in a speech of acceptance a speaker should usually

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18.2 Special-Occasion Speeches

Learning objectives.

Identify the different types of ceremonial speaking.
Describe the different types of inspirational speaking.

A man giving a birthday speech for his friend

M+MD – Birthday Speech – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Many entertaining speeches fall under the category of special-occasion speeches. All the speeches in this category are given to mark the significance of particular events. Common events include weddings, bar mitzvahs, awards ceremonies, funerals, and political events. In each of these different occasions, speakers are asked to deliver speeches relating to the event. For purposes of simplicity, we’ve broken special-occasion speeches into two groups: ceremonial speaking and inspirational speaking.

Ceremonial Speaking

Ceremonial speeches are speeches given during a ceremony or a ritual marked by observance of formality or etiquette. These ceremonies tend to be very special for people, so it shouldn’t be surprising that they are opportunities for speech making. Let’s examine each of the eight types of ceremonial speaking: introductions, presentations, acceptances, dedications, toasts, roasts, eulogies, and farewells.

Speeches of Introduction

The first type of speech is called the speech of introduction , which is a minispeech given by the host of a ceremony that introduces another speaker and his or her speech. Few things are worse than when the introducer or a speaker stands up and says, “This is Joe Smith, he’s going to talk about stress.” While we did learn the speaker’s name and the topic, the introduction falls flat. Audiences won’t be the least bit excited about listening to Joe’s speech.

Just like any other speech, a speech of introduction should be a complete speech and have a clear introduction, body, and conclusion—and you should do it all in under two minutes. This brings up another “few things are worse” scenario: an introductory speaker who rambles on for too long or who talks about himself or herself instead of focusing on the person being introduced.

For an introduction, think of a hook that will make your audience interested in the upcoming speaker. Did you read a news article related to the speaker’s topic? Have you been impressed by a presentation you’ve heard the speaker give in the past? You need to find something that can grab the audience’s attention and make them excited about hearing the main speaker.

The body of your introductory speech should be devoted to telling the audience about the speaker’s topic, why the speaker is qualified, and why the audience should listen (notice we now have our three body points). First, tell your audience in general terms about the overarching topic of the speech. Most of the time as an introducer, you’ll only have a speech title and maybe a paragraph of information to help guide this part of your speech. That’s all right. You don’t need to know all the ins and outs of the main speaker’s speech; you just need to know enough to whet the audience’s appetite. Next, you need to tell the audience why the speaker is a credible speaker on the topic. Has the speaker written books or articles on the subject? Has the speaker had special life events that make him or her qualified? Lastly, you need to briefly explain to the audience why they should care about the upcoming speech.

The final part of a good introduction is the conclusion, which is generally designed to welcome the speaker to the lectern. Many introducers will conclude by saying something like, “I am looking forward to hearing how Joe Smith’s advice and wisdom can help all of us today, so please join me in welcoming Mr. Joe Smith.” We’ve known some presenters who will even add a notation to their notes to “start clapping” and “shake speakers hand” or “give speaker a hug” depending on the circumstances of the speech.

Now that we’ve walked through the basic parts of an introductory speech, let’s see one outlined:

Specific Purpose: To entertain the audience while preparing them for Janice Wright’s speech on rituals.

Introduction: Mention some common rituals people in the United States engage in (Christmas, sporting events, legal proceedings).

Main Points:

Explain that the topic was selected because understanding how cultures use ritual is an important part of understanding what it means to be human.
Janice Wright is a cultural anthropologist who studies the impact that everyday rituals have on communities.
All of us engage in rituals, and we often don’t take the time to determine how these rituals were started and how they impact our daily routines.

Conclusion: I had the opportunity to listen to Dr. Wright at the regional conference in Springfield last month, and I am excited that I get to share her with all of you tonight. Please join me in welcoming Dr. Wright (start clapping, shake speaker’s hand, exit stage).

Speeches of Presentation

The second type of common ceremonial speech is the speech of presentation . A speech of presentation is a brief speech given to accompany a prize or honor. Speeches of presentation can be as simple as saying, “This year’s recipient of the Schuman Public Speaking prize is Wilhelmina Jeffers,” or could last up to five minutes as the speaker explains why the honoree was chosen for the award.

When preparing a speech of presentation, it’s always important to ask how long the speech should be. Once you know the time limit, then you can set out to create the speech itself. First, you should explain what the award or honor is and why the presentation is important. Second, you can explain what the recipient has accomplished in order for the award to be bestowed. Did the person win a race? Did the person write an important piece of literature? Did the person mediate conflict? Whatever the recipient has done, you need to clearly highlight his or her work. Lastly, if the race or competition was conducted in a public forum and numerous people didn’t win, you may want to recognize those people for their efforts as well. While you don’t want to steal the show away from winner (as Kanye West did to Taylor Swift during the 2009 MTV Music Video Awards, for example http://www.mtv.com/videos/misc/435995/taylor-swift-wins-best-female-video.jhtml#id=1620605 ), you may want to highlight the work of the other competitors or nominees.

Speeches of Acceptance

The complement to a speech of presentation is the speech of acceptance . The speech of acceptance is a speech given by the recipient of a prize or honor. For example, in the above video clip from the 2009 MTV Music Video Awards, Taylor Swift starts by expressing her appreciation, gets interrupted by Kanye West, and ends by saying, “I would like to thank the fans and MTV, thank you.” While obviously not a traditional acceptance speech because of the interruption, she did manage to get in the important parts.

There are three typical components of a speech of acceptance: thank the givers of the award or honor, thank those who helped you achieve your goal, and put the award or honor into perspective. First, you want to thank the people who have given you the award or honor and possibly those who voted for you. We see this done every year during the Oscars, “First, I’d like to thank the academy and all the academy voters.” Second, you want to give credit to those who helped you achieve the award or honor. No person accomplishes things in life on his or her own. We all have families and friends and colleagues who support us and help us achieve what we do in life, and a speech of acceptance is a great time to graciously recognize those individuals. Lastly, put the award in perspective. Tell the people listening to your speech why the award is meaningful to you.

Speeches of Dedication

The fourth ceremonial speech is the speech of dedication . A speech of dedication is delivered when a new store opens, a building is named after someone, a plaque is placed on a wall, a new library is completed, and so on. These speeches are designed to highlight the importance of the project and possibly those to whom the project has been dedicated. Maybe your great-uncle has died and left your college tons of money, so the college has decided to rename one of the dorms after your great-uncle. In this case, you may be asked to speak at the dedication.

When preparing the speech of dedication, start by explaining how you are involved in the dedication. If the person to whom the dedication is being made is a relative, tell the audience that the building is being named after your great-uncle who bestowed a gift to his alma mater. Second, you want to explain what is being dedicated. If the dedication is a new building or a preexisting building, you want to explain what is being dedicated and the importance of the structure. You should then explain who was involved in the project. If the project is a new structure, talk about the people who built the structure or designed it. If the project is a preexisting structure, talk about the people who put together and decided on the dedication. Lastly, explain why the structure is important for the community where it’s located. If the dedication is for a new store, talk about how the store will bring in new jobs and new shopping opportunities. If the dedication is for a new wing of a hospital, talk about how patients will be served and the advances in medicine the new wing will provide the community.

At one time or another, almost everyone is going to be asked to deliver a toast . A toast is a speech designed to congratulate, appreciate, or remember. First, toasts can be delivered for the purpose of congratulating someone for an honor, a new job, or getting married. You can also toast someone to show your appreciation for something they’ve done. Lastly, we toast people to remember them and what they have accomplished.

When preparing a toast, the first goal is always to keep your remarks brief. Toasts are generally given during the middle of some kind of festivities (e.g., wedding, retirement party, farewell party), and you don’t want your toast to take away from those festivities for too long. Second, the goal of a toast is to focus attention on the person or persons being toasted—not on the speaker. As such, while you are speaking you need to focus your attention to the people being toasted, both by physically looking at them and by keeping your message about them. You should also avoid any inside jokes between you and the people being toasted because toasts are public and should be accessible for everyone who hears them. To conclude a toast, simply say something like, “Please join me in recognizing Joan for her achievement” and lift your glass. When you lift your glass, this will signal to others to do the same and then you can all take a drink, which is the end of your speech.

The roast speech is a very interesting and peculiar speech because it is designed to both praise and good-naturedly insult a person being honored. Generally, roasts are given at the conclusion of a banquet in honor of someone’s life achievements. The television station Comedy Central has been conducting roasts of various celebrities for a few years.

In this clip, watch as Stephen Colbert, television host of The Colbert Report , roasts President George W. Bush.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BSE_saVX_2A

Let’s pick this short clip apart. You’ll notice that the humor doesn’t pull any punches. The goal of the roast is to both praise and insult in a good-natured manner. You’ll also see that the roaster, in this case Stephen Colbert, is standing behind a lectern while the roastee, President George W. Bush, is clearly on display for the audience to see, and periodically you’ll see the camera pan to President Bush to take in his reactions. Half the fun of a good roast is watching the roastee’s reactions during the roast, so it’s important to have the roastee clearly visible by the audience.

How does one prepare for a roast? First, you want to really think about the person who is being roasted. Do they have any strange habits or amusing stories in their past that you can discuss? When you think through these things you want to make sure that you cross anything off your list that is truly private information or will really hurt the person. The goal of a roast is to poke at them, not massacre them. Second, when selecting which aspects to poke fun at, you need to make sure that the items you choose are widely known by your audience. Roasts work when the majority of people in the audience can relate to the jokes being made. If you have an inside joke with the roastee, bringing it up during roast may be great fun for the two of you, but it will leave your audience unimpressed. Lastly, end on a positive note. While the jokes are definitely the fun part of a roast, you should leave the roastee knowing that you truly do care about and appreciate the person.

A eulogy is a speech given in honor of someone who has died. (Don’t confuse “eulogy” with “elegy,” a poem or song of mourning.) Unless you are a minister, priest, rabbi, imam, or other form of religious leader, you’ll probably not deliver too many eulogies in your lifetime. However, when the time comes to deliver a eulogy, it’s good to know what you’re doing and to adequately prepare your remarks. Watch the following clip of then-Senator Barack Obama delivering a eulogy at the funeral of civil rights activist Rosa Parks in November of 2005.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pRsH92sJCr4

In this eulogy, Senator Obama delivers the eulogy by recalling Rosa Parks importance and her legacy in American history.

When preparing a eulogy, first you need to know as much information about the deceased as possible. The more information you have about the person, the more personal you can make the eulogy. While you can rely on your own information if you were close to the deceased, it is always a good idea to ask friends and relatives of the deceased for their memories, as these may add important facets that may not have occurred to you. Of course, if you were not very close to the deceased, you will need to ask friends and family for information. Second, although eulogies are delivered on the serious and sad occasion of a funeral or memorial service for the deceased, it is very helpful to look for at least one point to be lighter or humorous. In some cultures, in fact, the friends and family attending the funeral will expect the eulogy to be highly entertaining and amusing. While eulogies are not roasts, one goal of the humor or lighter aspects of a eulogy is to relieve the tension that is created by the serious nature of the occasion. Lastly, remember to tell the deceased’s story. Tell the audience about who this person was and what the person stood for in life. The more personal you can make a eulogy, the more touching it will be for the deceased’s friends and families. The eulogy should remind the audience to celebrate the person’s life as well as mourn their death.

Speeches of Farewell

A speech of farewell allows someone to say good-bye to one part of his or her life as he or she is moving on to the next part of life. Maybe you’ve accepted a new job and are leaving your current job, or you’re graduating from college and entering the work force. Whatever the case may be, periods of transition are often marked by speeches of farewell. Watch the following clip of Derek Jeter’s 2008 speech saying farewell to Yankee Stadium, built in 1923, before the New York Yankees moved to the new stadium that opened in 2009.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HJrlTpQm0to

In this speech, Derek Jeter is not only saying good-bye to Yankee Stadium but also thanking the fans for their continued support.

When preparing a speech of farewell, the goal should be to thank the people in your current position and let them know how much you appreciate them as you make the move to your next position in life. In Derek Jeter’s speech, he starts by talking about the history of the 1923 Yankee Stadium and then thanks the fans for their support. Second, you want to express to your audience how much the experience has meant to you. A farewell speech is a time to commemorate and think about the good times you’ve had. As such, you should avoid negativity during this speech. Lastly, you want to make sure that you end on a high note. Derek Jeter concludes his speech by saying, “On behalf of this entire organization, we just want to take this moment to salute you, the greatest fans in the world!” at which point Jeter and the other players take off their ball caps and hold them up toward the audience.

Inspirational Speaking

The goal of an inspirational speech is to elicit or arouse an emotional state within an audience. In Section 18.2.1 “Ceremonial Speaking” , we looked at ceremonial speeches. Although some inspirational speeches are sometimes tied to ceremonial occasions, there are also other speaking contexts that call for inspirational speeches. For our purposes, we are going to look at two types of inspirational speeches: goodwill and speeches of commencement.

Speeches to Ensure Goodwill

Goodwill is an intangible asset that is made up of the favor or reputation of an individual or organization. Speeches of goodwill are often given in an attempt to get audience members to view the person or organization more favorably. Although speeches of goodwill are clearly persuasive, they try not to be obvious about the persuasive intent and are often delivered as information-giving speeches that focus on an individual or organization’s positives attributes. There are three basic types of speeches of goodwill: public relations, justification, and apology.

Speeches for Public Relations

In a public relations speech, the speaker is speaking to enhance one’s own image or the image of his or her organization. You can almost think of these speeches as cheerleading speeches because the ultimate goal is to get people to like the speaker and what he or she represents. In the following brief speech, the CEO of British Petroleum is speaking to reporters about what his organization is doing during the 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cCfa6AxmUHw

Notice that he keeps emphasizing what his company is doing to fix the problem. Every part of this speech is orchestrated to make BP look caring and attempts to get some amount of goodwill from the viewing public.

Speeches of Justification

The second common speech of goodwill is the speech of justification, which is given when someone attempts to defend why certain actions were taken or will be taken. In these speeches, speakers have already enacted (or decided to enact) some kind of behavior, and are now attempting to justify why the behavior is or was appropriate. In the following clip, President Bill Clinton discusses his decision to bomb key Iraqi targets after uncovering a plot to assassinate former President George H. W. Bush.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6mpWa7wNr5M

In this speech, President Clinton outlines his reasons for bombing Iraq to the American people and the globe. Again, the goal of this speech is to secure goodwill for President Clinton’s decisions both in the United States and on the world stage.

Speeches of Apology

The final speech of goodwill is the speech of apology. Frankly, these speeches have become more and more commonplace. Every time we turn around, a politician, professional athlete, musician, or actor/actress is doing something reprehensible and getting caught. In fact, the speech of apology has quickly become a fodder for humor as well. Let’s take a look at a real apology speech delivered by professional golfer Tiger Woods.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xs8nseNP4s0

When you need to make an apology speech, there are three elements that you need to include: be honest and take responsibility, say you’re sorry, and offer restitution. First, a speaker needs to be honest and admit to doing something wrong. The worst apology speeches are those in which the individual tries to sidestep the wrongdoing. Even if you didn’t do anything wrong, it is often best to take responsibility from a public perception perspective. Second, say that you are sorry. People need to know that you are remorseful for what you’ve done. One of the problems many experts saw with Tiger Woods’s speech is that he doesn’t look remorseful at all. While the words coming out of his mouth are appropriate, he looks like a robot forced to read from a manuscript written by his press agent. Lastly, you need to offer restitution. Restitution can come in the form of fixing something broken or a promise not to engage in such behavior in the future. People in society are very willing to forgive and forget when they are asked.

Speeches for Commencements

The second type of inspirational speech is the speech of commencement , which is designed to recognize and celebrate the achievements of a graduating class or other group of people. The most typical form of commencement speech happens when someone graduates from school. Nearly all of us have sat through commencement speeches at some point in our lives. And if you’re like us, you’ve heard good ones and bad ones. Numerous celebrities and politicians have been asked to deliver commencement speeches at colleges and universities. One famous and well-thought-out commencement speech was given by famed Harry Potter author J. K. Rowling at Harvard University in 2008.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkREt4ZB-ck

J. K. Rowling’s speech has the perfect balance of humor and inspiration, which are two of the main ingredients of a great commencement speech.

If you’re ever asked to deliver a commencement speech, there are some key points to think through when deciding on your speech’s content.

If there is a specific theme for the graduation, make sure that your commencement speech addresses that theme. If there is no specific theme, come up with one for your speech. Some common commencement speech themes are commitment, competitiveness, competence, confidence, decision making, discipline, ethics, failure (and overcoming failure), faith, generosity, integrity, involvement, leadership, learning, persistence, personal improvement, professionalism, reality, responsibility, and self-respect.
Talk about your life and how graduates can learn from your experiences to avoid pitfalls or take advantages of life. How can your life inspire the graduates in their future endeavors?
Make the speech humorous. Commencement speeches should be entertaining and make an audience laugh.
Be brief! Nothing is more painful than a commencement speaker who drones on and on. Remember, the graduates are there to get their diplomas; their families are there to watch the graduates walk across the stage.
Remember, while you may be the speaker, you’ve been asked to impart wisdom and advice for the people graduating and moving on with their lives, so keep it focused on them.
Place the commencement speech into the broader context of the graduates’ lives. Show the graduates how the advice and wisdom you are offering can be utilized to make their own lives better.

Overall, it’s important to make sure that you have fun when delivering a commencement speech. Remember, it’s a huge honor and responsibility to be asked to deliver a commencement speech, so take the time to really think through and prepare your speech.

Key Takeaways

There are eight common forms of ceremonial speaking: introduction, presentation, acceptance, dedication, toast, roast, eulogy, and farewell. Speeches of introduction are designed to introduce a speaker. Speeches of presentation are given when an individual is presenting an award of some kind. Speeches of acceptance are delivered by the person receiving an award or honor. Speeches of dedication are given when a new building or other place is being opened for the first time. Toasts are given to acknowledge and honor someone on a special occasion (e.g., wedding, birthday, retirement). Roasts are speeches designed to both praise and good-naturedly insult a person being honored. Eulogies are given during funerals and memorial services. Lastly, speeches of farewell are delivered by an individual who is leaving a job, community, or organization, and wants to acknowledge how much the group has meant.
Inspirational speeches fall into two categories: goodwill (e.g., public relations, justification, and apology) and speeches of commencement. Speeches of goodwill attempt to get audience members to view the person or organization more favorably. On the other hand, speeches of commencement are delivered to recognize the achievements of a group of people.
Imagine you’ve been asked to speak before a local civic organization such as the Kiwanis or Rotary Club. Develop a sample speech of introduction that you would like someone to give to introduce you.
You’ve been asked to roast your favorite celebrity. Develop a two-minute roast.
Develop a speech of commencement for your public speaking class.

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17.3: Types of Special Occasion Speeches

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Juliann Scholl@Texas Tech University
Millersville University via Public Speaking Project

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speech of introduction

A speech of introduction introduces the main speaker at an event and inspires the audience to listen to that speaker (O’Hair & Stewart, 1999). Any speech of introduction needs to be brief. After all, the person making the introduction should not be the focus of attention. The introductory speech usually has three components: (a) provide a brief backdrop or background of the main speaker, (b) introduce the speaker’s topic, and (c) an invitation from the audience to warmly welcome the speaker. Here is an example of a speech of introduction:

The person giving our keynote address is someone we all know and admire. Not only is Dr. Brian Garcia an alum of our university and department, but he has gone on to make major contributions to our field. As one of our nation’s foremost experts in end-of-life care and communication, Dr. Garcia has written over 50 journal articles and book chapters on this field. We are privileged today to hear him speak on hospice care and the Hispanic population. Please join me in welcoming Dr. Brian Garcia.

As the previous example illustrates, the speech of introduction is relatively brief. But the brevity might depend on how familiar the audience is with the speaker’s topic (Adler & Elmhorst, 2010). If the topic is not well-known, you might need to take a few minutes toward the end of the speech to elaborate more on the topic. Also, it is important to enhance the speaker’s credibility. In the previous example, the person introducing Dr. Garcia reminds the audience that he is an alum of the university (establishes common ground) and that he is a distinguished academic and writer.

If you are introducing a speaker, be sure to do your homework and find out as much as you can about this person; the last thing you want to do is give inaccurate information as you’re introducing him or her! See if you can meet the person ahead of time, whether it is in person or over the phone. You’ll also want to be culturally sensitive (Adler & Elmhorst, 2010). For instance, many people outside the United States prefer to be called by their titles, such as “Professor.” Also, be aware of any gender bias that might influence how you introduce the person, such as calling a man “Dr.” or “Mr.” while referring to a woman of similar status by her first name.

Screen Shot 2019-06-30 at 2.50.38 PM.png

A toast is a brief tribute to a person or event (O’Hair & Stewart, 1999). A toast also allows the speaker to acknowledge accomplishments and express best wishes for the future (Adler & Elmhorst, 2010). Besides being brief (about 30 to 60 seconds), a toast is a speech delivered at a well- chosen time, which is when everyone is present, such as when guests are seated for a dinner or when everyone has a drink in hand.

Many people are nervous at the thought of giving a toast. Therefore, some preparation and practice can help make the event more enjoyable and memorable. Anyone called upon to give a toast should prepare ahead of time. Having in mind one or two things that set the person or event apart is an effective strategy, as well as keeping a positive tone and staying brief. It is advised that you practice in front of a mirror or in front of a friend to become more comfortable with the toast.

We lift our glasses to Ms. Becky McPherson, who has devoted 20 years to our organization. Not only have we benefited from her tireless hours building this company, but there is no way to measure how much she has touched each of our lives. So, it is Becky McPherson that we humbly toast this evening.

If you are tapped to deliver a toast, take some things into consideration to avoid any awkward or cringe-worthy moments. For instance, be sober when delivering the toast. Alcohol makes one sluggish and less inhibited; you do not want people to remember you for the way you slurred during the speech or for anything inappropriate you might have said. Also, when it doubt, leave it out. In other words, if you are debating about whether to share a humorous story, it is best not to share it at all. There is the chance that some members of your audience might not find it funny or tasteful. Finally, while a toast should be prepared, try your best to come across as spontaneous. A toast should not appear to be memorized; neither should you deliver a toast from a manuscript. Plan your key points, but use your impromptu skills to deliver the words in a conversational, informal manner.

A roast is a particular kind of toast that is humorous and pokes fun at the

honored person in a friendly way. A roast might be given for someone who is moving away or has achieved noteworthy success in her or his lifetime. It is generally considered a high honor to be roasted, and in most cases a roast is reserved for individuals who have achieved respect and a noteworthy reputation. One such individual is President George W. Bush, who was roasted by Stephen Colbert during the 2006 White House Correspondents’ Dinner. Within this excerpt is Colbert’s jab at Vice President Dick Cheney:

Screen Shot 2019-06-30 at 2.55.18 PM.png

Wow! Wow, what an honor! The White House Correspondents’ dinner. To actually—to sit here at the same table with my hero, George W. Bush, to be this close to the man. I feel like I’m dreaming. Somebody pinch me. You know what? I’m a pretty sound sleeper; that may not be enough. Somebody shoot me in the face. Is he really not here tonight? Damn it! The one guy who could have helped. (Kurtzman, 2012).

A roast can contain tributes, admiration, comedic insults, and outlandish stories that are true or untrue. There is usually a roastmaster— someone who serves as master of ceremonies—and other individuals can take part in the roasting. It is often the case that those involved in the roasting might expect to bear the brunt of a few of the jokes.

The recipient or person being honored deserves careful consideration. While a roast is intended to honor a person, the speaker should know for certain that the roastee is someone who can take a joke and show good humor when receiving humorous criticism. Regardless of the jokes and comedic insults used, the ultimate goal is to pay tribute to the person being honored, and a roaster should never lose sight of that objective. One also should be aware of effective and appropriate uses of humor in such a context, and more about humor will be discussed later in this chapter.

I like to praise and reward loudly, to blame quietly. ~ Catherine the Great

speech to present an award

Presenting an award warrants a presentational speech , during which a speaker presents a person with an award or prize. The primary purpose of this speech is to give recognition to the recipient and his or her accomplishments pertaining to that specific award. While presentational speeches might vary in length and content, they all should contain a few key elements. First, the person presenting the award should not only highlight the merits of the award recipient, but also point out the purpose and significance of the award being given (O’Hair & Stewart, 1999). Another element of the presentation is to personalize the speech to make the award and event more meaningful for the recipient and the audience. Here is an example of a presentational speech:

Our next award is the Outstanding Graduate Research Award, which goes to the graduate student who has made the most significant contribution to our department. The recipient of this award certainly deserves this honor because he does today what others do not in order to achieve tomorrow what others will not. Therefore, I proudly present this year’s Outstanding Graduate Research Award to Jeremiah Polk.

Adler and Elmhorst (2010) provide some additional guidelines for the best presentational speeches. First, make sure the recipient’s name comes at the appropriate time. If the recipient is known to everyone, then the name should be mentioned right away. If the announcement is a surprise, then it is better to hold off mentioning the recipient’s name until the end, which you saw in the previous example. Also, let the audience know how the recipient met—and even surpassed—the criteria for the award. You should also make sure the focus of attention is on the recipient, not on the one presenting the award. Finally, to facilitate a smooth transfer of the award to the recipient, the presenter might want to hold the award in his or her left hand while using the right to shake the recipient’s hand.

Screen Shot 2019-06-30 at 2.57.12 PM.png

acceptance speech

The presentation of an award is usually followed by an acceptance speech, which the recipient delivers upon immediate receipt of the award. This speech gives the recipient an opportunity to show appreciation for the award as well as humility and grace (O’Hair & Stewart, 1999). Such a speech should be prepared ahead of time, if possible. In the preparation process, the recipient will have a general idea of who to thank, which should not be overlooked during such an event. Here is Jeremiah Polk’s acceptance speech:

Thank you very much for presenting me with the Outstanding Graduate Research Award. I want to thank the professors on the award committee for selecting me, and the other faculty for their encouragement and support. I especially thank Dr. Jane Griffin for her mentorship and belief in my abilities as a graduate student and an aspiring researcher. I will remember this honor and strive to be deserving of it as I complete my doctoral program. Again, thank you all for this incredible honor.

The previous example has a particular organizational structure (Adler & Elmhorst, 2010). First, the recipient expresses his sincere appreciation. If the award was unexpected, then he might also express a sincere level of surprise. Second, he acknowledges those who contributed to or made the award possible. He also thanks other people who have had an impact on his success. Third, he indicates how the award will make a difference in the future (i.e., it will make him work harder as he continues with his academic program). Finally, the recipient closes his speech by expressing thanks again.

Each day offers us the gift of being a special occasion if we can simply learn that as well as giving, it is blessed to receive with grace and a grateful heart. ~ Sarah Ban Breathnach

keynote address

The keynote address is a speech that represents the essential or common theme of a convention, conference, or other large gathering. Most conferences, expositions, or conventions are usually organized around a central idea, and the keynote address is what summarizes the central message revolving around the general theme. For example, organizers of a conference with the theme “Looking Forward—Looking Back” might want the keynote speaker to celebrate the history of that organization, recount its past accomplishments, predict future directions of the organization, and invite audience members to embrace the future mission and vision. Similar to this sample structure, most keynote speeches contain common elements.

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The person giving the keynote address is usually a person who has earned a national or international reputation within his or her professional field. Such a person would likely be invited to speak because of her or his expertise or particular claim to fame, which would be alluded to in the speech. In addition, the keynote speaker is wise to be mindful of the conference theme and to incorporate that theme into the speech. Regardless of the conference theme, the typical speech might allude to such topics as organizational growth, team building, goals and aspirations, leadership, change, or achievements (Speech Topics Helps, Advice & Ideas, 2005). Some of these themes are evident in Dr. Neal Lane’s (1996) keynote address during the 50$_{th}$ anniversary celebration of Cornell University’s School of Applied and Engineering Physics:

When we look across science and engineering, we can see . . . stories and subplots developing, both in terms of the excitement they generate and in terms of their potential impact on society. These don’t always generate banner headlines about little green men or microbes. But they nevertheless hold the potential to revolutionalize how we remedy social ills and spark economic growth. In fact, there is wide agreement that we are entering an era where science, engineering, and technology will exert greater influence on daily life than at any time in human history.

