When pupils understand these connections and can relate to them, they make the knowledge their own (Säljö, 2019 ). During the observations, we noticed that the pupils knew and used scientific concepts in different ways and contexts (Table  1 ). One example is taken from a lesson in physics where the pupils, who were divided into small groups, during a walk to the campsite, were given the task of looking for and photographing different forms of energy and energy conversions in the school’s immediate environment. On this occasion a boy takes a picture of me when I move “Kinetic energy,” he says and smiles. Later, at the campsite, the pupils show photos they took with the iPad and talk about different forms of energy linked to the photos. “Yes, we took a picture of a garbage truck that we saw, ” a boy says. The teacher asks the pupils, “ Well, what did you think about this?” Here, the pupils realise that several distinct kinds of energies are involved, “Well, kinetic energy when they lift/lower the bins,” a pupil report. They further discuss how the retrieval is done and what forms of energy are involved.

In another example, we noticed that the pupils could handle a net appropriately at the wetland, something they learned during a lesson by the sea. In this case, outdoor learning provides pupils with skills and experiences necessary for understanding and solving situations or problems in new contexts (Becker et al., 2017 ; Säljö, 2019 ).

Lessons with elements of both play and drama have provided opportunities for pupils to repeat their knowledge from previous lessons and where we have heard the pupils use scientific concepts. Pupils have been heard reasoning and helping each other solve problems and produce the correct answer in different tasks. The pupils express that the play has made it easier to understand the subject content and helped them remember in later written tests. During one lesson, the pupils had to show with their bodies and movements how celestial bodies move in relation to each other. In one of the focus group interviews two girls explained, “When we did the play on the solar system, you saw how everything moves.” The moderator asked, “How did you do that?” “Yes, someone was the sun, someone was the moon…,” “…and one was the Earth.” “Yes! And then you could see how they moved.” The moderator then asked, “What did you think of it?” “I thought it was fun to see, and you learned what it was actually like.”

Play contributes to developing cognitive skills in younger children (Coates & Pimlott-Wilson, 2019 ). Although the pupils in this study are in a sensitive period developmentally as they approach adolescence and puberty, which could mean that they do not feel comfortable playing, they have expressed that the play in the lessons has helped them understand the science subject’s content. Davies ( 2013 ) describes that creative environments for learning outside the classroom with “playful” approaches positively impact pupil outcomes. Drama and games for learning purposes are ranked highly by pupils as opposed to more strictly structured book assignments (Niemi et al., 2015 ).

The play could also be used in assessment situations, which we saw during an observation in the work area of physics where the pupils’ understanding of concepts was tested. The grouped pupils had to look up placed questions in the schoolyard, talk together, and then present their answers orally and physically to the teacher. Through the teachers’ feedback, we noticed that a pupil with a mother tongue other than Swedish who had difficulty expressing in writing now showed an understanding of the scientific content. In this example, we saw that outdoor learning allowed the pupil to show an understanding of the science subject content and reach the knowledge goals based on the pupil’s condition. However, more knowledge about outdoor assessment is needed (Faskunger et al., 2018 ).

The pupils expressed that it was easier to learn and understand when they were doing by themselves. In one of the focus group interviews, a boy said that “I think it can be easier to learn when you’re out, because then you understand what you’re doing, and it’s easier to learn when you know what you’re doing.”

During the observations, we saw that when the pupils were active and exploring, they continued to do the task until they succeeded without anyone urging them. At the same time, we heard expressions such as “The lid came awry, that’s why; we’re doing it again.” The groups delight greatly when they succeed, and the rockets fly away, “Oh my god!” “Let’s go again!” When, as in this chemistry lesson, pupils’ first-hand experiences of conducting a scientific survey practically and reflectively (Hodson, 2014 ), where the experience itself is at the centre, this contributes to positive learning benefits (Becker et al., 2017 ). However, more research on pupils as performers, where they are encouraged to observe and explore, is needed because even in outdoor learning, it is more common for teachers themselves to talk about and explain various phenomena (Alon & Tal, 2017 ).

Academic requirements are a prominent risk factor for adolescent mental illness (Pascoe et al., 2020 ). In one of the focus group interviews a girl shared, “It gets so serious when you’re indoors, and you have to complete tasks … you get more stressed.” The pupils further expressed that they did not have to devote as much time to their schoolwork at home, e.g., homework, which helped them to keep up with the leisure activities that were important to them. The reason for this was that they felt that it was easier to remember the lesson content and that they learned better when taught outdoors and thus experienced less stress, the girl continues, “When you are outdoors, there is more; you can relax, be, have fun and learn at the same time.” When pupils have time to engage in things that feel meaningful to themselves, such as, in this case, leisure activities, it contributes to a sense of well-being and can also help adolescents cope with stress (Antonovsky, 1987 ; Haraldsson et al., 2010 ). A learning environment where pupils’ stress management skills can be promoted is an important goal for change in school (Pascoe et al., 2020 ).

A science promoting learning environment

A science promoting learning environment is, in this study, about the relational process between social, physical, and educational environment, which has made it easier for pupils to understand the content of the science subjects.

