impact of emotions on problem solving and decision making

Decision-Making

The power of emotions in decision making, how to use emotions constructively in decision making..

Updated August 7, 2023 | Reviewed by Monica Vilhauer

• Emotions play a significant role in decision-making.
• Without emotions to motivate and push us, we would be passive and do nothing.
• Make sure to balance and integrate emotional insights with logical reasoning.
• Practice emotional intelligence skills to better your decisions.

Many would consider emotions to be a hindrance to decision-making and, therefore, think that they would be better off without them. They may avoid or suppress them, rather than feel, process and understand their meaning. When it comes to the decision-making process, they would prefer to be rational rather than emotional.

However, emotions have value. It appears that without emotions to motivate and push us, we would be passive and do nothing. Decisions are very much informed by our emotional state since this is what emotions are designed to do. Emotions quickly condense an experience, and evaluate it to inform our decision, so we can rapidly respond to the situation.

While emotions serve to direct us, they are driven by our automatic survival nature. As such, most of the time emotions communicate their messages below our level of awareness. It is important to note that because of their speed and survival purpose, emotions are not particularly accurate. Their speed and effectiveness compensate for what they lack in being specific and detailed. This is why the emotional system provides many false alarms, which requires us to reevaluate our response and check if it is appropriate to the particular situation.

The latest research has established that emotion is crucial in a rational decision-making process. Antonio Damasio and his colleagues concluded that in the absence of emotional markers, decision making is virtually unattainable. Our emotions will drive the conclusions we make, and our well-being may depend upon our ability to understand and interpret them while integrating them with a rational mind to make an appropriate decision. While it is important to consider and process emotional signals, we need to evaluate our responses and see if they are proper to the relevant situation.

How to use emotions to make effective decision-making?

Here are some steps to effectively use emotions for successful decision-making:

Welcome your emotions

Don’t repress or ignore your emotions. Start by identifying and understanding your emotions. Take a moment to recognize what you are feeling and why you are feeling. This mindful process of self-examination is critical to healthy decisions, since emotions can influence our views and judgments.

Remember “emotional bias”

Because of their survival nature, emotions can create biases that affect how we perceive information and interpret situations. Remember that the emotional brain cares more about being safe than about being correct. Listen to its alarm signal, and at the same time question its message.

Regulate your emotions

Emotions, especially at a high intensity, impact our ability to make rational decisions. Strong emotions can impair our judgment and make it challenging to think objectively and critically. This is why it is important to temper our emotions to be balanced and proportional to the situation.

Utilize emotions as a guide

Emotions can act as a compass, pointing you toward what matters most to you and/or what aligns with your values. However, it is essential to avoid letting emotions dictate your decision-making. Make sure to balance emotional insights with logical reasoning.

Enlist your rational mind

It is important to enlist the help of the rational mind. By doing so, you move from a system that operates quickly, intuitively, and unconsciously to a system that is slower and more controlled, rational, and conscious. You move beyond an impulsive, reactive emotional system to one that is contemplative, flexible, and strategic.

Consider the context

Evaluate the situation at hand and consider that emotions may be influenced by the context. Emotions that arise from past experiences or personal biases might cloud your judgment. Separate the present situation from the past and focus on the relevant factors.

Assemble relevant information

Emotions can provide valuable insights, but they should be complemented with factual information. Take your time to gather crucial information before making important decisions. Analyze the pros and cons of your options to make the best possible decisions.

Mindfulness is key to harmonizing the mind. The unregulated mind can become deluded, allowing passions, urges, and wild emotions to take over. Mindfulness allows us to notice our emotions and engage the rational mind to interpret their message. The goal is to treat your emotions as a gateway to a greater level of awareness.

Cultivate compassion

Cultivating compassion in decision making is a powerful way to make more empathetic , ethical, and balanced choices that consider the well-being of all. Compassion helps us soothe the emotional mind and choose actions that will benefit ourselves and others.

Practice emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize and manage your emotions effectively. Key elements of emotional intelligence are self-awareness, self-regulation , motivation , empathy, and social skills. By developing emotional intelligence skills, you can use your emotions to inform your decisions without being controlled by them.

Reframe the situation

Reframing means consciously changing your way of thinking about the meaning of an emotionally charged situation in order to reduce negative feelings. You shift your interpretation of an event by specifically having loving thoughts and extending compassion to yourself and to other people.

Expand your perspective

When you see the big picture and are focused on your highest purpose, you are not distracted by smaller issues and impulses. Figuring out your deepest long-term goals and pursuing them will channel your emotions toward peace and harmony. It will allow you to recognize that if the decision is driven by your values, it’s the best decision regardless of the outcome.

To sum up, emotions play a significant role in decision-making and, when used properly, they can enhance the effectiveness of the decision-making process. Remember, emotions are a natural part of being human, and they can be a valuable asset in decision-making. By combining emotional insights with rational thinking, you can make more effective and well-rounded decisions.

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Emotions Aren’t the Enemy of Good Decision-Making

• Cheryl Strauss Einhorn

Identify how you feel about the decision — and how you want to feel when it’s made.

Too often, when we need to make a difficult decision, we rush through it to avoid sitting with uncomfortable emotions. But channelling those emotions — a process the author calls “emotional bookending” — can help us ensure that we’ve correctly identified the decision we have to make and set us up to move forward with clarity and confidence. The process is as simple as taking the time to identify 1) the emotions you feel as you face your decision, and 2) the emotions you want to feel as you’re looking at your decision in the rearview mirror. What do you see? How is your life better for a satisfying decision outcome?

I recently gave a keynote address at Cornell University about how to better ensure the success of the decisions we make. I began by polling the audience of about 2,000 people to gauge whether they worry about making mistakes when they face a big decision. A whopping 92% of attendees responded yes.

• Cheryl Strauss Einhorn is the founder and CEO of Decisive, a decision sciences company using her AREA Method decision-making system for individuals, companies, and nonprofits looking to solve complex problems. Decisive offers digital tools and in-person training, workshops, coaching and consulting. Cheryl is a long-time educator teaching at Columbia Business School and Cornell and has won several journalism awards for her investigative news stories. She’s authored two books on complex problem solving, Problem Solved for personal and professional decisions, and Investing In Financial Research about business, financial, and investment decisions. Her new book, Problem Solver, is about the psychology of personal decision-making and Problem Solver Profiles. For more information please watch Cheryl’s TED talk and visit areamethod.com .

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Decision Making: a Theoretical Review

• Regular Article
• Published: 15 November 2021
• Volume 56 , pages 609–629, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

• Matteo Morelli 1 ,
• Maria Casagrande   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4430-3367 2 &
• Giuseppe Forte 1 , 3  

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Decision-making is a crucial skill that has a central role in everyday life and is necessary for adaptation to the environment and autonomy. It is the ability to choose between two or more options, and it has been studied through several theoretical approaches and by different disciplines. In this overview article, we contend a theoretical review regarding most theorizing and research on decision-making. Specifically, we focused on different levels of analyses, including different theoretical approaches and neuropsychological aspects. Moreover, common methodological measures adopted to study decision-making were reported. This theoretical review emphasizes multiple levels of analysis and aims to summarize evidence regarding this fundamental human process. Although several aspects of the field are reported, more features of decision-making process remain uncertain and need to be clarified. Further experimental studies are necessary for understanding this process better and for integrating and refining the existing theories.

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Morelli, M., Casagrande, M. & Forte, G. Decision Making: a Theoretical Review. Integr. psych. behav. 56 , 609–629 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-021-09669-x

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The Power Of Emotions: Unveiling Their Impact On Critical Thinking

Table of Contents

Importance of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a crucial skill that allows individuals to analyze, evaluate, and interpret information in a logical and rational manner. It enables us to make informed decisions, solve problems effectively, and think independently. In today’s complex and fast-paced world, critical thinking has become increasingly important in various aspects of our lives, including education, work, and personal relationships.

Influence of Emotions on Critical Thinking

While critical thinking is often associated with rationality and logic, it is important to recognize the significant role that emotions play in our thought processes. Emotions are an integral part of being human, and they can greatly influence our thinking and decision-making abilities. Understanding the relationship between emotions and critical thinking is essential for developing a well-rounded approach to problem-solving and decision-making.

Emotions can impact critical thinking in several ways. They can shape our perception and interpretation of information, influence our biases and judgments, and even affect our creativity and problem-solving skills. Emotions can either enhance or hinder our ability to think critically, depending on how we manage and regulate them.

In this article, we will explore the concept of emotions and their influence on critical thinking. We will delve into the different types of emotions, how they are triggered and experienced, and their impact on decision-making, perception, and problem-solving. We will also discuss the importance of emotion regulation and how it can enhance critical thinking skills. Additionally, we will explore the connection between emotional intelligence and critical thinking abilities and provide tips for developing emotional intelligence to improve critical thinking skills.

By understanding the relationship between emotions and critical thinking, we can learn to harness the power of emotions to enhance our decision-making and problem-solving abilities. We can also develop strategies to regulate our emotions effectively, ensuring that they do not hinder our critical thinking processes. Ultimately, by cultivating emotional intelligence and balancing emotions with rationality, we can become more effective critical thinkers in all aspects of our lives.

In the following sections, we will delve deeper into the understanding of emotions, explore their relationship with critical thinking, discuss strategies for emotion regulation, and provide tips for developing emotional intelligence. We will also analyze real-life case studies and examples to illustrate the impact of emotions on critical thinking. Finally, we will provide practical techniques for balancing emotions and critical thinking and conclude with a summary of the importance of understanding and managing emotions in the pursuit of effective critical thinking.

So, let’s dive in and explore the fascinating world of emotions and their influence on critical thinking!

Understanding Emotions

Emotions play a significant role in our lives, influencing our thoughts, actions, and decision-making processes. Understanding emotions is essential for developing effective critical thinking skills. In this section, we will explore the definition and characteristics of emotions, how they are triggered and experienced, and the different types of emotions that exist.

Definition and Explanation of Emotions

Emotions can be defined as intense feelings that arise in response to specific situations or stimuli. They are complex psychological and physiological responses that involve subjective experiences, physiological changes, and behavioral expressions. Emotions are an integral part of the human experience and are closely tied to our thoughts and perceptions.