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commemorative speech and tribute

The commencement speech—which is a type of keynote speech—is given to mark the occasion of a school’s graduation ceremony during which diplomas are awarded to graduating students. The commencement speech is celebratory in nature in that it marks an important milestone in the graduates’ lives. At the same time it can be a call to action for its audience (Fly Little Bird, 2007). Many commencement audiences may appreciate a speech that is relatively brief and to the point, and many speakers provide practical, yet memorable, advice. For instance, Billie Jean King once said, “Find a mentor and be a mentor. Give back. And when people tell you not to believe in your dreams, and they say, “Why?” say, “Why not?” (Wisdom Engine, 2006).

This type of speech is usually given by a person who is well-known in the community or by someone who has achieved national or international recognition for her or his contributions to society. The speaker might be a politician, an alumnus from the institution, a famous speaker, or other noteworthy figure. The speaker might be chosen by the school administration or by the graduating students themselves.

On one level, a commencement speech can bring attention to certain social or political issues of the day, such as HIV/AIDS, economic inequality, or education. Additionally, such speeches typically lay out paths the audience can take beyond their educational years (e.g., giving one’s time, taking on important causes), as well as what specific tools for change are needed for an individual to make an impact (e.g., use of the Internet, acquiring and disseminating information). Finally, commencement speeches often touch on aspects that contribute to a good life; such examples might include finding one’s passion, showing compassion to others, and appreciating diversity. In general, the commencement speech emphasizes celebration and looking ahead toward the future. Lisa Kudrow, in her 2010 address to the graduating class at Vassar College, encourages her audience to look to the future with a purpose of finding oneself:

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I did actually hear from a little more than two of you that, because I went here, you wanted to know about my experiences after graduating and I understand that because the twenties are that time in your life when (this is not a joke) you’re really getting acquainted with your own adult self and seeing how you respond to self-doubt when there’s so much seemingly at stake. So, let me reassure you. It’s not supposed to be easy, but it doesn’t have to be torture. You’re supposed to have moments of uncertainty about which path to take because the 20’s are full of crossroads.

Commemorative speeches and tributes are speeches that pay special accolades to an occasion, extraordinary person, event, idea, or monument. The purpose or scope of this speech is to reflect the emotions felt by the audience as well as underscore the reasons for the speaking event. Delivering a tribute and commemorative speech involves careful attention to language. These speeches are intended to inspire the audience, and the use of the richness of language should serve to evoke the appropriate emotions within the audience as well as the honored person(s).

One way to evaluate your own reputation is to think about what would be said of you at your eulogy. ~ Brian Koslow

Tributes and commemorative speeches have certain characteristics. First, they are short and eloquent (Letteri, 1997). In most cases, this speech should be one to five minutes long, which means the words should be chosen carefully and efficiently for impact. Second, these speeches are written to anticipate the emotional needs of the audience. There is a difference between the need to be festive and the need to grieve, and the speech should contain language that conveys the appropriate feelings. Rather than focus on a great deal of information about the person, event, or thing being honored, the speech should make reference to the emotions of the audience and respect those emotions— whether directly or indirectly. When the speaking occasion is honoring a person, the speech’s content should contain a balance between the professional and personal accomplishments of the honoree. While the speech should emphasize the person’s professional work, his or her personal activities (e.g., family life, community involvement) also warrant attention. Russell Crowe demonstrates this balance as he commemorates the late Steven Irwin, the television personality famously known as the Crocodile Hunter:

Good morning everybody. Firstly, to Terri and all of Steve's family, from my family to yours, our deepest sympathies and condolences. I think this memorial should be a joyful one, and not mournful one. We, after all, have to keep in mind who we are here to celebrate, and what he would have preferred. I hope somebody will speak today of the specifics of what Steve achieved as a conservationist, but all I can do today is talk directly to my friend, my mate, Steven. Your passing has suspended reality for all of us. It was way too soon, and completely unfair on all accounts. I know as humble as you always were, that you would still be pleased to know that the world sends its love and that people all over this planet have been grieving. We've all lost a friend, we've lost a champion, and we're gonna take some time adjust to that. I'm in New York, mate - the big city - and you have been headline news on CNN for a week. There are not many zookeepers who would command that attention, mate. And all that means is that you got your message across. You got the word out there. And you were heard. And you will be remembered (Famous Speeches and Speech Topics, 2008).

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after-dinner speech

The after-dinner speech is a unique kind of special occasion speech. An after-dinner speech has as its general purpose to entertain, and yet informs an audience about one or more particular issues. These dual roles can make the after-dinner speech a challenge, but with skill and practice, a well-received speech. Mark Twain made this type of speech very popular in his day, speaking at many dinner events. These dinners were very lengthy, and were followed by several hours of humorous speeches (Patout, 1978). Such events still occur today, and are often scheduled before, during, or after a professional or civic meeting (O’Hair et al., 2001) where a meal might be served.

Against the assault of laughter nothing can stand. ~ Mark Twain

A well-prepared, rehearsed, and delivered after-dinner speech can make a significant mark on the audience and occasion, all the while using humor to make a serious point. The best speeches are usually tailored to the audience and occasion, have a thesis statement or idea, include claims that have support, and of course, incorporate humor. When used well in an after-dinner speech, humor can teach, entertain, and perhaps change the way people look at an issue. Used poorly, however, humor can hurt your message beyond repair and diminish your credibility. Due to the nature of humor in public speaking, there are several issues to keep in mind. First, the topic or theme of the speech should relate to the occasion of the event. Relevant speeches include references to the event’s purpose or cause and perhaps some key people involved:

I am grateful for the opportunity to address you all this evening. When I asked your conference planner how long my speech should be, she said, “You can speak as long as you want, but the rest of us will be leaving around nine.” . . . Before I say anything more, I have been asked by the facilities manager to remind you that the sign in the men’s restroom saying “Wet Floor” should serve as a warning, not an instruction . . .

Indeed, after-dinner speeches are intended to be funny, but avoid turning the event into a stand-up comedy routine. A stand-up routine is merely a string of jokes that are more speaker- centered rather than audience-centered (Hamilton, 2002). On the contrary, an after-dinner speech has clear organization, a polished delivery, and a clearly articulated theme. Without a clear organizational pattern, the audience will have difficulty understanding the serious point made with the speech.

A common mistake some after- dinner speakers make is to come across as a comedian, taking on styles and mannerisms that are not natural. After- dinner speakers should avoid styles and forms of delivery that are not their own and with which they do not feel comfortable. In other words, the speech and humor used should be consistent with the speaker’s persona.

Follow the path of the unsafe, independent thinker. Expose your ideas to the danger of controversy. Speak your mind and fear less the label of "crackpot" than the stigma of conformity. ~ Thomas John Watson, Sr.

There is the possibility that the speech will touch on serious or controversial issues. After all, the after- dinner speech sets a social agenda (O’Hair et al., 2001), often conveying a speaker’s stance on an issue. Skilled after-dinner speakers understand this, and they are observant of the audience’s comfort levels. If the theme or occasion is a very somber one, such as commemorating the lost lives of the Civil Rights movement, the speaker should keep her or his humorous remarks modest so as not to seriously offend (Hamilton, 2002). Even when the purpose of the speech is more heavily weighted on agenda setting rather than entertainment, it should still be a celebration of the occasion.

In keeping with an audience’s comfort level, an after-dinner speech should fit their mood and expectations. If the audience is in the mood to have fun or to be entertained, then the after- dinner speech might be well received. The mood or attitude of the audience will influence how they receive or respond to your jokes. If the speech isn’t well-matched to the audience, even your best-told and most clever jokes will fall flat.

Brevity is the soul of wit. ~ William Shakespeare

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Speech Writing

Acceptance Speech

How to Write the Best Acceptance Speech for Your Audience?

What is an Acceptance Speech?

The main goal of writing the speech is to say thanks to those who've recognized your achievements.

An acceptance speech is a special occasion speech that gives a chance for the recipient to express gratitude and acknowledge the people for the honor.

It's a way to share your vision with humility, showing appreciation for those who've honored you.

How to Write an Acceptance Speech?

Your words for an acceptance speech for an award should leave a lasting impression on your audience.

Here's a step-by-step guide on how to create a memorable acceptance speech:

Immediately Start With a Thank You

Begin your speech by expressing heartfelt thanks to those who have not only supported you but also recognized your achievements. This sets a positive and appreciative tone from the very beginning, showing your gratitude for the honor.

Discuss the Organization

Take a moment to reflect on the significance of the organization that is presenting the award. Explain how this organization contributes to the community or field, and why their recognition is valuable.

Recognize Supportive People

Acknowledge the people who have played essential roles in your journey to success. This includes family members, friends, mentors, and anyone else who has provided guidance, support, or inspiration along the way.

Include Humor in Your Speech

Injecting humor into your speech can be a great way to engage your audience and make your speech more enjoyable. You can pick an entertaining speech topic to include in your speech.

End With Impact

The conclusion of your speech is a crucial part where you can leave a lasting impression on your audience. Conclude with a statement, quote, or message that makes your speech memorable and thought-provoking.

Express Gratitude

Finally, reiterate your appreciation for the organization that presented the award and for the audience that has listened to your speech. Convey your thanks with sincerity and humility.

By considering the above-mentioned elements in your acceptance speech, you can create a memorable address that resonates with your audience and expresses your gratitude.

Acceptance Speech Examples

Here are some excellent speech examples for students and working professionals:

Acceptance Speech Sample

Award Acceptance Speech

Scholarship Acceptance Speech

Jennifer Coolidge Acceptance Speech

Brendan Fraser Acceptance Speech

Austin Butler Acceptance Speech

Ke Huy Quan's Acceptance Speech

Sheryl Lee Ralph's Acceptance Speech

Jamie Lee Curtis Acceptance Speech

Michelle Yeoh Acceptance Speech

Harry Styles's Acceptance Speech

Lizzo Acceptance Speech

Acceptance Speech as President of An Organization

Acceptance Speech for a Leadership Position

It is recommended to look at additional speech examples to have a better understanding of writing a speech.

Mistakes to Avoid When Writing An Acceptance Speech

Here are some things you should avoid when writing your acceptance speech:

Overwhelming Thank-Yous: While expressing gratitude is crucial, don't overdo it by individually thanking every person you've ever met. Keep it concise and focus on key supporters.
Lack of Structure: Avoid a disorganized or lengthy speech. Structure your speech with a clear beginning, middle, and end to maintain your audience's attention.
Being Negative: Stay positive and avoid any negative remarks or criticisms, whether related to the award or other aspects. Maintain a gracious and optimistic tone.
Overusing Jargon: Use language that your audience can easily understand. Avoid excessive use of technical terms or industry-specific jargon.
Inappropriate Humor: Humor is excellent if used appropriately, but steer clear of offensive or overly sarcastic jokes that might alienate your audience.
Not Rehearsing: Practice your speech before the event. Avoid reading it for the first time on stage, which can lead to stumbling or a lack of engagement.

Phrases You Can Use in Acceptance Speech Writing

Here are some useful phrases you can use in your speech:

I am deeply honored to accept this award for...
I share this recognition with...
I stand here today with a profound sense of gratitude for...
I want to express my heartfelt thanks to...
This award is a testament to the hard work and dedication of...
I couldn't have achieved this without the unwavering support of...
This honor means the world to me, and it is a reflection of the incredible team I've had the privilege to work with.
I accept this award on behalf of all those who believed in our vision.
This recognition serves as a reminder that dreams can come true with perseverance and the support of loved ones.
As I stand here, I am humbled by the collective effort of our team.
I am excited to see where this award will take us in the future.
This honor encourages us to continue our mission and make an even greater impact.
I would like to acknowledge the outstanding work of my colleagues, who have been instrumental in our success.
It is not just my award; it's a celebration of our shared dedication and hard work.
Whether speaking to a few or many, your words can inspire and connect with those who respect your accomplishments.
I am deeply grateful for the opportunities this award brings, and I pledge to use them to make a positive difference.

You can use these phrases in your acceptance speech.

Tips for Acceptance Speech Writing

Here are some essential tips to keep in mind while crafting your acceptance speech.

Start Early: Begin your speech preparations well in advance to allow time for thoughtful reflection and revisions.
Maintain a Respectful Tone: Use polite and respectful language throughout your speech to show gratitude and appreciation.
Keep It Brief: Acceptance speeches are typically short, so aim to be concise and to the point.
Adapt to the Occasion: Tailor your speech to the formality and theme of the event.
Create an Outline: Develop an outline to help you organize your speech effectively and ensure all key points are included.
Understand Special Requirements: Inquire about any specific requirements or guidelines set by the hosting organization.
Seek Inspiration: Study and learn from exceptional acceptance speeches online to gather ideas and insights.
Edit and Proofread: Carefully review and edit your speech, and consider seeking input from others to refine your content.

So there you have it!

Your acceptance speech is your opportunity to shine and express your gratitude. With these guidelines and tips, you can craft an acceptance speech that resonates with your audience and leaves a lasting impact.

Whether you're addressing a small gathering or a large audience, your words can inspire and connect with those who have chosen to honor your achievements.

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15 Persuasive Speeches

Speeches that Make a Change

In this chapter . . .

For many public speeches, the specific purpose is to convince the audience of a particular opinion or claim or to convince them to take some action in response to the speech. When your intention is to affect change in your audience (not just the acquisition of knowledge) then you are delivering a persuasive speech. In this chapter you will learn about the elements of persuasion, why persuasion is difficult, and how to overcome people’s resistance to change by using effective and ethical methods.

Although a persuasive speech involves information—even as much as an informative speech—the key difference is that a persuasive speech is designed for “creating, reinforcing, or changing people’s beliefs or actions” (Lucas, 2015. p. 306). A persuasive speech makes something happen. In other words, it performs a job.

Traditional Views of Persuasion

In the fourth century BCE, the classic philosopher Aristotle took up the study of the public practices of the ruling class in Athenian society. For two years he observed the rhetoric (the art of persuasion) of the men who spoke in the assembly and the courts. In the end, he developed a theory about persuasiveness that has come down to us in history as a treatise called Rhetoric. Among his many ideas was the identification of three elements essential to persuasion: ethos, logos, and pathos. In short, they mean credibility, reasonability, and emotion.

Ethos has come to mean speaker character and credentials. It is the element that establishes the audience’s trust in you as a speaker. A speaker’s credibility is based on who the speaker is and what they know: experience, education, expertise, and background. If you’re delivering a persuasive speech about adopting a pet from a shelter and you have raised several shelter dogs, then you have credibility through experience and should share that fact about yourself with the audience to enhance their trust in your persuasive argument. Another way to establish your credibility is through research sources. You may not be an expert in climate change, but if you were giving a persuasive speech about it, you can cite reliable authoritative sources.

The word ethos looks very much like the word “ethics,” and there are many close parallels to the trust an audience has in a speaker and their honesty and ethical stance. In terms of ethics, it goes without saying that your speech will be truthful.

In addition to expertise and truthfulness is your personal involvement in the topic. Ideally you have chosen the topic because it means something to you personally. Audiences will have more trust in you if they feel you have something as stake or something personal in the subject. For example, perhaps your speech is designed to motivate audience members to take action against bullying in schools, and it’s important to you because you work with the Boys and Girls Club organization and have seen how anti-bullying programs can have positive results. Sharing your own involvement and commitment is key to establishing your credibility on this topic.

Logos is the second key element in Aristotle’s theory of rhetoric. Related to our word “logic,” the Greek term logos in persuasion means presenting ideas that appeal to logic or reason. Logos in a speech pertain to arguments that the audience would find acceptable. Imagine a speech, for example, which has the goal of persuading an audience to adopt healthier eating habits. Would the speech be effective if the arguments focused on how expensive organic foods are? Of course not.

Logic and reason are persuasive not only as matters of content. Logos pertains to organization, as well. An effective persuasive speech presents arguments in an organized fashion.

In words like “empathy,” “sympathy,” and “compassion” we see the root word behind the Greek word pathos. Pathos, for Aristotle, meant exciting emotions such as anger, joy, hate, love, and desire to persuade the audience of the rightness of a proposition. In a positive sense, appealing to the emotions of the audience is a highly effective persuasive tool. In the earlier example of a speech designed to encourage an audience to take action against bullying in schools, including a touching story about a student experiencing bullying would make the audience more likely to support your call for action.

However, we recognize that pathos can be used in a negative way. Emotional appeals that use anger, guilt, hatred, inflammatory language like name-calling, or that try to frighten the audience with horrible images, are counter-productive and even unethical. They might incite emotion in the audience, but they are poor uses of pathos.

One negative emotion used frequently by persuasive speakers is fear. Candidates for political office, for example, often try to provoke fear to move us to vote for them. Intense, over-the-top fear appeals, based on factual falsehoods or cherry-picking, and/or including shocking photos, are not ethical and are often dismissed by discerning audience members. Appealing to the emotion of fear can be ethical if it’s managed carefully. This means being strictly factual and avoiding extremes.

Persuasion and the Audience

It makes sense that if a speaker wants to affect the audience’s beliefs or actions, then the speaker must be perfectly clear about their expectations. If you were listening to a persuasive speech call for your audience to support animals, wouldn’t you want to know exactly what “support” the speaker was talking about? Giving money to charities? Volunteering at an animal shelter? Writing state legislators and urging them to change laws? Your job as a persuasive speaker is to be clear about what you want to create, reinforce, or change in your audience.

For your speech to have persuasive power, you must also consider your audience and choose a goal that is feasible for them. Persuasion isn’t an on/off switch. It’s more like a thermometer. Skillful persuasive speakers respect and identify a persuasive goal that is calibrated to the audience. Think of persuasion as a continuum or line going both directions. At one end is strong disagreement. At the other end is strong agreement. Your audience members, either as a group or individually, are sitting somewhere on that line in relation to your central idea statement, or what we are going to call a proposition in this chapter.

For example, your speech proposition might be something like “The main cause of climate change is human activity.” You are claiming that climate change is due to the harmful things that humans have done to the environment. To be an effective persuasive speaker, one of your first jobs after choosing this topic would be to determine where your audience “sits” on the continuum.

+ 3 means strongly agree to the point of making lifestyle choices to lessen climate change (such as riding a bike instead of driving a car, recycling, eating certain kinds of foods, and advocating for government policy changes). + 2 means agree but not to the point of acting upon it or only acting on it in small ways. + 1 as mildly agrees with your proposition; that is, they think it’s probably true, but the issue doesn’t affect them personally. 0 means neutral, no opinion, or feeling too uninformed to decide. – 1 means mildly opposed to the proposition but willing to listen to those with whom they disagree. – 2 means disagreement to the point of dismissing the idea pretty quickly. – 3 means strong opposition to the point that the concept of climate change itself isn’t even listened to or acknowledged as a valid subject.

Since everyone in the audience is somewhere on this line or continuum, you can accept the fact that any movement toward +3 or to the right is a win. Trying to change an audience from -3 (strong disagreement) to +3 (strong agreement) in a single speech would be quite impossible. When you understand this, you can make strategic choices about the content of your speech.

In this example, if you knew that most of the audience was at -2 or -3, your speech could focus on opening their minds to the possibility of climate change and provide the science behind human causes. On the other hand, if you knew your audience was at +1 or +2, you could focus on urging them to take bold steps, like giving up their gasoline-powered vehicles.

A proposition is assumed to be in some way controversial, or a “stretch” for the audience. Some people in the audience will disagree with your proposition or at least have no opinion; they are not “on your side.”

There will be those in the audience who disagree with your proposition but who are willing to listen. Some members of the audience may already agree with you, although they don’t know why. Both groups could be called the target audience . At the same time, another cluster of your audience may be extremely opposed to your position to the degree that they probably will not give you a fair hearing. They probably can’t be persuaded. Focus on your target audience, they are the one you can persuade.

Why is Persuasion Hard?

Persuasion is hard mainly because we have a bias against change. We go out of our way to protect our beliefs, attitudes, and values. We selectively expose ourselves to messages that we already agree with, rather than those that confront or challenge us. We find it uncomfortable to be confronted with conflicting information or viewpoints.

Additionally, during a persuasive speech the audience members are holding a mental dialogue with the speaker or at least the speaker’s content. The processes that the human mind goes through while it listens to a persuasive message is like a silent conversation. In their minds, audience members are producing doubts or reservations about your proposal. If we could listen in on one of these conversations, it might go something like this:

Speaker: Switching to a plant-based diet is the best action you can take to support a reduction in the CO-2 emissions harming the climate. Audience Member Mind: Yeah, I hear what you’re saying, but eating like that won’t give me enough protein.

The audience member has a doubt or reservation about the speaker’s proposal. We can call these doubts “yeah, buts” because the audience members are thinking, “Yeah, but what about—?” It’s a skill of good persuasion speechwriting to anticipate reservations.

Solutions to the Difficulty of Persuasion

With these reasons for the resistance audience members have to persuasion, what is a speaker to do? Here are some strategies.

First, choose a feasible goal for the persuasive action you want the audience to take. Going back to our continuum, trying to move an audience from -3 to +2 or +3 is too big a move. Having reasonable persuasive goals is the first way to meet resistance. Even moving someone from -3 to -2 is progress, and over time these small shifts can eventually result in a significant amount of persuasion.

Secondly, as speakers we must address reservations. While speechwriters aren’t mind-readers, we can easily imagine reservations about our proposition and build a response to those reservations into the speech. Using the example above, a speaker might say:

Switching to a plant-based diet is the best action you can take to support a reduction in the CO-2 emissions harming the climate. I urge all of you to consider this important dietary change. Perhaps you are thinking that a plant-based diet won’t provide enough protein. That is a common concern. Nutritionists at the website Forks Over Knives explain how the staples of a PB diet—whole grains, legumes, and nuts—provide ample protein.

Here, the speaker acknowledges a valid reservation and then offers a rebuttal. This is called a two-tailed argument. The speaker articulates a possible argument against their proposition and then refutes it.

The third strategy is to keep in mind that since you are asking the audience to change something, they must view the benefits of the change as worth the stress of the change. In effect, audiences want to know: “What’s in it for me?” (WIIFM). As a speaker, you should give thought to that question and in your speech address the benefit, advantage, or improvement that the audience will gain by taking the action you propose.

Structure of a Persuasive Speech

A persuasive speech shares with an informational speech the same four elements for a strongly structured speech: introduction, body, conclusion, and connectors. Like informative speeches, preparation requires thoughtful attention to the given circumstances of the speech occasion, as well as audience analysis in terms of demographic and psychographic features. That said, there are some elements unique to a persuasive speech.

General and Specific Purpose General Purpose: To Persuade Specific Purpose: To motivate my audience of campus administrators to provide LGBTQ+ safe spaces on campus.

This looks familiar up to this point. The general purpose is one of the three broad speech goals (to instruct, to persuade, to inspire or entertain). The specific purpose statement follows a clear T.W.A.C. pattern:

T o + W ord: To convince A udience: campus administrators C ontent: LGBTQ+ safe spaces

What is unique to persuasive speeches is what comes next, the proposition.

Propositions

Informational speeches require a thesis. This is the central idea of the speech; its “takeaway.” Persuasive speeches equally require a strong focus on the main idea, but we call this something else: a proposition . A proposition is a statement that expresses a judgement or opinion about which you want audience in agreement. Remember that propositions must be something that can be argued. To say, “The earth is round” isn’t a proposition. “The earth is flat” is a proposition.

Converting to solar energy saves homeowners money.
A vegan diet is the most ethical way to eat.
Universities should provide on-line learning options for all classes.
The Constitution’s Second Amendment does not include possession of automatic weapons for private use.

Like a thesis statement for an informative speech, a proposition statement is best when it not only clearly states the judgment or opinion for which you seek audience agreement, but also provides a succinct preview of the reasons for that judgement.

Universities should provide LGBTQ+ safe spaces on campus to promote visibility, build community, and protect well-being for LGBTQ+ students and their allies.

Types of Propositions

If you take a closer look at the propositions above, you’ll notice that they suggest several types of persuasion. In fact, there are several broad categories of propositions, determined by their primary goal. These are: a) propositions of fact, b) propositions of value, c) propositions of policy, and d) propositions of definition.

Proposition of Fact

Speeches with this type of proposition attempt to establish the truth of a statement. The core of the proposition isn’t whether something is morally right or wrong, only that a statement is supported by evidence or not. These propositions are not facts such as “the chemical symbol for water is H20.” Rather, propositions of fact are statements over which people disagree and there is evidence on both sides. Some examples of propositions of fact are:

Experiments using animals are essential to the development of many life-saving medical procedures.
Climate change has been caused by human activity.

Notice that in none of these are any values—good or bad—mentioned. The point of these propositions is to prove with evidence the truth of a statement.

Proposition of Value

Propositions of fact have the primary purpose of arguing that something exists in a particular way. Propositions of value, on the other hand, have as their primary purpose to argue that one thing is better than another. When the proposition has a word such as “good,” “bad,” “best,” “worst,” “just,” “unjust,” “ethical,” “unethical,” “moral,” “immoral,” “beneficial,” “harmful,” “advantageous,” or “disadvantageous,” then it’s a proposition of value. Some examples include:

Hybrid cars are the best form of automobile transportation available today.
Mascots that involve Native American names, characters, and symbols are unjust.

Propositions of value require a first step: defining the “value” word. If you are trying to convince your audience that something is “unjust,” you will have to make clear what you mean by that term. For different people, “best” might mean “safest,” “least expensive,” “most environmentally responsible,” “stylish,” “powerful,” or “prestigious.” Obviously, in the case of the first proposition above, it means “environmentally responsible.” It’s the first job of the speaker, after introducing the speech and stating the proposition, to explain what “best form of automobile transportation” means. Then the proposition would be defended with separate arguments.

Proposition of Policy

The federal government should act to ensure clean water standards for all citizens.
Universities should eliminate attendance requirements.
States should lower taxes on food.

The proposition determines the approach to the speech, especially the organization. The exact phrasing of the proposition should be carefully done to be reasonable, positive, and appropriate for the context and audience.

Propositions of Definition

Propositions of definitions argue that a word, phrase, or concept has a particular meaning. Lawyers, legislators, and scholars often write briefs, present persuasive speeches, or compose articles to define terms that are vital to defendants, citizens, or disciplines. Some examples might be:

The Second Amendment to the Constitution does not include possession of automatic weapons for private use.
Alcoholism should be considered a disease because…
Thomas Jefferson’s definition of inalienable rights did not include a right to privacy.

In each of these examples, the proposition is that the definition of these things needs to be changed or viewed differently, but the audience isn’t asked to change an attitude or action.

These are not strict categories. A proposition of value most likely contains elements of facts and definitions, for example. However, identifying the primary category for a persuasive speech focuses the speaker on the ultimate purpose of the speech.

Pro-Arguments

Once you know your proposition, the next step is to make your case for your judgement or opinion through clear and distinct points. These are the main points of the body of your persuasive speech. We call these the “pro” or “for” arguments. You should present at least three distinct arguments in favor of your proposition. Expanding on the example above,

General Purpose: To Persuade Specific Purpose: To motivate my audience of campus administrators to provide LGBTQ+ safe spaces on campus. Proposition: Universities should provide LGBTQ+ safe spaces on campus in order to promote visibility, build community, and protect well-being for LGBTQ+ students and their allies.

Three pro-arguments for the proposition are:

Pro-Argument #1: Creating a safe space makes LGBTQ+ community more visible and central to campus life, instead of marginalized. Pro-Argument #2: Safe spaces create a place where LGBTQ+ and their allies learn to build networks, friendship, and support circles. Pro-Argument #3: With a safe and centralized space bringing together this community, instances of bias or harassment can be brought to counselors, making for a safer community.