During the observations, the pupils contributed to a positive cohesion while taught outdoors. The pupils were involved in designing one of their outdoor learning places when they built benches and tables for the campsite. Joint activity in the class where there is a positive connection between social context and the physical environment can positively affect school belonging (Arslan, 2018 ; Jansson et al., 2022 ). The pupils described in the focus groups interviews that it was worth the effort to spend time on something useful, and during observations, we heard pupils express that they were afraid that someone would destroy the benches and tables in their absence. The pupils further told us that they used the campsite in their spare time to have a picnic and saw people outside the school using it for the same purpose. According to the pupils, it felt good that the campsite was being used, and it contributed to them feeling proud of it, “Because then … when I’m sitting on that bench (laughing) and, you know, or writing on that table, it’s probably more of a special feeling,” a boy said in one focus group.

The connection between the pupils in this study has been observed when helping each other and being keen for everyone to participate in an activity or try out tools and where they praised each other. “I want everyone to be involved …. Who hasn’t used the screwdriver?” “Come on now!” “Goood!” were signals of this. A strong correlation exists between belonging and well-being, especially emotional well-being (Arslan, 2018 ).

When young people feel secure in their relationships with other peers and teachers, it can be seen as a promoting learning environment and contribute to a sense of well-being (Antonovsky, 1987 ; Haraldsson et al., 2010 ) since there is a link between social relationships, stress, and psychosomatic symptoms, especially for girls (Giota & Gustafsson, 2021 ). The pupils expressed in the focus group interviews that the collaboration and group discussions with friends have made understanding the science subject content easier and helped them remember in later written tests. The pupils further said that it was easier to dare to talk, say what they think and show what they can when they were divided into smaller groups outdoors, with which they felt comfortable and safe. “I don’t like to talk loudly in class and raise my hand…, there are other ways you can be active … that you are in small groups and then the teacher goes around and checks what you talked about instead,” one girl expressed in a focus group. The pupils also said that during outdoor lessons, it was easier to dare to talk to and ask their teachers if they wondered about something or felt that something was difficult, “I feel like there’s quite a big difference because then you can talk more privately, and not everyone hears if you are going to ask,” a boy shared in one focus group.

In this study, the teaching was usually carried out in a natural green environment in the school’s immediate area. The pupils preferred to be at the campsite in front of the schoolyard, where they were more easily distracted by other pupils having a break. According to the pupils, the larger space available outdoors contributed to them being able to work undisturbed and it also benefited group cooperation, “If I’m out, we’re more spread out; I don’t hear everyone’s disturbing voice,” a girl reported in one of the focus group interviews. During the observations, we also noticed pupils mentioned the noise level outdoors in conversations with their teacher, stating, “It is much better here.” However, some pupils expressed in the focus group interviews that it was sometimes harder to hear what the teacher was saying during outdoor lessons, “If the teacher is a little bit further away, you can’t hear because it’s … there are no walls that confine the sound,” a boy said, which we also noticed in some observations when the pupils had been spread over a larger area. Pupils’ opportunities to hear must be considered in future outdoor learning. The noise level is important for a promoting learning environment, not least for adolescents with some form of attention deficit who are more sensitive to disturbing sounds (Blomberg et al., 2019 ).

During the observations, we paid particular attention to the fact that some pupils were hesitant and cautious about trying new elements or expressed that it was difficult. Reaching all pupils based on their different cognitive conditions is a challenge. Therefore, teaching must be supportive by providing a challenging but manageable task that pupils feel ready to master (Ryan & Deci, 2020 ). However, we observed that when the teacher or other pupils provided support to a hesitant pupil by doing the learning moments together, repeating or in words praising and encouraging the pupil to try, they completed the task and showed great contentment. For example, we heard a teacher ask a hesitant pupil, “Will we succeed together?” The pupil nods and says, “Yes!” We also observed when a pupil who had learned to handle the net appropriately supported a hesitant pupil who did not know how to use it “You move it back and forth along the seabed.” From a sociocultural perspective, learning is considered a process in which people communicate with each other (Säljö, 2019 ), as in the examples above. At the same time, the examples shows that it is a more knowledgeable pupil who supports the person who is less knowledgeable in a practical skill, which can be seen as the hesitant pupil being in the nearest zone of proximal development (ZPD) and getting help from the more knowledgeable (Säljö, 2019 ). Harris ( 2018 ) points to the possibilities of outdoor places for a co-creative learning environment between pupils and teachers that positively affects both teaching and learning.

This ethnographic study provides unique insights into how these teacher efforts to offer outdoor learning opportunities have improved pupils’ willingness to participate and, from their point of view, being comprehensible, they understand the content of the science subjects. This is an essential contribution to enhancing the scientific literacy of science subjects in a school context (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009 ). Our main conclusion based on the analysis of this study is that outdoor learning appeared as an opportunity for pupils to develop their curiosity and interest in knowing more about science subjects and the world around them. This became visible when the pupils had access to varied learning and experiences by, for example, trying, exploring, being creative, and observing in real life contexts in various places. In addition, the pupils have been given opportunities to ask, discuss and reflect on questions about various phenomena and processes in nature and humans. This is also relevant for the other main findings where pupils have developed knowledge of and use scientific concepts and scientific skills in different ways and contexts, as well as for a science promoting learning environment, which has made understanding the science subject content easier.