Different Types of Emotions and Their Characteristics

Emotions can be categorized into various types, each with its own unique characteristics. Some common types of emotions include happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust. Each emotion has its own distinct set of physiological responses, such as changes in heart rate, facial expressions, and body language.

For example, happiness is often associated with positive experiences and is characterized by feelings of joy, contentment, and satisfaction. It is typically accompanied by a smile, relaxed facial muscles, and an overall sense of well-being. On the other hand, anger is an emotion that arises in response to perceived threats or injustices and is characterized by feelings of frustration, hostility, and the desire to retaliate. It is often accompanied by increased heart rate, clenched fists, and a tense facial expression.

How Emotions are Triggered and Experienced

Emotions can be triggered by various factors, including external events, internal thoughts, and physiological changes. External events, such as receiving good news or experiencing a traumatic event, can elicit emotional responses. Internal thoughts and interpretations of situations also play a significant role in triggering emotions. For example, perceiving a situation as threatening can lead to feelings of fear or anxiety.

Once emotions are triggered, they are experienced subjectively. Individuals may have different emotional responses to the same situation based on their personal experiences, beliefs, and values. The experience of emotions involves a combination of cognitive processes, physiological changes, and behavioral expressions. These experiences can vary in intensity, duration, and the way they are expressed.

Understanding emotions and their characteristics is crucial for developing effective critical thinking skills. Emotions can significantly influence our decision-making processes, perceptions, and problem-solving abilities. By gaining a deeper understanding of emotions, we can better navigate their impact on our critical thinking and make more informed and rational decisions.

In the next section, we will explore the relationship between emotions and critical thinking, examining how emotions can influence our decision-making, perception of information, and problem-solving abilities.

The Relationship Between Emotions and Critical Thinking

Emotions play a significant role in our daily lives, influencing our thoughts, actions, and decision-making processes. When it comes to critical thinking, emotions can have a profound impact on how we perceive and interpret information, make decisions, and solve problems. Understanding the relationship between emotions and critical thinking is crucial for developing effective thinking skills and making rational choices.

Exploring the Impact of Emotions on Decision-Making

Emotions can greatly influence our decision-making processes. When we are experiencing strong emotions such as fear, anger, or excitement, our ability to think critically may be compromised. These emotions can cloud our judgment and lead us to make impulsive or irrational decisions. On the other hand, positive emotions like happiness or enthusiasm can enhance our creativity and open our minds to new possibilities.

How Emotions Influence Perception and Interpretation of Information

Emotions can also shape how we perceive and interpret information. Our emotional state can affect our attention, memory, and reasoning abilities, leading us to focus on certain aspects of a situation while ignoring others. For example, if we are feeling anxious or fearful, we may be more likely to interpret ambiguous information in a negative or threatening way. This can hinder our ability to think critically and objectively analyze the facts.

The Role of Emotions in Problem-Solving and Creativity

Emotions can have a significant impact on problem-solving and creative thinking. While negative emotions can sometimes hinder our problem-solving abilities by narrowing our focus and limiting our options, positive emotions can enhance our creativity and innovative thinking. When we are in a positive emotional state, we are more likely to think outside the box, consider alternative solutions, and approach problems from different perspectives.

The Connection Between Emotions and Biases in Critical Thinking

Emotions can also contribute to biases in critical thinking. Our emotions can influence our beliefs, attitudes, and opinions, leading us to be more receptive to information that aligns with our emotional state and dismissive of contradictory evidence. This confirmation bias can hinder our ability to think critically and objectively evaluate information. Recognizing and managing our emotions is essential for overcoming biases and engaging in unbiased critical thinking.

Understanding the relationship between emotions and critical thinking is crucial for developing effective thinking skills and making rational choices. Emotion regulation, the ability to manage and control our emotions, is essential for enhancing critical thinking abilities. By learning strategies for managing emotions, such as deep breathing, mindfulness, and reframing techniques, we can improve our decision-making and problem-solving skills.

Cultivating Emotional Intelligence for Improved Critical Thinking

Emotional intelligence, the ability to understand and manage our own emotions and empathize with others, is closely linked to critical thinking abilities. Developing emotional intelligence can enhance our self-awareness, self-regulation, and empathy, all of which are essential for effective critical thinking. By practicing self-reflection, active listening, and empathy, we can cultivate emotional intelligence and improve our critical thinking skills.

Case Studies and Examples

Real-life examples can provide valuable insights into how emotions can impact critical thinking. By analyzing specific situations where emotions played a significant role in decision-making or problem-solving, we can gain a deeper understanding of the relationship between emotions and critical thinking. These case studies can serve as learning opportunities and help us develop strategies for managing emotions in similar situations.

Strategies for Balancing Emotions and Critical Thinking

Maintaining a balance between emotions and rationality is essential for effective critical thinking. Techniques such as recognizing and acknowledging our emotions, taking a step back to evaluate the situation objectively, and seeking different perspectives can help us balance our emotions and engage in logical and rational thinking. Incorporating emotional awareness into our critical thinking practices can lead to more informed and thoughtful decision-making.

In conclusion, emotions and critical thinking are closely intertwined. Emotions can greatly influence our decision-making, perception, and problem-solving abilities. By understanding the relationship between emotions and critical thinking and developing emotional intelligence, we can enhance our critical thinking skills and make more rational and informed choices. Managing and balancing our emotions is key to effective critical thinking and achieving success in various aspects of our lives.

Emotion Regulation and its Effect on Critical Thinking

Emotion regulation plays a crucial role in enhancing critical thinking skills. When emotions are not effectively managed, they can cloud judgment and hinder rational decision-making. On the other hand, when emotions are regulated and controlled, they can contribute to more accurate and effective critical thinking. In this section, we will explore the importance of emotion regulation and its effect on critical thinking.

The Importance of Regulating Emotions for Effective Critical Thinking

Emotions can have a significant impact on critical thinking. When we are overwhelmed by strong emotions such as anger, fear, or sadness, our ability to think critically may be compromised. These intense emotions can distort our perception of reality and lead to biased thinking. Emotion regulation is essential because it allows us to maintain a balanced and rational mindset, enabling us to make better decisions and solve problems more effectively.

Strategies for Managing and Controlling Emotions

To regulate emotions effectively, it is essential to develop strategies that help us manage and control our emotional responses. Here are a few techniques that can be helpful:

Self-awareness : Recognizing and acknowledging our emotions is the first step towards regulating them. Taking the time to understand what we are feeling and why can help us gain control over our emotional state.

Deep breathing and relaxation techniques : When we are experiencing intense emotions, taking deep breaths and engaging in relaxation techniques can help calm our minds and bodies. This can create space for clearer thinking and better decision-making.

Cognitive reappraisal : This technique involves reframing our thoughts and changing our perspective on a situation. By challenging negative or irrational thoughts, we can reduce the intensity of our emotional response and think more objectively.

Seeking support : Talking to a trusted friend, family member, or therapist can provide valuable support and perspective. Sharing our emotions and concerns with others can help us gain insight and find healthier ways to cope with challenging situations.

How Emotion Regulation Enhances Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Skills

Emotion regulation directly impacts our decision-making and problem-solving abilities. When we can effectively regulate our emotions, we are better able to:

Consider multiple perspectives : Emotion regulation allows us to step back from our initial emotional reactions and consider alternative viewpoints. This broader perspective enables us to make more informed decisions and find creative solutions to problems.

Evaluate evidence objectively : Emotions can bias our interpretation of information. By regulating our emotions, we can approach evidence more objectively, weighing its credibility and relevance without being swayed by our emotional biases.

Manage conflicts : Emotion regulation helps us navigate conflicts more effectively. By staying calm and composed, we can engage in constructive dialogue, listen to others’ perspectives, and find mutually beneficial solutions.

Maintain focus and attention : Emotion regulation helps us stay focused on the task at hand. By managing distractions and reducing emotional interference, we can concentrate better and think more critically.

In conclusion, emotion regulation is a vital skill for enhancing critical thinking. By managing and controlling our emotions, we can improve our decision-making, problem-solving, and overall critical thinking abilities. Developing strategies for emotion regulation, such as self-awareness, relaxation techniques, cognitive reappraisal, and seeking support, can significantly contribute to our success in critical thinking endeavors. So, let us strive to cultivate emotional intelligence and regulate our emotions to become more effective critical thinkers.

Emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in our ability to think critically. It involves understanding and managing our emotions effectively, which in turn enhances our decision-making, problem-solving, and creativity skills. By cultivating emotional intelligence, we can significantly improve our critical thinking abilities. In this section, we will explore the concept of emotional intelligence, its link to critical thinking, and provide tips for developing emotional intelligence to enhance our critical thinking skills.

Definition and Explanation of Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize, understand, and manage our own emotions, as well as the emotions of others. It involves being aware of our emotions and using that awareness to guide our thoughts and actions. Emotional intelligence comprises several components, including self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, and social skills.

The Link Between Emotional Intelligence and Critical Thinking Abilities

Emotional intelligence and critical thinking are closely intertwined. When we have a high level of emotional intelligence, we are better equipped to think critically and make informed decisions. Here’s how emotional intelligence enhances our critical thinking abilities:

Self-Awareness: Emotional intelligence helps us become more aware of our own emotions, biases, and thought patterns. This self-awareness allows us to recognize when our emotions may be influencing our thinking and helps us approach problems and decisions with a more rational mindset.

Empathy: Emotional intelligence enables us to understand and empathize with the perspectives and emotions of others. This ability to see things from different viewpoints enhances our critical thinking by allowing us to consider alternative solutions and evaluate information from a broader perspective.

Self-Regulation: Emotional intelligence helps us regulate our emotions, preventing them from clouding our judgment. By managing our emotions effectively, we can approach critical thinking tasks with a clear and objective mindset, leading to more accurate analysis and decision-making.

Social Skills: Emotional intelligence also encompasses social skills, such as effective communication, collaboration, and conflict resolution. These skills are essential for critical thinking, as they enable us to engage in constructive discussions, consider diverse opinions, and work effectively with others to solve complex problems.