Two-Tailed Arguments

There is one more crucial element following pro-arguments. These are unique to persuasive speeches. As discussed above, it’s essential to anticipate and address audience reservations about your propositions. These are the two-tailed arguments that articulate the reservation and then address it or refute it. In the example we’re using, such a statement might look like this:

“Perhaps you are thinking that an LGBTQ+ safe space isn’t necessary on campus because there are already places on campus that provide this function. I understand that concern. However, a space that is officially provided by the University provides access to resources with trained personnel. The national organization CampusPride provides training to university facilitators for exactly this reason.”

There are some techniques for rebuttal or refutation that work better than others. You would not want to say, “If you are one of the people who believe this about my proposition, you are wrong.” It’s better to say that their reservations are “misconceptions,” “myths,” or “mistaken ideas” that are commonly held about the proposition.

Building Upon Your Persuasive Speech’s Arguments

Once you have constructed the key arguments, it’s time to be sure the main points are well supported with evidence.

First, your evidence should be from sources that the audience will find credible. If you can find the same essential information from two sources but know that the audience will find the information more credible from one source than another, use and cite the information from the more credible one. For example, if you find the same statistical data on Wikipedia and the US Department of Labor’s website, cite the US Department of Labor. Audiences also accept information from sources they consider unbiased or indifferent. Gallup polls, for example, have been considered reliable sources of survey data because unlike some organizations, Gallup does not have a cause (political or otherwise) it’s supporting.

Secondly, your evidence should be new to the audience. New evidence is more attention-getting, and you will appear more credible if you tell the audience something new (as long as you cite it well) than if you use the “same old, same old” evidence they have heard before.

Third, in order to be effective and ethical, your supporting evidence should be relevant and not used out of context, manipulated, or edited to change its meaning.

After choosing the evidence and apportioning it to the correct parts of the speech, you will want to consider the use of metaphors, quotations, rhetorical devices, and narratives that will enhance the language and “listenability” of your speech. Narratives are especially good for introduction and conclusions, to get attention and to leave the audience with something dramatic. You might refer to the narrative in the introduction again in the conclusion to give the speech a sense of finality.

Lastly, you will want to decide if you should use any type of presentation aid for the speech. The decision to use visuals such as PowerPoint slides or a video clip in a persuasive speech should take into consideration the effect of the visuals on the audience and the time allotted for the speech. The charts, graphs, or photographs you use should be focused and credibly done.

Organization of a Persuasive Speech

You can see that the overall structure of a persuasive speech follows a common model: introduction, body (arguments and support), two-tailed arguments, and conclusion. Study the example at the end of this chapter to see this structure in action.

In speechwriting, you can think of a speech structure like the building of a house and organization like the arrangement of the rooms within it. As with other speeches, persuasive speeches can be organized topically, chronologically, or spatially. However, persuasive speeches often follow a problem-solution or problem-cause-solution pattern.

Organization for a proposition of fact

If your proposition is one of fact or definition, it will be best to use a topical organization for the body of your speech. That means that you will have two to four discrete, separate topics in support of the proposition.

Proposition: Converting to solar energy saves homeowners money.

(Pro-Argument 1) Solar energy can be economical to install.
(Pro-Argument 2) The government awards grants for solar.
(Pro-Argument 3) Solar energy reduces power bills.
(Pro-Argument 4) Solar energy requires less money for maintenance.

Organization for a proposition of value

A persuasive speech that incorporates a proposition of value will have a slightly different structure. A proposition of value must first define the “value” word for clarity and provide a basis for the other arguments of the speech. Then the pro-arguments for the proposition based on the definition.

Proposition: Hybrid cars are the best form of automotive transportation available today.

(Definition of value) Automotive transportation that is best meets three standards: dependable, economical, and environmentally responsible.
(Pro-Argument 1) Studies show that hybrid cars are durable and dependable.
(Pro-Argument 2) Hybrid cars are fuel-efficient.
(Pro-Argument 3) Hybrid cars are environmentally responsible.

Organization for a propositions of policy

The most common type of outline organizations for speeches with propositions of policy is problem-solution or problem-cause-solution. Typically, we don’t feel any motivation to change unless we are convinced that some harm, problem, need, or deficiency exists, and even more, that it affects us personally. Therefore, the organization of a speech about policy needs to first explain the problem and its cause, followed by the solution in the form of 3-5 pro-arguments.

Proposition: Universities should provide on-line learning options for all classes.

(Problem) Regular attendance in a physical classroom is no longer possible for all students.
(Cause) Changes brought about by the COVID pandemic have made guaranteed classroom attendance difficult.
(Pro-Argument 1) Providing on-line learning options protects the health of students.
(Pro-Argument 2) On-line learning serves students who cannot come to campus.
(Pro-Argument 3) Access to on-line learning allows students to maintain employment while still going to school.

To complete this outline, along with introduction and conclusion, your pro-arguments should be supported with fact, quotations, and statistics.

Your persuasive speech in class, as well as in real life, is an opportunity to share a passion or cause that you believe will matter to society and help the audience live a better life. Even if you are initially uncomfortable with the idea of persuasion, we use it all the time in diverse ways. Choose your topic based on your commitment and experience, look for quality evidence, craft your proposition so that it will be clear and audience appropriate, and put the finishing touches on it with an eye toward enhancing your logos , ethos , and pathos .

Media Attributions

Persuasion Scale © Mechele Leon is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license

in a speech of acceptance a speaker should usually

Acceptance Speech Thanks Those Who Made Excellence Possible

Anne Hathaway Oscar Acceptance Speech for Les Miserables

When achievements are acknowledged with an award or accolade, the recipients should respond with a gracious acceptance speech. A well-delivered acceptance speech conveys thanks, identifies people instrumental in the speaker’s success, and inspires others to strive toward their goals.

Whether it’s Meryl Streep and one of her many Academy Awards or John F. Kennedy and his nomination for president, knowing how to deliver the right acceptance speech is an essential skill.

Table of Contents

What Is An Acceptance Speech

An acceptance speech is an address given by an individual recognized for their achievements or contributions in a particular field. It serves as a way for the recipient to express gratitude and appreciation for their recognition.

Examples of these speeches can be seen at Hollywood awards shows , such as the Academy Awards (otherwise known as the Oscars) or Golden Globes. In these ceremonies, achievements like Best Actor, Best Supporting Actress, or Motion Picture of the Year are examples of awards given.

But acceptance speeches are given in many fields for many types of achievement s. Academic achievements, sports, career advancements, and even political events like the Republican or Democratic conventions, when presidential nominees are named, require people to give acceptance speeches.

Anytime a formal recognition of success is announced, an acceptance speech should be given. The purpose of an acceptance speech is to acknowledge those who have helped you achieve your success, whether it be family members, colleagues, mentors, or fans. It also allows you to share any insights or advice you gleaned with others.

An effective acceptance speech should be concise and heartfelt, conveying humility, confidence, and gratitude . The speaker should avoid being overly boastful or self-centered and instead focus on expressing gratitude and acknowledging the contributions of others.

Nominees at these events come prepared with an award acceptance speech that allows them to thank those involved with their success and the organization honoring them.

Awards are given as early as kindergarten, though responding with acceptance speeches might not start till high school.

Teen giving acceptance speech after award

How Do You Write A Speech About Accepting An Award?

When it comes to writing a speech about accepting an award, there are a few key elements that you should keep in mind. You will have limited time, so being prepared and precise is essential.

Create an outline. A well-organized speech will have an introduction, body, and conclusion.
Introduction. The introduction should express your gratitude for the honor you’ve received. You do so by thanking the organization or individual presenting the award and any colleagues or supporters who have helped you along the way.
Body. In the body, you’ll want to reflect on what the award means to you personally and professionally. Consider how it aligns with your values and goals and how it will impact your future endeavors.
Conclusion. During the conclusion, you’ll share some words of inspiration with your audience. Whether encouraging others to pursue their passions or reminding them of the importance of hard work and dedication, your speech should leave a lasting impression on those who hear it.

What Is The First Step In An Acceptance Speech?

The first step in an acceptance speech is to express gratitude . Whether it is an award, a promotion, or any other form of recognition, expressing gratitude is essential.

It’s crucial to thank the organization or individual who bestowed the honor on you and acknowledge the efforts of those who helped you achieve it.

Thanking family, friends, and colleagues for the support and encouragement they provided is also crucial. No one achieves success alone, and recognizing everyone (or as many as possible in the given time) who has played a role in your achievement demonstrates your understanding.

Additionally, if time permits, this is an excellent time to share your perseverance and hard work story . Your circumstances can inspire and encourage others to pursue their dreams and never give up on themselves.

Business award recipient ready to give acceptance speech

What Should An Acceptance Speech Include?

A well-written acceptance speech should have a clear introduction that captures the audience’s attention, a body that conveys the message effectively , and a conclusion that leaves a lasting impression.

An acceptance speech can be tricky, so preparing ahead of the event ensures you can deliver the right message quickly, even if you don’t expect an award. For someone feeling humbled and brimming with emotion, the inclination can be to talk extensively about the journey and stumble over the right people to thank.

A good acceptance speech must be both thorough and concise. This can be a tricky balance to strike.

When preparing your acceptance speech, be sure to include the following:

A sincere expression of gratitude towards the organization or individuals who have bestowed the award.
Recognition of family, friends, colleagues, mentors, and anyone else who has played a significant role in their success.
An inspiring message that motivates others to pursue their dreams and work hard to make them a reality.
Personal experiences highlight the importance of perseverance, dedication, and never giving up.

It’s also vital to end positively by expressing hope for the future and thanking everyone again for this recognition. A well-crafted acceptance speech can leave a lasting impression on its audience and inspire others to strive towards excellence.

What Is The Most Important Part Of An Acceptance Speech?

The most important part of an acceptance speech is undoubtedly its message of gratitude.

The proper expression of appreciation and thanks to those who supported and participated in your success creates a personal connection with the audience. Appearing entitled or ignoring the contributions of others will be off-putting to the audience and those who are bestowing the award.

Family, friends, and colleagues involved in another’s success may feel slighted if they are not mentioned in an acceptance speech. Nominees should come with cue cards to refer to if they win and need to give the speech!

How Do You Write A 5-Minute Acceptance Speech?

Writing a 5-minute acceptance speech can be daunting, especially if you are not used to public speaking or if it’s your first time.

Five minutes is incredibly long, yet not nearly enough time when you find yourself needing to prepare an acceptance speech.

However, with careful planning and preparation, you can create an impactful speech that will leave a lasting impression and be appreciated by your audience.

The steps below can be used as a guide when crafting your acceptance speech:

Brainstorm . Write down everyone you think you need to thank. This may be a long list, including family members, friends, colleagues, or mentors. Acknowledging the organization or institution giving you the award is also important.
Create a priority order of thanks. You have limited time, so arrange your list in priority order with those essential to thank those that you can thank personally later if time doesn’t permit.
Determine the key message that you want to convey in your speech. You might include an inspiring story about overcoming challenges or achieving success in your field. Alternatively, it could be a call to action for others to follow in your footsteps and positively impact their own lives.
Create a strong closing statement. The best closing statement leaves a lasting impression on your audience. You could use a quote or personal anecdote that summarizes your message and inspires others to take action.
Edit. With all of these elements created, put them together and edit.
Practice. You have 5 minutes, so you’ll need to practice. Knowing what you’d like to say and speaking eloquently will give you the most opportunity to include all the elements you’d like to in your speech.

Writing a 5-minute acceptance speech requires careful planning and preparation . By thanking those who have helped you along the way, conveying an inspiring message, and ending with a strong closing statement, you can create an impactful speech that will leave a lasting impression on your audience.

Kailash Satyarthi (R) and Malala Yousafzai accept Noble laureate awards

What Is An Example Of A Short Speech About Accepting An Award?

Accepting an award is a moment of great pride and honor for any individual. It is an opportunity to express gratitude and appreciation toward those who have supported and encouraged us throughout our journey. A short speech about accepting an award should be concise, heartfelt, and gracious.

An excellent example of a short acceptance speech is the one given by Denzel Washington in 1990 when he won the first Oscar of his career for best male actor in a supporting role. His Oscar speech went as follows:

I want to thank the Academy. I’m gonna thank Ed Zwick, and Freddie Fields, who did a fantastic job, who made what I consider to be at least one of the best five films of the Year. I’d like to thank my friend and manager, Flo Allen. Fabulous Ed Limato. And Todd Smith and George Freeman. And God bless you, my mother. I love you. My beautiful wife Pauletta, the kids. My son said he was gonna make one of these out of clay for me; now I got the model for him. I want to thank my first agent, the late Ruth Aronson, who believed in me. I’d also like to pay homage to the 54th, the black soldiers who helped to make this country free. I thank God. I thank you.

Lorin Harrott

After years as a professional speaker and corporate trainer,Lorin Harrott has turned her attention to sharing her knowledge through writing. She's currently a writer, photographer, and mom in Sacramento, CA, with occasional speaking engagements related to education and STEM topics in the public school system.

Module 5: Persuasion Speech

Persuasive strategies.

Man holding a sign that says Don't believe anyone, including me.

“Danny Shine Speaker’s Corner” by Acapeloahddub. Public domain.

In addition to understanding how your audience feels about the topic you are addressing, you will need to take steps to help them see you as credible and interesting. The audience’s perception of you as a speaker is influential in determining whether or not they will choose to accept your proposition. Aristotle called this element of the speech ethos , “a Greek word that is closely related to our terms ethical and ethnic. ” [1] He taught speakers to establish credibility with the audience by appearing to have good moral character, common sense, and concern for the audience’s well-being. [2] Campbell & Huxman explain that ethos is not about conveying that you, as an individual, are a good person. It is about “mirror[ing] the characteristics idealized by [the] culture or group” (ethnic), [3] and demonstrating that you make good moral choices with regard to your relationship within the group (ethics).

While there are many things speakers can do to build their ethos throughout the speech, “assessments of ethos often reflect superficial first impressions,” and these first impressions linger long after the speech has concluded. [4] This means that what you wear and how you behave, even before opening your mouth, can go far in shaping your ethos. Be sure to dress appropriately for the occasion and setting in which you speak. Also work to appear confident, but not arrogant, and be sure to maintain enthusiasm about your topic throughout the speech. Give great attention to the crafting of your opening sentences because they will set the tone for what your audience should expect of your personality as you proceed.

I covered two presidents, LBJ and Nixon, who could no longer convince, persuade, or govern, once people had decided they had no credibility; but we seem to be more tolerant now of what I think we should not tolerate. – Helen Thomas

Another way to enhance your ethos, and your chances of persuading the audience, is to use sound arguments. In a persuasive speech, the argument will focus on the reasons for supporting your specific purpose statement. This argumentative approach is what Aristotle referred to as logos , or the logical means of proving an argument. [5]

When offering an argument you begin by making an assertion that requires a logical leap based on the available evidence. [6] One of the most popular ways of understanding how this process works was developed by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin. [7] Toulmin explained that basic arguments tend to share three common elements: claim, data, and warrant. The claim is an assertion that you want the audience to accept. Data refers to the preliminary evidence on which the claim is based. For example, if I saw large gray clouds in the sky, I might make the claim that “it is going to rain today.” The gray clouds (data) are linked to rain (claim) by the warrant , an often unstated general connection, that large gray clouds tend to produce rain. The warrant is a connector that, if stated, would likely begin with “since” or “because.” In our rain example, if we explicitly stated all three elements, the argument would go something like this: There are large gray clouds in the sky today (data). Since large gray clouds tend to produce rain (warrant), it is going to rain today (claim). However, in our regular encounters with argumentation, we tend to only offer the claim and (occasionally) the warrant.

To strengthen the basic argument, you will need backing for the claim. Backing provides foundational support for the claim [8] by offering examples, statistics, testimony, or other information which further substantiates the argument. To substantiate the rain argument we have just considered, you could explain that the color of a cloud is determined by how much light the water in the cloud is reflecting. A thin cloud has tiny drops of water and ice crystals which scatter light, making it appear white. Clouds appear gray when they are filled with large water droplets which are less able to reflect light. [9]

Logic is the beginning of wisdom, not the end. – Leonard Nimoy

“Dining Booth” by Wayne Truong. CC-BY .

The elements that Toulmin identified (see Table 16.1) may be arranged in a variety of ways to make the most logical argument. As you reason through your argument you may proceed inductively, deductively, or causally, toward your claim. Inductive reasoning moves from specific examples to a more general claim. For example, if you read online reviews of a restaurant chain called Walt’s Wine & Dine and you noticed that someone reported feeling sick after eating at a Walt’s, and another person reported that the Walt’s they visited was understaffed, and another commented that the tables in the Walt’s they ate at had crumbs left on them, you might conclude (or claim) that the restaurant chain is unsanitary. To test the validity of a general claim, Beebe and Beebe encourage speakers to consider whether there are “enough specific instances to support the conclusion,” whether the specific instances are typical, and whether the instances are recent. [11]

The opposite of inductive reasoning is deductive reasoning , moving from a general principle to a claim regarding a specific instance. In order to move from general to specific we tend to use syllogisms . A syllogism begins with a major (or general) premise, then moves to a minor premise, then concludes with a specific claim. For example, if you know that all dogs bark (major premise), and your neighbor has a dog (minor premise), you could then conclude that your neighbor’s dog barks (specific claim). To verify the accuracy of your specific claim, you must verify the truth and applicability of the major premise. What evidence do you have that all dogs bark? Is it possible that only most dogs bark? Next, you must also verify the accuracy of the minor premise. If the major premise is truly generalizable, and both premises are accurate, your specific claim should also be accurate.

Small ships blast water at an oil rig that is on fire.

“Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling unit on fire” by US Coast Guard. Public domain.

Your reasoning may also proceed causally. Causal reasoning examines related events to determine which one caused the other. You may begin with a cause and attempt to determine its effect. For example, when the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig exploded in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, scientists explained that because many animals in the Gulf were nesting and reproducing at the time, the spill could wipe out “an entire generation of hundreds of species.” [12] Their argument reasoned that the spill (cause) would result in species loss (effect). Two years later, the causal reasoning might be reversed. If we were seeing species loss in the Gulf (effect), we could reason that it was a result of the oil spill (cause). Both of these claims rely on the evidence available at the time. To make the first claim, scientists not only offered evidence that animals were nesting and reproducing, but they also looked at the effects of an oil spill that occurred 21 years earlier in Alaska. [13] To make the second claim, scientists could examine dead animals washing up on the coast to determine whether their deaths were caused by oil.

While we have focused heavily on logical reasoning, we must also recognize the strong role that emotions play in the persuasive process. Aristotle called this element of the speech pathos . Pathos draws on the emotions, sympathies, and prejudices of the audience to appeal to their non-rational side. [14] [15] Human beings are constantly in some emotional state, which means that tapping into an audience’s emotions can be vital to persuading them to accept your proposition. [16]

Susan G. Komen fought breast cancer with her heart, body and soul. Throughout her diagnosis, treatments, and endless days in the hospital, she spent her time thinking of ways to make life better for other women battling breast cancer instead of worrying about her own situation. That concern for others continued even as Susan neared the end of her fight. [17]

Brinker promised her sister that she would continue her fight against breast cancer. This story compels donors to join her fight.

Speakers can also tap into emotions using nonverbal behaviors to model the desired emotion for their audience. In the summer of 2012, the U.S. House of Representatives debated holding the Attorney General in contempt for refusing to release documents concerning a controversial gun-tracking operation. Arguing for a contempt vote, South Carolina Representative Trey Gowdy did not simply state his claim; instead he raised his voice, slowed his pace, and used hand motions to convey anger with what he perceived as deception on the part of the Attorney General. [18] His use of volume, tone, pace, and hand gestures enhanced the message and built anger in his audience.

Speech is power: speech is to persuade, to convert, to compel. It is to bring another out of his bad sense into your good sense. – Ralph Waldo Emerson

In addition to verbal and nonverbal illustrations, visual imagery can enhance the emotional appeal of a message. For example, we have all heard about the dangers of drugs, and there are multiple campaigns that attempt to prevent people from even trying them. However, many young adults experiment with drugs under the assumption that they are immune from the negative effects if they only use the drug recreationally. To counter this assumption regarding methamphetamines, the Montana Meth project combines controversial statements with graphic images on billboards to evoke fear of the drug (see the Montana Meth Project for some disturbing examples). Young adults may have heard repeated warnings that meth is addictive and that it has the potential to cause sores, rotten teeth, and extreme weight loss, but Montana Meth Project’s visual display is more compelling because it turns the audience’s stomach, making the message memorable. This image, combined with the slogan, “not even once,” conveys the persuasive point without the need for other forms of evidence and rational argument.

Appeals to fear, like those in the Montana Meth Project ads, have proven effective in motivating people to change a variety of behaviors. However, speakers must be careful with their use of this emotion. Fear appeals tend to be more effective when they appeal to a high-level fear, such as death, and they are more effective when offered by speakers with a high level of perceived credibility. [19] Fear appeals are also more persuasive when the speaker can convince the audience they have the ability to avert the threat. If audiences doubt their ability to avoid or minimize the threat, the appeal may backfire. [20]

I would rather try to persuade a man to go along, because once I have persuaded him, he will stick. If I scare him, he will stay just as long as he is scared, and then he is gone. – Dwight D. Eisenhower

David Brooks argues that, “emotions are not separate from reason, but they are the foundation of reason because they tell us what to value.” [21] Those values are at the core of fostering a credible ethos. All of Aristotle’s strategies, ethos, logos, and pathos, are interdependent. The most persuasive speakers will combine these strategies to varying degrees based on their specific purpose and audience.

Ethics of Persuasion

“Speakers Corner Speaker 1987” by Deborah MacLean. Public domain.

In addition to considering their topic and persuasive strategy, speakers must take care to ensure that their message is ethical. Persuasion is often confused with another kind of communication that has similar ends, but different methods—coercion. Like persuasion, coercion is a process whereby thoughts or behaviors are altered. But in coercive acts, deceptive or harmful methods propel the intended changes, not reason. Strong and Cook contrasted the two: “persuasion uses argument to compel power to give way to reason while coercion uses force to compel reason to give way to power.” [22] The “force” that Strong and Cook mention frequently manifests as promises for reward or punishment, but sometimes it arises as physical or emotional harm. Think of almost any international crime film you have seen, and you are likely to remember a scene where someone was compelled to out their compatriots by way of force. Jack Bauer, the protagonist in the American television series 24 , became an infamous character by doing whatever it took to get captured criminals to talk. Although dramatic as an example, those scenes where someone is tortured in an effort to produce evidence offer a familiar reference when thinking about coercion. To avoid coercing an audience, speakers should use logical and emotional appeals responsibly.

The pendulum of the mind alternates between sense and nonsense, not between right and wrong. – Carl Jung

Persuasive speakers must be careful to avoid using fallacies in their reasoning. Fallacies are errors in reasoning that occur when a speaker fails to use appropriate or applicable evidence for their argument. There are a wide variety of fallacies, and it is not possible to list them all here. However, speakers should watch for four common categories of fallacies: “fallacies of faulty assumption,” which occur when the speaker reasons based on a problematic assumption; “fallacies directed to the person,” which occur when the speaker focuses on the attributes of an individual opponent rather than the relevant arguments; “fallacies of case presentation,” which occur when the speaker mischaracterizes the issue; and “fallacies of suggestion,” which occur when the speaker implies or suggests an argument without fully developing it. [23] See the Table 16.2 on the following page for examples of each of these types of fallacies. To learn more about fallacies, see Chapter 6 by Russ (Critical Thinking and Reasoning), or see the supplemental handout found on the Persuasive Speaking chapter homepage.

There are some positive steps you can take to avoid these pitfalls of persuasive speaking and ensure that you are presenting your message in the most ethical manner. We have already discussed some of these, such as offering credible evidence for your arguments and showing concern for the audience’s well being. However, you should also offer a transparent goal for your speech. Even with a hostile audience, where you may wait until later in the speech to provide the specific purpose statement, you should be forthcoming about your specific purpose. In fact, be truthful with your audience throughout the speech.

It is appropriate to use fictional scenarios to demonstrate your point, but tell the audience that is what you are doing. You can accomplish this by introducing fictional examples with the phrase, “hypothetically,” or “imagine,” to signal that you are making it up. [24] Additionally, be sure to offer a mix of logical and emotional appeals. Blending these strategies insures that you have evidence to back up emotional claims, and that you are sensitive to the audiences’ emotional reactions to your logical claims. Attending to both aspects will help you be more ethical and more persuasive.

The most important persuasion tool you have in your entire arsenal is integrity. – Zig Ziglar

Campbell, K.K. & Huxman, S.S. (2009). The Rhetorical Act: Thinking, Speaking, and Writing Critically . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ↵
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Braet, A.C. (1992). Ethos, pathos, and logos in Aristotle’s rhetoric: A reexamination. Argumentation , 6 (3), pp. 307–320. ↵
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Brill, R. (2003, July 21). Why do clouds turn gray before it rains? Scientific American . Retrieved from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-do-clouds-turn-gray-b/ ↵
Pollan, M. (2007, April 22). You are what you grow. The New York Times . Retrieved from: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/22/magazine/22wwlnlede.t.html?pagewanted=all ↵
Beebe & Beebe 2003 ↵
Donovan, T.W. (2010, July 10). 7 Long term effects of the Gulf oil spill. Huffington Post . Retrieved from: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/05/10/7-long-term-effects-of-th_n_562947.html#s87787title=Environmental_Damage ↵
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Reike, R.D., Sillars, M.O., & Peterson, T.R. (2009). Argumentation and Critical Decision Making (7th ed.). Boston: Pearson. ↵
Dillard, J.P. & Meijnders, A. (2002). Persuasion and the structure of affect. In J.P. Dillard & M. Pfau (Eds.), The Persuasion Handbook: Developments in Theory and Practice (309–328). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ↵
Komen National. (n.d.). St. Louis Affiliate of Susan G. Komen for the Cure: Who We Are. Retrieved from: http://www.komenstlouis.org/site/PageServer?pagename=whoweare_national ↵
Gowdy, T. (2012). Trey Gowdy’s emotional speech on Holder contempt [Video file]. Retrieved from: https://youtu.be/2bP-G4Btwp0 ↵
Witte, K. & Allen, M. (2000). A metaanalysis of fear appeals: Implications for effective public health campaigns. Health Education & Behavior , 27 (5), 591–615. ↵
Brooks, D. (2011, November 17). TED 2001: David Brooks explains why there is no reason without emotion. Huffington Post . Retrieved from: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/03/14/ted-david-brooks_n_835476.html ↵
Strong, W. F., & Cook, J. A. (1992). Persuasion: Strategies for public influence (3rd ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing. ↵
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11 Persuasive Speaking

Introduction, 11.1 foundation of persuasion.

Persuasive speaking seeks to influence the beliefs, attitudes, values, or behaviors of audience members. In order to persuade, a speaker has to construct arguments that appeal to audience members (Poggi, 2005). Arguments form around three components: claim, evidence, and warrant.

The claim is the statement that will be supported by evidence. Your thesis statement is the overarching claim for your speech, but you will make other claims within the speech to support the larger thesis (Nordquist, 2020). Evidence , also called grounds, supports the claim (McCroskey, 1969). The main points of your persuasive speech and the supporting material you include serve as evidence. For example, a speaker may make the following claim: “There should be a national law against texting while driving.” The speaker could then support the claim by providing the following evidence: “Research from the US Department of Transportation has found that texting while driving creates a crash risk that is twenty-three times worse than driving while not distracted.” The warrant is the underlying justification that connects the claim and the evidence (McCroskey, 1966). One warrant for the claim and evidence cited in this example is that the U.S. Department of Transportation is an institution that funds research conducted by credible experts. An additional and more implicit warrant is that people should not do things they know are unsafe.