This study confirms the necessity of broadening learning outside the classroom, and hopefully, the findings can contribute to more teachers seeing opportunities to do just that. Thus, a supportive school organisation is needed because the conditions for more pupils can then have access to learning adapted to their learning ability. We also wish that outdoor and environmental education professionals from all settings benefit from the findings and what they can contribute to discussing outdoor learning relative to scientific literacy. The joint analysis of lesson observations and focus group interviews strengthens the credibility of the study’s findings.

As for methodological limitations, our findings are based on a small sample. Most of them were ethnically Swedish pupils. Therefore, the findings can only be transferred to similar groups of pupils. A possible direction for further research would be to take an intersectionality approach to examine the impact of gender, age, class, ethnicity, and pupils needing special support or extra adaptations in outdoor learning. Such an approach would provide further insight into marginalised groups of pupils and a critical understanding of power, privilege, and subordination. More studies are also needed where pupils’ opinions about what promotes their subject-specific learning are considered.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the principal and teachers involved in the study and especially wish to thank all the pupils who agreed to participate in this study.

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KH designed the study, conducted observations and interviews, analysed the data and wrote the manuscript. MG designed the study, conducted observations and interviews, analysed the data and wrote the manuscript. E-CL designed the study, analysed the data and wrote the manuscript.

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Haraldsson, K., Göranson, M. & Lindgren, EC. “It is easier to learn when you are out”: an ethnographic study of teaching science subjects through outdoor learning at compulsory school. Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-024-00172-6

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Creative learning environments in education—A systematic literature review

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Self-directed learning (SDL) ability is the basis for cultivating nursing students’ ability to find and solve problems, lifelong learning, and providing high-quality nursing talents for healthcare. The O-AMAS (Objective, Activation, Multi-learning, Assessment, Summary) model adheres to the teaching philosophy of student-centered, result-oriented, combines the advantages of online and offline teaching, enriching teaching resources and learning channels, diversifying teaching and evaluation methods, and emphasizing integrating and applying knowledge conducive to improving students’ SDL ability and achieving teaching objectives. This study explored the course design, practical, and application effects under the O-AMAS effective teaching model in internal medicine nursing to provide a basis and reference for combining effective teaching models with blended teaching in future nursing courses.

This study is a self-controlled before-after trial. The participants were 76 nursing undergraduates from Hunan Normal University. This study utilizes the O-AMAS effective teaching model to design internal medicine nursing courses and implement blended online and offline teaching. Main links: The overall course design and application are student-centered, after clarifying macro and micro multi-dimensional learning objectives, with online and offline blended teaching environments activated students’ learning behavior and diversified teachers’ teaching activities, then based on instant and dynamic provide effective feedback; finally, students take the initiate to make a brief and potent summary under the teacher guidance. After the course, a unified assessment of the learning effect of nursing students was conducted, including the evaluation of the SDL ability of nursing students, a final comprehensive evaluation grade, and a teaching satisfaction survey.

The nursing students’ SDL ability scores are higher than before teaching, and the results were statistically significant ( P  < 0.05). The final average comprehensive evaluation grade of nursing students was 78.38 ± 7.12. More than 96% of the students are satisfied with this course.

Applying for internal medicine nursing blended teaching integrated with the O-AMAS effective teaching model is conducive to improving nursing students’ SDL ability, academic grades, and teaching satisfaction.

Peer Review reports

The overall purpose of internal medicine course is to cultivate high-quality nursing talents with multi-field adaptive learning ability, cross-field practical ability, and interdisciplinary comprehensive thinking ability to improve the quality of nursing services, meet the increasingly diversified and differentiated nursing needs of people, and achieve the goal of “universal health coverage by 2030” [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. With the rapid update of medical knowledge and technology, nursing students must constantly improve their knowledge, ability, and quality in theoretical teaching and clinical practice, which puts higher requirements for their self-directed learning ability [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. The self-directed learning ability of nursing undergraduates is the ability of undergraduate nursing students to obtain and master the necessary knowledge and skills of nursing services with meta-cognition and objective human and material resources. Its main components are the three abilities of self-management, information, and learning cooperation [ 7 ]. Self-directed learning ability is a core competence that equips nursing students with lifelong learning [ 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Relevant studies show that the SDL ability enables nursing students to enhance their professional nursing values, self-efficacy, meta-cognitive ability, critical thinking, academic performance, academic resilience, time management tendency, problem-solving ability, health education ability, and resilience [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. However, because nursing students in the process of learning are still influenced by the traditional teaching concept, nursing students’ learning mainly depends on teachers’ classroom teaching, still a passive accept knowledge role, lack of learning initiative, do not understand discipline dynamic and master essential knowledge, especially difficult to use theory knowledge analysis and solve the problem of clinical practice, the nursing students overall SDL ability and SDL readiness is still at a low to medium level [ 11 , 15 , 18 , 19 ]. Therefore, educators must reform the traditional teaching mode according to the growth law and the learning needs of contemporary students.