Tips for Developing Emotional Intelligence to Enhance Critical Thinking Skills

Developing emotional intelligence is an ongoing process that requires self-reflection and practice. Here are some tips to cultivate emotional intelligence and improve critical thinking skills:

Self-Reflection: Take time to reflect on your emotions, thoughts, and reactions in different situations. Identify any patterns or biases that may be influencing your critical thinking. Regular self-reflection helps you become more self-aware and better understand the impact of emotions on your thinking process.

Emotion Regulation Techniques: Learn and practice techniques for managing and regulating your emotions. Deep breathing exercises, mindfulness meditation, and journaling are effective methods for calming your mind and gaining control over your emotions. These techniques can help you approach critical thinking tasks with a clear and focused mindset.

Active Listening and Empathy: Practice active listening and empathy in your interactions with others. Pay attention to their emotions, perspectives, and concerns. This will enhance your ability to understand different viewpoints and think critically about complex issues.

Seek Diverse Perspectives: Actively seek out diverse perspectives and opinions. Engage in discussions with people who have different backgrounds, experiences, and beliefs. This exposure to diverse viewpoints will broaden your thinking and challenge your assumptions, leading to more robust critical thinking.

Continuous Learning: Engage in lifelong learning to expand your knowledge and skills. Read books, attend workshops, and take courses that focus on emotional intelligence, critical thinking, and related topics. Continuous learning helps you develop a growth mindset and stay updated with the latest research and practices in emotional intelligence and critical thinking.

By cultivating emotional intelligence, we can enhance our critical thinking skills and make more informed decisions. Developing self-awareness, empathy, self-regulation, and social skills enables us to approach critical thinking tasks with clarity and objectivity. Remember, emotional intelligence is a journey, and with consistent practice and effort, we can continuously improve our ability to think critically and make sound judgments.

In this section, we will explore real-life case studies and examples that demonstrate the impact of emotions on critical thinking. By analyzing these situations, we can gain a deeper understanding of how emotions can influence our decision-making and problem-solving abilities.

Real-life examples demonstrating the impact of emotions on critical thinking

Example 1: the impulsive purchase.

Imagine a scenario where you are shopping for a new smartphone. You have done thorough research, comparing different models and reading reviews. However, when you visit the store, you come across a flashy advertisement for a brand-new phone that promises to be the “best in the market.” Despite your initial research, you are swayed by the excitement and emotions triggered by the advertisement. As a result, you make an impulsive purchase without considering all the factors you had previously analyzed.

This example highlights how emotions can override critical thinking and lead to irrational decision-making. The excitement and desire for the latest technology can cloud our judgment and prevent us from making a well-informed choice.

Example 2: The Confirmation Bias

Confirmation bias is a cognitive bias that occurs when we seek out information that confirms our existing beliefs and ignore or dismiss evidence that contradicts them. Emotions play a significant role in this bias, as our emotional attachment to certain beliefs can prevent us from critically evaluating alternative perspectives.

For instance, imagine a political debate where two individuals hold opposing views. Despite being presented with well-reasoned arguments and evidence from the other side, both individuals remain steadfast in their beliefs. Their emotional attachment to their respective ideologies prevents them from critically analyzing the opposing viewpoints and considering alternative perspectives.

Analysis of how emotions affected critical thinking in specific situations

Situation 1: the job interview.

During a job interview, emotions can significantly impact our critical thinking abilities. For example, if a candidate is feeling nervous or anxious, they may struggle to articulate their thoughts clearly or think critically under pressure. On the other hand, if a candidate is overconfident, they may overlook important details or fail to consider alternative solutions.

In this situation, it is crucial to recognize and regulate emotions to ensure that they do not hinder our ability to think critically. By practicing emotional intelligence and maintaining a calm and composed mindset, candidates can enhance their critical thinking skills and make more informed decisions during the interview process.

Situation 2: The Negotiation

Emotions can also play a significant role in negotiations. For instance, if a negotiator becomes angry or frustrated during a negotiation, they may lose focus and make impulsive decisions that are not in their best interest. On the other hand, if a negotiator is too empathetic, they may give in to the demands of the other party without critically evaluating the situation.

To overcome these challenges, it is important to develop emotional intelligence and practice emotion regulation techniques. By staying calm, managing emotions, and maintaining a rational mindset, negotiators can make more strategic decisions and achieve better outcomes.

In conclusion, these case studies and examples illustrate the impact of emotions on critical thinking. Emotions can either enhance or hinder our ability to think critically, depending on how we manage and regulate them. By understanding the influence of emotions on our decision-making processes, we can develop strategies to cultivate emotional intelligence and improve our critical thinking skills. It is essential to recognize the role of emotions in critical thinking and strive for a balance between emotions and rationality in order to make well-informed and effective decisions.

In the pursuit of effective critical thinking, it is crucial to find a balance between emotions and rationality. While emotions play a significant role in decision-making and problem-solving, they can also cloud judgment and lead to biased thinking. To ensure that emotions do not hinder the critical thinking process, it is essential to employ strategies for recognizing, managing, and balancing emotions. Here are some techniques to help achieve this balance:

Recognize and Acknowledge Emotions

The first step in balancing emotions and critical thinking is to recognize and acknowledge the emotions you are experiencing. Emotions can be powerful and can influence our thoughts and actions. By being aware of our emotions, we can better understand how they might be impacting our critical thinking processes. Take a moment to reflect on your emotions and identify any biases or preconceived notions they may be causing.

Practice Emotional Regulation

Emotional regulation is the ability to manage and control our emotions effectively. By practicing emotional regulation techniques, we can prevent our emotions from overwhelming our critical thinking abilities. Deep breathing exercises, mindfulness meditation, and journaling are just a few examples of strategies that can help regulate emotions. These techniques can help calm the mind and create a space for rational thinking.

Seek Different Perspectives

When faced with a challenging problem or decision, it is essential to seek different perspectives. Engaging with diverse viewpoints can help counteract the influence of emotions on critical thinking. By considering alternative viewpoints, we can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the situation and make more informed decisions. Engaging in discussions with others who may have different opinions can help challenge our own biases and emotional attachments.

Use Logic and Reasoning

To balance emotions and critical thinking, it is crucial to rely on logic and reasoning. Emotions can sometimes lead to impulsive or irrational decisions. By employing logical thinking and reasoning, we can evaluate information objectively and make sound judgments. When faced with a challenging situation, take a step back and analyze the facts and evidence at hand. This will help reduce the influence of emotions and ensure a more balanced approach to critical thinking.

Take Breaks and Self-Care

Taking breaks and practicing self-care is essential for maintaining a healthy balance between emotions and critical thinking. When we are stressed or overwhelmed, our emotions can become heightened, leading to biased thinking. By prioritizing self-care activities such as exercise, spending time with loved ones, or engaging in hobbies, we can reduce stress levels and promote emotional well-being. Taking breaks from intense critical thinking tasks allows us to recharge and approach problems with a fresh perspective.

Reflect and Learn from Mistakes

Balancing emotions and critical thinking is an ongoing process that requires self-reflection and learning from mistakes. It is essential to reflect on past experiences and identify how emotions may have influenced our critical thinking. By learning from these experiences, we can develop strategies to better manage emotions in the future. Embrace failures and mistakes as opportunities for growth and improvement.

In conclusion, balancing emotions and critical thinking is crucial for effective decision-making and problem-solving. By recognizing and acknowledging emotions, practicing emotional regulation, seeking different perspectives, using logic and reasoning, taking breaks and practicing self-care, and reflecting on past experiences, we can achieve a healthy balance between emotions and critical thinking. Developing these strategies will enhance our ability to think critically and make informed decisions, leading to personal and professional success.

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How emotions affect learning: the impact of emotions

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What are emotions?

The 8 basic emotions, how emotions affect learning, examples of how emotions affect learning, 4 ways to use emotions to promote learning, embrace every emotion.

Let’s face it — we’re emotional beings first, rational beings second. Our emotions dictate how we react to situations, decide where to focus our attention, and decipher information. 

Neuroscience has proven that emotions significantly influence our cognitive functions , including the decision-making and problem-solving skills that impact our learning experiences.

But you can regulate your emotions to improve your learning process. We’ll discuss different types of emotions, how emotions affect learning , and how to use your feelings advantageously.

Emotions are physiological states we experience when introduced to different stimuli. Each emotion usually provokes pleasure or displeasure. For example, happiness feels good, while sadness doesn’t. 

Some emotions may be collectively shared . News of a big promotion can elicit positive feelings for everyone involved, and an individual’s death affects all loved ones.

Psychologist Robert Plutchik defined eight core emotions believed to be universally experienced by all human beings : 

Sadness occurs when we experience a loss or disappointment

Anger drives us to act when we're frustrated

Fear is our response to danger, real or imagined

Joy appears when we’re grateful and experiencing things we enjoy

Disgust is our response to unpleasant things

Surprise occurs when we’re startled or introduced to unexpected information

Anticipation is experienced when we expect a certain event or outcome

Trust occurs when we feel safe and supported

Each emotion  can be categorized as negative or positive, depending on whether they’re experienced pleasurably or dis-pleasurably. From these core emotions, all other feelings stem.

Sadness, fear, disgust, and anger are typically considered negative since we don’t feel great when experiencing them. 

Joy and trust are always positive, and surprise and anticipation are situation-dependent. For example, most people feel positive surprise when receiving a promotion, and negative surprise at a jump scare. We feel positive anticipation before a celebration and negative anticipation before a difficult conversation.

All of our emotions can either improve or weaken our learning capabilities. Positive emotions affect our learning in the following ways: 

Creativity: When we feel safe, supported, and content we’re more likely to try new things and share our ideas. 

Focus: When experienced moderately, happy hormones improve cognitive function because we're not distracted by fears and worries.

Social success: Researchers studying academic achievement in adolescent students found that positive emotional experiences in the classroom promoted healthy social interactions, faster learning, and increased intellectual abilities .

Negative emotions also affect our learning capabilities. Here are a few examples: 

Poor performance: Negative emotions can make us feel distracted and disinterested at work. Over time, negative emotions can decrease information processing skills and long-term memory development .

Conflict skills: Negative emotions alert us that there’s a conflict to solve . For example, feeling frustrated with a work problem can motivate us to learn how to fix it.