As you put together a persuasive argument, you act as the judge. You can evaluate arguments that you come across in your research by analyzing the connection (the warrant) between the claim and the evidence (McCroskey, 1966). If the warrant is strong, you may want to highlight that argument in your speech. You may also be able to point out a weak warrant in an argument that goes against your position, which you could then include in your speech. Every argument starts by putting together a claim and evidence, but arguments grow to include many interrelated units.

11.2 Adapting Persuasive Messages

Competent speakers should consider their audience throughout the speech-making process. Given that persuasive messages seek to influence directly the audience in some way, audience adaptation becomes even more important (Hamm, 2006).

When you have audience members who already agree with your proposition, you should focus on intensifying their agreement. You can also assume that they have foundational background knowledge of the topic, which means you can take the time to inform them about lesser-known aspects of a topic or cause to reinforce further their agreement. Rather than move these audience members from disagreement to agreement, you can focus on moving them from agreement to action. Remember, calls to action should be as specific as possible to help you capitalize on audience members’ motivation in the moment, so they are more likely to follow through on the action (Hamm, 2006).

There are two main reasons audience members may be neutral about your topic: (1) they are uninformed about the topic or (2) they do not think the topic affects them. In this case, you should focus on instilling a concern for the topic. Uninformed audiences may need background information before they can decide if they agree or disagree with your proposition. If the issue is familiar but audience members are neutral because they do not see how the topic affects them, focus on getting the audience’s attention and demonstrating relevance. Remember that concrete and proxemic supporting materials will help an audience find relevance in a topic. Students who pick narrow or unfamiliar topics will have to work harder to persuade their audience, but neutral audiences often provide the most chance of achieving your speech goal since even a small change may move them into agreement (Williams, 2018).

When audience members disagree with your proposition, you should focus on changing their minds. To persuade effectively, you must be seen as a credible speaker. When an audience is hostile to your proposition, establishing credibility is even more important, as audience members may be quick to discount or discredit someone who does not appear prepared or does not present well-researched and supported information. Do not give an audience a chance to write you off before you even get to share your best evidence. When facing a disagreeable audience, the goal should also be small change. You may not be able to switch someone’s position completely but influencing him or her is still a success. Aside from establishing your credibility, you should also establish common ground with an audience. Acknowledging areas of disagreement and logically refuting counterarguments in your speech is also a way to approach persuading an audience in disagreement, as it shows that you are open-minded enough to engage with other perspectives (Williams, 2018).

11.3 Determining Your Proposition

The proposition of your speech is the overall direction of the content and how that content relates to the speech goal. A persuasive speech will fall primarily into one of three categories: propositions of fact, value, or policy (Mackay, 2012). A speech may have elements of any of the three propositions, but you can usually determine the overall proposition of a speech from the specific purpose and thesis statements.

Propositions of fact focus on beliefs and try to establish that something “is or isn’t.” Propositions of value focus on persuading audience members that something is “good or bad,” “right or wrong,” or “desirable or undesirable.” Propositions of policy advocate that something “should or shouldn’t” be done (Mackay, 2012). Since most persuasive speech topics can be approached as propositions of fact, value, or policy, it is a good idea to start thinking about what kind of proposition you want to make, as it will influence how you go about your research and writing. As you can see in the following example using the topic of global warming, the type of proposition changes the types of supporting materials you would need:

Types of propositions. Proposition of fact, ex: Increased greenhouse gases related to human activity cause global warming. Proposition of value, ex: America's disproportionately large amount of pollution relative to other countries is wrong. Proposition of policy, ex: There should be stricter emission restrictions on individual cars.

Proposition of fact. Increased greenhouse gases related to human activity cause global warming.
Proposition of value. America’s disproportionately large amount of pollution relative to other countries is wrong.
Proposition of policy. There should be stricter emission restrictions on individual cars.

To support propositions of fact, you would want to present a logical argument based on objective facts that can then be used to build persuasive arguments. Propositions of value may require you to appeal more to your audience’s emotions and cite expert and lay testimony. Persuasive speeches about policy usually require you to research existing and previous laws or procedures and determine if any relevant legislation or propositions are currently being considered (Barton & Tucker, 2021).

11.4 Organizing a Persuasive Speech

We have already discussed several patterns for organizing your speech, but some organization strategies are specific to persuasive speaking. Some persuasive speech topics lend themselves to a topical organization pattern, which breaks the larger topic up into logical divisions. Recency and primacy, as well as adapting a persuasive speech based on the audience’s orientation toward the proposition can be connected when organizing a persuasive speech topically. Primacy means putting your strongest information first. It is based on the idea that audience members put more weight on what they hear first. This strategy can be especially useful when addressing an audience that disagrees with your proposition, as you can try to win them over early. Recency means putting your strongest information last to leave a powerful impression. This can be useful when you are building to a climax in your speech, specifically if you include a call to action (Morrison, 2015).

The problem-solution pattern is an organizational pattern that advocates for a particular approach to solve a problem. You would provide evidence to show that a problem exists and then propose a solution with additional evidence or reasoning to justify the course of action (Macasieb, 2018). One main point addressing the problem and one main point addressing the solution may be sufficient, but you are not limited to two. You could add a main point between the problem and solution that outlines other solutions that have failed. You can also combine the problem-solution pattern with the cause-effect pattern or expand the speech to fit with Monroe’s Motivated Sequence.

The cause-effect pattern can be used for informative speaking when the relationship between the cause and effect is not contested. The pattern is more fitting for persuasive speeches when the relationship between the cause and effect is controversial or unclear. There are several ways to use causes and effects to structure a speech. You could have a two-point speech that argues from cause to effect or from effect to cause. You could also have more than one cause that leads to the same effect or a single cause that leads to multiple effects. The following are some examples of thesis statements that correspond to various organizational patterns. As you can see, the same general topic area, prison overcrowding, is used for each example. This illustrates the importance of considering your organizational options early in the speech-making process, since the pattern you choose will influence your researching and writing.

Problem-solution. Prison overcrowding is a serious problem that we can solve by finding alternative rehabilitation for nonviolent offenders.
Problem–failed solution–proposed solution. Prison overcrowding is a serious problem that should not be solved by building more prisons; instead, we should support alternative rehabilitation for nonviolent offenders.
Cause-effect. Prisons are overcrowded with nonviolent offenders, which leads to lesser sentences for violent criminals.
Cause-cause-effect. State budgets are being slashed and prisons are overcrowded with nonviolent offenders, which leads to lesser sentences for violent criminals.
Cause-effect-effect. Prisons are overcrowded with nonviolent offenders, which leads to increased behavioral problems among inmates and lesser sentences for violent criminals.
Cause-effect-solution. Prisons are overcrowded with nonviolent offenders, which leads to lesser sentences for violent criminals; therefore, we need to find alternative rehabilitation for nonviolent offenders.

Monroe’s motivated sequence is an organizational pattern designed for persuasive speaking that appeals to audience members’ needs and motivates them to action (Watt & Barnett, 2021). If your persuasive speaking goals include a call to action, you may want to consider this organizational pattern. Here is an example of that pattern:

Step 1: Attention

Hook the audience by making the topic relevant to them.
Imagine living a full life, retiring, and slipping into your golden years. As you get older, you become more dependent on others and move into an assisted-living facility. Although you think life will be easier, things get worse as you experience abuse and mistreatment from the staff. You report the abuse to a nurse and wait, but nothing happens and the abuse continues. Elder abuse is a common occurrence, and unlike child abuse, there are no laws in our state that mandate complaints of elder abuse be reported or investigated.

Step 2: Need

Cite evidence to support the fact that the issue needs to be addressed.
According to the American Psychological Association, one to two million elderly Americans have been abused by their caretakers. In our state, those in the medical, psychiatric, and social work field are required to report suspicion of child abuse but are not mandated to report suspicions of elder abuse.

Step 3: Satisfaction

Offer a solution and persuade the audience that it is feasible and well thought out.
There should be a federal law mandating that suspicion of elder abuse be reported and that all claims of elder abuse be investigated.

Step 4: Visualization

Take the audience beyond your solution and help them visualize the positive results of implementing it or the negative consequences of not.
Elderly people should not have to live in fear during their golden years. A mandatory reporting law for elderly abuse will help ensure that the voices of our elderly loved ones will be heard.

Step 5: Action

Call your audience to action by giving them concrete steps to follow to engage in a particular action or to change a thought or behavior.
I urge you to take action in two ways. First, raise awareness about this issue by talking to your own friends and family. Second, contact your representatives at the state and national level to let them know that elder abuse should be taken seriously and given the same level of importance as other forms of abuse. I brought cards with the contact information for our state and national representatives for this area. Please take one at the end of my speech. A short e-mail or phone call can help end the silence surrounding elder abuse.

11.5 Persuasive Reasoning and Fallacies

Persuasive speakers should be concerned with what strengthens and weakens an argument. Knowing different types of reasoning can help you put claims and evidence together in persuasive ways and help you evaluate the quality of arguments that you encounter. Further, being able to identify common fallacies of reasoning can help you be a more critical consumer of persuasive messages.

Reasoning refers to the process of making sense of things around us. In order to understand our experiences, draw conclusions from information, and present new ideas, we must use reasoning. We often reason without being aware of it, however, becoming more aware of how we think can empower us to be better producers and consumers of communicative messages. The three types of reasoning we will explore are inductive, deductive, and causal.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning reaches conclusions through the citation of examples and is the most frequently used form of logical reasoning (Walter, 1966). While introductory speakers are initially attracted to inductive reasoning because it seems easy, it can be difficult to employ well. Inductive reasoning, unlike deductive reasoning, does not result in true or false conclusions. Instead, since conclusions are generalized based on observations or examples, conclusions are “more likely” or “less likely.” Despite the fact that this type of reasoning is not definitive, it can still be valid and persuasive.

Some arguments based on inductive reasoning will be more cogent, or convincing and relevant, than others. For example, inductive reasoning can be weak when claims are made too generally. An argument that fraternities should be abolished from campus because they contribute to underage drinking and do not uphold high academic standards could be countered by providing examples of fraternities that sponsor alcohol education programming for the campus and have members that have excelled academically (Walter, 1966). In this case, one overly general claim is countered by another general claim, and both of them have some merit. It would be more effective to present a series of facts and reasons and then share the conclusion or generalization that you have reached from them.

You can see inductive reasoning used in the following speech excerpt from President George W. Bush’s address to the nation on the evening of September 11, 2001. Notice how he lists a series of events from the day, which builds to his conclusion that the terrorist attacks failed in their attempt to shake the foundation of America.

“Today, our fellow citizens, our way of life, our very freedom came under attack in a series of deliberate and deadly terrorist acts. The victims were in airplanes or in their offices: secretaries, business men and women, military and federal workers, moms and dads, friends, and neighbors. Thousands of lives were suddenly ended by evil, despicable acts of terror. The pictures of airplanes flying into building, fires burning, huge—huge structures collapsing have filled us with disbelief, terrible sadness, and a quiet unyielding anger. These acts of mass murder were intended to frighten our nation into chaos and retreat. But they have failed. Our country is strong. A great people has been moved to defend a great nation. Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the foundation of America.”

If a speaker is able to provide examples that are concrete, proxemic, and relevant to the audience, as Bush did in this example, audience members are prompted to think of additional examples that connect to their own lives. Inductive reasoning can be useful when an audience disagrees with your proposition. As you present logically connected examples as evidence that build to a conclusion, the audience may be persuaded by your evidence before they realize that the coming conclusion will counter what they previously thought. This also sets up cognitive dissonance, which is a persuasive strategy we will discuss later.

Reasoning by analogy is a type of inductive reasoning that argues that what is true in one set of circumstances will be true in another (Walter, 1966). Reasoning by analogy has been criticized and questioned by logicians, since two sets of circumstances are never exactly the same. While this is true, our goal when using reasoning by analogy in persuasive speaking is not to create absolutely certain conclusions but to cite cases and supporting evidence that can influence an audience. For example, let’s say you are trying to persuade a university to adopt an alcohol education program by citing the program’s success at other institutions. Since two universities are never exactly the same, the argument cannot be airtight. To better support this argument, you could first show that the program was actually successful using various types of supporting material such as statistics from campus offices and testimony from students and staff. Second, you could show how the cases relate by highlighting similarities in the campus setting, culture, demographics, and previous mission. Since you cannot argue that the schools are similar in all ways, choose to highlight significant similarities. In addition, it is better to acknowledge significant limitations of the analogy and provide additional supporting material to address them than it is to ignore or hide such limitations.

So how do we evaluate inductive reasoning? When inductive reasoning is used to test scientific arguments, there is rigorous testing and high standards that must be met for a conclusion to be considered valid. Inductive reasoning in persuasive speaking is employed differently. A speaker cannot cite every example that exists to build to a conclusion, so to evaluate inductive reasoning you must examine the examples that are cited in ways other than quantity. First, the examples should be sufficient, meaning that enough are cited to support the conclusion. If not, you risk committing the hasty generalization fallacy. A speaker can expect that the audience will be able to think of some examples as well, so there is no set number on how many examples is sufficient. If the audience is familiar with the topic, then fewer examples are probably sufficient, while more may be needed for unfamiliar topics. A speaker can make his or her use of reasoning by example more powerful by showing that the examples correspond to the average case, which may require additional supporting evidence in the form of statistics. Arguing that teacher salaries should be increased by providing an example of a teacher who works side jobs and pays for his or her own school supplies could be effectively supported by showing that this teacher’s salary corresponds to the national average (Walter, 1966).

Second, the examples should be typical, meaning they were not cherry-picked to match the point being argued. A speaker who argues to defund the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) because the organization supports art that is “pornographic and offensive” may cite five examples of grants given for projects that caused such controversy. Failing to mention that these examples were pulled from the more than 128,000 grants issued by the NEA would be an inappropriate use of inductive reasoning since the examples are not sufficient or typical enough to warrant the argument. Another way to support inductive arguments is to show that the examples are a fair sample, meaning they are representative of the larger whole. Arguing that college athletes should not receive scholarships because they do not have the scholastic merit of other students and have less academic achievement could be supported by sharing several examples. However, if those examples were not representative, then they are biased, and the reasoning faulty. A speaker would need to show that the athletes used in the example are representative, in terms of their race, gender, sport, and background, of the population of athletes at the university.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning derives specifics from what is already known. It was the preferred form of reasoning used by ancient rhetoricians like Aristotle to make logical arguments (Cooper & Nothstine, 1996).

A syllogism is an example of deductive reasoning that is commonly used when teaching logic. A syllogism is an example of deductive reasoning in which a conclusion is supported by major and minor premises. The conclusion of a valid argument can be deduced from the major and minor premises. A commonly used example of a syllogism is “All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. Socrates is mortal.” In this case, the conclusion, “Socrates is mortal,” is derived from the major premise, “All humans are mortal,” and the minor premise, “Socrates is a human.” In some cases, the major and minor premises of a syllogism may be taken for granted as true. In the previous example, the major premise is presumed true because we have no knowledge of an immortal person to disprove the statement. The minor premise is presumed true because Socrates looks and acts like other individuals we know to be human. Detectives or scientists using such logic would want to test their conclusion. We could test our conclusion by stabbing Socrates to see if he dies, but since the logic of the syllogism is sound, it may be better to cut Socrates a break and deem the argument valid. Since most arguments are more sophisticated than the previous example, speakers need to support their premises with research and evidence to establish their validity before deducing their conclusion.

A syllogism can lead to incorrect conclusions if one of the premises is not true, as in the following example:

All presidents have lived in the White House. (Major premise)
George Washington was president. (Minor premise)
George Washington lived in the White House. (Conclusion)

In the previous example, the major premise was untrue, since John Adams, our second president, was the first president to live in the White House. This causes the conclusion to be false. A syllogism can also exhibit faulty logic even if the premises are both true but are unrelated, as in the following example:

Penguins are black and white. (Major premise)
Some old television shows are black and white. (Minor premise)
Some penguins are old television shows. (Conclusion)

Causal Reasoning

Causal reasoning argues to establish a relationship between a cause and an effect. When speakers attempt to argue for a particular course of action based on potential positive or negative consequences that may result, they are using causal reasoning. Such reasoning is evident in the following example: Eating more local foods will boost the local economy and make you healthier. The “if/then” relationship that is set up in causal reasoning can be persuasive, but the reasoning is not always sound. Rather than establishing a true cause-effect relationship, speakers more often set up a correlation, which means there is a relationship between two things but there are other contextual influences.

To use causal reasoning effectively and ethically, speakers should avoid claiming a direct relationship between a cause and an effect when such a connection cannot be proven. Instead of arguing “x caused y,” it is more accurate for a speaker to say “x influenced y.” Causal thinking is often used when looking to blame something or someone, as can be seen in the following example: It’s the president’s fault that the economy has not recovered more. While such a statement may garner a speaker some political capital, it is not based on solid reasoning.

Economic and political processes are too complex to distill to such a simple cause-effect relationship. A speaker would need to use more solid reasoning, perhaps inductive reasoning through examples, to build up enough evidence to support that a correlation exists and a causal relationship is likely. When using causal reasoning, present evidence that shows the following: (1) the cause occurred before the effect, (2) the cause led to the effect, and (3) it is unlikely that other causes produced the effect.

11.6 Persuasive Strategies

Do you think you are easily persuaded? If you are like most people, you are not swayed easily to change your mind about something. Persuasion is difficult because changing views often makes people feel like they were either not informed or ill informed, which also means they have to admit they were wrong about something. We will learn about nine persuasive strategies that you can use to influence more effectively audience members’ beliefs, attitudes, and values. They are ethos, logos, pathos, positive motivation, negative motivation, cognitive dissonance, appeal to safety needs, appeal to social needs, and appeal to self-esteem needs.

Ethos, Logos, and Pathos

Ethos, logos, and pathos were Aristotle’s three forms of rhetorical proof, meaning they were primary to his theories of persuasion. Ethos refers to the credibility of a speaker and includes three dimensions: competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism. The two most researched dimensions of credibility are competence and trustworthiness (Stiff & Mongeau, 2003).

Triangle with title "Aristotle's forms of rhetorical proof." Top: ethos, credibility. Right: logos, logic. Left: pathos, emotion.

Competence refers to the perception of a speaker’s expertise in relation to the topic being discussed. A speaker can enhance their perceived competence by presenting a speech based in solid research and that is well organized and practiced. Competent speakers must know the content of their speech and be able to deliver that content. Trustworthiness refers to the degree that audience members perceive a speaker to be presenting accurate, credible information in a non-manipulative way. Perceptions of trustworthiness come from the content of the speech and the personality of the speaker. In terms of content, trustworthy speakers consider the audience throughout the speech-making process, present information in a balanced way, do not coerce the audience, cite credible sources, and follow the general principles of communication ethics. In terms of personality, trustworthy speakers are also friendly and warm (Stiff & Mongeau, 2003).

Dynamism refers to the degree to which audience members perceive a speaker to be outgoing and animated (Stiff & Mongeau, 2003). Two components of dynamism are charisma and energy. Charisma refers to a mixture of abstract and concrete qualities that make a speaker attractive to an audience. Charismatic people usually know they are charismatic because they have been told that in their lives, and people have been attracted to them.

Unfortunately, charisma is difficult to develop intentionally, and some people seem to have a naturally charismatic personality, while others do not. Even though not everyone can embody the charismatic aspect of dynamism, the other component of dynamism, energy, is something that everyone can fathom. Communicating enthusiasm for your topic and audience by presenting relevant content and using engaging delivery strategies such as vocal variety and eye contact can increase your dynamism.

Logos refers to the reasoning or logic of an argument. The presence of fallacies would obviously undermine a speaker’s appeal to logos. Speakers employ logos by presenting credible information as supporting material and verbally citing their sources during their speech. Using the guidelines from our earlier discussion of reasoning will also help a speaker create a rational appeal. Research shows that messages are more persuasive when arguments and their warrants are made explicit (Stiff & Mongeau, 2003). Carefully choosing supporting material that is verifiable, specific, and unbiased can help a speaker appeal to logos. Speakers can also appeal to logos by citing personal experience and providing the credentials and/or qualifications of sources of information (Cooper & Nothstine, 1996). Presenting a rational and logical argument is important, but speakers can be more effective if they bring in and refute counterarguments. The most effective persuasive messages are those that present two sides of an argument and refute the opposing side, followed by single argument messages, followed by messages that present counterarguments but do not refute them (Stiff & Mongeau, 2003). In short, by clearly showing an audience why one position is superior to another, speakers do not leave an audience to fill in the blanks of an argument, which could diminish the persuasive opportunity.

Pathos refers to emotional appeals. Aristotle was suspicious of too much emotional appeal, yet this appears to have become more acceptable in public speaking. Stirring emotions in an audience is a way to get them involved in the speech, and involvement can create more opportunities for persuasion and action. Reading in the paper that a house was burglarized may get your attention but think about how different your reaction would be if you found out it was your own home. Intentionally stirring someone’s emotions to get them involved in a message that has little substance would be unethical. Yet such spellbinding speakers have taken advantage of people’s emotions to get them to support causes, buy products, or engage in behaviors that they might not otherwise, if given the chance to see the faulty logic of a message.

Effective speakers should use emotional appeals that are also logically convincing, since audiences may be suspicious of a speech that is solely based on emotion. Emotional appeals are effective when you are trying to influence a behavior or you want your audience to take immediate action (Stiff & Mongeau, 2003). Emotions lose their persuasive effect more quickly than other types of persuasive appeals. Since emotions are often reactionary, they fade relatively quickly when a person is removed from the provoking situation (Fletcher, 2001).

Emotional appeals are also difficult for some because they require honed delivery skills and the ability to use words powerfully and dramatically. The ability to use vocal variety, cadence, and repetition to rouse an audience’s emotion is not easily attained. Think of how stirring Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech was due to his ability to evoke the emotions of the audience. Dr. King used powerful and creative language in conjunction with his vocalics to deliver one of the most famous speeches in our history. Using concrete and descriptive examples can paint a picture in your audience member’s minds. Speakers can also use literal images, displayed using visual aids, to appeal to pathos.

Speakers should strive to appeal to ethos, logos, and pathos within a speech. A speech built primarily on ethos might lead an audience to think that a speaker is full of himself or herself. A speech full of facts and statistics appealing to logos would result in information overload. Speakers who rely primarily on appeals to pathos may be seen as overly passionate, biased, or unable to see other viewpoints.

Dissonance, Motivation, and Needs

Aristotle’s three rhetorical proofs—ethos, logos, and pathos—have been employed as persuasive strategies for thousands of years. More recently, persuasive strategies have been identified based on theories and evidence related to human psychology. Although based in psychology, such persuasive strategies are regularly employed and researched in communication due to their role in advertising, marketing, politics, and interpersonal relationships. The psychologically based persuasive appeals we will discuss are cognitive dissonance, positive and negative motivation, and appeals to needs.

Cognitive Dissonance

If you have studied music, you probably know what dissonance is. Some notes, when played together on a piano, produce a sound that is pleasing to our ears. When dissonant combinations of notes are played, we react by wincing or cringing because the sound is unpleasant to our ears. So dissonance is that unpleasant feeling we get when two sounds clash. The same principle applies to cognitive dissonance , which refers to the mental discomfort that results when new information clashes with or contradicts currently held beliefs, attitudes, or values. Using cognitive dissonance as a persuasive strategy relies on three assumptions: (1) people have a need for consistency in their thinking; (2) when inconsistency exists, people experience psychological discomfort; and (3) this discomfort motivates people to address the inconsistency to restore balance (Stiff & Mongeau, 2003). In short, when new information clashes with previously held information, an unpleasantness results, and we have to try to reconcile the difference.

Cognitive dissonance is not a single-shot persuasive strategy. As we have learned, people are resistant to change and not easy to persuade. While we might think that exposure to conflicting information would lead a rational person to change his or her mind, humans are not as rational as we think.

There are many different mental and logical acrobatics that people do to get themselves out of dissonance. Some frequently used strategies to resolve cognitive dissonance include discrediting the speaker or source of information, viewing yourself as an exception, seeking selective information that supports your originally held belief, or intentionally avoiding or ignoring sources of cognitive dissonance (Cooper & Nothstine, 1996). As you can see, none of those actually results in a person modifying their thinking, which means persuasive speech goals are not met. Of course, people cannot avoid dissonant information forever, so multiple attempts at creating cognitive dissonance can actually result in thought or behavior modification.

Positive and Negative Motivation

Positive and negative motivation are common persuasive strategies used by teachers, parents, and public speakers. Rewards can be used for positive motivation, and the threat of punishment or negative consequences can be used for negative motivation. We have already learned the importance of motivating an audience to listen to your message by making your content relevant and showing how it relates to their lives. We also learned an organizational pattern based on theories of motivation: Monroe’s Motivated Sequence. When using positive motivation , speakers implicitly or explicitly convey to the audience that listening to their message or following their advice will lead to positive results. Conversely, negative motivation implies or states that failure to follow a speaker’s advice will result in negative consequences. Positive and negative motivation as persuasive strategies match well with appeals to needs.

Appeals to Needs

Triangle with 5 horizontal sections, narrowing as it gets to the top. From bottom to top: Physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, self-esteem needs, self-actualization needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs states that there are several layers of needs that human beings pursue. They include physiological, safety, social, self-esteem, and self-actualization needs (Maslow, 1943). Since these needs are fundamental to human survival and happiness, tapping into needs is a common persuasive strategy. Appeals to needs are often paired with positive or negative motivation, which can increase the persuasiveness of the message.

Physiological needs form the base of the hierarchy of needs. The closer the needs are to the base, the more important they are for human survival. Speakers do not appeal to physiological needs. After all, a person who does not have food, air, or water is not very likely to want to engage in persuasion, and it would not be ethical to deny or promise these things to someone for persuasive gain. Some speakers attempt to appeal to self-actualization needs, but I argue that this is difficult to do ethically. Self-actualization refers to our need to achieve our highest potential, and these needs are much more intrapersonal than the others are. We achieve our highest potential through things that are individual to us, and these are often things that we protect from outsiders. Some examples include pursuing higher education and intellectual fulfillment, pursuing art or music, or pursuing religious or spiritual fulfillment. These are often things we do by ourselves and for ourselves, so I like to think of this as sacred ground that should be left alone. Speakers are more likely to be successful at focusing on safety, social, and self-esteem needs.

We satisfy our safety needs when we work to preserve our safety and the safety of our loved ones. Speakers can combine appeals to safety with positive motivation by presenting information that will result in increased safety and security. Combining safety needs and negative motivation, a speaker may convey that audience members’ safety and security will be put at risk if the speaker’s message is not followed. Combining negative motivation and safety needs depends on using some degree of fear as a motivator. Think of how the insurance industry relies on appeals to safety needs for their business. While this is not necessarily a bad strategy, it can be done more or less ethically.

Our social needs relate to our desire to belong to supportive and caring groups. We meet social needs through interpersonal relationships ranging from acquaintances to intimate partnerships. We also become part of interest groups or social or political groups that help create our sense of identity. The existence and power of peer pressure is a testament to the motivating power of social needs. People go to great lengths and sometimes make poor decisions they later regret to be a part of the “in-group.” Advertisers often rely on creating a sense of exclusivity to appeal to people’s social needs. Positive and negative motivation can be combined with social appeals. Positive motivation is present in messages that promise the receiver “in-group” status or belonging, and negative motivation can be seen in messages that persuade by saying, “Don’t be left out.” Although these arguments may rely on the bandwagon fallacy to varying degrees, they draw out insecurities people have about being in the “out-group.”

We all have a need to think well of ourselves and have others think well of us, which ties to our self-esteem needs . Messages that combine appeals to self-esteem needs and positive motivation often promise increases in respect and status. A financial planner may persuade by inviting a receiver to imagine prosperity that will result from accepting his or her message. A publicly supported radio station may persuade listeners to donate money to the station by highlighting a potential contribution to society. The health and beauty industries may persuade consumers to buy their products by promising increased attractiveness. While it may seem shallow to entertain such ego needs, they are an important part of our psychological makeup. Unfortunately, some sources of persuasive messages are more concerned with their own gain than the well-being of others and may take advantage of people’s insecurities in order to advance their persuasive message. Instead, ethical speakers should use appeals to self-esteem that focus on prosperity, contribution, and attractiveness in ways that empower listeners.