O-AMAS, an online and offline hybrid interactive teaching model, was independently developed and launched by the effective teaching team of Nankai University in 2017. The model has five links: Objective, Activation, Multi-learning, Assessment, and Summary [ 20 ]. The model is oriented by learning results and driven by benign interaction. After clarifying multi-dimensional goals, it realizes the teaching objectives and objects are deeply penetrated and participate in the course, advocates student-centered, pays attention to contextualization, gives full play to students’ enthusiasm and initiative, and inspires students to become knowledge builders and problem solvers. The model has been applied in pharmacology, microbial physiology, and community pharmacist training and achieved good results in improving study objects’ self-directed learning ability, academic grades, and satisfaction [ 21 , 22 , 23 ].

In recent years, blended learning strategies have become the most potential teaching strategy in nursing education [ 24 ]. In 2022, China launched the educational digitization strategy, built an online national intelligent education platform for higher education, and an intelligent overpass for teachers and students to teach and learn [ 25 ]. In 2023, China’s Ministry of Education proposed that the digital reform of higher education should pay great attention to content reform and thus provide high-quality educational content to effectively support the steady development of digital education [ 26 ]. Therefore, the Internet-based online and offline mixed teaching mode offers new ideas for promoting the construction of nursing “golden courses” [ 27 , 28 ]. So, this study combines the O-AMAS effective teaching model and online and offline blended teaching to design the internal medicine nursing course. Given the problems existing in the current teaching, analysis and grasp the students learning characteristics and cognitive way, optimize the online teaching resources construction and offline teaching methods, rebuild the internal medical nursing teaching process, use diversified teaching mode, implement effective evaluation and feedback, finally through a brief but potent summary to promote deep learning, fully arouse the students’ learning, improve students’ SDL ability.

Study design

This study is a self-controlled before-after trial.

Participants

Through cluster sampling, the study defined participants as 76 second year nursing undergraduates from Hunan Normal University, including 11 males and 65 females. All subjects signed an informed consent form before participating in the study.

Tools and measurements

Self-directed learning instrument for nursing students

Self-directed learning instrument for nursing students (SDLI for nursing students) consists of 20 items, using the Likert 5-point scoring method; each item is 1 ~ 5 points, the total score is 20 ~ 100 points, the higher the score, the stronger the self-directed learning ability. The scale contains four dimensions (learning motivation, learning plan and implementation, self-management, and interpersonal communication) [ 29 ].

Curriculum academic grades

According to the course design, the course team has developed a comprehensive assessment and evaluation system, which combines the process evaluation and final evaluation from online and offline, including classroom performance, chapter test, topic discussion, group activities, clinical internship, and final examination, with each part taking different weights.

Teaching satisfaction for nursing student’s questionnaire

The teaching team of this study designed the questionnaire through an extensive review of the literature, examined other satisfaction questionnaires, interviewed nursing students, consulted with academic experts, and then adjusted it according to the course design and practice. The questionnaire comprises eight items on three options (approval, neutrality, and disapproval); the questionnaire assesses aspects such as increased learning interest, engagement, and efficiency. In the current study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.916, indicating a high level of reliability.

Internal medicine nursing is a core and practical clinical course in nursing, but learning it is challenging for most students. On the one hand, the complicated and scattered course content, abstract mechanism, and uneven difficulty hindered learners from activating learning interests and focusing on learning objectives; on the other hand, tight class hours, limited classroom learning resources, and learners cannot reasonably arrange learning resources and formulate learning strategies aren’t conducive to cultivate self-directed learning ability and innovation consciousness [ 30 , 31 ]. So this study chooses internal medicine nursing to explore the application effects of the O-AMAS effective teaching model and provide a basis and reference for combining effective teaching models with blended teaching in future nursing courses.

The internal medicine nursing course adopts the O-AMAS effective teaching model to design and mainly includes five parts. The design is summarized in Fig.  1 . Internal Medicine Nursing (6th edition) is the primary textbook, edited by You Liming and Wu Ying and published by People’s Medical Publishing House. Besides, this course quoted Internal Medicine (9th edition) and relevant literature as references, using the MOOC and Chaoxing of online learning applications to assist teaching.

Flow chart of the design of blended teaching of internal medicine nursing based on the O-AMAS effective teaching model

Assemble a teaching team

This study’s teaching team includes 1 department head, 2 pedagogy experts, 5 internal medicine nursing teachers, and 1 teaching assistant from the Chaoxing learning platform. The department head is responsible for the overall design, implementation, adjustment, and summary of internal medicine nursing; pedagogy experts are responsible for guiding and analyzing students’ learning situation, integrating O-AMAS effective teaching model and blended teaching method design; teachers are responsible for building online teaching platform, course teaching, communicating with students and course evaluation; the teaching assistant is responsible for the smooth combination of online teaching platform and offline courses.

Combining blended teaching with the O-AMAS model effectively

Design effective teaching objectives.