Health problems: Overwhelming negative emotions can interrupt healthy sleeping and eating patterns. This causes fatigue, making it difficult to think clearly and retain new information. 

Here are a few examples of how positive and negative emotions impact learning:

Disappointment at work

Disappointment occurs when an outcome you hoped for doesn't occur . Tolerance to disappointment is highly subjective. One person might dwell on this surprise for days, while another might see the silver lining immediately and move on. 

Disappointment affects what you learn from a situation. Imagine you found out a promotion you wanted was offered to a coworker . Your disappointment might transform into a fear of failure or encourage you to be more reserved and share less often .

Or, it might motivate you to ask for feedback to improve your skills and gain your supervisor's attention.

Shame in social interactions

We’ve all felt the stir in the pit of our stomachs when we know we’ve done something hurtful. This feeling can make us learn to adjust our actions or avoid social interactions altogether. 

Imagine you fumble your words duri ng a presentation , which causes you embarrassment. To avoid repeating the same negative experience, you might avoid presentations altogether or push yourself to gain more public speaking practice.

Surprise when meeting new people

Feeling a sense of surprise, awe, or excitement by something new is an important part of memory retention. Humans tend to record unexpected information in their long-term memory better than unsurprising things. 

Imagine being introduced to new team members via an ice-breaker game like “Two truths and a lie.” You’ll remember facts about people better because their answers are unexpected.

Frustration when confronted with conflict

We often try to avoid conflict because it causes uncomfortable emotions like frustration. While one avoidance tactic is to steer clear of challenges, a more common one is to try to solve the problem so we can return to our comfort zone . 

Imagine you’re a software engineer frustrated with a new coding language. This frustration can motivate you to seek help, take a class, or practice until you get it right. 

Happiness that improves performance

Hormones such as serotonin and dopamine cause the feeling of happiness , and they positively affect the brain's ability to process and connect information faster. When we decipher and retain information at a higher rate, our performance levels improve. That means the happier we are, the better we do. 

Say you’re a software engineer learning a difficult coding language. If you enjoy computer languages generally and find the learning process fun, you’re more likely to perform better than other employees.

You’ll spend more time practicing because you enjoy it and feel capable of working on more challenging iterations.

Yes — emotions affect learning capabilities. That can seem overwhelming, but you can regulate your emotions to take advantage of learning opportunities. Here are four ways to use emotions to encourage positive learning experiences:

1. Promote leadership skills

Managers often set the emotional tone of an experience. That’s why leadership skills typically involve regulating emotions . For example, excelling during confrontational situations like firing an employee demands remaining calm and controlling frustration or anger. 

Anyone in a leadership role (managers, teachers, parents) who wants to promote collaborative work, innovation, and creativity should focus on emotional regulation. Practice this by developing skills like giving positive and negative feedback effectively and making work problems fun and entertaining.

2. Take a break from negative experiences

If a task is frustrating or unexciting, the "reappraisal method" suggests that yo u turn your motivation and perspective around by pausing to do something that makes you happy. Phys ical activity can clear your mind an d pump you with feel-good hormones.

If you don’t have the time, try recalling a pleasant memory (like overcoming a challenge in the past) to remove frustration enough to tackle the task at hand.

3. Practice positive thinking

Negative emotions typically prompt negative thoughts, and vice versa. It’s a never-ending cycle — but promoting positive thinking can get you out of it.

The more you replace negative thoughts with positive ones, the more your emotions will improve. Strengthening this habit creates a mental bias toward positivity.

Negative experiences will more often cause positive self-talk instead of negative, encouraging you to take on new — potentially disappointing — challengings and learn more quickly from your experiences.

4. Show gratitude

Gratitude is an important life skill. Feeling grateful improves mental well-being and makes us feel more positive about ourselves . Research has found that 49% of unappreciated workers didn't feel up to performing their work responsibilities , and 48% stopped caring about good performance at work.

You can encourage yourself to learn more and perform better by feeling grateful for each learning opportunity. And managers can promote peak performance and a healthy learning environment by giving thanks and showing gratitude for progress.

While many often categorize emotions as negative or positive, every emotion has a purpose. Disappointment reminds us we really did want something — we can use this to motivate ourselves to try harder next time. Happiness can make us feel more productive and capable at work. 

It’s great understanding how emotions affect learning and using this knowledge to improve our capabilities. But this also means we’re responsible for putting in the work necessary to see change.

In the long run, our efforts are worthwhile. We’ll retain information better, improve our well-being, and tackle problems head-on.

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Allaya Cooks-Campbell

With over 15 years of content experience, Allaya Cooks Campbell has written for outlets such as ScaryMommy, HRzone, and HuffPost. She holds a B.A. in Psychology and is a certified yoga instructor as well as a certified Integrative Wellness & Life Coach. Allaya is passionate about whole-person wellness, yoga, and mental health.

Feeling emotional? The difference between feelings and emotions

What is emotional distress tips to deal with life’s difficult moments, how to use the emotion wheel to get to know yourself, how to improve emotional intelligence and your life, emotional regulation: skills, exercises, and strategies, 7 anger management strategies to keep your emotions in check, connect with your emotions: how to improve emotional maturity, what is emotional well-being 8 ways to improve your mental health, don’t bottle it up: how to express emotions at work, similar articles, 5 proven ways to deal with disappointment, be cool: how to manage your emotions and avoid rage quitting, learn how to let go of resentment to find inner peace, it’s ok to be sad. here's why you need some sadness and how to use it, developing positive self-fulfilling prophecies to succeed, stay connected with betterup, get our newsletter, event invites, plus product insights and research..

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• Front Behav Neurosci

Mental Resilience and Coping With Stress: A Comprehensive, Multi-level Model of Cognitive Processing, Decision Making, and Behavior

Iryna s. palamarchuk.

1 Counselling Psychology, Faculty of Education, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Tracy Vaillancourt

2 School of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Aversive events can evoke strong emotions that trigger cerebral neuroactivity to facilitate behavioral and cognitive shifts to secure physiological stability. However, upon intense and/or chronic exposure to such events, the neural coping processes can be maladaptive and disrupt mental well-being. This maladaptation denotes a pivotal point when psychological stress occurs, which can trigger subconscious, “automatic” neuroreactivity as a defence mechanism to protect the individual from potential danger including overwhelming unpleasant feelings and disturbing or threatening thoughts.The outcomes of maladaptive neural activity are cognitive dysfunctions such as altered memory, decision making, and behavior that impose a risk for mental disorders. Although the neurocognitive phenomena associated with psychological stress are well documented, the complex neural activity and pathways related to stressor detection and stress coping have not been outlined in detail. Accordingly, we define acute and chronic stress-induced pathways, phases, and stages in relation to novel/unpredicted, uncontrollable, and ambiguous stressors. We offer a comprehensive model of the stress-induced alterations associated with multifaceted pathophysiology related to cognitive appraisal and executive functioning in stress.

Introduction

The impact of minor and major stressors on psychological and physical health is well documented. It is clear from this literature that stressors are salient stimuli, including events and behavior, that can evoke strong negative emotions and feelings such as fear, betrayal, confusion, and powerlessness (i.e., psychological stress), which in turn, can lead to significant morbidity including depression, PTSD, coronary heart disease, and ischemic stroke (e.g., Stansfeld and Candy, 2006 ; Hamer et al., 2012 ; Richardson et al., 2012 ; Brainin and Dachenhausen, 2013 ; Henderson et al., 2013 ; Wei et al., 2014a ). Psychological stress is an appropriately evoked biological reaction intended to recalibrate and optimize executive functions to stay focused on the stressor at hand, and thus mitigate the potential harm to the organism. Although this mechanism is intended to be adaptive, it is not perfect, particularly in the case of intense and/or chronic stress. In this context, the neuroactivity can constrain cognition and increase the risk of mental and social dysfunction, as well as neural and systemic inflammation (e.g., Shin and Handwerger, 2009 ; Hassija et al., 2012 ; Latack et al., 2017 ; Auxéméry, 2018 ; Mills et al., 2019 ; Quinones et al., 2020 ; Slavich, 2020 ; Vaillancourt and Palamarchuk, 2021 ). The origin of this type of stress-associated cognitive maladjustment belongs to attentional tunneling (i.e., stressor preoccupation, e.g., Chajut and Algom, 2003 ; Roelofs et al., 2007 ; Pilgrim et al., 2010 ; Tsumura and Shimada, 2012 ; Shields et al., 2019 ), which restricts cognitive flexibility (e.g., Alexander et al., 2007 ; Shields et al., 2016 ; Marko and Riečanský, 2018 ), and distorts memory because aversive information is prioritized over neutral or positive information (e.g., de Quervain et al., 2009 , 2017 ; Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review; Vaillancourt and Palamarchuk, 2021 ). Moreover, despite the shift in cognitive defence mechanism to liberate the emotional burden via the downplaying of aversive feelings and thoughts, the attempted suppression of the stressor’s influence can still affect mental health. For instance, internalizing can lead to dysphoria or anhedonia (Salmon and Bryant, 2002 ), core symptoms of major depressive disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ).

The effect of a psychological stressor is primarily related to the level of perceived stress severity, i.e., cognitive appraisal/interpretation of the stressor. Stressors can represent various aversive events regardless of their proximity (i.e., direct or remote such as in witnessing or learning), which commonly disrupt emotional integrity ( Figure 1 ). This mechanism and development have not been described comprehensively in one integrated model. In this review, we outline the central neural dynamics and highlight the main phases of stress development. We define a neuropathophysiological mechanism of psychological stress that represents a complex cognitive construct beyond the classic fear-conditioning model. We detail neural dynamics in stress, and in doing so, propose a multi-level model to describe the accumulated neuronal alteration of cognitive dysfunctions. Our review highlights the importance of ameliorating psychological assessment, clinical screening, prevention, and treatment of altered adaptive-learning abilities of psychologically distressed and depressed individuals.