11.7 Sample Persuasive Speech

Title: Education behind Bars Is the Key to Rehabilitation

General purpose: To persuade

Specific purpose : By the end of my speech, my audience will believe that prisoners should have the right to an education.

Thesis statement: There should be education in all prisons, because denying prisoners an education has negative consequences for the prisoner and society, while providing them with an education provides benefits for the prisoner and society.

Attention getter: “We must accept the reality that to confine offenders behind walls without trying to change them is an expensive folly with short-term benefits—winning battles while losing the war.” Supreme Court Justice Warren Burger spoke these words more than thirty years ago, and they support my argument today that prisoners should have access to education.

Introduction of topic: While we value education as an important part of our society, we do not value it equally for all. Many people do not believe that prisoners should have access to an education, but I believe they do.

Credibility and relevance: While researching this topic, my eyes were opened up to how much an education can truly affect a prisoner, and given my desire to be a teacher, I am invested in preserving the right to learn for everyone, even if they are behind bars. While I know from our audience analysis activity that some of you do not agree with me, you never know when this issue may hit close to home. Someday, someone you love might make a mistake in their life and end up in prison, and while they are there, I know you all would want them to receive an education so that when they get out, they will be better prepared to contribute to society.

Preview: Today, I invite you listen with an open mind as I discuss the need for prisoner education, a curriculum that will satisfy that need, and some benefits of prisoner education.

Transition: First, I will explain why prisoners need access to education.

1. According to a 2012 article in the journal Corrections Today on correctional education programs, most states have experienced an increase in incarceration rates and budgetary constraints over the past ten years, which has led many to examine best practices for reducing prison populations.

a. In that same article, criminologist and former research director of the Federal Bureau of Prisons states that providing correctional education is one of the most productive and important reentry services that our prisons offer.

b. His claim is supported by data collected directly from prisoners, 94 percent of whom identify education as a personal reentry need—ranking it above other needs such as financial assistance, housing, or employment.

c. Despite the fact that this need is clearly documented, funding for adult and vocational education in correctional education has decreased.

1. Many prisoners have levels of educational attainment that are far below those in the general population.

2. According to statistics from 2010, as cited in the Corrections Today article, approximately 40 percent of state prison inmates did not complete high school, as compared to 19 percent of the general population.

3. Additionally, while about 48 percent of the public have taken college classes, only about 11 percent of state prisoners have.

d. At the skill level, research from the United Kingdom, cited in the 2003 article from Studies in the Education of Adults titled “Learning behind Bars: Time to Liberate Prison Education,” rates of illiteracy are much higher among the prison population than the general population, and there is a link between poor reading skills and social exclusion that may lead people to antisocial behavior.

1. Prisoner education is also needed to break a cycle of negativity and stigma to which many prisoners have grown accustomed.

2. The article from Studies in the Education of Adults that I just cited states that prisoners are often treated as objects or subjected to objectifying labels like “ addict , sexual offender , and deviant .”

3. While these labels may be accurate in many cases, they do not do much to move the prisoner toward rehabilitation.

4. The label student , however, has the potential to do so because it has positive associations and can empower the prisoner to make better choices to enhance his or her confidence and self-worth.

Transition: Now that I have established the need for prisoner education, let’s examine how we can meet that need.

2. In order to meet the need for prisoner education that I have just explained, it is important to have a curriculum that is varied and tailored to various prisoner populations and needs.

a. The article from Corrections Today notes that education is offered to varying degrees in most US prisons, but its presence is often debated and comes under increased scrutiny during times of budgetary stress.

b. Some states have implemented programs that require inmates to attend school for a certain amount of time if they do not meet minimum standards for skills such as reading or math.

c. While these are useful programs, prisoner education should not be limited to or focused on those with the least amount of skills.

d. The article notes that even prisoners who have attended or even graduated from college may benefit from education, as they can pursue specialized courses or certifications.

e. Based on my research, I would propose that the prison curriculum have four tiers: one that addresses basic skills that prisoners may lack, one that prepares prisoners for a GED, one that prepares prisoners for college-level work, and one that focuses on life and social skills.

1. The first tier of the education program should focus on remediation and basic skills, which is the most common form of prisoner education as noted by Foley and Gao in their 2004 article from the Journal of Correctional Education that studied educational practices at several institutions.

a. These courses will teach prisoners basic reading, writing, and math skills that may be lacking.

b. Since there is a stigma associated with a lack of these basic skills, early instruction should be one-one-one or in small groups.

2. The second tier should prepare prisoners who have not completed the equivalent of high school to progress on to a curriculum modeled after that of most high schools, which will prepare them for a GED.

3. The third tier should include a curriculum based on the general education learning goals found at most colleges and universities and/or vocational training.

a. Basic general education goals include speaking, writing, listening, reading, and math.

b. Once these general education requirements have been met, prisoners should be able to pursue specialized vocational training or upper-level college courses in a major of study, which may need to be taken online through distance learning, since instructors may not be available to come to the actual prisons to teach.

4. The fourth tier includes training in social and life skills that most people learn through family and peer connections, which many prisoners may not have had.

a. Some population-specific areas of study that would not be covered in a typical classroom include drug treatment and anger management.

b. Life skills such as budgeting, money management, and healthy living can increase confidence.

c. Classes that focus on social skills, parenting, or relational communication can also improve communication skills and relational satisfaction; for example, workshops teaching parenting skills have been piloted to give fathers the skills needed to communicate effectively with their children, which can increase feelings of self-worth.

f. According to a 2007 article by Behan in the Journal of Correctional Education , prisons should also have extracurricular programs that enhance the educational experience.

1. Under the supervision of faculty and/or staff, prisoners could be given the task of organizing an outside speaker to come to the prison or put together a workshop.

2. Students could also organize a debate against students on the outside, which could allow the prisoners to interact (face-to-face or virtually) with other students and allow them to be recognized for their academic abilities.

3. Even within the prison, debates, trivia contests, paper contests, or speech contests could be organized between prisoners or between prisoners and prison staff as a means of healthy competition.

4. Finally, prisoners who are successful students should be recognized and put into peer-mentoring roles, because, as Behan states in the article, “a prisoner who…has had an inspirational learning experience acts as a more positive advocate for the school than any [other method].”

Transition: The model for prisoner education that I have just outlined will have many benefits.

3. Educating prisoners can benefit inmates, those who work in prisons, and society.

a. The article I just cited from the Journal of Correctional Education states that the self-reflection and critical thinking that are fostered in an educational setting can help prisoners reflect on how their actions affected them, their victims, and/or their communities, which may increase self-awareness and help them better reconnect with a civil society and reestablish stronger community bonds.

1. The Corrections Today article I cited earlier notes that a federally funded three-state survey provided the strongest evidence to date that prisoner education reduces the recidivism rate and increases public safety.

2. The Corrections Today article also notes that prisoners who completed a GED reoffended at a rate 20 percent lower than the general prison population, and those that completed a college degree reoffended at a rate 44 percent lower than the general prison population.

b. So why does prisoner education help reduce recidivism rates?

1. Simply put, according to the article in the Studies in the Education of Adults I cited earlier, the skills gained through good prison education programs make released prisoners more desirable employees, which increases their wages and helps remove them from a negative cycles of stigma and poverty that led many of them to crime in the first place.

2. Further, the ability to maintain consistent employment has been shown to reduce the rate of reoffending.

3. Education does not just improve the lives of the prisoners; it also positively affects the people who work in prisons.

c. An entry on eHow.com by Kinney about the benefits of prisoners getting GEDs notes that a successful educational program in a prison can create a more humane environment that will positively affect the officers and staff as well.

1. Such programs also allow prisoners to do more productive things with their time, which lessens violent and destructive behavior and makes prison workers’ jobs safer.

2. Prisoner education can also save cash-strapped states money.

3. Giving prisoners time-off-sentence credits for educational attainment can help reduce the prison population, as eligible inmates are released earlier because of their educational successes.

4. As noted by the Corrections Today article, during the 2008–9 school year the credits earned by prisoners in the Indiana system led to more than $68 million dollars in avoided costs.

Transition to conclusion and summary of importance: In closing, it is easy to see how beneficial a good education can be to a prisoner. Education may be something the average teenager or adult takes for granted, but for a prisoner it could be the start of a new life.

Review of main points: There is a clear need for prisoner education that can be met with a sound curriculum that will benefit prisoners, those who work in prisons, and society.

Closing statement: While education in prisons is still a controversial topic, I hope you all agree with me and Supreme Court Justice Burger, whose words opened this speech, when we say that locking a criminal away may offer a short-term solution in that it gets the criminal out of regular society, but it doesn’t better the prisoner and it doesn’t better us in the long run as a society.

Figure 11.1: Types of propositions with examples. Kindred Grey. 2022. CC BY 4.0 .

Figure 11.2: Inductive reasoning. Kindred Grey. 2022. CC BY 4.0 . Includes Lightbulb by Maxim Kulikov from NounProject , Magnifying Glass by Pedro Santos from NounProject , and Brain by Bernar Novalyi from NounProject (all Noun Project license ).

Figure 11.3: Deductive reasoning. Kindred Grey. 2022. CC BY 4.0 . Includes Lightbulb by Maxim Kulikov from NounProject , Magnifying Glass by Pedro Santos from NounProject , and Paper by AdbA Icons ❤️ from NounProject (all Noun Project license ).

Figure 11.4: Aristotle’s modes of persuassion. Kindred Grey. 2022. CC BY 4.0 .

Figure 11.5: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Kindred Grey. 2022. CC BY 4.0 .

Section 11. 1-11.4

Barton, K., & Tucker, B. G. (2021, February 20). Constructing a persuasive speech . https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Public_Speaking/Exploring_Public_Speaking_(Barton_and_Tucker)/13%3A_Persuasive_Speaking/13.05%3A_Constructing_a_Persuasive_Speech

Hamm, P. H. (2006). Teaching and persuasive communication: Class presentation skills . Harriet W. Sheridan Center for Teaching and Learning at Brown University.

Macasieb, D. (2018, June 13). Speech patterns: The proposition-to-proof versus the problem-solution method . https://drumac.com/2018/06/13/speech-patterns-the-proposition-to-proof-versus-the-problem-solution-method/

McCroskey, J. C. (1966). Toward an understanding of the importance of ‘evidence’ in persuasive communication. The Pennsylvania Speech Annual , 23 , 65–71.

McCroskey, J. C. (1969). A summary of experimental research on the effects of evidence in persuasive communication. Quarterly Journal of Speech , 55 (2), 169-176. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335636909382942

Nordquist, R. (2020, December 3). What does it mean to make a claim during an argument? https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-claim-argument-1689845

Poggi, I. (2005). The goals of persuasion. Pragmatics and Cognition , 13 (2), 297-335. https://doi.org/10.1075/pc.13.2.04pog

Watt, S. S., & Barnett, J. T. (2021, January 4). Organizing persuasive messages . https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Public_Speaking/Public_Speaking_(The_Public_Speaking_Project)/16%3A_Persuasive_Speaking/16.09%3A_Organizing_Persuasive_Messages

Williams, E. (2018, October 19). Effective persuasive communication . https://smallbusiness.chron.com/effective-persuasive-communication-56248.html

Section 11.5

ReferencesCooper, M. D., & Nothstine, W. L. (1996). Power persuasion: Moving an ancient art into the media age. Educational Video Group.

Walter, O. M., Speaking to inform and persuade . Macmillan.

Section 11.6

Cooper, M. D., & Nothstine, W. L. (1996). Power persuasion: Moving an ancient art into the media age . Educational Video Group.

Fletcher, L. (2001). How to design and deliver speeches (7th ed.). Longman.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50 (4), 370–396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346

Stiff, J. B., & Mongeau, P. A. (2003). Persuasive communication (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

Sample Persuasive Speech

Bayliss, P. (2003). Learning behind bars: Time to liberate prison education. Studies in the Education of Adults, 35 (2), 157–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/02660830.2003.11661480

Behan, C. (2007). Context, creativity and critical reflection: Education in correctional institutions. Journal of Correctional Education, 58 (2), 157–169. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23282734

Foley, R. M., & Gao, J. (2004). Correctional education: Characteristics of academic programs serving incarcerated adults. Journal of Correctional Education, 55 (1), 6–21. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23292120

Kinney, A. (2011). What are the benefits of inmates getting GEDs? Ehow.com . Retrieved from https://ehow.com/list_6018033_benefits-inmates-getting-geds_.html

Steurer, S. J., Linton, J., Nally, J., & Lockwood, S. (2010). The top-nine reasons to increase correctional education programs. Corrections Today, 72 (4), 40–43.

The statement that will be supported by evidence

Also called grounds, it supports the claim

The underlying justification that connects the claim and the evidence

A five step organizational pattern to help persuade an audience. 1. Attention Step: Grab the audience’s attention in the introduction. 2. Need Step: Establish the reason that your topic needs to be addressed. Satisfaction Step: Present a solution to the problem that you are addressing. 4. Visualization Step: Incorporate a positive/negative motivation to support the relationship you have set up between the need and your proposal. 5. Action Step: Include a call to action that tells people what they can do about the situation.

Reaches conclusions through citation of examples and is the most frequently used form of logical reasoning

Derives specifics from what is already known

Argues to establish a relationship between a cause and effect

Refers to the credibility of the speaker and includes dimensions: competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism

Refers to the perception of a speaker’s expertise in relation to the topic being discussed

The second component of ethos and is the degree that audience members perceive a speaker to be presenting accurate, credible information in a non-manipulative way

Refers to the degree to which audience members perceive a speaker to be outgoing and animated

The reasoning or logic of an argument

The emotional appeal

Refers to the mental discomfort that results when new information clashes with or contradicts currently held beliefs, attitudes, or values

Communication in the Real World Copyright © by Faculty members in the School of Communication Studies, James Madison University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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13 Chapter 13: Special Occasion Speaking

Tammera Stokes Rice, College of the Canyons

Adapted by William Kelvin, Professor of Communication Studies, Florida SouthWestern State College

Figure 13.1: “The 86th Annual Academy Awards ” 1

Introduction

“And, the Oscar goes to…!” You have probably caught those famous last words anytime someone wins at the Academy Awards. You’ve probably also heard speeches given at special occasions like graduations, wedding receptions, birthday parties, funerals, corporate meetings, etc. All of these speeches are very common, so you will probably hear them several times throughout your life. You may even need to present one yourself, so it is important to learn how to prepare them.

Special Occasion Speaking

Unlike informative speeches that inform an audience and persuasive speeches that persuade the audience, a special occasion speech is given by a speaker at a unique or special event that dictates the specific purpose. These speeches are also unique because each one of them is generally shorter in length than informative and persuasive speeches and is presented to a specific audience for a specific purpose. These special occasion speeches will be given in either a topical or chronological (temporal) order.

Nine Types of Special Occasion Speeches

In this chapter, we will cover nine different types of special occasion speeches and provide the guidelines to follow for each of them. Although there are other types, these are the most common speeches and might be part of your course assignments. The nine speeches are a speech of introduction, presentation speech, acceptance speech, toast, eulogy, speech to secure goodwill, dedication speech, commencement speech, and farewell speech.

Speech of Introduction

This is a speech introducing the featured speaker to the audience. Its main purpose is to gain attention and create interest for the upcoming speaker. It is like an informative speech because you are informing the audience about the main speaker, so you will follow the general pattern of informative speeches (topical or chronological/temporal). The guidelines to follow for this type of speech are:

Make sure your remarks about the main speaker are accurate!
Adapt your remarks for the occasion. If it is a formal occasion, then it requires a formal speech.
Adapt your remarks to the main speaker. Make sure the style and manner of your introduction are consistent with the main speech that will follow.
Adapt your remarks to the audience, so they want to hear the main speaker’s speech that follows your introduction.
Try to create a sense of anticipation. You can build excitement by holding off and giving the name of the speaker at the climax of the introduction.

Example: Introducing Ms. Oprah Winfrey at a Lifetime Achievement Television Awards banquet.

Find a sample online: Stanford University President’s introduction of Oprah in 2008. You can find the full text of the speech from June 15, 2008.

Presentation Speech

This speech is given when someone is publicly receiving a gift, an award, or some other form of public recognition. In this speech, you want to highlight the reason for the award or recognition by providing specific details. These speeches are most often heard at award show ceremonies. You can find videos from the Grammys, Tonys, Oscars, etc., and easily find good samples of presentation speeches. Here are the basic guidelines to follow for this type of speech:

State the reason for the presentation.
State the importance of the award.

Example: Presenting an award for technical merit in a film at the Academy Awards.

Figure 13.2: Academy Awards 2

Acceptance Speech

If there is going to be a presentation of an award, then someone must accept it, right? This speech is given to say thank you for a gift, award, or some other form of recognition. The guidelines to follow for this type of speech are:

Thank the people responsible for giving the award.
Acknowledge those who helped you achieve the award.
Explain what the award means to you currently and what it might mean to you in the future.

Example: Accepting an Oscar for Best Female Performance in a motion picture or an award for Employee of the Year.

Find a sample online: You can find the full transcript for when the cast and crew of the film CODA accept their award for Best Picture in 2022.

This speech is designed to celebrate a person(s) or an occasion. You will often hear them at anniversary parties, weddings, dinner parties, etc. The guidelines to follow for this type of speech are:

Place focus on the person(s) you are celebrating.
Avoid inside jokes, so you do not offend or confuse others.
Do not get intoxicated before your speech.
Most cultures have an “ending action,” so incorporate it into the speech. For example, in the United States, we tend to raise our glass as the ending action, so make sure the audience knows your speech has ended by raising your glass and signaling to drink. Make sure you research the cultural significance of the event.

Example: Toasting the couple at their wedding.

Find a sample online: You can find the full transcript of President Obama’s White House Correspondents’ Association dinner toast in 2015.

Figure 13.3: Wedding Hands 3

The word eulogy is from Greek origins that means “to praise,” so this tribute speech is given to praise the life of someone who has passed away. The guidelines to follow for this type of speech are:

Research the history of the person.
Think about who this person was in relation to the audience to have the greatest impact.
Give accolades about the person who passed to showcase the personality and legacy of the individual.
Think about how to incorporate emotional elements and humor to help the audience celebrate their life.

Example: Praising the life of someone dear to you who has passed away.

Find a sample online: You can find the full transcript of the eulogy for Rosa Parks. On October 31, 2005, at the Metropolitan AME Church in Washington D.C., Oprah Winfrey delivered a memorable eulogy of Rosa Parks. In it, she repeatedly stated, “We shall not be moved.” This famous line is indicative of Rosa Park’s refusal to give up her seat on the bus.

Figure 13.4: Rosa Parks 4

Speech to Secure Goodwill

This speech informs the audience about a particular product, company, profession, institution, person, etc. while trying to heighten the image of that product, company, profession, institution, person, etc. Online influencers do this all the time. They are hired by companies to “sell” their products or garner goodwill from new customers. The guidelines to follow for this type of speech are:

Establish credibility by explaining why the audience should listen to you speak about this product, company, etc. Be transparent about your affiliations and experience. Do you work for the company? Have you tried the product?
Always show the audience how they may benefit from whatever it is you are speaking about.
Stress the uniqueness of it.
This is an informative speech, while slightly hinting at the persuasive speech. Don’t be obvious about trying to persuade by saying “You should buy this product.” Rather, use your language to highlight the benefits of the product.

Example: Giving a speech to local high school seniors about their local community college and its incredible programs. In this example, you are informing the audience of the programs with the hope of getting them to enroll in community college, but the speech is not to persuade them to register. The speech is to tell them about the programs in hopes of their consideration for registering. See, it’s an informative speech with a hint of persuasion.

Dedication Speech

This speech gives special meaning to something being presented to the public. It is usually given at a ceremony of an official opening or the completion of something. You may have heard about a ribbon-cutting ceremony in your town celebrating the opening of a new business, or a new building at your college. Typically, a dedication speech is given by the developer, college president, mayor, etc. The guidelines to follow for this type of speech are:

You want to state the reason you are giving the dedication.
Explain exactly what is being dedicated.
Tell the audience who is responsible for the item that is being presented.
Explain why this item is significant.

Figure 13.5: Baltimore Holocaust Memorial 5

Example: Elie Wiesel’s dedication speech at the opening of the US Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington D.C.

Find a sample online: You can find the full transcript of Elie Wiesel’s Remarks at the Dedication Ceremonies for the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum on April 22, 1993.

Commencement Speech

This speech is given to graduating students at a high school, college, university, or military academy. It is generally the main speech at the celebration providing the speaker the opportunity to offer experience and advice to the new graduates. The guidelines to follow for this type of speech are:

Research the event and people involved.
Consider a chronological (temporal) organizing pattern to recognize students’ journeys.
Make the speech about the audience, not just your own story.
Time the speech so it is appropriate for the event.
Offer a motivational message, guidance, or suggestion.
Congratulate those that finished the training and offer them best wishes.

Example: The Valedictorian at your university giving a speech to the new college graduates at the Commencement ceremony.

Figure 13.6: Florida SouthWestern State College student at Commencement ceremony 6

Farewell Speech

This speech is meant to say goodbye or give tribute to a person because they are retiring or taking a new position. You could give the speech because you are leaving your current position, or someone could give the speech to you because you are leaving the position. The guidelines to follow for this type of speech are:

Provide praise towards the person.
Acknowledge their role in the position.
Describe how they benefitted the group and the challenge of going on without them.
Say “thank yous” where appropriate.
If you are the one leaving, explain how much you care for the group and will miss interacting with them.

Example: Saying goodbye to FSW after working in your position for 28 years.

Find a sample online: You can find the full transcript of Ronald Reagan’s farewell address to the nation on January 11, 1989.

In this chapter, we discussed nine different types of special occasion speeches. Each one is organized for a specific audience within a particular context. They are all unique and the speaker must follow the particular guidelines to make an impact on the audience.

All you need to do is listen to the speeches during an awards show like the Academy Awards, and you will hear introductory, presentation, and acceptance speeches for sure. Always keep in mind that each culture celebrates people in different ways, so be sure to analyze the audience before preparing the content of the speech. If you are the next valedictorian at your college or university or are delivering a speech at a friend’s wedding, we hope that you will reflect on all that you have learned in this chapter so that you deliver a memorable speech!

Reflection Questions

What occasions in your life could you foresee using a special occasion speech? How do you feel about those potential opportunities and why?
How would you begin the process of developing a special occasion speech?
What methods might you use to research the information you need for this type of speech? Offer specific online search strategies as well as other ideas besides searching online.
What stylistic differences might you employ that are different from your previous informative speeches?

Introduction Speech

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38 Chapter 13: Persuasive Speaking

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

Define persuasion;
Define ethos, logos, and pathos;
Explain the barriers to persuading an audience;
Construct a clear, reasonable proposition for a short classroom speech;
Compose an outline for a well-supported persuasive speech;
Analyze the audience to determine appropriate emotional and per- sonal appeals.

Chapter Preview

– Why Persuade?

– a definition of persuasion, – why is persuasion hard, – traditional views of persuasion, – constructing a persuasive speech.

When your instructor announced on the syllabus or in class that you would be required to give a persuasive speech for this class, what was your re- action? “Oh, good, I’ve got a great idea,” or, “Oh, no!”? For many people, there is something a little uncomfortable about the word “persuasion.”

It often gets paired with ideas of seduction, manipulation, force, lack of choice, or inducement as well as more positive concepts such as encour- agement, influence, urging, or logical arguments. You might get suspicious if you think someone is trying to persuade you. You might not appreciate someone telling you to change your viewpoints. On the other hand, you might not think you have any beliefs, attitudes, values, or positions that are worth advocating for in front of an audience.

However, if you think of persuasion simply as a formal speech with a purpose of getting people to do something they do not want to do, then you will miss the value of learning persuasion and its accompanying skills of appeal, argument, and logic. Persuasion is something you do every day, in various forms. Convincing a friend to go see the latest movie instead of staying in to watch TV; giving your instructor a reason to give you an ex-

tension on an assignment (do not try that for this speech, though!); writing a cover letter and resume and going through an interview for a job—all of these and so many more are examples of persuasion. In fact, it is hard to think of life without the everyday give-and-take of persuasion.

You may also be thinking, “I’ve given an informative speech. What’s the difference?” While this chapter will refer to all of the content of the pre- ceding chapters as it walks you through the steps of composing your per- suasive speech, there is a difference. Although your persuasive speech will involve information—probably even as much as in your informative speech—the key difference is the word “change.” Think of it like this:

INFORMATION + CHANGE = PERSUASION

You will be using the information for the purpose of changing something. First, we try to change the audience’s beliefs, attitudes, and actions, and second, possibly the context they act upon. In the next section we will in- vestigate the persuasive act and then move on to the barriers to persuasion.

Persuasion can be defined in two ways, for two purposes. The first (Lu- cas, 2015) is “the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people’s be- liefs or actions” (p. 306). This is a good, simple straightforward definition to start with, although it does not encompass the complexity of persuasion. This definition does introduce us to what could be called a “scaled” way of thinking about persuasion and change.

Figure 13.1 – Persuasion Continuum

PropositionThe central idea state- ment in a persuasive speech; a statement made advancing a judgment or opinion Think of persuasion as a continuum or line going both directions (see Figure 13.1). Your audience members, either as a group or individually, are sitting somewhere on that line in reference to your central idea statement, or what we are going to call a proposition in this chapter. In your speech you are proposing the truth or validity of an idea, one which the audience may not find true or acceptable. Sometimes the word “claim” is used for proposition or central idea statement in a persuasive speech, because you are claiming an idea is true or an action is valuable.

For example, your proposition might be, “The main cause of climate change is human activity.” In this case you are not denying that natural forces, such as volcanoes, can affect the climate, but you are claiming that climate change is mainly due to pollution and other harmful things hu- mans have done to the environment. To be an effective persuasive speaker, one of your first jobs after coming up with this topic would be to determine where your audience “sits” on the continuum in Figure 13.1.

+3 means strongly agree to the point of making lifestyle choices to lessen climate change (such as riding a bike instead of driving a car, recycling, eating certain kinds of foods, and advocating for government policy changes).

+2 means agree but not to the point of acting upon it or only acting on it in small ways.

+1 as mildly in favor of your proposition; that is, they think it’s probably true but the issue doesn’t affect them personally.

0 means neutral, no opinion, or feeling too uninformed to make a decision.

-1 means mildly opposed to the proposition but willing to listen to those with whom they disagree.

-2 means disagreement to the point of dismissing the idea pretty quickly.

-3 means strong opposition to the point that the concept of climate change itself is not even listened to or acknowledged as a valid subject .

Since everyone in the audience is somewhere on this line or continuum, persuasion in this case means moving them to the right, somewhere closer to +3. Thinking about persuasion this way has three values:

You can visualize and quantify where your audience “sits.”
You can accept the fact that any movement toward +3 or to the right is a win.
You can see that trying to change an audience from -3 to +3 in one speech is just about impossible. Therefore, you will be able to take a reasonable approach. In this case, if you knew most of the audience was at -2 or -3, your speech would be about the science behind cli- mate change in order to open their minds to its possible existence. However, that audience is not ready to hear about its being caused mainly by humans or what action should be taken to reverse it.

Your instructor may have the class engage in some activity about your proposed topics in order for you to write your proposition in a way that it is more applicable to your audience. For example, you might have a group discussion on the topics or administer surveys to your fellow students.

Some topics are so controversial and divisive that trying to persuade about them in class is inappropriate. Your instructor may forbid some topics or steer you in the direction of others.