The goal of traditional teaching is unclear; most nursing students aim to pass examinations and get a bachelor’s degree certificate, which leads them to neglect often to cultivate their self-directed learning ability. In the long run, it is not conducive for individuals to adapt to the rapidly changing clinical environment and long-term benign development. Therefore, the course team analyzed the students’ learning characteristics and cognitive methods, and under the guidance of the O-AMAS effective teaching model, according to the SMART principles (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Timed) studied and revised the teaching objectives of the internal medicine nursing course, and formulated the macro objectives of the course. The overall teaching objectives of the course: ① Knowledge objectives: Master the basic theory, knowledge, and skills of internal nursing; master the clinical manifestations, nursing diagnosis, nursing plan, nursing measures, and nursing evaluation of common internal diseases; be familiar with the pathologic and physiological change process, diagnostic points and prevention points of common internal diseases; understand the etiology, pathogenesis, and the related frontier research dynamics. ② Ability objectives: Cultivate the ability of nursing students to exert nursing procedures to achieve holistic care; apply interpersonal communication skills to educate medical patients and their families; and learn internal medicine nursing and other related disciplines independently. ③ Quality objectives: Cultivate students’ professional spirit and professional quality; cultivate a rigorous and realistic scientific attitude and an innovative scientific spirit; possess a high degree of patriotic feelings and cultural, legal, moral, and professional literacy.

Based on understanding the course’s overall teaching objectives and Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives, this study from six bands, including knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, to design each lesson gradually ascend from low to high orders and student-centered micro-teaching objectives, teachers focus on diversified teaching activities to help students to learn independently and building knowledge system effectively.

Take the Transient Ischemic Attacks(TIA) section as an example: ① Pre-class self-directed learning stage: mainly the first order of knowledge and comprehension, memorizing the brain’s blood supply, and grasping the disease characteristics of TIA. ② Cooperative learning stage in the class: mainly the middle and high order of application, analysis, and synthesis. Students can observe and make initial evaluations, judge the condition of TIA patients, and cooperate with doctors to actively treat, raise existing nursing problems, implement effective holistic care, and provide health guidance to individuals and families. ③ Consolidation and promotion stage after class. Based on the high-level evaluation, students can use the knowledge to evaluate whether the nursing measures taken for TIA patients are effective. They can find the existing nursing problems and solutions through books, databases, and other resources.

Effective activation to improve students learning interest

Traditional teaching often uses pre-class previews and class tests to activate students, even in some courses that consider the students’ performance an essential part of academic performance. It may have some positive effects, but it also may cause students anxiety and distraction, especially in pure hybrid teaching; students may quickly get answers by intelligent equipment, which not only weakens the students’ interest in learning but can not achieve effective activation. Effective activation requires exciting ways; the activation tools should be closely related to the learning content, and all students participate so that multi-dimensionally activate students’ physical, emotional, and cognition.

This study adopted role-play about clinical reality to activate students’ bodies. Activate students’ emotions by quoting character stories and news reports, such as the diseases that exist in real heroes and ordinary families taking their precious lives, leading to the country and the family loss of talents and relatives to activate students’ empathy; quote positive clinical cases to activate students responsibility, such as healthcare workers save countless patients struggling in disease through solid fundamental knowledge and meticulous clinical work, the teacher praised students’ and created a positive learning atmosphere to activate students’ confidence based on the student’s performance. Presented clinical micro-video and conducted thematic discussions to activate students’ cognition. For example, the leukemia teaching combined with the teaching objectives and content of this chapter, when talking about “acute leukemia,” the teacher through micro-video to initiate a discussion topic, “Does the blood of patients with leukemia turn white?” to motivate student learning interest and enthusiasm, so that students can quickly get into the learning state. The teacher further used brainstorming to guide the students to state whether the blood of leukemia patients will turn white and analyze the causes on the Chaoxing learning platform; the classroom screen will display each student’s ideas to fully mobilize the students to participate actively in the classroom with enthusiasm.

Diversified teaching methods to enhance students’ motivation

Due to the differences between nursing students in personality, learning habits, learning foundation, and learning methods, teachers are required to build new and diversified learning methods to meet the learning needs of most students. This study, based on students’ learning conditions and specific courses, flexibly adopts multiple teaching methods, such as lectured-based learning(LBL), team-based learning(TBL), problem-based learning(PBL), and case-based learning(CBL) etc. A variety of teaching methods are interspersed. At the same time, teachers guided students to experience various learning methods, such as receptive learning, cooperated and explored learning, independent learning, etc. Suppose students must pass the pre-class quizzes to reach the low-order knowledge and comprehension teaching objectives. In that case, the teachers will focus on the class’s LBL and PBL teaching methods, or the teachers will take students as the leading role, application and analysis as the primary teaching objectives, and CBL and TBL as the central teaching methods.