A simplified schema of the neurocognitive reactivity to a psychological stressor. Note. This schema presents major neurocognitive dynamics during stress development phases (light blue blocks) and stages (yellow blocks). Neurocognitive stress reactivity is facilitated by two principal neural limbs, the LC-NE system and the HPA axis. Phase I : (1) The LC-NE system detects a challenging stimulus (i.e., stressor) and “informs” the neocortex related to cognition. (2) Automatically, it triggers subconscious cognitive defence mechanisms to activate the HPA axis. Phase II : (3) Further engagement of cognitive appraisal defines the severity of a stressor. Phase III : (4) Severe stress perception distresses emotions. (5) Fear promotes selective attention and aversive memory which aggravates cognitive defence and (6) can result in psychological problems. (7) Insufficient fear downregulation in chronic and/or intense stress (alarm-to-threat stage), as well as chronic uncertainty (risk-to-escape stage) and/or losing hope (surrender-in-defeat stage) can lead to psychiatric disorders and cognitive alterations, e.g., poor memory and executive dysfunctions. Phase IV : (8) Consequently, poor neurocognitive functioning affects decision-making, as well as alters recognition (phase I), appraisal (phase II), and response (phase III) of/to a novel stressor. Legend : HPA—hypothalamic “pituitary” adrenal; LC-NE—locus coeruleus-norepinephrine; ↑: hyperactivity/increase; ↓: decrease; black arrows—adaptive path; blue arrows and blocks—maladaptive path.

Stressor Detection and Arousal

Psychological stress is a challenge, but the nervous system stands its homeostatic ground. First, it facilitates the detection of a stressor with noradrenergic signaling via the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system (e.g., Sara and Bouret, 2012 ; Bari et al., 2020 ; Poe et al., 2020 ). The LC-NE system is formed by the LC in the brainstem, which is a cluster of neurons encompassing NE. The axons of the LC neurons are organized in the several modules that project across the brain and format a noradrenergic system with extensive collateralization. Thus, LC activation results in a diffuse NE surge in the cerebral networks (e.g., Sara and Bouret, 2012 ; Szabadi, 2013 ; Schwarz et al., 2015 ; Bari et al., 2020 ; Poe et al., 2020 ), which is linked to cognitive (e.g., attention and flexibility) and behavioral outcomes (e.g., Skosnik et al., 2000 ; Morilak et al., 2005 ; Alexander et al., 2007 ; Figure 2 ).

Highlights of the neural dynamics and topology in neurocognitive stress reactivity. Note. Schematic diagram of the main co-occurrences (1–5) in neurocognitive reactivity and cerebral topology in psychological stress. (1) Detection of a threat by the LC-NE system and (2) its sensory processing triggers (3) the amygdala (fear), which in turn affects (4,5) cognition and behavior via the ventromedial fronto-temporoparietal network [cognitive defence] directed towards fearful stimuli (the fronto-temporal circuits) and novel/unexpected stimuli (the fronto-parietal circuits). Novelty detection encompasses the following circuits: (a) mesial temporoparietal network for phasic attention to the novel stimuli such as auditory and somatosensory, but to the lesser degree visual; (b) the prefrontal- hippocampal-diencephalic network (i.e., frontocentral hippocampal regions, adjacent fusiform, lingual gyri, fornix-mammilothalamic-cortical pathways and calcarine) for novelty processing and encoding. By contrast, the posterior hippocampal region is associated with spatial processing and encoding. Legend : A—amygdala; dACC—dorsal anterior cingulate cortex; H—hippocampus; I—insula; LC—locus coeruleus; NE—norepinephrine; T—thalamus; vm—ventromedial; ↑: hyperactivity/increase; ↓: decrease; ↔: functional coactivity.

The LC neurons can be subconsciously activated in response to fear, which is likely linked to the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) afferents from the amygdala (e.g., Pacak et al., 1995 ; Dunn et al., 2004 ; Valentino and Van Bockstaele, 2008 ; Sara and Bouret, 2012 ; Szabadi, 2013 ; Godoy et al., 2018 ; Reyes et al., 2019 ). The amygdala is principally associated with a fear response (e.g., Etkin and Wager, 2007 ; Godoy et al., 2018 ; Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review). Chronic psychological stress strengthens the functional connectivity between the LC and amygdala that relates to fear learning. Specifically, via hypothalamic orexin, LC activity facilitates amygdala-dependent aversive/fear memory (e.g., Sears et al., 2013 ), with early retrieval (up to 6 h) associated with activated prelimbic prefrontal cortex (PFC) → basolateral amygdala circuits and later retrieval (up to 28 days) associated with activated prelimbic PFC → thalamic paraventricular nucleus → central amygdala circuits (rat model, Do-Monte et al., 2015 ). At the same time, prolonged severe stress has been found to impair amygdalar inhibition, seen in reduced PFC → basolateral amygdala connectivity that hyperactivated the amygdala and ensued aggressive behavior (Wei et al., 2018 ). That is, in chronic stress, the amygdala is relaxed from the PFC, yet thalamic pathways reconnect the pair, at least for fear memory retrieval.

The LC-amygdala connectivity is reciprocal as the amygdala can phasically activate LC neurons as well (e.g., Bouret et al., 2003 ). Liddell et al. ( 2005 ) showed that subliminal fear stimuli (i.e., fearful faces) coactivate the LC, amygdala, pulvinar, and frontotemporal areas related to orienting an “alarm system” (hereafter referred to as cognitive defence that is induced by “alarmed” LC-NE system; see Figure 2 ). Leuchs et al. ( 2017 ) validated previous findings that phasic pupil dilations, which are related to the LC activity (e.g., Murphy et al., 2014 ) in response to aversive (e.g., Wiemer et al., 2014 ) and emotionally arousing stimuli (e.g., Bradley et al., 2008 ), are a physiological marker of fear learning/conditioning. Fear learning is associated with a functional coactivity between the amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), insula, thalamus, and PFC (e.g., Etkin and Wager, 2007 ; Fullana et al., 2016 ; see Figure 2 . At the same time, almost all of the neocortex (e.g., the PFC related to cognitive appraisal and stress controllability; and the ACC together with the insula related to social monitoring/pain network; Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review) can modulate LC activity via passing already processed/encoded information about the salient sensory and behavioral stimuli (e.g., Sara and Bouret, 2012 ; Szabadi, 2013 ; Schwarz et al., 2015 ).

The LC neuronal activity is a bimodal—tonic (sensory-orientated) and phasic (action-orientated)—firing that regulates attention and ongoing behavior. Specifically, the levels of tonic activity relate to drowsiness and disengagement (low), arousal (moderate), and hyperarousal (high; Sara and Bouret, 2012 ; Hofmeister and Sterpenich, 2015 ; Bari et al., 2020 ). Hyperarousal has been found to be associated with an increased effort to face challenges (Varazzani et al., 2015 ). The phasic activity increases in response to relevant behavior and hence prioritizes a goal-directed attentional processing over a stimulus-driven attention, which serves adaptive behavioral performance (Sara and Bouret, 2012 ; Hofmeister and Sterpenich, 2015 ). The phasic activity also reacts to fear, nociception (e.g., Valentino and Van Bockstaele, 2008 ; Sara and Bouret, 2012 ), and motivation (i.e., anticipated reward size; Bouret and Richmond, 2015 ), that modulate behavioral performance. However, upon detecting a stressor, the LC drops its phasic activity and increases its tonic activity, which is seen in hyperarousal and hypersensitivity and relates to scanning attention and the analysis of behavior (Valentino and Van Bockstaele, 2008 ). That is, when facing a stressor, the LC puts goal-directed attentional processing (the dorsal frontoparietal network) on hold so the challenge can first be inspected (the ventral/mesial frontoparietal network, mainly the dextral part including the inferior frontal gyrus, frontal/insula regions, and basal ganglia; Corbetta and Shulman, 2002 ; Corbetta et al., 2008 ; Shulman et al., 2009 ; see also Godoy et al., 2018 ). Therefore, we define cognitive defence as the ventromedial fronto-temporo-parietal network driven by fear which can emerge when fearful stimuli (frontotemporal circuits) and novel/unexpected stimuli (frontoparietal circuits; Figure 2 ) are presented.

Unexpected novel stimuli that do not have predictive value will elicit larger event-related potential responses measured by electroencephalography and prolonged reaction time to the subsequent target (i.e., larger arousal), that in turn, will modulate behavior (Knight and Nakada, 1998 ). The findings in shocked rats are that, compared to expected stressors, unpredictable stressors evoke greater LC-NE reactivity seen in the higher levels of principal NE metabolite in the amygdala, hypothalamus, and thalamus, and higher levels of corticosterone in plasma. In contrast, predictable stressors do not elevate NE metabolite levels in the LC and thalamus, nor corticosterone levels in plasma, the way unpredictable stressors do, compared to non-shocked rats (Tsuda et al., 1989 ). The potential mechanism of the higher impact of unpredictable stress may relate to altered serotoninergic (5-HT) signaling that relates to preserve the β-adrenoreceptors’ upregulation (e.g., Asakura et al., 2000 ; Yalcin et al., 2008 ), which is also seen in conditioned fear and inescapable stress (Kaehler et al., 2000 ). However, McDevitt et al. ( 2009 ) showed that although stress controllability modulates NE levels, it does not affect NE signaling in the LC neurons; whereas stressor controllability relates to the medial PFC function to downregulate the amygdalar hyperactivity associated with altered 5-HT signaling (e.g., Amat et al., 2005 ; see also Puig and Gulledge, 2011 ; Leiser et al., 2015 ; Garcia-Garcia et al., 2017 ; Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review). The findings collectively highlight that neurocognitive stress reactivity is orchestrated by the LC-NE system, fueled by the fear-driven amygdala, and regulated by the PFC/5-HT circuits.