You might also ask if it is possible to persuade to the negative, for example, to argue against something or try to move the audience to be opposed to something. In this case you would be trying to move your audience to the left on the continuum rather than to the right. Yes, it is possible to do so, but it might confuse the audience. Also, you might want to think in terms of phrasing your proposition so that it is favorable as well as reasonable.

For example, “Elderly people should not be licensed to drive” could be re- placed with “Drivers over the age of 75 in our state of should be required to pass a vision and health test every two years to renew their drivers’ licens- es.” The first one is not clear (what is “elderly?”), reasonable (no license at all?), or positive (based on restriction) in approach. The second is specific, reasonable, doable, and positive.

It should also be added that the proposition is assumed to be controversial. By that is meant that some people in the audience disagree with your prop- osition or at least have no opinion; they are not “on your side.” It would be foolish to give a speech when everyone in the audience totally agrees with

Target audiencethe members of an audience the speaker most wants to per- suade and who are likely to be receptive to persuasive messages you at the beginning of the speech. For example, trying to convince your classroom audience that attending college is a good idea is a waste of ev- eryone’s time since, for one reason or another, everyone in your audience has already made that decision. That is not persuasive.

Those who disagree with your proposition but are willing to listen could be called the target audience . These are the members of your audience on whom you are truly focusing your persuasion. At the same time, another cluster of your audience that is not part of your target audience are those who are extremely opposed to your position to the point that they probably will not give you a fair hearing. Finally, some members of your audience may already agree with you, although they don’t know why.

To go back to our original definition, “the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people’s beliefs or actions,” and each of these purposes im- plies a different approach. You can think of creating as moving an audi- ence from 0 to +1, +2, or +3. You only really “create” something when it does not already exist, meaning the audience’s attitude will be a 0 since they have no opinion. In creating, you have to first engage the audience that there is a vital issue at stake. Then you must provide arguments in favor of your claim to give the audience a basis for belief.

PersuasionA symbolic process in which communicators try to convince other people to change their attitudes or behavior regarding an issue through the transmis- sion of a message, in an atmosphere of free choice Reinforcing is moving the audience from +1 toward +3 in the hope that they take action (since the real test of belief is whether people act on it). In reinforcing, the audience already agrees with you but need steps and pushes (nudges) to make it action. Changing is moving from -1 or –2 to

+1 or higher. In changing, you must first be credible, provide evidence for your side but also show why the audience’s current beliefs are mistaken or wrong in some way.

However, this simple definition from Lucas, while it gets to the core of “change” that is inherent in persuasion, could be improved with some attention to the ethical component and the “how” of persuasion. For that purpose, let’s look at Perloff’s (2003) definition of persuasion :

A symbolic process in which communicators try to convince other people to change their attitudes or behavior regarding an issue through the transmission of a message, in an atmosphere of free choice. (p. 8)

There are several important factors about this definition. First, notice that persuasion is symbolic, that is, uses language or other symbols (even

graphics can be symbols), rather than force or other means. Second, notice that it is an attempt, not always fully successful. Third, there is an “atmo- sphere of free choice,” in that the persons being persuaded can choose not to believe or act. And fourth, notice that the persuader is “trying to con- vince others to change.” Modern psychological research has confirmed that the persuader does not change the audience directly. The processes that the human mind goes through while it listens to a persuasive message is

Mental dialoguean imagined conver- sation the speaker has with a given audience in which the speaker tries to anticipate what questions, concerns, or issues the audience may have to the sub- ject under discussion like a silent, mental dialogue the audience is having with the speaker’s ideas. The audience members as individuals eventually convince them- selves to change based on the “symbols” used by the speaker.

Some of this may sound like splitting hairs, but these are important points. The fact that an audience has free choice means that they are active par- ticipants in their own persuasion and that they can choose whether the speaker is successful. This factor calls on the student speaker to be ethical and truthful. Sometimes students will say, “It is just a class assignment, I can lie in this speech,” but that is not a fair or respectful way to treat your classmates.

Further, the basis of your persuasion is language; even though “a picture is worth a thousand words” and can help add emotional appeal to your speech, you want to focus on communicating through words. Also, Per- loff’s definition distinguishes between “attitude” and “behavior,” mean- ing that an audience may be persuaded to think, to feel, or to act. Finally, persuasion is a process. Successful persuasion actually takes a while. One speech can be effective, but usually other messages influence the listener in the long run.

Persuasion is hard mainly because we have a bias against change. As much as we hear statements like “The only constant is change” or “Variety is the spice of life,” the evidence from research and from our personal experience shows that, in reality, we do not like change. Recent research, for example, in risk aversion, points to how we are more concerned about keeping from losing something than with gaining something. Change is often seen as a loss of something rather than a gain of something else. Change is a step into the unknown, a gamble (Vedantam & Greene, 2013).

In the 1960s psychiatrists Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe wanted to investigate the effect of stress on life and health. As explained on the Mindtools website:

They surveyed more than 5,000 medical patients and asked them to say whether they had experience any of a series of 43 life events in the previous two years. Each event, called a Life Change Unit (LCU), had a different “weight” for stress. The more events the pa- tient added up, the higher the score. The higher the score, and the larger the weight of each event, the more likely the patient was to become ill. (The Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale, 2015)

You can find the Holmes-Rahe stress scale on many websites. What you will find is that the stressful events almost all have to do with change in some life situations—death of a close family member (which might rate 100 LCUs), loss of a job, even some good changes like the Christmas hol-

idays (12 LCUs). Change is stressful. We do not generally embrace things that bring us stress.

Selective exposurethe decision to expose ourselves to messages that we already agree with, rather than those that confront or chal- lenge us Additionally, psychologists have pointed to how we go out of our way to protect our beliefs, attitudes, and values. First, we selectively expose our- selves to messages that we already agree with, rather than those that con- front or challenge us. This selective exposure is especially seen in choic- es of mass media that individuals listen to and read, whether TV, radio, or Internet sites. Not only do we selectively expose ourselves to information, we selectively attend to, perceive, and recall information that supports our existing viewpoints (referred to as selective attention, selective perception, and selective recall).

Cognitive dissonancea psychological phe- nomenon where peo- ple confronted with conflicting information or viewpoints reacha state of dissonance (generally the dis- agreement between conflicting thoughts and/or actions), which can be very uncom- fortable, and results in actions to get rid of the dissonance and main- tain consonance This principle led Leon Festinger (1957) to form the theory of cognitive dissonance , which states, among other ideas, that when we are con- fronted with conflicting information or viewpoints, we reach a state of dissonance. This state can be very uncomfortable, and we will do things to get rid of the dissonance and maintain “consonance.” Ideally, at least for a public speaker, the dissonance is relieved or resolved by being persuaded (changed) to a new belief, attitude, or behavior. However, the easiest way to avoid dissonance is to not expose oneself to conflicting messages in the first place.

Additionally, as mentioned before, during a persuasive speech the audi- ence members are holding a mental dialogue with the speaker or at least the speaker’s content. They are putting up rebuttals or counter-arguments. These have been called reservations (as in the audience member would like to believe the speaker but has reservations about doing so). They could be called the “yeah-buts”—the audience members are saying in their minds, “Yeah, I see what you are arguing, but—”. Reservations can be very strong, since, again, the bias is to be loss averse and not to change our actions or beliefs.

In a sense, the reasons not to change can be stronger than even very logical reasons to change. For example, you probably know a friend who will not wear a seatbelt in a car. You can say to your friend, “Don’t you know that the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (2009) says, and I quote, ‘1,652 lives could be saved and 22,372 serious injuries avoided each year on America’s roadways if seat belt use rates rose to 90 percent in ev- ery state’?” What will your friend probably say, even though you have cited a credible source?

They will come up with some reason for not wearing it, even something as dramatic as “I knew a guy who had a cousin who was in an accident and the cop said he died because he was wearing his seatbelt.” You may have had this conversation, or one like it. Their arguments may be less dramat- ic, such as “I don’t like how it feels” or “I don’t like the government telling me what to do in my car.” For your friend, the argument for wearing a seat

belt is not as strong as the argument against it, at least at this moment. If they are open-minded and can listen to evidence, they might experience cognitive dissonance and then be persuaded.

Solutions to the Difficulty of Persuasion

With these reasons for the resistance audience members would have to persuasion, what is a speaker to do? Here are some strategies.

Since change is resisted, we do not make many large or major changes in our lives. We do, however, make smaller, concrete, step-by-step or incre- mental changes in our lives every day. Going back to our scale in Figure 13.1, trying to move an audience from -3 to +2 or +3 is too big a move.

Having reasonable persuasive goals is the first way to meet resistance. Even moving someone from -3 to -2 is progress, and over time these small shifts can eventually result in a significant amount of persuasion.

Secondly, a speaker must “deal with the reservations.” First, the speaker must acknowledge they exist, which shows audience awareness, but then the speaker must attempt to rebut or refute them. In reality, since persua- sion involves a mental dialogue, your audience is more than likely thinking of counter-arguments in their minds. Therefore, including a refutation section in your speech, usually after your presentation of arguments in favor of your proposition, is a required and important strategy.

However, there are some techniques for rebuttal or refutation that work better than others. You would not want to say, “One argument against my proposition is . . . , and that is wrong” or “If you are one of the people who believe this about my proposition, you are wrong.” On the other hand, you could say that the reservations are “misconceptions,” “myths,” or “mistak- en ideas” that are commonly held about the proposition.

Two-tailed argumentsa persuasive technique in which a speaker brings up a counter-ar- gument to their own topic and then directly refutes the claim Generally, strong persuasive speeches offer the audience what are called two-tailed arguments , which bring up a valid issue against your argu- ment which you, as the speaker, must then refute. After acknowledging them and seeking to refute or rebut the reservations, you must also pro- vide evidence for your refutation. Ultimately, this will show your audience that you are aware of both sides of the issue you are presenting and make you a more credible speaker. However, you cannot just say something like this:

One common misconception about wearing seatbelts is that if the car goes off a bridge and is sinking in water, you would not be able to release the belt and get out. First, that rarely happens.

Second, if it did, getting the seat belt unbuckled would be the least of your worries. You would have to know how to get out of the car, not just the seat belt. Third, the seat belt would have protected you from any head injuries in such a crash, therefore keeping you conscious and able to help anyone else in the car.

This is a good start, but there are some assertions in here that would need support from a reliable source, such as the argument that the “submerging in water” scenario is rare. If it has happened to someone you know, you probably would not think it is rare.

The third strategy is to keep in mind that since you are asking the audience to change something, they must view the benefits of the change as worth the stress of the change. If you do good audience analysis, you know they are asking, “What’s in it for me?” What benefit or advantage or improve- ment would happen for the audience members?

If the audience is being persuaded to sign an organ donor card, which is an altruistic action that cannot benefit them in any way because they will be dead, what would be the benefit? Knowing others would have better lives, feeling a sense of contribution to the good of humanity, and helping med- ical science might be examples. The point is that a speaker should be able to engage the audience at the level of needs, wants, and values as well as logic and evidence.

In the fourth century BCE, Aristotle took up the study of the public speak- ing practices of the ruling class in Athenian society. For two years he ob- served the rhetoric of the men who spoke in the assembly and the courts. In the end, he wrote Rhetoric to explain his theories about what he saw.

Among his many conclusions, which have formed the basis of communi- cation study for centuries, was the classification of persuasive appeals into ethos , logos , and pathos . Over the years, Aristotle’s original understanding and definition of these terms have been refined as more research has been done

Ethosthe influence of speak- er credentials and character in a speech; arguments based on credibility Ethos has come to mean the influence of speaker credentials and charac- ter in a speech. Ethos is one of the more studied aspects of public speaking, and it was discussed earlier in Chapter 3. During the speech, a speaker should seek to utilize their existing credibility, based on the favorable things an audience already knows or believes about the speaker, such as education, expertise, background, and good character. The speaker should also improve or enhance credibility through citing reliable, authoritative sources, strong arguments, showing awareness of the audience, and effec- tive delivery.

The word “ethos” looks very much like the word “ethics,” and there are many close parallels to the trust an audience has in a speaker and their honesty and ethical stance. In terms of ethics, it goes without saying that your speech will be truthful. Another matter to consider is your own per- sonal involvement in the topic. Ideally you have chosen the topic because it means something to you personally.

Logoslogical and organized arguments and the credible evidence to support the arguments within a speech; argu- ments based on logic For example, perhaps your speech is designed to motivate audience mem- bers to take action against bullying in schools, and it is important to you because you work with the Boys and Girls Club organization and have seen how anti-bullying programs can have positive results. Sharing your own involvement and commitment is key to the credibility and emotion- al appeal (ethos and pathos) of the speech, added to the logos (evidence showing the success of the programs and the damage caused by bullying that goes unchecked). However, it would be wrong to manufacture stories of personal involvement that are untrue, even if the proposition is a social- ly valuable one.

Pathosthe use of emotions such as anger, joy, hate, desire for com- munity, and love to persuade the audience of the rightness of a proposition; argu- ments based on emo- tion Aristotle’s original meaning for logos had philosophical meanings tied to the Greek worldview that the universe is a place ruled by logic and reason. Logos in a speech was related to standard forms of arguments that the au- dience would find acceptable. Today we think of logos as both logical and organized arguments and the credible evidence to support the arguments. Chapter 14 will deal with logic and avoiding logical fallacies more specifi- cally.

In words like “empathy,” “sympathy,” and “compassion” we see the root word behind pathos. Pathos , to Aristotle, was using the emotions such as anger, joy, hate, desire for community, and love to persuade the audience of the rightness of a proposition. One example of emotional appeals is using strong visual aids and engaging stories to get the attention of the au- dience. Someone’s just asking you to donate money to help homeless pets

may not have a strong effect, but seeing the ASPCA’s commercials that feature emaciated and mistreated animals is probably much more likely to persuade you to donate (add the music for full emotional effect).

Emotions are also engaged by showing the audience that the proposition relates to their needs. However, we recognize that emotions are complex and that they also can be used to create a smokescreen to logic. Emotional appeals that use inflammatory language—name-calling—are often uneth- ical or at least counterproductive. Some emotions are more appropriate for persuasive speeches than others. Anger and guilt, for example, do have effectiveness but they can backfire. Positive emotions such as pride, sym- pathy, and contentment are usually more productive.

One negative emotion that is useful and that can be used ethically is fear. When you think about it, we do a number of things in life to avoid negative consequences, and thus, out of fear. Why don’t we drive 100 miles an hour on the interstate? Fear of getting a ticket, fear of paying more for insur- ance, fear of a crash, fear of hurting ourselves or others. Fear is not always applicable to a specific topic, but research shows that mild fear appeals, under certain circumstances, are very useful. When using fear appeals, the speaker must:

Prove the fear appeal is valid.
Prove that it applies to the audience
Prove that the solution can work
Prove the solution is available to the audience

Without these “proofs,” the audience may dismiss the fear appeal as not being real or not applying to them (O’Keefe, 2002). Mild and reasonable are the keys here. Intense, over-the-top fear appeals, especially showing gory photos, are often dismissed by the audience.

For example, a student gave a speech in one of our classes about flossing teeth. This may seem like an overdone subject, but in this case it wasn’t. He used dramatic and disturbing photos of dental and gum problems but also proved that these photos of gum disease really did come from lack of flossing. He also showed the link between lack of flossing and heart dis- ease. The solution to avoid the gum disease and other effects was readily available, and the student proved through his evidence that the solution of flossing regularly did work to avoid the disease. Fear appeals can be over- done, but mild ones supported by evidence are very useful.

Because we feel positive emotions when our needs are met and negative ones when our needs are not met, aligning your proposition with strong audience needs is part of pathos. Earlier in this book (Chapter 2) we ex- amined the well-known Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Students are often so familiar with it that they do not see its connection to real-life experiences. For example, safety and security needs, the second level on the hierarchy, is much broader than what many of us initially think. It includes:

supporting the military and homeland security;
buying insurance for oneself and one’s family;
having investments and a will;
personal protection such as taking self-defense classes;
policies on crime and criminal justice in our communities;
buying a security system for your car or home; seat belts and automo- tive safety; or even
having the right kind of tires on one’s car (which is actually a viable topic for a speech).

The third level up in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, love and belongingness, deals with a whole range of human experiences, such as connection with others and friendship; involvement in communities, groups, and clubs; prioritizing family time; worship and connection to a faith community; be- ing involved in children’s lives; patriotism; loyalty; and fulfilling personal commitments.

In the speech outline at the end of the chapter about eliminating Facebook time, the speaker appeals to the three central levels of the hierarchy in her three points: safety and security from online threats, spending more time with family and friends in real time rather than online (love and belong- ing), and having more time to devote to schoolwork rather than on Face- book (esteem and achievement). Therefore, utilizing Maslow’s hierarchy of needs works as a guide for finding those key needs that relate to your proposition, and by doing so, allows you to incorporate emotional appeals based on needs.

Up to this point in the chapter, we have looked at the goals of persuasion, why it is hard, and how to think about the traditional modes of persuasion based on Aristotle’s theories. In the last section of this chapter, we will look at generating an overall organizational approach to your speech based on your persuasive goals.

In a sense, constructing your persuasive speech is the culmination of the skills you have learned already. In another sense, you are challenged to think somewhat differently. While the steps of analyzing your audience, formulating your purpose and central idea, applying evidence, consider- ing ethics, framing the ideas in appropriate language, and then practicing delivery will of course apply, you will need to consider some expanded options about each of these steps.

Formulating a Proposition

As mentioned before, when thinking about a central idea statement in a persuasive speech, we use the terms “proposition” or claim. Persuasive

speeches have one of four types of propositions or claims, which deter- mine your overall approach. Before you move on, you need to determine what type of proposition you should have (based on the audience, context, issues involved in the topic, and assignment for the class).

Proposition of Fact

Speeches with this type of proposition attempt to establish the truth of a statement. The core of the propositoin (or claim) is not whether some- thing is morally right and wrong or what should be done about the topic, only that a statement is supported by evidence or not. These propositions are not facts such as “the chemical symbol for water is H20” or “Barack Obama won the presidency in 2008 with 53% of the vote.” Propositions or claims of fact are statements over which persons disagree and there is evi- dence on both sides, although probably more on one than the other. Some examples of propositions of fact are:

Converting to solar energy can save homeowners money.

John F. Kennedy was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald work- ing alone.

Experiments using animals are essential to the development of many life-saving medical procedures.

Climate change has been caused by human activity.

Granting tuition tax credits to the parents of children who attend private schools will perpetuate educational inequality.

Watching violence on television causes violent behavior in children.

William Shakespeare did not write most of the plays attributed to him.

John Doe committed the crime of which he is accused.

Notice that in none of these are any values—good or bad—mentioned. Perpetuating segregation is not portrayed as good or bad, only as an effect of a policy. Of course, most people view educational inequality negatively, just as they view life-saving medical procedures positively. But the point of these propositions is to prove with evidence the truth of a statement, not its inherent value or what the audience should do about it. In fact, in some propositions of fact no action response would even be possible, such as the proposition listed above that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in the assas- sination of President Kennedy.

Propositions of Definition

This is probably not one that you will use in your class, but it bears men- tioning here because it is used in legal and scholarly arguments. Proposi- tions of definitions argue that a word, phrase, or concept has a particular meaning. Remembering back to Chapter 7 on supporting materials, we saw that there are various ways to define words, such as by negation, op- erationalizing, and classification and division. It may be important for you to define your terms, especially if you have a value proposition. Lawyers, legislators, and scholars often write briefs, present speeches, or compose articles to define terms that are vital to defendants, citizens, or disciplines. We saw a proposition of definition defended in the Supreme Court’s 2015 decision to redefine marriage laws as applying to same-sex couples, based on arguments presented in court. Other examples might be:

The Second Amendment to the Constitution does not include pos- session of automatic weapons for private use.

Alcoholism should be considered a disease because…

The action committed by Mary Smith did not meet the standard for first-degree murder.

Thomas Jefferson’s definition of inalienable rights did not include a right to privacy.

In each of these examples, the proposition is that the definition of these things (the Second Amendment, alcoholism, crime, and inalienable rights) needs to be changed or viewed differently, but the audience is not asked to change an attitude or action.

Propositions of Value

It is likely that you or some of your classmates will give speeches with propositions of value. When the proposition has a word such as “good,” “bad,” “best,” “worst,” “just,” “unjust,” “ethical,” “unethical,” “moral,” “im- moral,” “beneficial,” “harmful,” “advantageous,” or “disadvantageous,” it is a proposition of value. Some examples include:

Hybrid cars are the best form of automobile transportation avail- able today.

Homeschooling is more beneficial for children than traditional schooling.

The War in Iraq was not justified. Capital punishment is morally wrong.

Mascots that involve Native American names, characters, and symbols are demeaning.

A vegan diet is the healthiest one for adults.

Propositions of value require a first step: defining the “value” word. If a war is unjustified, what makes a war “just” or “justified” in the first place? That is a fairly philosophical question. What makes a form of transpor- tation “best” or “better” than another? Isn’t that a matter of personal approach? For different people, “best” might mean “safest,” “least expen- sive,” “most environmentally responsible,” “stylish,” “powerful,” or “pres- tigious.” Obviously, in the case of the first proposition above, it means “environmentally responsible.” It would be the first job of the speaker, after introducing the speech and stating the proposition, to explain what “best form of automobile transportation” means. Then the proposition would be defended with separate arguments.

Propositions of Policy

These propositions are easy to identify because they almost always have the word “should” in them. These propositions call for a change in policy or practice (including those in a government, community, or school), or they can call for the audience to adopt a certain behavior. Speeches with propositions of policy can be those that call for passive acceptance and agreement from the audience and those that try to instigate the audience to action, to actually do something immediately or in the long-term.

Our state should require mandatory recertification of lawyers every ten years.

The federal government should act to ensure clean water stan- dards for all citizens.

The federal government should not allow the use of technology to choose the sex of an unborn child.

The state of Georgia should require drivers over the age of 75 to take a vision test and present a certificate of good health from a doctor before renewing their licenses.

Wyeth Daniels should be the next governor of the state.

Young people should monitor their blood pressure regularly to avoid health problems later in life.

As mentioned before, the proposition determines the approach to the speech, especially the organization. Also as mentioned earlier in this chapter, the exact phrasing of the proposition should be carefully done to be reasonable, positive, and appropriate for the context and audience. In

the next section we will examine organizational factors for speeches with propositions of fact, value, and policy.

Organization Based on Type of Proposition

Organization for a proposition of fact.

If your proposition is one of fact, you will do best to use a topical organiza- tion. Essentially that means that you will have two to four discrete, sepa- rate arguments in support of the proposition. For example:

Proposition: Converting to solar energy can save homeowners money.

Solar energy can be economical to install.
The government awards grants.
The government gives tax credits.
Solar energy reduces power bills.
Solar energy requires less money for maintenance.
Solar energy works when the power grid goes down.

Here is a first draft of another outline for a proposition of fact:

Proposition: Experiments using animals are essential to the development of many life-saving medical procedures.

Research of the past shows many successes from animal experi- mentation.
Research on humans is limited for ethical and legal reasons.
Computer models for research have limitations.

However, these outlines are just preliminary drafts because preparing a speech of fact requires a great deal of research and understanding of the issues. A speech with a proposition of fact will almost always need an argu- ment or section related to the “reservations,” refuting the arguments that the audience may be preparing in their minds, their mental dialogue. So the second example needs revision, such as:

The first argument in favor of animal experimentation is the record of successful discoveries from animal research.
A second reason to support animal experimentation is that re- search on humans is limited for ethical and legal reasons.
Animal experimentation is needed because computer models for research have limitations.
Many people today have concerns about animal experimentation.
Some believe that all experimentation is equal.
There is experimentation for legitimate medical research.
There is experimentation for cosmetics or shampoos.
Others argue that the animals are mistreated.
There are protocols for the treatment of animals in experimentation.
Legitimate medical experimentation follows the protocols.
Some believe the persuasion of certain advocacy groups like PETA.
Many of the groups that protest animal experimen- tation have extreme views.
Some give untrue representations.

To complete this outline, along with introduction and conclusion, there would need to be quotations, statistics, and facts with sources provided to support both the pro-arguments in Main Points I-III and the refutation to the misconceptions about animal experimentation in Subpoints A-C under Point IV.

Organization for a proposition of value

A persuasive speech that incorporates a proposition of value will have a slightly different structure. As mentioned earlier, a proposition of value must first define the “value” word for clarity and provide a basis for the other arguments of the speech. The second or middle section would pres- ent the defense or “pro” arguments for the proposition based on the defini- tion. The third section would include refutation of the counter arguments or “reservations.” The following outline draft shows a student trying to structure a speech with a value proposition. Keep in mind it is abbreviated for illustrative purposes, and thus incomplete as an example of what you would submit to your instructor, who will expect more detailed outlines for your speeches.

Proposition: Hybrid cars are the best form of automotive transportation available today.

Automotive transportation that is best meets three standards.

(Definition)

It is reliable and durable.
It is fuel efficient and thus cost efficient.
It is therefore environmentally responsible.
Studies show that hybrid cars are durable and reliable. (Pro-Ar- gument 1)
Hybrid cars have 99 problems per 100 cars versus 133 problem per 100 conventional cars, according to TrueDelta, a car analysis website much like Consumer Reports.
J.D. Powers reports hybrids also experience 11 fewer en- gine and transmission issues than gas-powered vehicles, per 100 vehicles.
Hybrid cars are fuel-efficient. (Pro-Argument 2)
The Toyota Prius gets 48 mpg on the highway and 51 mpg in the city.
The Ford Fusion hybrid gets 47 mpg in the city and in the country.
Hybrid cars are environmentally responsible. (Pro-Argument 3)
They only emit 51.6 gallons of carbon dioxide every 100 miles.
Conventional cars emit 74.9 gallons of carbon dioxide every 100 miles.
The hybrid produces 69% of the harmful gas exhaust that a conventional car does.
Of course, hybrid cars are relatively new to the market and some have questions about them. (Reservations)
Don’t the batteries wear out and aren’t they expensive to replace?
Evidence to address this misconception.
Aren’t hybrid cars only good for certain types of driving and drivers?
Aren’t electric cars better?

Organization for a propositions of policy

The most common type of outline organizations for speeches with propo- sitions of policy is problem-solution or problem-cause-solution. Typically we do not feel any motivation to change unless we are convinced that some harm, problem, need, or deficiency exists, and even more, that it affects us personally. As the saying goes, “If it ain’t broke, why fix it?”As mentioned before, some policy speeches look for passive agreement or acceptance of the proposition. Some instructors call this type of policy speech a “think” speech since the persuasion is just about changing the way your audience thinks about a policy.

On the other hand, other policy speeches seek to move the audience to do something to change a situation or to get involved in a cause, and these are sometimes called a “do” speech since the audience is asked to do some- thing. This second type of policy speech (the “do” speech) is sometimes called a “speech to actuate.” Although a simple problem-solution organiza- tion with only two main points is permissible for a speech of actuation, you will probably do well to utilize the more detailed format called Monroe’s Motivated Sequence.

This format, designed by Alan Monroe (1951), who wrote a popular speak- ing textbook for many years, is based on John Dewey’s reflective think- ing process. It seeks to go in-depth with the many questions an audience would have in the process of listening to a persuasive speech. Monroe’s

Motivated Sequence involves five steps, which should not be confused with the main points of the outline. Some steps in Monroe’s Motivated Se- quence may take two points.

Attention. This is the introduction, where the speaker brings atten- tion to the importance of the topic as well as his or her own credibil- ity and connection to the topic. This step will include the thesis and preview.
Need. Here the problem is defined and defended. This step may be divided into two main points, such as the problem and the causes of it, since logically a solution should address the underlying causes as well as the external effects of a problem. It is important to make

the audience see the severity of the problem, and how it affects them, their family, or their community. The harm or need can be physical, financial, psychological, legal, emotional, educational, social, or a combination. It will have to be supported by evidence.