Take acute coronary syndrome and cerebrovascular disease as an example; since students have comprehended the definition and characteristics of the disease, so the teacher took the progressive cases as the main line to present different scenarios of progressive cases gradually. As the disease progresses, it gradually leads to core knowledge points that include the cause of the disease, clinical manifestations, treatment, and nursing measures, etc., and further through teaching strategies such as questioning, enlightening thinking, and group discussion, encourage and guide students to independently explore the implicit knowledge behind the case scenario (such as the causes and inducements of the disease, typical clinical manifestations, and laboratory changes that contribute to identifying the disease, judgment disease of changes, observe treatment efficacy and care adverse reactions), so then guide students to actively participate in the class, more profoundly and systematically understand the internal logical relationship of disease occurrence and development. Finally, according to the feedback from testing, teachers organized students to discuss the frontier or hot topic of clinical nursing. They guided students to track the latest research results and hotspots of nursing. Besides, in the after-class clinical internship, cooperative learning is the primary method; students enter the ward in groups to collect data, and the teachers observe by the bed and give timely guidance and supplements. After the nursing assessment, the students broached the nursing problems and nursing measures according to the case under the teachers’ guidance, evaluated the implementation effect of the nursing measures, and broached the improvement plan. At the end of the internship, the students completed the internship report, which included nursing medical records and experience.

Effective assessment improve teaching effect

The three elements of effective assessment are assessment design, implementation, and feedback. An effective assessment is not a simple score but an effective feedback activity corresponding to the teaching objectives to promote students’ learning effect. This study combines process assessment and final assessment, attaches importance to process assessment and practical ability assessment, continues to assess teaching activities according to teaching objectives, timely adjusts and improves teaching strategies based on students’ feedback, and the assessment runs through the whole online and offline teaching activities. The assessment methods include before and after classroom evaluation, classroom questions and answers, online engagement in the topic discussion, chapter tests, group activities, and clinical internship performance, etc.; the assessment content includes whether the low-order goals (knowledge and comprehension) and the high-order goals (application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) can be achieved. The assessment system of internal medicine nursing is presented in Table  1 . For example, this study adopted multiple assessment forms to achieve practical evaluation and feedback, such as group discussion based on clinical progressive cases, topic discussion, and thinking questions. Students can realize how much knowledge they can master in classroom learning and what aspects they need to make up for the deficiencies; it effectively facilitates students to adjust learning objectives timely. Meanwhile, teachers can also analyze the effect of classroom teaching from a multi-dimensional perspective to improve and further promote effective teaching.

Brief summary to promote in-depth learning

This stage is often at the end of a class. After students focus on learning the vital and challenging points of knowledge in class, they tend to become lax at this stage. Therefore, a short and powerful summary is needed to help students connect the key learning content of a class. With students as the main body, teachers guide students in summarizing the classroom content and integrating the learning emphases. Based on the Chaoxing learning platform, it automatically generates summative hot words, or students summarize the teaching content to form mind mapping to help students review what they have learned, further consolidate, reflect, and deepen knowledge.

Statistical data analysis

Entered and analyzed data using the SPSS 23.0 statistical software, measurement information was expressed as mean ± standard deviation ( \(\overline {\rm{X}} {\rm{ \pm S}}\) ), and a paired-sample t-test was used to compare students’ self-directed learning ability before and after teaching. The test level is α = 0.05, 1-β = 0.9,  p -value<0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Ethical consideration

Informed consent was obtained from the study participants before they were enrolled in the study. Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Committee of Hunan Normal University School of Medicine before commencing the study. (Ref no 2,023,415, dated 10th February 2023)

Results of final comprehensive grades

In the teaching process, the Chaoxing learning platform, the classroom learning engagement, and the after-class assessment together form the process grades, which combine the final exam score to get the final comprehensive grades. The course passing rate is higher, as recorded in Table  2 .

Results of evaluation of teaching satisfaction

After teaching, using a self-made questionnaire to evaluate the teaching effect, 100% of students gave feedback; more than 90% of students think it is helpful to promote pre-class preview and after-class review and consolidate; more than 80% of students think it helps to stimulate learning interest and enthusiasm, mobilize learning initiative, help adjust learning methods and improve learning efficiency, and teachers can timely feedback; the course satisfaction rate for all students reached 96.1%. The satisfaction results are presented in Table  3 .

Results of comparison of SDL ability before and after teaching

The after-teaching was superior to the before-teaching in the total score of nursing students’ SDL ability ( P  < 0.05). The scores of nursing students’ SDL ability were improved in four dimensions, especially in learning motivation, planning and implementation, and self-management ( P  < 0.05). The SDL ability scores before and after teaching are presented in Table  4 .

Existing research results show that the students’ SDL ability is positively associated with health education ability, clinical practice behavior, and learning motivation [ 17 , 32 , 33 , 34 ] and negatively associated with study burnout and academic stress [ 35 ], so improving the nursing students’ SDL ability is beneficial to promote the nursing students’ better master theoretical knowledge and operation skills, integrate into the clinical work, promote professional identity, cultivate consciousness and ability of lifelong learning, improve clinical nursing quality in all aspects, meet the growing social health needs [ 36 ]. The O-AMAS effective teaching model emphasizes the educational philosophy of “student-centered and result-oriented development” in all teaching activities [ 20 ]. This study is based on the digital educational trend, combined with the national Massive Open Online Courses(MOOC), the school Small Private Online Course (SPOC) teaching resources, the Chaoxing learning platform, and the Wisdom Tree Platform teaching tools, which scientifically cover pre-class preview, class teaching, and post-class improve three teaching link, designed and practiced blended teaching of internal medicine nursing teaching based on O-AMAS effective teaching model. Establishing a multi-level oriented multi-dimensional goal in line with Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives; Quickly activating the learning interest and behavior from the three aspects of students’ physical, emotional, and cognitive; adopting multiple teaching methods to guide nursing students learning autonomously based on the needs of diagnostic theory and experimental manipulation; combined with the Chaoxing online learning platform for effective measurement and assessment, multi-dimensional analysis, process evaluation and dynamic feedback on the teaching and learning behaviors generated during the course teaching process, to promote the timely improvement of teaching and learning; finally, teachers take the students as the main body and guide students to generate summarizing hot words or mind mappings, help students review what they have learned, explore the relevant scientific research frontiers, and further consolidate and deepen their reflections, improve the coherence and efficiency of nursing students both in and out of class, reduce the learning burden of nursing students, so as to promote the improvement of learning enthusiasm and independent learning ability.