Cognitive Appraisal of Stress Severity

Elevation of cortisol levels in response to a stressor is associated with perceived stress severity (e.g., Sladek et al., 2016 ; Gabrys et al., 2018 , 2019 ; Woody et al., 2018 ). That is, a psychological threat “exists” to the extend cognition “sees” it. Though cognitive capability may help with the avoiding of dangerous situations, it is the cognitive appraisal that helps reduce psychological stress via a self-appraisal perspective that conquers challenges, but not the challenging stimulus per se . Slattery et al. ( 2013 ) tested the associations between three neurocognitive variables, IQ, academic achievement, and verbal/visual short–term memory, which were measured at age 14, during a standardized psychosocial stress paradigm delivered at age 18. Results indicated that poor cognitive appraisal, but not cognitive skill, predicted stress responses. Specifically, stress-coping abilities during stress anticipation depended on “secondary” cognitive appraisal related to the perception of poor self-efficacy (we term this appraisal related to the perception of self-efficacy to deal with the stressor self-appraisal ), but not on “primary” cognitive appraisal (greater threat/challenge-perception, which we term stressor-appraisal ). Poor self-appraisal independently predicted lower cortisol reactivity during the test indicating an insufficient stress response in adolescents. At the same time, poor visual memory predicted cortisol hyperreactivity to stress, whereas internalizing disorders increased the links between verbal memory and cortisol reactivity. These results denote an important fact that intelligence alone is not likely a marker of emotion regulation that is sufficiently related to stress outcome. Rather, the outcome associated with stress is principally influenced by an individual’s cognitive self-appraisal.

Other findings support the impact of self-appraisal on stress severity. In adolescents, Sladek et al. ( 2016 ) showed that higher levels of perceived daily stress severity were linked to elevated cortisol levels, compared to diurnal patterning, only in: (1) individuals with low self-appraisal; and (2) in situations with higher “engagement” coping (i.e., support seeking). The situational variation of cortisol reactivity likely indicates that engagement coping may be due to lower self-belief in coping capacity and thus lower self-appraisal. Coping efficacy related to self-belief in one’s capacity to deal with a stressful situation has been found to be linked to psychological problems in children of divorced parents (Sandler et al., 2000 ). In another study, compared to peers with high coping efficacy, adolescents with increased loneliness and low coping efficacy presented a flatter diurnal cortisol slopes, a marker of poor cortisol regulation, later on in college; while higher coping efficacy predicted lower levels of the cortisol awakening response in college (Drake et al., 2016 ). In their subsequent work, Sladek et al. ( 2017b ) found that girls with an active engagement coping style in response to interpersonal stress had lower cortisol levels (measured by diurnal cortisol slope, total output across the day (AUCg), and cortisol awakening response). However, higher rates of using active coping related to higher cortisol awakening responses the next morning. For women with attentional avoidance of social threat cues, Sladek et al. ( 2017a ) showed that increased use of social support coping predicted lower cortisol responses to social stress and flatter average diurnal cortisol slopes compared to women with attentional vigilance (i.e., a bias toward threat). Similar cortisol patterns were found in children who had more social problems compared to their peers, which was seen in flatter slopes of cortisol decline from wakening to bedtime; as well, children presented with higher cortisol at wakeup time the next morning after higher than usual rates of peer or academic problems at school (Bai et al., 2017 ; see Figure 3 ).

Major cognitive determinants of the cortisol responses linked to stress psychopathology. Note. This diagram represents the major factors influencing cortisol response to stress that can lead to stress disorders. Stress responses depend on the particular challenge, one’s perception of the stressor, and the ability to cope with the stressor. The stressor’s intensity, acuity, and persistence relate to cortisol responses, which are moderated by cognitive appraisal that is associated with self-efficacy and coping abilities. The stressor’s novelty (i.e., unknown predictive value) and inescapability (i.e., negative “learned” value) increase negative predictive values (i.e., fear and powerlessness, respectively), that hinder self-appraisal and aggravate stress severity. Repeated exposure to homotypic stressors resets the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. Chronic stress can result in blunted cortisol responses to a stressor, flattened diurnal slops, and increased cortisol awakening responses. Legend : *—not limited to the emotional aspect that reduces stress perception (e.g., motivation, compassion 1 , and sense of belonging 2–4 ) but also social and physical aspects directed to a reduction in the stressor’s influence (e.g., physical or financial help); **—risk of PTSD and suicidal ideation; ↑: increase; ↓: decrease, “-”: negative; 1 Vaillancourt and Palamarchuk ( 2021 ); 2 Grobecker ( 2016 ); 3 Choenarom et al. ( 2005 ); 4 Stachl and Baranger ( 2020 ).

The impact of self-appraisal on stress response/severity is in keeping with meta-analytic results by Kammeyer-Mueller et al. ( 2009 ), which demonstrated that core self-evaluations (i.e., a stable personality trait that encompasses self-efficacy, locus of control, self-esteem, and neurotism) related to lower perceived stress, higher rates of problem-solving coping, reduced strain, and lower levels of engagement in avoidance coping. In this meta-analysis, self-appraisal was not significantly linked to emotion-focused coping and emotional stability moderated the association between stress and strain and was uniquely linked to the coping process and stress. A meta-analysis by Connor-Smith and Flachsbart ( 2007 ) adds to the idea that personality traits can predict higher rates of specific coping strategies, including problem-solving and cognitive restructuring (for extraversion and conscientiousness), support seeking (for extraversion), and wishful thinking (i.e., mental avoidance), withdrawal, and emotion-focused coping (for neuroticism).

The effect of self-appraisal may be related to the aforementioned sensory-driven shift in the LC firing in response to stress, that suppresses goal-orientated actions, which need to be balanced with the action-orientated switch (i.e., subconsciousness “cognitive defence task”). In other words, sufficient self-appraisal supports self-belief and reduces the “mental barriers”, which in turn facilitates active, problem-solving coping. Further research is needed to lend more clarity on these associations (see Figure 2 ). A meta-analysis by Penley et al. ( 2002 ) showed problem-solving coping, but not emotion-focused coping, was associated with positive outcomes on general physical and psychological health. The nuances were that deliberate actions or analytical efforts and problem-focused coping were helpful only in acute interpersonal stress, correlating positively to psychological health outcomes. The effect was opposite in chronic stress, correlating negatively to psychological health outcomes. This highlights the fact that chronically distressed individuals do require social/psychological assistance. In contrast, seeking social support, confrontation, self-blame, mental or physical avoidance/distancing, self-control, and positive reappraisal in which emphasis is placed on a positive side of a situation, correlated with poor psychological self-reported outcomes in acute stress.

The major role of self-appraisal aligns with Social Self Preservation Theory (Gruenewald et al., 2004 ; see also Dickerson and Kemeny, 2004 ). For instance, in social evaluative stress, both acceptance threat and status threat can elicit a cortisol response (Smith and Jordan, 2015 ), and threats to the social self can induce shame and reduce self-esteem, which correlates with stress-induced cortisol levels (Gruenewald et al., 2004 ). It has also been demonstrated that high cortisol in social evaluative stress is accompanied by sympathetic activation (i.e., hyperarousal due to the NE surges), but not parasympathetic activation (i.e., measured by heart rate variability, can relate to affective responses; Bosch et al., 2009 ; Mackersie and Kearney, 2017 ; Poppelaars et al., 2019 ). Further, the magnitude of the stress response has been shown to increase in women with the size of the audience (Bosch et al., 2009 ), whereas sympathetic hyperreactivity was found to predict increased reactivity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, again in women (Poppelaars et al., 2019 ).

Stress perception also moderates the impact of a stressor on neurocognitive function. For instance, Jiang et al. ( 2017 ) showed that higher levels of stress perception correlated with poor episodic memory and frontal executive function in older adults free of mild cognitive impairment and dementia. Higher stress severity can be experienced in novel/unpredictable and inescapable conditions (e.g., Sauro et al., 2003 ; Lupien et al., 2007 ; Slattery et al., 2013 ) and is distinguished by hyperarousal. Tsuda et al.’s ( 1989 ) rodent studies, where these types of conditions, but not predictable stress, elevated NE in the LC and corticosterone in plasma. The apparent effect of the compromised feeling of control over unknown/novel challenges or in learned helplessness, aligns well with the self-appraisal influence discussed above. Dickerson et al.’s ( 2004 ) meta-analysis provides evidence that uncontrollable social threat relates to the highest levels of cortisol and adrenocorticotropin hormone responses to stress and the longest post-stress recovery.

Aversive emotions in both stress and stress anticipation that result in NE surge affect cortisol influence on attention, cognitive flexibility, memory, and learning, and thus aggravate the intensity of a stressor (Skosnik et al., 2000 ; Morilak et al., 2005 ; Alexander et al., 2007 ; Kvetnansky et al., 2009 ; Gray et al., 2017 ). That is, in intense stress, negative emotions enhance aversive memories and withdraw the cognitive focus from the “peripheral” details. Such selective attention is associated with poor working memory and memory retrieval (de Quervain et al., 1998 , 2009 ; Roozendaal et al., 2006 , 2008 ). The effect of emotional valence in stress involves concurrent activation of glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) and adrenoreceptors, specifically, central β-adrenergic receptors activation linked to long-term declarative memory for emotionally arousing information (e.g., Cahill et al., 1994 ; Cahill et al., 2004 ; Maheu et al., 2005a , b ; see also Gibbs and Summers, 2000 , 2002 ; Schwabe et al., 2009 ; Smeets et al., 2009 ; Lonergan et al., 2013 ) and activation of α 1 -adrenoreceptors that were insensitive previously to NE in the medial entorhinal cortex, linked to hippocampal memory dysregulation (e.g., Carrion and Wong, 2012 ; Hartner and Schrader, 2018 ). As well, a deletion variant gene that encodes α 2B adrenoceptor, ADRA2B, contributes to the cognitive processing of emotional information (see meta-analytic review by Xie et al., 2018 ). Levels of hyperarousal and its proximity to the occurrence of stress modulate memory formation, whereas higher hyperarousal can be seen in children due to neurodevelopmental sensitivity (e.g., Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review; Vaillancourt and Palamarchuk, 2021 ), and in women due to the LC-NE system specifics (e.g., Bangasser et al., 2016 ; Bangasser and Wicks, 2017 ; Bangasser et al., 2018 , 2019 ; see also Mulvey et al., 2018 ). Additionally, the sex differences are that emotionally influenced memory relates to hyperactivated amygdala with a stronger effect in the left hemisphere for women and in the right hemisphere for men (e.g., Cahill et al., 2004 ). Animal studies on fear conditioning show that mild-to-low levels of hyperarousal can impair spatial recognition memory, yet moderate-to-strong levels of hyperarousal can enhance the memory (e.g., Baars and Gage, 2010 ; Conrad, 2010 ). Therefore, stress reactivity has inter-individual variations that can be mild or more pronounced depending upon the individual’s stress appraisal and valence of aversive emotions, which are moderated by age and gender. Additionally, glucocorticoid stimulation followed hours earlier by NE secretion has been shown to inhibit arousal effect on memory (Osborne et al., 2015 ).