Satisfaction. A need calls for satisfaction in the same way a prob- lem requires a solution. This step could also, in some cases, take up two main points. Not only does the speaker present the solution and describe it, but they must also defend that it works and will address the causes of the problem as well as the symptoms.
Visualization. This step looks to the future either positively or negatively. If positive, the benefits from enacting or choosing the solution are shown. If negative, the disadvantages of not doing any- thing to solve the problem are shown. There may be times when it is acceptable to skip this step, especially if time is limited. The purpose of visualization is to motivate the audience by revealing future bene- fits or through fear appeals by showing future harms.
Action. This can be the conclusion, although if the speaker really wants to spend time on moving the audience to action, the action step should be a full main point and the conclusion saved for sum- mary and a dramatic ending. In the action step, the goal is to give specific steps for the audience to take as soon as possible to move to- ward solving the problem. Whereas the satisfaction step explains the solution overall, the action step gives concrete ways to begin making the solution happen.

The more concrete you can make the action step, the better. Research shows that people are more likely to act if they know how accessible the action can be. For example, if you want students to be vaccinated against the chicken pox virus (which can cause a serious disease called shingles

in adults), you can give them directions to and hours for a clinic or health center where vaccinations at a free or discounted price can be obtained.

In some cases for speeches of policy, no huge problem needs solving. Or, there is a problem, but the audience already knows about it and is con- vinced that the problem exists and is important. In those cases, a format called “comparative advantages” is used, which focuses on how one possi- ble solution is better than other possible ones. The organizational pattern for this kind of proposition might be topical:

This policy is better because…

If this sounds a little like a commercial that is because advertisements often use comparative advantages to show that one product is better than another. Here is an example:

Proposition: Owning the Barnes and Noble Nook is more advantageous than owning the Amazon Kindle.

The Nook allows owners to trade and loan books to other owners or people who have downloaded the Nook software, while the Kin- dle does not.
The Nook has a color-touch screen, while the Kindle’s screen is black and grey and non-interactive.
The Nook’s memory can be expanded through microSD, while the Kindle’s memory cannot be upgraded.

Building Upon Your Persuasive Speech’s Arguments

Once you have constructed the key arguments and order of points (re- membering that if you use topical order, to put your strongest or most persuasive point last), it is time to be sure your points are well supported. In a persuasive speech, there are some things to consider about evidence.

First, your evidence should be from sources that the audience will find credible. If you can find the same essential information from two sources but know that the audience will find the information more credible from one source than another, use and cite the information from the more cred- ible one. For example, if you find the same statistical data on Wikipedia and the U.S. Department of Labor’s website, cite the U.S. Department of Labor (your instructor will probably not accept the Wikipedia site anyway). Audiences also accept information from sources they consider unbiased or indifferent. Gallup polls, for example, have been considered reliable sourc- es of survey data because unlike some organizations, Gallup does not have a cause (political or otherwise) it is supporting.

Secondly, your evidence should be new to the audience. In other words, the best evidence is that which is from credible sources and the audience has not heard before (Reinard, 1988; McCroskey, 1969). If they have heard it before and discounted it, they will not consider your argument well sup- ported. An example is telling people who smoke that smoking will cause lung cancer. Everyone in the U.S. has heard that thousands of times, but 14% of the population still smokes, which is about one in seven (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017)). Many of those who smoke have not heard the information that really motivates them to quit yet, and of course quitting is very difficult. Additionally, new evidence is more at- tention-getting, and you will appear more credible if you tell the audience something new (as long as you cite it well) than if you use the “same old, same old” evidence they have heard before.

Third, in order to be effective and ethical, your supporting evidence should be relevant and not used out of context, and fourth, it should be timely and not out of date.

After choosing the evidence and apportioning it to the correct parts of the speech, you will want to consider use of metaphors, quotations, rhetorical devices, and narratives that will enhance the language and “listenability” of your speech. Narratives are especially good for introduction and conclu- sions, to get attention and to leave the audience with something dramatic. You might refer to the narrative in the introduction again in the conclusion to give the speech a sense of finality.

Next you will want to decide if you should use any type of presentation aid for the speech. The decision to use visuals such as PowerPoint slides or a video clip in a persuasive speech should take into consideration the effect of the visuals on the audience and the time allotted for the speech (as well as your instructor’s specifications). The charts, graphs, or photographs you use should be focused and credibly done.

One of your authors remembers a speech by a student about using seat belts (which is, by the way, an overdone topic). What made the speech effective in this case were photographs of two totaled cars, both of which the student had been driving when they crashed. The devastation of the wrecks and his ability to stand before us and give the speech because he had worn his seat belt was effective (although it didn’t say much for his driving ability). If you wanted an audience to donate to disaster relief after an earthquake in a foreign country, a few photographs of the destruction would be effective, and perhaps a map of the area would be helpful. But in this case, less is more. Too many visual aids will likely distract from your overall speech claim.

Finally, since you’ve already had experience in class giving at least one ma- jor speech prior to this one, your delivery for the persuasive speech should be especially strong. Since delivery does affect credibility (Burgoon, Birk,

& Pfau, 1990), you want to be able to connect visually as you make your appeals. You want to be physically involved and have vocal variety when you tell dramatic narratives that emphasize the human angle on your topic. If you do use presentation slides, you want them to work in seamlessly, using black screens when the visuals are not necessary.

Your persuasive speech in class, as well as in real life, is an opportunity to share a passion or cause that you believe will matter to society and help the audience live a better life. Even if you are initially uncomfortable with the idea of persuasion, we use it all the time in different ways. Choose your topic based on your own commitment and experience, look for quality evi- dence, craft your proposition so that it will be clear and audience appropri- ate, and put the finishing touches on it with an eye toward enhancing your logos, ethos, and pathos.

Something to Think About

Go to YouTube and look for “Persuasive Speeches by College Students.” There are quite a few. Here’s one example:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SNr7Fx-SM1Y.

Do you find this speech persuasive? Why or why not? Based on the content of this chapter, what did the speaker do correctly or perhaps not so cor- rectly that affected his or her persuasiveness?

Sample Outline: Persuasive Speech Using Topical Pattern

By janet aguilar.

Specific Purpose: To persuade my classmates to eliminate their Facebook use.

Introduction: There she was late into the night still wide awake starring at her phone’s screen. In fact, she had to be at work early in the morning, but scrolling through her Facebook account kept her awake. That girl was me before I deactivated my Facebook account. I honestly could not tell you how many hours I spent on Facebook. In the survey that I presented to you all, one person admitted to spending “too much” time on Facebook. That was me in the past, I spent too much time on Facebook. Time is precious and once it is gone it does not return. So why do you spend precious time on Facebook? Time that could be spent with family, resting, or just being more productive.

Thesis/Preview: Facebook users should eliminate their usage because Facebook can negatively affect their relationships with others, their sleep- ing patterns and health, and their ability to focus on school work.

Family relationships can be affected by your Facebook usage.
In the survey conducted in class, 11 of 15 students con- fessed to have ignored someone while they were speaking.
Found myself ignoring my children while they spoke.
Noticed other people doing the same thing especially in parks and restaurants.
According to Lynn Postell-Zimmerman on hg.org, Face- book has become a leading cause for divorce.
In the United States, 1 in 5 couples mentioned Facebook as a reason for divorce in 2009.

Transition: We have discussed how Facebook usage can lead to poor rela- tionships with people, next we will discuss how Facebook can affect your sleep patterns and health.

Facebook usage can negatively affect your sleep patterns and health.
Checking Facebook before bed.
In my survey 11 students said they checked their Facebook account before bed.
Staying on Facebook for long hours before bed.
Research has shown that Facebook can cause depression, anxiety, and addiction.
According to researchers Steels, Wickham and Ac- itelli in an article in the Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology titled “Seeing everyone else’s highlight reels: How Facebook usage is linked to depressive symptoms,” because Facebook users only view the positive of their friend’s life they become unhappy with their life and it can lead to becoming depressed and unhappy.
Marissa Maldonado on psychcentral.com, concluded from recent studies that, “Facebook increases peo- ple’s anxiety levels by making them feel inadequate and generating excess worry and stress.”
Facebook addiction is a serious issue, according to the article “Too much Facebook leads to anger and depression” found on cnn.com and written by Cara Reedy.
Checking Facebook everywhere we go is a sign of addiction
Not being able to deactivate your Facebook account.

Transitions: Many of you have probably never though as Facebook as a threat to your health, but we will now review how it can affect you as a college student.

Facebook negatively affects students.
I often found myself on Facebook instead of doing school- work.
I was constantly checking Facebook which takes away from study time.
I also found myself checking Facebook while in class, which can lead to poor grades and getting in trouble with the professor.
A study of over 1,800 college students showed a negative relationship between amount of Facebook time and GPA, as reported by Junco in a 2012 article titled, “Too much face and not enough books” from the journal Computers and Human Behavior.

Conclusion: In conclusion, next time you log on to Facebook try deacti- vating your account for a few day and see the difference. You will soon see how it can bring positive changes in your family relationships, will avoid future health problems, will help you sleep better, and will improve your school performance. Instead of communicating through Facebook try visiting or calling your close friends. Deactivating my account truly helped me, and I can assure you we all can survive without Facebook.

Junco, R. (2012). Too much face and not enough books: The relationship between multiple indices of Facebook use and academic performance.

Computers in Human Behavior, 28(1), 187-198.

Maldonado, M. (2014). The anxiety of Facebook. Psych Central. Retrieved from http://psychcentral.com/lib/the-anxiety-of-facebook/

Postell-Zimmerman, L. (1995-2015). Facebook has become a leading cause in divorce cases. HG.org. Retrieved from http://www.hg.org/article.as- p?id=27803

Reedy, C. (2015, March 2). Too much Facebook leads to envy and depres- sion. CNNMoney. Retrieved from http://money.cnn.com/2015/03/02/ technology/facebook-envy/

Steers, M. L. N., Wickham, R. E., & Acitelli, L. K. (2014). Seeing everyone else’s highlight reels: How Facebook usage is linked to depressive symp- toms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 33(8), 701-731. DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2014.33.8.701

Sample Outline: Persuasive Speech Using Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Pattern

Speech to Actuate: Sponsoring a Child in Poverty

Specific Purpose: to actuate my audience to sponsor a child through an agency such as Compassion International.

Introduction (Attention Step)

How much is $38? That answer depends on what you make, what you are spending it for, and what you get back for it. (Grabber)
$38 per month breaks down to a little more than $1.25 per day, which is probably what you spend on a snack or soda in the break room. For us, it’s not very much. (Rapport)
I found out that I can provide better health care, nutrition, and even education for a child in Africa, South America, or Asia for the

$38 per month by sponsoring a child through Compassion Interna- tional. (Credibility)

If I can do it, maybe you can too: (Bridge)

Thesis: Through a minimal donation each month, you can make the life of a child in the developing world much better.

Preview: In the next few minutes I would like to discuss the problem, the work of organizations that offer child sponsorships, how research shows they really do alleviate poverty, and what you can do to change the life of a child.

The problem is the continued existence and effects of poverty. (Need Step)
Poverty is real and rampant in much of the world.
According to a 2018 report of the Secretary General of the United Nations, 9.2% of the world lives on less than $1.90 per day.
That is 600 million people on the planet.
This number is supported by the World Poverty clock of the World Data Lab, which states that 8% of the world’s population lives in extreme poverty.
The good news is that this number is one third of what it was in 1990, mostly due to the rising middle class in Asia.
The bad news is that 70% of the poor will live in Africa, with Nigeria labeled the “Pov- erty Capital of the World,” according to the

Brookings Institute.

Poverty means children do not get adequate health care.
One prevalent but avoidable disease is malaria, which takes the lives of 3000 children every day, according to UNICEF.
According to the World Health Organization, di- arrheal diseases claimed 2.46 million lives in 2012 and is the second leading cause of death of children under 5.
Poverty means children do not get adequate nutrition, as stated in a report from UNICEF.
Inadequate nutrition leads to stunted growth.
Undernutrition contributes to more than one third of all deaths in children under the age of five.
Poverty means children are unlikely to reach adult age, according to the CIA World Fact Book quoted on the In- foplease website.
Child mortality rate in Africa is 8.04% (percentage dying before age 5), while in North American is .64%
Life expectancy in Sub-Saharan Africa is almost 30 years less than in the U.S.
Poverty also means children are unlikely to receive educa- tion and be trained for profitable work.
Nearly a billion people entered the 21st century unable to read a book or sign their names, states the Global Issues website on Poverty Facts.
UNESCO, a part of the United Nations, reports that less than a third of adults in Sub-Saharan Africa have completed primary education.

Transition: Although in all respects poverty is better in 2019 than it has been in the past, poverty is still pervasive and needs to be addressed.

Fortunately, some great organizations have been addressing this for many years.

Some humanitarian organizations address poverty directly through child sponsorships. (Satisfaction Step)
These organizations vary in background but not in purpose. The following information is gleaned from each organiza- tion’s websites.
Compassion International is faith-based, evangelical.
Around since early 1950s, started in Korea.
Budget of $887 Million.
Serves 1.92 million babies, children, and young adults.
Works through local community centers

and established churches.

World Vision is faith-based, evangelical.
Around since the 1950s.
Budget of far over $1 Billion.
60% goes to local community programs but more goes to global networks, so that 86% goes to services.
World Vision has more extensive services than child sponsorship, such as water puri- fication and disaster relief.
Sponsors three million children across six continents
Children International is secular.
Around since 1936.
Budget of $125 Million.
88% of income goes directly to programs and children.
Sponsors children in ten countries on four continents
Sponsors X across X continents
Save the Children is secular, through…
One hundred years of history, began in post WWI Europe.
Budget of $880 Million.
87% goes to services.
Sponsors 134 million children in 120 coun- tries, including 450,000 in U.S.
There are other similar organizations, such as Child- Fund and PlanUSA.
These organizations work directly with local community, on-site organizations.
The children are involved in a program, such as after school.
The children live with their parents and siblings.
The sponsor’s donation goes for medicine, extra healthy, nutritious food, shoes for school, and other items.
Sponsors can also help donate for birthdays and holidays to the whole family to buy food or farm animals.

Transition: Of course, any time we are donating money to an organization, we want to be sure our money is being effectively and ethnically used.

This concern should be addressed in two ways: Is the money really helping, and are the organizations honest? (Continuation of Satisfaction Step)
The organizations’ honesty can be investigated.
You can check through Charity Navigator.
You can check through the Better Business Bu- reau-Charity.
You can check through Charity Watch.
You can check through the organizations’ websites.
Secondly, is sponsoring a child effective? Yes.
According to Bruce Wydick, Professor of Economics at the University of San Francisco, child sponsorship is the fourth most effective strategy for addressing poverty, behind water purification, mosquito nets, and deworming treatments.
Dr. Wydick and colleagues’ work has been published in the prestigious Journal of Political Economy from the University of Chicago.
He states, “Two researchers and I recently carried out a study (sponsored by the U.S. Agency for In- ternational Development) on the long-term impacts of Compassion International’s child sponsorship program. The study, gathering data from over 10,000 individuals in six countries, found substan- tial impact on adult life outcomes for children who were sponsored through Compassion’s program during the 1980s and ’90s…In adulthood, formerly sponsored children were far more likely to complete secondary school and had a much higher chance

of having a white-collar job. They married and had children later in life, were more likely to be church and community leaders, were less likely to live in

a home with a dirt floor and more likely to live in a home with electricity.”

Transition: To this point I have spoke of global problems and big solutions. Now I want to bring it down to real life with one example.

I’d like to use my sponsored child, Ukwishaka in Rwanda, as an example of how you can. (Visualization Step)
I have sponsored her for five years.
She is now ten years old.
She lives with two siblings and both parents.
She writes me, I write her back, and we share photos at least every two months.
The organization gives me reports on her project.
I hope one day to go visit her. G. I believe Ukwishaka now knows her life can be more, can be successful.

Transition: We have looked at the problem of childhood poverty and how reliable, stable nongovernmental organizations are addressing it through child sponsorships. Where does that leave you?

I challenge you to sponsor a child like Ukwishaka. (Action Step)
Although I sponsor her through Compassion International, there are other organizations.
First, do research.
Second, look at your budget and be sure you can do this.
You don’t want to start and have to stop.
Look for places you “waste” money during the month and could use it this way.
Fewer snacks from the break room, fewer movies at the Cineplex, brown bag instead of eating out.
Talk to a representative at the organization you like.
Discuss it with your family.
Take the plunge. If you do.
Write your child regularly.
Consider helping the family, or getting friends to help with extra gifts.
In this speech, we have taken a look at the state of poverty for chil- dren on this planet, at organizations that are addressing it through child sponsorships, at the effectiveness of these programs, and what you can do.
My goal today was not to get an emotional response, but a realisti- cally compassionate one.
You have probably heard this story before but it bears repeating. A little girl was walking with her mother on the beach, and the sand was covered with starfish. The little girl wanted to rescue them and send them back to the ocean and kept throwing them in. “It won’t matter, Honey,” said her mother. “You can’t get all of them back

in the ocean.” “But it will matter to the ones that I do throw back,” the little girl answered.

We can’t sponsor every child, but we can one, maybe even two. As Forest Witcraft said, “What will matter in 100 years is that I made a difference in the life of a child.” Will you make a difference?

AGScientific. (2019). Top ten deadly diseases in the world. Retrieved from http://agscientific.com/blog/2016/04/top-10-deadly-diseases/

Compassion International. (2019). Financial integrity: The impact of our compassion. Retrieved from https://www.compassion.com/about/finan – cial.htm

Children’s International. (2019). Accountability. Retrieved from https:// www.children.org/learn-more/accountability

Global Issues. (2013, January 7 ). Poverty facts and stats. Retrieved from http://www.globalissues.org/article/26/poverty-facts-and-stats

Infoplease. (2019). What life expectancy really means. Retrieved form https://www.infoplease.com/world/health-and-social-statistics/life-ex – pectancy-countries-0

Kharas, H., Hamel, K., & Hofer, M. (2018, Dec. 13). Rethinking global poverty reduction in 2019. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/ blog/future-development/2018/12/13/rethinking-global-poverty-reduc- tion-in-2019/

Roser, M. (2019). Child and infant mortality rates. Retrieved from https:// ourworldindata.org/child-mortality

Save the Children. (2019). Financial information. Retrieved from https:// www.savethechildren.org/us/about-us/financial-information

UNICEF. (2008). Tracking progress on child and maternal nutrition: A survival and development priority . Retrieved from https://www.unicef. org/publications/files/Tracking_Progress_on_Child_and_Maternal_Nu- trition_EN_110309.pdf

UNICEF 2019. The reality of Malaria. Retrieved from https://www.unicef. org/health/files/health_africamalaria.pdf

United Nations. (2019). Poverty eradication. Retrieved from https://sus- tainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/povertyeradication

World Vision. (2019). Financial accountability. Retrieved from https:// www.worldvision.org/about-us/financial-accountability-2

Wydick, B., Glewwe, P., & Rutledge, L. (2013). Does international child sponsorship work? A six-country study of impacts on adult life out- comes. Journal of Political Economy, 121 (2), 393–436. https://doi. org/10.1086/670138

Wydick, B. (2012, Feb.). Cost-effective compassion. Christianity Today, 56 (2), 24-29.

Wydick, B. (2013). Want to change the world? Sponsor a child. Christiani- ty Today, 57 (5), 20–27.

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Chapter 17 Study Questions

35. Which of the following is an example of a speech for a special occasion?

* a. a speech presenting an award to a retiring newspaper editor

b. a presentation on marketing strategy at a sales meeting

c. a talk to new college students about how to register for classes

d. a campaign speech by a candidate for the U.S. Senate

e. a lecture by a visiting professor in a college class

36. One main purpose of a speech of introduction is to

a. explain why the person being introduced is receiving her or his award.

b. inspire the audience with a sense of the significance of the occasion.

* c. create a welcoming climate to build enthusiasm for the main speaker.

d. explain why listeners should pay tribute to a person, idea, or institution.

e. enhance the credibility of the speaker who is making the introduction.

37. Which of the following is recommended by your textbook as a guideline for a speech of introduction?

a. Prepare your speech so it will last between 15 and 20 minutes.

b. Use a quotation at the beginning to secure the attention of the audience.

* c. Make sure your remarks about the main speaker are completely accurate.

d. Generate humor with an embarrassing story about the main speaker.

e. Assume that the audience knows nothing about the main speaker.

38. According to your textbook, the best way to create a sense of anticipation and drama in a speech of introduction is to

* a. save the name of the main speaker for last.

b. tell the audience that the main speaker is an excellent orator.

c. use an overhead projector to highlight the main speaker’s accomplishments.

d. deliver the speech word for word from a written manuscript.

e. give a detailed biography of the main speaker.

39. As president of the city’s historical society, Madeline is introducing the guest speaker at the society’s year-end banquet. According to your textbook, the best way for Madeline to create a sense of anticipation and drama in her speech of introduction is to

b. use PowerPoint to explain the main speaker’s accomplishments.

c. tell the audience that the main speaker is an excellent orator.

d. all of the above.

e. a and c only.

40. A speaker introducing the president of a university to an audience of prospective students and their families will best accomplish this goal by

a. praising the president as the finest public speaker on campus.

b. presenting a detailed biography of the president’s entire life.

c. discussing the history of the university and its tradition of excellent athletic teams.

* d. summarizing the president’s major accomplishments at the university.

e. defending the changes in graduation requirements instituted by the president.

41. All of the following are presented in your textbook as guidelines for a speech of introduction except

a. be brief.

b. adapt your remarks to the occasion.

* c. bring the speech to life by using a hypothetical example.

d. try to create a sense of anticipation and drama.

e. make sure your remarks are completely accurate.

42. One method recommended in your textbook for creating a sense of drama and anticipation in a speech of introduction is to

a. present a brief biography of the main speaker.

* b. save the name of the main speaker until the final moment.

c. use visual aids that focus attention on the main speaker.

d. praise the speaking skills of the main speaker.

e. make sure the introduction is completely accurate.

43. Before presenting the college’s Athlete of the Year award, the athletic director made a point of praising the two athletes who were runners up in this year’s competition. According to your textbook, was this choice appropriate for a speech of presentation?

a. No. It is almost always in poor taste to mention the losers.

b. Yes. Identifying the losers makes the winner look even better.

c. No. Naming anyone other than the winner usually irritates the audience.

* d. Yes. It is often appropriate to praise the losers of a competition.

e. No. Mentioning the losers diminishes the value of an award.

44. As your textbook explains, when you give a speech of introduction you should be sure to adapt your remarks to the

a. occasion.

b. audience.

c. main speaker.

* d. all of the above.

e. a and b only.

45. What does it mean to say that a speech of introduction should be “adapted to the main speaker”?

a. The speech should preview what the main speaker’s points will be.

b. The speech should be given in the same style as the person being introduced.

* c. The speech should avoid creating discomfort for the main speaker.

d. all of the above

e. a and c only

46. At a comedy awards show, Adam Sandler gave a splendid speech explaining why David Letterman was receiving a special award for his achievements in television comedy. According to your textbook, what kind of special occasion speech did Sandler deliver?

a. an after-dinner speech

b. a speech of introduction

* c. a speech of presentation

d. a memorial speech

e. a celebratory speech

47. According to your textbook, the main purpose of a speech of presentation is to present

a. the main speaker to the audience.

b. thanks for a gift or an award.

c. the reasons why a person deserves commendation.

d. information about the importance of the occasion.

* e. a gift or an award to the recipient.

48. When giving a speech of presentation, you should usually

* a. tell why the recipient is receiving her or his award.

b. present the main speaker briefly and accurately.

c. avoid mentioning the losers of the award competition.

d. adapt your presentation to the main speaker.

e. give a brief biography of the main speaker.

49. Which of the following is an example of a speech of presentation?

a. a speech presenting a new reporter to the newspaper staff

b. a speech presenting reasons why a new high school needs to be built

c. a speech presenting a famous professor who will lecture on economics

* d. a speech presenting a certificate of recognition to an outstanding worker

e. a speech presenting the annual earnings report to stockholders

50. Which of the following is an example of a speech of presentation?

a. a speech presenting a main speaker to the audience

b. a speech presenting a eulogy at a funeral

c. a speech presenting a toast to the bride and groom

d. a speech presenting a new manager to her employees

* e. a speech presenting an award to an outstanding student

51. When Carlos Bustamante was presented the Alumni of the Year award at his alma mater’s annual award dinner, he gave a speech thanking the school for recognizing his work. What kind of speech did Carlos give?

* a. an acceptance speech

c. a commemorative speech

d. a speech of presentation

e. an informative speech

52. According to your textbook, a speech in which an individual gives thanks for a gift or award is termed a(n)

a. speech of presentation.

b. commemorative speech.

c. after-dinner speech.

* d. acceptance speech.

e. speech of introduction.

53. When Gabriel received the Top Engineering Student award at the department’s annual award ceremony, he gave a speech thanking the department for according him this honor. According to your textbook, what kind of special-occasion speech did Gabriel give?

a. inspirational speech

b. speech of introduction

c. commemorative speech

* d. acceptance speech

e. speech of presentation

54. According to your textbook, in a speech of acceptance a speaker should usually

a. thank the people who are bestowing the award.

b. praise himself or herself for having the talent to win the award.

c. express appreciation for the people who helped him or her gain the award.

* e. a and c only.

55. According to your textbook, the major traits of a good acceptance speech are brevity, humility, and

a. humor.

b. clarity.

c. confidence.

* d. graciousness.

e. fluency.

56. According to your textbook, a speech that pays tribute to a person, a group, an institution, or an idea is called a

a. dedication speech.

* b. commemorative speech.

c. remembrance speech.

d. celebratory speech.

e. memorial speech.

57. According to your textbook, when your fundamental purpose in a speech is to inspire the audience, you are most likely going to be giving a(n) speech.

a. informative

b. persuasive

c. after-dinner

* d. commemorative

e. acceptance

58. Which of the following is an example of a commemorative speech?

a. a speech to a local history club recounting the major events in the life of the famous architect Frank Lloyd Wright

b. a speech urging the city council to use architectural plans by Frank Lloyd Wright as the basis for a new convention center

c. a speech explaining the major elements of Frank Lloyd Wright’s architectural genius to a class of art history students

* d. a speech praising the architectural accomplishments of Frank Lloyd Wright at the opening of a museum devoted to his work

e. a speech telling the audience where they can visit buildings designed by Frank Lloyd Wright

59. Which of the following is an example of a commemorative speech?

a. A speech seeking to convince the school board to keep the schools open for extracurricular activities on Martin Luther King Day.

b. A speech to the student government aimed at getting funding for special campus activities on Martin Luther King Day.

c. A lecture to a community audience explaining the oratorical techniques used in Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream.”

d. A speech analyzing the philosophy of nonviolent protest employed by Martin Luther King during the civil rights movement.

* e. A speech honoring Martin Luther King’s life and legacy at the opening event for the campus-wide Martin Luther King Day observances.

60. According to your textbook, the fundamental purpose of a commemorative speech is to

a. inform.

b. exhort.

c. entertain.

d. convert.

* e. inspire.

61. As explained in your textbook, when delivering a commemorative speech, you should take special care to

a. provide a detailed biography of the person being commemorated.

b. heighten appreciation for the person being commemorated.

c. use creative language to express feelings and sentiments.

* e. b and c only.

62. As your textbook explains, perhaps no speech depends more on the creative and subtle use of language than does the

* a. commemorative speech.

b. speech of presentation.

c. persuasive speech.

d. speech of introduction.

e. informative speech.

63. As your textbook explains, a successful commemorative speech usually depends on the speaker’s ability to

a. motivate a passive audience to take action.

* b. put into language the thoughts and emotions appropriate to the occasion.

c. explain why the recipient is receiving an award.