Blended teaching based on the O-AMAS effective teaching model is beneficial to improve the academic performance of nursing students. After teaching, the student’s average academic score was 78.38 ± 7.12 points, which was higher than the academic score of the previous students. More than 96% of students are generally satisfied with this course, and more than 80% believe it can stimulate their interest in learning, mobilize their learning initiative, and increase their learning investment. Moreover, the SDL ability of nursing students was higher than before class, with statistically significant differences ( p  < 0.001). These results show that the O-AMAS effective teaching model helps to analyze and grasp students’ learning characteristics and cognitive mode, clarify multi-dimensional learning objectives, effectively and quickly activate the students’ learning behaviors and interests, and significantly improve students’ participation in class. The application of the online curriculum platform for teachers and students to communicate has provided more opportunities and diverse methods; while improving feedback efficiency, it can effectively promote the adjustment and improvement of teaching and learning methods. In this process, teachers’ pedagogy improved, and students effectively realized the enhancement of knowledge level and clinical ability. Both sides progress to complete the overall goal of the course and develop a harmonious relationship. Therefore, students achieved excellent academic performance and were given a higher teaching evaluation. In the post-epidemic era, Shen Bingzheng et al. based on the O-AMAS teaching model and flipped classroom, developed an online continuing training program, effectively improved community pharmacists’ SDL ability, professional competence online, and received a high evaluation of teaching satisfaction [ 23 ]; Luo PeiPei et al. adopted the results-oriented effective teaching mode (O-AMAS) to guide the clinical nursing teaching of undergraduates in cardiovascular internal medicine and improved the nursing students of theoretical scores, comprehensive skills test score, and evaluation of clinical teaching effect [ 37 ]. Wang Xiaojun et al. applied the O-AMAS effective teaching model in the health assessment course, which effectively improved the teaching effect, improved the teaching evaluation of teachers and students, and cultivated students’ independent learning ability [ 38 ]. Therefore, the O-AMAS effective teaching model is helpful in improving students’ self-learning ability, academic performance, and teaching satisfaction and is also suitable for nursing teaching in different settings.

This study further found that the self-directed learning instrument for nursing students of the three dimensions’ total scores (learning motivation, planning and implementation, self-management) were higher than before teaching, with statistically significant differences ( p  < 0.05), which can be attributed to that the teaching model expand the cognition of learning from the starting point of teaching, let students get rid of the idea of learning for the sake of examination, and realize that the course of internal medicine nursing can help them master knowledge, improve their ability, and establish good professional ethics, to correct, activate and maintain the learning motivation of learners [ 39 ]; adhere to the student-centered from beginning to end, online and offline, and provides external learning conditions and resources that suitable for students’ learning paths, starting from the activation of existence, then using self-improvement as the intermediary, students to formulate and implement learning plans according to their own situation in the support of rich teaching resources and various teaching methods, finally promote individual self planning and implementation ability [ 40 ]. Besides, combining the online learning platforms of MOOC and the Chaoxing Learning platform to multi-dimensionally analyze, dynamically evaluate, and provide feedback improves students’ ability to actively think, explore, and build knowledge systems. Supervise and manage students’ online learning situations and include usual performances as process assessment data, which improves students’ self-management ability to a certain extent [ 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 ]. Compared with traditional face-to-face teaching and simple online teaching, the blended teaching mode that integrate online resources and clinical case has more positive effects on student’s academic performance [ 45 , 46 ], self-directed learning ability [ 47 , 48 ], learning interest [ 49 ], motivation [ 50 ], and satisfaction [ 51 , 52 ]. It is also worth noting that the interpersonal communication skills of nursing students improved compared with before teaching, but the result did not have statistical significance. In terms of interpersonal communication, when applying the O-AMAS effective teaching model in this course, the teaching process takes students as the main line and teachers as the guidance, but online learning mainly focuses on students’ independent learning, with fewer chapters on peer learning, team-based learning, and learning feedback between peers. Therefore, there is no noticeable improvement in students’ SDL ability in interpersonal communication. In the future, education must focus on cultivating students’ confidence to improve interpersonal communication.