Decision Making and Stress

The executive functioning facilitates adaptation with decision-making based on the evaluated external (environmental) and internal (sensory) information (e.g., De Kloet et al., 1998 ; Wager and Smith, 2003 ; Collins and Koechlin, 2012 ; Barbey et al., 2013 ; Dajani and Uddin, 2015 ). Executive functioning integrates memory, cognitive flexibility (such as rapid attention and task-shifting, as well behavioral adjustments, e.g., Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review), learning fortification, reasoning, insecurity predictability, and monitoring behavioral strategies (e.g., Collins and Koechlin, 2012 ; see also Grissom and Reyes, 2019 ). The distinctions are that the ventromedial PFC integrates memory and emotional systems that are needed for decision-making, whereas the striatal and ACC inputs can affect it with bias (e.g., Gupta et al., 2011 ; Ho et al., 2012 ; Shimp et al., 2015 ; Goulet-Kennedy et al., 2016 ; Fitoussi et al., 2018 ; Hiser and Koenigs, 2018 ; Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review). At the same time, the amygdala mediates emotional responses that engage the insula, which relates to social pain, empathy, and anger (e.g., Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review). In a social context, the medial PFC and amygdala, but not ventral striatum, moderate decision-making (Ho et al., 2012 ; see also Hiser and Koenigs, 2018 ); whereas high levels of fear or anger (i.e., the amygdalar hyper response to a stressor) can affect decision-making with impulsivity/immediate actions (e.g., Gupta et al., 2011 ). Conversely, the stress associated with uncertainty and unknown power over a situation involves the frontrostriatal circuits, where task-sets and actions are driven by the references of cognitive/behavioral strategies stored in the long–term memory as a script (relates to the dorsal striatum/left caudate nucleus engaged in reward and motivation). Thus, in the context of stress-related ambiguity, the choice depends on predicted outcome values (related to the ventral striatum/the nucleus accumbens and ventral putamen engaged in cognitive control) to maximize their utilization, i.e., reinforcement learning/instrumental conditioning (O’Doherty et al., 2004 ; see also Hollerman et al., 2000 ; Brovelli et al., 2011 ; Vogel et al., 2015 , 2017 ). The strategy is selected if it is absolutely reliable (the ventral striatum, nucleus accumbens) among the assortment of scripts (the dorsal striatum, nucleus caudate); and if it is unavailable, a new task-set is created because the decision-making is binary when the stimulus is ambiguous (e.g., Collins and Koechlin, 2012 ).

Emotional state/mood can affect the interpretation of the stressor, i.e., the mood-incongruent effects. Anxiety can lead to attentional bias toward threat due to higher predicted negative outcome of the stressor (i.e., ambiguity (fear, e.g., Blanchette and Richards, 2003 ; Barazzone and Davey, 2009 ). An anxious state also increases speed in the detection of aversive changes on a subliminal level and increases attention and conscious awareness on a supraliminal level (Gregory and Lambert, 2012 ). For example, in adults with high trait anxiety, the anxious state lowers awareness thresholds. In particular, fearful faces or non-threat faces presented among threatening faces are detected faster (Ruderman and Lamy, 2012 ). Neurocognitive functioning in stress thus drops cognitive flexibility (i.e., reduced functions of the dorsolateral PFC) to stay focused on the stressors, this attentional tunneling during emotional arousal allows the individual to detach from the “peripheral” information unrelated to the stressor that might distract the individual who is under pressure (e.g., Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review; see also Brosch et al., 2013 ; LeBlanc et al., 2015 ). However, attentional tunneling and enhanced memory for aversive experiences can lead to psychological maladjustment, for instance, emotion-focused coping, anxiety, and PTSD (e.g., Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review).

Hypothesis: Coping Mechanisms Are Driven by the Stress Stages

We define coping styles as intra-individual neurocognitive variability moderated by stress development across three main stages: (1) alarm-to-threat stage → (2) risk-to-escape stage → (3) surrender-in-defeat stage. Potentially, the full development can be observed in chronic, intense, and homotypic stress associated with the HPA resetting and circulating cortisol decline. It is likely that these stress stages can be disrupted/attenuated, escalated, and/or distorted according to the level of perceived stress severity and neuropsychological status; whereas novel stressors can restart stress phases cycling (e.g., stress detection phase I; see Figure 1 ). Therefore, coping styles can fluctuate in a predictable intra-individual manner and recognizing the stress stage can expedite adequate interventions to prevent or treat maladaptive coping.

Alarm-to-Threat (Check) Stage

Acute intense stress triggers right amygdalar fear-related effects such as tunneling attention, anxiety, and impulsivity seen in a reactive aggression as a sympathetic fight-or-flight response that is driven by high cortisol and NE levels (e.g., Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review). The core mechanism is that fear can initially serve adaptation by reducing risky behavior (e.g., Pabst et al., 2013a , b ; Yu, 2016 ; Vogel and Schwabe, 2019 ), because, in contrast, positive emotions can increase the probability of risk-taking (e.g., LeBlanc et al., 2015 ). Specifically, aversive emotions during mild psychological stress can facilitate the most reliable cognitive strategy via the narrowed scope of attention (that can also be induced by the pre-goal desire, e.g., LeBlanc et al., 2015 ), reduced configural associative learning (i.e., reduction in tri-/biconditional discrimination), and enhanced binary (uniconditional as irrelevant vs relevant) discrimination (e.g., Byrom and Murphy, 2016 ). Of relevance, social stress has been shown to increase activity in the anterior PFC associated with parallel processing during decision-making performance (e.g., the Game of Dice Task, Gathmann et al., 2014 ; see also Schiebener and Brand, 2015 ; Shimp et al., 2015 ). However, stimuli associated with extreme/traumatic experiences can trigger inadequate responses and reduce responses to contextual cues such as focusing on aversive sound and disregarding the safety of the environment that promotes automatic retrieval of traumatic experiences (e.g., Cohen et al., 2009 ; Otgaar et al., 2017 ). This is an example of accentuated alarm-to-threat stage by rigid binary cognitive strategy, whereas improving cognitive flexibility by configural associative learning could be a key element in the psychotherapeutical approach. Another example is that strong fear can elicit avoidance behavior related to the left lateral amygdala and anterior hippocampal hyperactivity (Abivardi et al., 2020 ). In other words, “cold” executive functioning is set to prioritize the most reliable decision-making to avoid danger when confronting a threat, yet it limits attention and flexibility. The mechanism is facilitated by promoted dorsal striatum-dependent (“habit”) learning and behavior over hippocampal-dependent (“cognitive”) memory encoding and retrieval, which leads to stereotypical ideas and thus maladaptive functioning in chronic stress (e.g., Packard, 2009 ; Vogel and Schwabe, 2016 ; Vogel et al., 2017 ; Zerbes et al., 2020 ; see also Schiebener and Brand, 2015 ; Shimp et al., 2015 ; Fitoussi et al., 2018 ). In particular, poor consequences can be seen in attentional set-shifting deficits, poor memory, anxiety, and depression (e.g., Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review).

If acute stress subsides, attention can be improved with the decline of cortisol (e.g., Zandara et al., 2016 ). Conversely, intense stress can hyperactivate the LC that is associated with anxiety (Borodovitsyna et al., 2018 ; Morris et al., 2020 ) due to limbic dysregulation (e.g., Herman et al., 2005 ). In particular, it is related to the functional connectivity between the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and amygdala (e.g., Clauss, 2019 ; Knight and Depue, 2019 ; Hofmann and Straube, 2021 ). The nuances are that the amygdala is involved in explicit threat processing (i.e., threat confrontation), whereas the BNST is involved in ambiguous threat processing (i.e., threat anticipation; Herrmann et al., 2016 ; Klumpers et al., 2017 ; Naaz et al., 2019 ; see also Fox et al., 2015 ; Fox and Shackman, 2019 ; Luyck et al., 2019 ). As well, the BNST → central amygdala projections relate to cued-fear inhibition (Gungor et al., 2015 ; see also Clauss, 2019 ). The BNST plays a critical role in fear acquisition/expression, which relates to stress maladaptation and the development of stress-related disorders like PTSD (e.g., Miles and Maren, 2019 ) and involves CRH signaling (e.g., Hu et al., 2020 ). This functional interplay between the BNST and amygdala relates to the inter-individual differences in threat processing and trait anxiety (Brinkmann et al., 2018 ), which likely influences the development of the next stage in chronic intense stress.

Risk-to-Escape (Stalemate) Stage

The evidence is that stress, predominantly chronic, can increase risk-taking behavior (Starcke et al., 2008 ; Lighthall et al., 2009 ; Pabst et al., 2013c ; Ceccato et al., 2016 ; see also Brand et al., 2006 ; Starcke and Brand, 2012 ; Yu, 2016 ). We predict that stress-induced risk-taking is largely driven by threat anticipation due to hyperactivated BNST. The BNST integrates limbic information and valence monitoring and plays a central role in the hippocampus-hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus circuit that activates the HPA axis and has a psychogenic effect (e.g., Lebow and Chen, 2016 ). The BNST is sexually dimorphic; its activity is heritable and relates to anxiety in ambiguous and sustained threat (e.g., Clauss, 2019 ). The neurophysiological background is that the BNST receives multiple signals, including, but not limited to, dopamine and 5-HT from the dorsal raphe and NE from the nucleus tractus solitarii (e.g., Glangetas and Georges, 2016 ). Moreover, increased impulsivity relates to alteration in the central amygdala → BNST dopaminergic projections that inhibit impulsive behavior (Kim et al., 2018 ).