The results of this study show that the design of blended teaching of internal medicine nursing based on the O-AMAS effective teaching model has an explicit level, rich content, a wide range of applications, more than 100 effective interactive methods, and a variety of teaching methods, teaching techniques, teaching organization and management complements each other, which can effectively improve students’ academic performance and SDL ability, further stimulating students’ enthusiasm for learning to encourage students to learn more actively and effectively. Students’ high satisfaction with the course also promotes the establishment of harmonious relationships between teachers and students and the realization of course objectives; the course objectives and teaching objectives are successfully realized and deeply penetrate the teaching process, the teaching objects are deeply involved, the teaching methods have rules to follow, and the teaching effect is visible and controllable. This study has limitations in the number of courses applied, class hours, and sample size, which need to be improved in future studies. Therefore, nursing teaching needs to innovate the classroom teaching mode and optimize the teaching process constantly to promote the development of students’ self-directed learning ability, improve students’ innovation capacity, and lay a talent foundation for the sustainable development of China’s health cause.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. The data are not available publicly due to privacy.

Abbreviations

Self-directed learning

Transient Ischemic Attacks

Lectured-based learning

Team-based learning

Problem-based learning

Case-based learning

Massive Open Online Courses

Small Private Online Course

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Acknowledgements

We acknowledge all the students who participated in the study.

This work was supported by grants from the Teaching Reform research project of the Hunan Normal University School of Medicine.

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Anyan Duan, Fen Jiang, Qun Li & Wei Chen

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Anyan Duan, Qun Li & Wei Chen

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Contributions

W.C. and A.Y.D. conceived the original idea and wrote the proposal. A.Y.D., W.C., and F.J. designed and applied the study. A.Y.D., F.J., L.L., Q.L., and W.C. organized the data collection and analyzed the data. All the authors contributed to revising the draft of the manuscript, and all the authors read and approved the final draft of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Wei Chen .

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Informed consent was obtained from the study participants before they were enrolled in the study. Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Committee of Hunan Normal University School of Medicine before commencing the study. (Ref no 2023415, dated 10th February 2023)

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Duan, A., Jiang, F., Li, L. et al. Design and practice of blended teaching of internal medicine nursing based on O-AMAS effective teaching model. BMC Med Educ 24 , 580 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05588-8

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05588-8

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• O-AMAS teaching model
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• Effective teaching
• Internal medicine nursing

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State Superintendent Tony Thurmond Joins Legislators and LGBTQ+ Advocates to Support Legislation for Safe and Supportive Learning Environments for All Students

Assembly Bill 1955 would prohibit school districts from implementing forced outing policies

If signed into law, the SAFETY Act would prohibit school districts from implementing forced outing policies, provide resources for parents and students to navigate conversations around gender and identity on their own terms, and ensure teachers or school staff are not retaliated against for refusing to forcibly out a student.

“All of our students deserve to be safe at school in order to learn and thrive,” Thurmond said. “AB 1955 protects our LGBTQ+ youth from increased risk of bullying and harassment, and it affirms families’ ability to handle family matters at home without school employees being forced to intervene. The SAFETY Act will allow our teachers to focus on teaching academic skills—not on policing gender identity.”

“Teachers should not be the gender police and violate the trust and safety of the students in their classrooms,” Assemblymember Ward said. “Parents should be talking to their children, and the decision for a student to come out to their family members should be on their own terms. The SAFETY Act simply ensures that conversations about gender identity and sexuality happen at home without interference from others outside of the family unit.”

“School campuses should be safe places for students to learn and grow as their authentic selves,” Senator Eggman said. “The SAFETY Act is a critical piece of legislation that seeks to protect everyone on school campuses, especially LGBTQ+ students. When and how a person comes out is a conversation that should be reserved for a student and a parent, not arbitrarily forced on unsuspecting youth by a school administration.”

Thurmond has a strong record of supporting LGBTQ+ students and educators. In 2019, Thurmond and the Equality California Institute co-sponsored a bill that encourages teachers to receive training on school and community resources available to support LGBTQ+ students facing bullying, harassment, discrimination, or lack of acceptance at home or school. As a result, last year, the CDE partnered with the Los Angeles County Office of Education to lead trainings for teachers with critical resources they need to help California’s LGBTQ+ students.

Thurmond sponsored Senate Bill 760—All-Gender Restrooms (Newman), which requires all K–12 schools in California to provide appropriate and equitable access to all-gender restrooms for students to use during school hours, and AB 5—The Safe and Supportive Schools Act (Zbur), which requires all K–12 schools in California to provide training to support LGBTQ+ pupils.

Thurmond has also been a strong supporter of the California Department of Education’s (CDE) LGBTQ+ Pride Committee, which played a key role in organizing the first-ever Progress Pride Flag Raising Ceremony and reception at the CDE Headquarters last June. The historic event marked the first day of LGBTQ+ Pride Month, and the Progress Pride Flag flew at the CDE Headquarters in Sacramento from June 1 through June 30, 2023.

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To apply for Thurmond’s LGBTQ+ SAT, please fill out the Appointments Application by May 29, 2024. More information on how to support LGBTQ+ students is available on the CDE Supporting LGBTQ+ Students web page .

The SAFETY Act is anticipated to be heard in the Senate Education Committee next week.

Tony Thurmond — State Superintendent of Public Instruction Communications Division, Room 5602, 916-319-0818, Fax 916-319-0100

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