We thus predict that in prolonged homotypic stress, hyperactivated BNST covers a shift from the front-line stress-care medial PFC-amygdalar circuits. This is likely a now-or-never response to escape the burden of anticipated threat, driven by dopamine reductions in uncertain conditions which recruit the dorsal PFC-striatal circuits related to impulsive and risky behavior. Our reasoning is that, in contrast to fear, ambiguity can be perceived as a dormant threat that increases approach behavior (the hippocampal rectivity, e.g., O’Neil et al., 2015 ) and risky behavior (the ventral striatal reactivity moderated by impulsivity traits, e.g., Mason et al., 2014 ; Goulet-Kennedy et al., 2016 ). As well, the activity of the ventral striatum is associated with a motivational control of performance and is regulated by the dorsolateral PFC (Hart et al., 2014 ). Therefore, it could be a part of an adaptive mechanism to confront the challenge although it requires adequate executive functioning, and by extension, goal-oriented actions. The pitfalls are that poor cognitive control and insular risk-processing can increase perceived stress, and in turn, risk-taking behavior (e.g., among adolescents, Maciejewski et al., 2018 ). In contarst, risk-taking behavior is inversely associated with a cortisol increase for boys/men but not girls/women (e.g., Daughters et al., 2013 ; Kluen et al., 2017 ). This effect relates to greater activity and novelty preferences due to higher sensation seeking in boys/men compared to girls/women who are more punishment sensitive (meta-analysis by Cross et al., 2011 ). The developmental moderation of stress-induced responses can also lead to impulsive errors in girls (e.g., Lukkes et al., 2016 ), which is also moderated by personality traits related to impulsivity (e.g., negative urgency that correlates to impulsivity, Berg et al., 2015 ; see also Cyders and Smith, 2008a , b ; Herman et al., 2018 ). The levels of impulsivity in healthy young adults inversely correlate with the levels of released dopamine from the ventral striatum in low to moderate stress; yet high stress reduces dopamine responses (e.g., Oswald et al., 2007 ; see also Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review).

In sum, poor cognitive functioning and cortisol decline can promote a burden of uncertainty ( stalemate ), and as dopamine drops, risk-taking ensues to which young men are more prone to than young women. The mechanism is that the striatal networks can serve decision-making with the learned behavior/”script” when facing explicit danger in acute stress. In contrast, when dealing with prolonged uncertainty, decision-making can be impulsive and risky due to poor risk-processing, and potentially, motivation/urge to terminate the status quo in chronic intense stress. Accordingly, improving cognitive control with proper risk-processing (psychological help) and facilitating adequate options to avoid predictable danger (social assistance) could be a key intervention to prevent poor outcomes. Although our hypothesis has yet to be tested, it sheds light on why stress can induce risk-taking behavior.

Surrender-in-Defeat (Checkmate) Stage

We interpret that in acute and extreme stress associated with a loss or defeat, as well as in chronic stress with a prolonged ambiguity, the executive functioning “surrenders” in the absence of absolutely reliable task-sets and incapacity to create new ones (i.e., defeat/ checkmate ), which is why serotonin levels drop and depression emerges. Of relevance, Yu et al.’s ( 2016 ) findings in rodent models demonstrate that repeated social defeats, but not social threats, increase cortisol and NE levels but decrease dopamine, its metabolites, and serotonin levels in the striatum and hippocampus (see also Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review).

On a molecular level, stress adaptation relates to a negative feedback of the HPA axis seen in cortisol hyposynthesis as ACTH sensitivity declines (e.g., Juruena et al., 2003 ; McEwen, 2012 ; Gray et al., 2017 ). In particular, the duration of exposure to a homotypic stressor displays a linear and inverted U-shaped dose-effect on a stress response: (1) a novel stressor can increase ACTH sensitivity; (2) a repeated stressor can initially desensitize ACTH; and (3) a chronic stressor relates to an unceasing ACTH sensitivity (Aguilera, 1994 , 1998 ; Aguilera and Liu, 2012 ). Prior exposure to homotypic stressors can compromise stress response to a novel stressor (e.g., García et al., 2000 ), which in turn can expose a previous stress-induced latent behavioral sensitization that often surpasses the HPA axis sensitization (Belda et al., 2015 ; also see McCarty, 2016 ). Not surprisingly, intense stressor can facilitate certain cognitive functions and thus promote stress resilience (e.g., Ellis et al., 2017 ) although its chronic exposure is associated with mood disorders such as depression and anxiety (e.g., Juruena et al., 2020 ). According to the aforementioned findings on stress responses, we hypothesize that intra-stages expressions and inter-stage transitions in our model of stress development depend on the novelty, intensity, timing, and chronicity of the stressor. Stress stages can be desensitized in subchronic exposure to the same stressor (or homotypic stressors) but accelerated/exacerbated in chronic exposure to the homotypic stressors, which in turn can also hypersensitize stages toward a novel stressor.

We acknowledge that sex/gender may affect the coping-related neural pathways due to sex and stress hormones co-signaling. In particular, neurocognitive variability during stress development can be affected by the levels of circulating estradiol/estrogen. Estrogen signaling influences memory, social learning, and aggressive/defensive behavior associated with the hippocampal and medial PFC functioning (e.g., Milner et al., 2008 ; Luine and Frankfurt, 2012 ; Laredo et al., 2014 ; Almey et al., 2015 ) and thus contributes to sex differences in stress coping. In females, circulating estradiol levels mediate stress resilience (e.g., Wei et al., 2014b ; Luine, 2016 ; Yuen et al., 2016 ) and facilitate cerebro- and cardio-protection (e.g., Guo et al., 2005 ; Murphy, 2011 ; Adlanmerini et al., 2014 ) in linear and inverted U-shaped dose-effect (e.g., Bayer et al., 2018 ), where high estrogen levels increase cognitive sensitivity to stress (e.g., Graham and Scott, 2018 ; Hokenson et al., 2021 ). On the one hand, this may help explain why the prevalence of PTSD— surrender-in-defeat stage in our model—is two times higher in women than in men (e.g., Breslau, 2002 ; Zlotnick et al., 2006 ; Pooley et al., 2018 ). On the other hand, the androgen effect may explain the findings of why men are inclined toward impulsive behavior (i.e., risk-to-escape stage in our model, e.g., Hernandez et al., 2020 ) and are more affected by stress magnitude, compared to women who are more affected by stress frequency (e.g., Grissom and Reyes, 2019 ; see also Hidalgo et al., 2019 ).

Our hypotheses need to be tested to further clarify the various interfering factors with stress reactivity and resilience, such as sex hormones and genetic polymorphism related to serotonin and dopamine signaling reviewed above, as well as stressor type and stress timing/continuity (single, repeated intermittent, or chronic) that can involve different neural pathways and different reactivity of the HPA axis and LC-NE system. Nevertheless, these hypotheses can help explain why active coping is negatively linked to psychological health as reviewed above ( Figure 1 ). It also supports the fact that chronically stressed individuals with depression/anxiety and poor cognition require psychological and social assistance.

Concluding Remarks

Neurocognition plays a vital role in adaptation and monitors the severity of challenges faced. When cognitive appraisal assigns a negative value to the salient stimuli, it is the moment they become psychological stressors and stress arises. Thus, psychological stimuli can vary in nature because it is the level of cognitive “attention” that determines stress and its severity, that is the stress appraisal/interpretation, but not the stimuli per se .

To address the nuances underlining stress severity, we propose to update a dichotomy in the cognitive appraisal terminology— self-appraisal (i.e., the perception of self-efficacy to deal with the stressor) and stressor-appraisal (the perception of threat/challenge). This dichotomy is intended to facilitate cognitive behavioral therapy, as well as translational research on stress and mental resilience. Specifically, self-appraisal relates to successful emotional downregulation and enables cognitive flexibility vs. stressor-appraisal which can contribute to emotional dysregulation and attentional tunneling that restricts/alters executive functioning. Noted specifics of the cognitive appraisal duality are associated with the PFC and amygdala interplay during the processing of aversive emotions and fear, which is linked to stress sensitization and psychiatric consequences (e.g., Palamarchuk and Vaillancourt, under review).

To advance our understanding of mental resilience and stress development, we offer new insights to the scholarly literature on psychological stress coping with respect to previously published reviews. First, we differentiate the neurocognitive aspects in stress development with four key phases: (i) stressor detection, (ii) stress appraisal (assessment of stress severity), (iii) stress reactivity, and (iv) decision making. Clinical analysis of each phase may help with ruling out primary and secondary causes of behavioral maladaptation. For instance, it is important to keep in mind that sudden and inadequate behavioral reaction to an event (i.e., detection of a novel stressor) may be related to a totally different event that occurred chronically in the past that latently compromised psychological health (i.e., prior chronic exposure to homotypic stressors can trigger cognitive “defence,” see Figure 1 ). Another example is that prolonged uncertainty increases the chances of risky/impulsive behavior.

Second, we model a complex concept of stress development that introduces an intra-individual variability factor in the stress reactivity phase, which is based on the neural dynamics in cognitive processing. In particular, we hypothesize that coping styles are influenced by intra-individual neurocognitive variability moderated by stress reactivity (phase iii) across three major stages: (1) alarm-to-threat [check] stage → (2) risk-to-escape [stalemate] stage → (3) surrender-in-defeat [checkmate] stage ( Figure 1 ). Alarm-to-threat stage denoting the cortisol and NE surges in response to psychological stress must not be confused with the alarm phase , classically referred to triphasic allostasis process, which originated from the “general adaptation syndrome” concept by Selye ( 1998 ), reprint of 1936) that described “typical syndrome” following “diverse nocuous agents.” That is, the general alarm reaction within “6–48 h in rat models of acute nonspecific stress.”

Finally, we emphasize that stress coping can fluctuate in a predictable intra-individual manner. Identifying the stressor’s novelty/chronicity and stress stage/phase can help with early prevention and appropriate therapy of maladaptive stress coping, and in turn, prevent mental disorders.

Author Contributions

TV encouraged, supported, and supervised ISP to investigate stress impact on cognition. ISP planned and carried out the project, the main conceptual ideas, developed the theoretical models and hypotheses, and designed the figures. ISP wrote the manuscript with support from TV. ISP and TV provided critical feedback, helped shape the manuscript, and contributed to the final version. The authors are accountable for the content of the work. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Funding. This work was funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Tier 2 and Tier 1 Canada Research Chair grants (CRC Tier 1—950-231846; CRC Tier 2 renewal 950-229058; CRC Tier 2 950-203794) awarded to TV.

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