64. Which of the following is an example of a commemorative speech?

a. the President’s State of the Union message

b. a soccer coach’s pre-game pep talk

c. a speaker’s acceptance of an award

d. a teacher’s lecture on banking ethics

* e. a daughter’s eulogy in honor of her father

65. If you attended the Academy Awards and heard the following speeches, which one would be an example of a commemorative speech?

a. A speech accepting the best actor award.

b. A speech explaining the history of the Oscar statue.

* c. A speech honoring Audrey Hepburn for her lifetime achievements.

d. A speech explaining the balloting system and new security measures.

e. A speech calling for an end to land mines throughout the world.

66. As your textbook explains, we continue to find commemorative speeches like the Gettysburg Address meaningful and inspiring primarily because

a. they were given by important historical figures.

* b. of their eloquent use of language.

c. they were delivered from memory.

d. of the occasions on which they were delivered.

e. they motivated people to take heroic action.

How to Give an Award Acceptance Speech (With Examples)

The Speaker Lab
May 9, 2024

If you’ve recently won an award — congratulations! There’s a good chance that a lot of hard work and blood, sweat, and tears went into the recognition you’re about to receive. Now, your biggest task is nailing the perfect award acceptance speed. After all, it’s important to show gratitude for the honor while also ensuring that your words will touch hearts and minds and hopefully inspire others to follow in your footsteps. But have no fear — we’re here to help.

From heartfelt gratitude to powerful storytelling, these examples showcase the key elements that make an acceptance speech unforgettable. No matter whether you’re leading a company, launching startups, writing books, teaching students, coaching teams, or giving advice as a consultant—there’s plenty for you to learn when it comes to crafting the perfect acceptance speech.

How to Give A Pitch-Perfect Award Acceptance Speech

Your award is a huge accomplishment that deserves to be celebrated. But before you start popping the champagne, there’s one more thing you need to do: prepare your acceptance speech.

While you could just say thanks and be done with it, doing so is a disservice to those who helped you get where you are. After all, an acceptance speech is so much more than just a simple thank you. It’s an opportunity to not just express your genuine gratitude, but also to acknowledge why the award is important and share the glory with those who helped you along the way.

Express Genuine Gratitude and Emotion

First and foremost, an acceptance speech is a chance to express your heartfelt appreciation for the honor you’ve received. This isn’t the time to be modest or downplay your achievements. Let your emotions shine through and show how much the award means to you.

Take a cue from Sandra Bullock’s acceptance speech at the 2010 Oscars. She was visibly moved as she thanked her mother, Helga B., along with all “the moms that take care of the babies and the children no matter where they come from.”

Acknowledge Why It Is Important

Beyond expressing gratitude, your acceptance speech should also acknowledge why the award is significant. What does it represent? Explain how the award is a reflection of your personal principles or highlights where you would like make changes professionally.

For example, when Malala Yousafzai accepted the Nobel Peace Prize in 2014, she used her acceptance speech to highlight the importance of education and the ongoing fight for women’s rights. “This award is not just for me,” she said. “It is for those forgotten children who want education. It is for those frightened children who want peace. It is for those voiceless children who want change.”

Share the Glory

Finally, a great acceptance speech shares the spotlight with those who helped make your success possible. This could be your family, your team, your mentors, or even your fans.

When Taylor Swift won Album of the Year at the 2016 Grammys, she made sure to thank her collaborators and supporters. “I want to thank the fans for the last ten years and the recording academy for giving us this unbelievable honor,” she said. “I want to thank all of my collaborators that you see on this stage.”

So as you’re crafting your own award acceptance speech, remember to express genuine gratitude, acknowledge the significance of the honor, and share the glory with those who helped you along the way. With these elements in place, you’ll deliver a speech that not only thanks the right people but inspires and uplifts your audience as well.

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Writing Your Acceptance Speech

You’ve just been honored with a prestigious award and now it’s time to give your acceptance speech. It’s crunch time to create a moment that sticks and sparks motivation in everyone. But where do you even begin?

Crafting an excellent award acceptance speech takes some planning and preparation. You want to strike the right tone, share a meaningful message, and of course, express your heartfelt gratitude. Let’s walk through crafting an acceptance speech that’ll definitely make a mark.

Brainstorm Ideas

Before you start jotting down your speech, take some time to reflect on what this award means to you. Why is it significant? What does it represent in terms of your journey, your values, or your aspirations? Brainstorm some key themes or stories you might want to touch on.

In addition, ask yourself: “What challenges did you overcome? Who helped you along the way? What lessons did you learn? What impact do you hope to make with this recognition?” Your answers to these questions will form the bulk of your acceptance speech.

Write Your Speech

With your brainstorming done, it’s time to start putting pen to paper. Begin with a strong opening line that will grab your audience’s attention. You might share a surprising fact, a thought-provoking question, or even a touch of humor.

As you write the body of your speech, keep in mind the time constraint you’re working with. Most acceptance speeches are fairly short, so you’ll need to be selective about what you include. Focus on a few key points or anecdotes that support your central theme.

Be Specific in Your Speech

When it comes to expressing your gratitude, it’s important to be specific. Don’t just rattle off a generic list of thank-yous. Take the time to acknowledge the individuals or organizations that have played a significant role in your success.

For example, in her Golden Globes acceptance speech , Oprah Winfrey specifically thanked the Hollywood Foreign Press Association as well as several other key individuals by name.

The Power of Storytelling in Your Acceptance Speech

One of the most effective ways to make your acceptance speech memorable is by incorporating storytelling. Share a personal anecdote or experience that relates to your journey or the significance of the award.

Again, consider Oprah Winfrey’s Golden Globes acceptance speech. In it, she opens with a story from her childhood, when she sat on the floor watching Sidney Poitier become the first African American to ever win a Golden Globe. As she states in her speech, “I have tried many, many times to explain what a moment like that means to a little girl…and it is not lost on me that at this moment, there are some little girls watching as I become the first black woman to be given this same award.” With the power of storytelling, Winfrey highlights the men and women who have sought truth and justice no matter the personal cost.

As you craft your award acceptance speech, remember to brainstorm ideas, be specific in your gratitude, and harness the power of storytelling. Remember, just like the acceptance speech examples we’ve looked at, your words have the power to touch hearts and spark change in those listening.

Preparing to Deliver Your Speech

You’ve written a fantastic award acceptance speech, filled with heartfelt gratitude and inspiring stories. Now, it’s showtime. However, public speaking can be nerve-wracking, even for the most seasoned professionals. That’s why the key to a successful speech delivery is preparation. You want to be confident, polished, and engaging when you step up to the podium. Here are some tips to help you get ready for your big moment.

Rehearsing Your Speech

One of the best ways to calm your nerves and boost your confidence is by practicing your speech beforehand. Read it out loud several times, paying attention to your pacing, tone, body language , and emphasis. Consider practicing in front of a mirror or recording yourself so you can see and hear how you come across. In addition, grabbing a buddy or work pal to listen in can provide you feedback for improvement. Remember, the more familiar you are with your speech, the more natural and effortless it will feel when you deliver it for real.

Making Your Speech Memorable

When it comes to making your speech memorable, it’s all about connecting with your audience. Use eye contact, facial expressions, and gestures to engage them and convey your emotions.

You might also consider incorporating a memorable phrase or tagline that encapsulates your message. For example, in his famous “I Have a Dream” speech, Martin Luther King, Jr. repeated the phrase “I have a dream” eight times, driving home his vision for a more just and equal society.

Respecting the Audience and the Clock

When delivering your acceptance speech, it’s important to be mindful of your audience and the time allotted. Express your gratitude sincerely, but avoid gushing or going overboard with your thank-yous. Similarly, respect the time limit you’ve been given. A short award acceptance speech is often more impactful than a long, rambling one. Aim to deliver your message concisely and powerfully, leaving your audience wanting more.

As you prepare to deliver your award acceptance speech, remember to rehearse thoroughly, focus on making it memorable, and respect your audience and the clock. With this game plan ready, stepping up to speak will feel a lot less daunting.

Avoiding Common Pitfalls in an Acceptance Speech

As you’ve seen from the examples above, a great award acceptance speech has the power to move and inspire an audience. But what goes into crafting and delivering a truly impactful speech? Here are a few final tips to keep in mind as you prepare for your big moment.

General Guidelines

While it’s important to express your gratitude and share your story, there are a few common pitfalls to avoid in your acceptance speech:

Don’t ramble or go off-topic. Stay focused on your central message.
Avoid clichés or generic platitudes. Be specific and authentic in your language.
Don’t forget to thank the important people, but keep your list of thank-yous concise.
Avoid inside jokes or references that may not resonate with your entire audience.

By steering clear of these pitfalls, you’ll ensure that your speech is clear, meaningful, and memorable.

Avoid Going Overboard with Emotions in Your Speech

When that award is finally in your hands, feeling a rush of emotions isn’t just common; it’s expected. This is particularly true if the honor marks a major highlight in either your work or personal journey. However, it’s important to strike a balance between showing genuine emotion and maintaining your composure.

While a few tears or a quavering voice can be powerful, going overboard with your emotions may distract from your message or make your audience uncomfortable. Aim to express your feelings in a way that is authentic but still allows you to deliver your speech effectively.

Remember, your award acceptance speech is an opportunity to share your gratitude, your story, and your vision with the world. By avoiding common pitfalls and finding the right emotional balance, you’ll be able to deliver a speech that truly resonates with your audience and leaves a lasting impact.

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Examples of Inspiring Award Acceptance Speeches

Need some inspiration as you craft your own award acceptance speech? Look no further than these powerful examples from some of the world’s most influential figures.

Literature Award Acceptance Speech Example

In his 1962 Nobel Prize acceptance speech , writer John Steinbeck used the opportunity to discuss the purpose of literature. He says, “[A writer] is charged with exposing our many grievous faults and failures, with dredging up to the light our dark and dangerous dreams for the purpose of improvement.”

Best Actress Award Acceptance Speech Example

When Emma Stone won the Oscar for Best Actress in 2024 , she used her speech to pay tribute to her fellow actors and the power of cinema. “It’s not about me,” she said. “It’s about a team that came together to make something better than the sum of its parts. And that’s the best part about making movies.”

Distinguished Service Award Acceptance Speech Example

In her acceptance speech for the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award , Angelina Jolie spoke about the importance of giving back and making a difference in the world. “I have never understood why some people are lucky enough to be born with the chance that I had,” she said, “to have this path in life and why across the world, there’s a woman just like me, the same abilities, the same desires, same work ethic and love for her family, who would most likely make better films and better speeches—only she sits in a refugee camp.”

These are just a few examples of the many inspiring award acceptance speeches out there. When the spotlight hits you for advancing science, creating art masterpieces, or bettering lives, that moment is more than just applause—it’s a platform. Use it wisely; light a fire under others to follow suit and make waves of their own.

FAQs on Award Acceptance Speeches

What do you say in an acceptance speech.

Start by thanking the giver, mention key people who helped along the way, and highlight what this award means to you.

What is an example short award acceptance speech?

“Thank you to everyone who played a part in this award. This honor isn’t just mine; it belongs to all who stood by me. Let’s keep pushing forward.”

How do you format an acceptance speech?

Kick off with thanks, weave in personal stories or a nod to your team, then wrap up on a hopeful note.

What do you say when accepting an award at work?

Acknowledge the recognition with gratitude, shout out those who supported you, and express excitement for future challenges and opportunities.

Crafting an impactful acceptance speech is an art that requires genuine emotion, storytelling, and a touch of inspiration. Through these examples of amazing award acceptance speeches, we’ve shared some great tips on how to say thanks, share your story, and make an impact on your audience.

Remember, your big moment with that microphone isn’t just for saying thanks for the trophy. It’s also about shouting out those that helped you get there and inspiring anyone listening to follow their own path towards success. So, when it’s your turn to shine, make sure you give a speech that’ll stick in people’s minds for years.

Last Updated: May 8, 2024

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Chapter Nine – Organizing the Body of your Speech

Creating the Body of a Speech

In a series of important and ground-breaking studies conducted during the 1950s and 1960s, researchers started investigating how a speech’s organization was related to audience perceptions of those speeches. The first study, conducted by Raymond Smith in 1951, randomly organized the parts of a speech to see how audiences would react. Not surprisingly, when speeches were randomly organized, the audience perceived the speech more negatively than when audiences were presented with a speech with clear, intentional organization. Smith also found that audiences who listened to unorganized speeches were less interested in those speeches than audiences who listened to organized speeches (Smith, 1951). Thompson furthered this investigation and found that unorganized speeches were also harder for audiences to recall after the speech. Basically, people remember information from speeches that are clearly organized—and forget information from speeches that are poorly organized (Thompson, 1960). A third study by Baker found that when audiences were presented with a disorganized speaker, they were less likely to be persuaded, and saw the disorganized speaker as lacking credibility (Baker, 1965).

These three very important studies make the importance of organization very clear. When speakers are not organized they are not perceived as credible and their audiences view the speeches negatively, are less likely to be persuaded, and don’t remember specific information from the speeches after the fact.

We start this chapter discussing these studies because we want you to understand the importance of speech organization on real audiences. If you are not organized, your speech will never have its intended effect. In this chapter, we are going to discuss the basics of organizing the body of your speech.

Determining Your Main Ideas

Matt Wynn – Lightbulb! – CC BY 2.0.

When creating a speech, it’s important to remember that speeches have three clear parts: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The introduction establishes the topic and whets your audience’s appetite, and the conclusion wraps everything up at the end of your speech. The real “meat” of your speech happens in the body. In this section, we’re going to discuss how to think strategically about the body of your speech.

We like the word strategic because it refers to determining what is important or essential to the overall plan or purpose of your speech. Too often, new speakers just throw information together and stand up and start speaking. When that happens, audience members are left confused and the reason for the speech may get lost. To avoid being seen as disorganized, we want you to start thinking critically about the organization of your speech. In this section, we will discuss how to take your speech from a specific purpose to creating the main points of your speech.

What Is Your Specific Purpose?

Before we discuss how to determine the main points of your speech, we want to revisit your speech’s specific purpose. Recall that a speech can have one of three general purposes: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain. The general purpose refers to the broad goal for creating and delivering the speech. The specific purpose, on the other hand, starts with one of those broad goals (inform, persuade, or entertain) and then further informs the listener about the who , what , when , where , why , and how of the speech.

The specific purpose is stated as a sentence incorporating the general purpose, the specific audience for the speech, and a prepositional phrase that summarizes the topic. Suppose you are going to give a speech about using open-source software. Here are three examples (each with a different general purpose and a different audience):

In each of these three examples, you’ll notice that the general topic is the same—open-source software—but the specific purpose is different because the speech has a different general purpose and a different audience. Before you can think strategically about organizing the body of your speech, you need to know what your specific purpose is. If you have not yet written a specific purpose for your current speech, please go ahead and write one now.

From Specific Purpose to Main Points

Once you’ve written down your specific purpose, you can now start thinking about the best way to turn that specific purpose into a series of main points. Main points are the key ideas you present to enable your speech to accomplish its specific purpose. In this section, we’re going to discuss how to determine your main points and how to organize those main points into a coherent, strategic speech.

Narrowing Down Your Main Points

When you write your specific purpose and review the research you have done on your topic, you will probably find yourself thinking of quite a few points that you’d like to make in your speech. Whether that’s the case or not, we recommend taking a few minutes to brainstorm and develop a list of points. What information does your audience need to know to understand your topic? What information does your speech need to convey to accomplish its specific purpose? Consider the following example:

Now that you have brainstormed and developed a list of possible points, how do you go about narrowing them down to just two or three main ones? Remember, your main points are the key ideas that help build your speech. When you look over the preceding list, you can then start to see that many of the points are related to one another. Your goal in narrowing down your main points is to identify which individual, potentially minor points can be combined to make main points. This process is called chunking because it involves taking smaller chunks of information and putting them together with like chunks to create more fully developed chunks of information. Before reading our chunking of the preceding list, see if you can determine three large chunks out of the list (note that not all chunks are equal).

While there is no magic number for how many main points a speech should have, speech experts generally agree that the fewer the number of main points the better. First and foremost, experts on the subject of memory have consistently shown that people don’t tend to remember very much after they listen to a message or leave a conversation (Bostrom & Waldhart, 1988). While many different factors can affect a listener’s ability to retain information after a speech, how the speech is organized is an important part of that process (Dunham, 1964; Smith, 1951; Thompson, 1960). For the speeches you will be delivering in a typical public speaking class, you will usually have just two or three main points. If your speech is less than three minutes long, then two main points will probably work best. If your speech is between three and ten minutes in length, then it makes more sense to use three main points.

You may be wondering why we are recommending only two or three main points. The reason comes straight out of the research on listening. According to LeFrancois, people are more likely to remember information that is meaningful, useful, and of interest to them; different or unique; organized; visual; and simple (LeFrancois, 1999). Two or three main points are much easier for listeners to remember than ten or even five. In addition, if you have two or three main points, you’ll be able to develop each one with examples, statistics, or other forms of support. Including support for each point will make your speech more interesting and more memorable for your audience.

You may notice that in the preceding list, the number of subpoints under each of the three main points is a little disjointed or the topics don’t go together clearly. That’s all right. Remember that these are just general ideas at this point. It’s also important to remember that there is often more than one way to organize a speech. Some of these points could be left out and others developed more fully, depending on the purpose and audience. We’ll develop the preceding main points more fully in a moment.

Helpful Hints for Preparing Your Main Points

Now that we’ve discussed how to take a specific purpose and turn it into a series of main points, here are some helpful hints for creating your main points.

Uniting Your Main Points

Once you’ve generated a possible list of main points, you want to ask yourself this question: “When you look at your main points, do they fit together?” For example, if you look at the three preceding main points (school districts use software in their operations; what is open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider), ask yourself, “Do these main points help my audience understand my specific purpose?”

Suppose you added a fourth main point about open-source software for musicians—would this fourth main point go with the other three? Probably not. While you may have a strong passion for open-source music software, that main point is extraneous information for the speech you are giving. It does not help accomplish your specific purpose, so you’d need to toss it out.

Keeping Your Main Points Separate

The next question to ask yourself about your main points is whether they overlap too much. While some overlap may happen naturally because of the singular nature of a specific topic, the information covered within each main point should be clearly distinct from the other main points. Imagine you’re giving a speech with the specific purpose “to inform my audience about the health reasons for eating apples and oranges.” You could then have three main points: that eating fruits is healthy, that eating apples is healthy, and that eating oranges is healthy. While the two points related to apples and oranges are clearly distinct, both of those main points would probably overlap too much with the first point “that eating fruits is healthy,” so you would probably decide to eliminate the first point and focus on the second and third. On the other hand, you could keep the first point and then develop two new points giving additional support to why people should eat fruit.

Balancing Main Points

One of the biggest mistakes some speakers make is to spend most of their time talking about one of their main points, completely neglecting their other main points. To avoid this mistake, organize your speech so as to spend roughly the same amount of time on each main point. If you find that one of your main points is simply too large, you may need to divide that main point into two main points and consolidate your other main points into a single main point.

Let’s see if our preceding example is balanced (school districts use software in their operations; what is open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider). What do you think? Obviously, the answer depends on how much time a speaker will have to talk about each of these main points. If you have an hour to talk, then you may find that these three main points are balanced. However, you may also find them wildly unbalanced if you only have five minutes to speak because five minutes is not enough time to even explain what open-source software is. If that’s the case, then you probably need to rethink your specific purpose to ensure that you can cover the material in the allotted time.

Creating Parallel Structure for Main Points

Another major question to ask yourself about your main points is whether or not they have a parallel structure. By parallel structure, we mean that you should structure your main points so that they all sound similar. When all your main points sound similar, it’s simply easier for your audiences to remember your main points and retain them for later. Let’s look at our sample (school districts use software in their operations; what is open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider). Notice that the first and third main points are statements, but the second one is a question. Basically, we have an example here of main points that are not parallel in structure. You could fix this in one of two ways. You could make them all questions: what are some common school district software programs; what is open-source software; and what are some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider. Or you could turn them all into statements: school districts use software in their operations; define and describe open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider. Either of these changes will make the grammatical structure of the main points parallel.

Maintaining Logical Flow of Main Points

The last question you want to ask yourself about your main points is whether the main points make sense in the order you’ve placed them. The next section goes into more detail of common organizational patterns for speeches, but for now we want you to just think logically about the flow of your main points. When you look at your main points, can you see them as progressive, or does it make sense to talk about one first, another one second, and the final one last? If you look at your order, and it doesn’t make sense to you, you probably need to think about the flow of your main points. Often, this process is an art and not a science. But let’s look at a couple of examples.

When you look at these two examples, what are your immediate impressions of the two examples? In the first example, does it make sense to talk about history, and then the problems, and finally how to eliminate school dress codes? Would it make sense to put history as your last main point? Probably not. In this case, the main points are in a logical sequential order. What about the second example? Does it make sense to talk about your solution, then your problem, and then define the solution? Not really! What order do you think these main points should be placed in for a logical flow? Maybe you should explain the problem (lack of rider laws), then define your solution (what is rider law legislation), and then argue for your solution (why states should have rider laws). Notice that in this example you don’t even need to know what “rider laws” are to see that the flow didn’t make sense.

Using Common Organizing Patterns

A motivational poster of water running over rocks. The caption says

Twentyfour Students – Organization makes you flow – CC BY-SA 2.0.

Previously in this chapter we discussed how to make your main points flow logically. This section is going to provide you with a number of organizational patterns to help you create a logically organized speech. The first organizational pattern we’ll discuss is topical.

By far the most common pattern for organizing a speech is by categories or topics . The topical organizational pattern is a way to help the speaker arrange the message in a consistent fashion. The goal of a topical organization is to create categories (or chunks) of information that go together to help support your original specific purpose. Let’s look at an example.

In this case, we have a speaker trying to persuade a group of high school juniors to apply to attend Generic University. To persuade this group, the speaker has divided the information into three basic categories: what it’s like to live in the dorms, what classes are like, and what life is like on campus. Almost anyone could take this basic speech and specifically tailor the speech to fit their university or college. The main points in this example could be rearranged and the organizational pattern would still be effective because there is no inherent logic to the sequence of points. Let’s look at a second example.

In this speech, the speaker is talking about how to find others online and date them. Specifically, the speaker starts by explaining what Internet dating is; then the speaker talks about how to make Internet dating better for audience members; and finally, the speaker ends by discussing some negative aspects of Internet dating. Again, notice that the information is chunked into three topics and that the second and third could be reversed and still provide a logical structure for your speech

Comparison/Contrast

Another method for organizing main points is the comparison/contrast pattern. While this pattern clearly lends itself easily to two main points, you can also create a third point by giving basic information about what is being compared and what is being contrasted. Let’s look at two examples; the first one will be a two-point example and the second a three-point example.

If you were using the comparison/contrast pattern for persuasive purposes, in the preceding examples, you’d want to make sure that when you show how Drug X and Drug Y differ, you clearly state why Drug X is clearly the better choice for physicians to adopt. In essence, you’d want to make sure that when you compare the two drugs, you show that Drug X has all the benefits of Drug Y, but when you contrast the two drugs, you show how Drug X is superior to Drug Y in some way.

The spatial organizational pattern arranges information according to how things fit together in physical space. This pattern is best used when your main points are oriented to different locations that can exist independently. The basic reason to choose this format is to show that the main points have clear locations. We’ll look at two examples here, one involving physical geography and one involving a different spatial order.

If you look at a basic map of the United States, you’ll notice that these groupings of states were created because of their geographic location to one another. In essence, the states create three spatial territories to explain.

Now let’s look at a spatial speech unrelated to geography.

In this example, we still have three basic spatial areas. If you look at a model of the urinary system, the first step is the kidney, which then takes waste through the ureters to the bladder, which then relies on the sphincter muscle to excrete waste through the urethra. All we’ve done in this example is create a spatial speech order for discussing how waste is removed from the human body through the urinary system. It is spatial because the organization pattern is determined by the physical location of each body part in relation to the others discussed.

Chronological

The chronological pattern places the main idea in the time order in which items appear—whether backward or forward. Here’s a simple example.

In this example, we’re looking at the writings of Winston Churchill in relation to World War II (before, during, and after). By placing his writings into these three categories, we develop a system for understanding this material based on Churchill’s own life. Note that you could also use reverse chronological order and start with Churchill’s writings after World War II, progressing backward to his earliest writings.

Biographical

As you might guess, the biographical organizational pattern is generally used when a speaker wants to describe a person’s life—either a speaker’s own life, the life of someone they know personally, or the life of a famous person. By the nature of this speech organizational pattern, these speeches tend to be informative or entertaining; they are usually not persuasive. Let’s look at an example.

In this example, we see how Brian Warner, through three major periods of his life, ultimately became the musician known as Marilyn Manson.

In this example, these three stages are presented in chronological order, but the biographical pattern does not have to be chronological. For example, it could compare and contrast different periods of the subject’s life, or it could focus topically on the subject’s different accomplishments.

The causal pattern is used to explain cause-and-effect relationships. When you use a causal speech pattern, your speech will have two basic main points: cause and effect. In the first main point, typically you will talk about the causes of a phenomenon, and in the second main point you will then show how the causes lead to either a specific effect or a small set of effects. Let’s look at an example.

In this case, the first main point is about the history and prevalence of drinking alcohol among Native Americans (the cause). The second point then examines the effects of Native American alcohol consumption and how it differs from other population groups.

However, a causal organizational pattern can also begin with an effect and then explore one or more causes. In the following example, the effect is the number of arrests for domestic violence.

In this example, the possible causes for the difference might include stricter law enforcement, greater likelihood of neighbors reporting an incident, and police training that emphasizes arrests as opposed to other outcomes. Examining these possible causes may suggest that despite the arrest statistic, the actual number of domestic violence incidents in your city may not be greater than in other cities of similar size.

Problem-Cause-Solution

Another format for organizing distinct main points in a clear manner is the p roblem-cause-solution pattern. In this format you describe a problem, identify what you believe is causing the problem, and then recommend a solution to correct the problem.

In this speech, the speaker wants to persuade people to pass a new curfew for people under eighteen. To help persuade the civic group members, the speaker first shows that vandalism and violence are problems in the community. Once the speaker has shown the problem, the speaker then explains to the audience that the cause of this problem is youth outside after 10:00 p.m. Lastly, the speaker provides the mandatory 10:00 p.m. curfew as a solution to the vandalism and violence problem within the community. The problem-cause-solution format for speeches generally lends itself to persuasive topics because the speaker is asking an audience to believe in and adopt a specific solution.

Selecting an Organizational Pattern

Each of the preceding organizational patterns is potentially useful for organizing the main points of your speech. However, not all organizational patterns work for all speeches. For example, as we mentioned earlier, the biographical pattern is useful when you are telling the story of someone’s life. Some other patterns, particularly comparison/contrast and problem-cause-solution, are well suited for persuasive speaking. Your challenge is to choose the best pattern for the particular speech you are giving.

You should be aware that it is also possible to combine two or more organizational patterns to meet the goals of a specific speech. For example, you might wish to discuss a problem and then compare/contrast several different possible solutions for the audience. Such a speech would thus be combining elements of the comparison/contrast and problem-cause-solution patterns. When considering which organizational pattern to use, you need to keep in mind your specific purpose as well as your audience and the actual speech material itself to decide which pattern you think will work best.

Keeping Your Speech Moving

Chris Marquardt – REWIND – CC BY-SA 2.0.

Have you ever been listening to a speech or a lecture and found yourself thinking, “I am so lost!” or “Where the heck is this speaker going?” Chances are one of the reasons you weren’t sure what the speaker was talking about was that the speaker didn’t effectively keep the speech moving. When we are reading and encounter something we don’t understand, we have the ability to reread the paragraph and try to make sense of what we’re trying to read. Unfortunately, we are not that lucky when it comes to listening to a speaker. We cannot pick up our universal remote and rewind the person. For this reason, speakers need to really think about how they keep a speech moving so that audience members are easily able to keep up with the speech. In this section, we’re going to look at four specific techniques speakers can use that make following a speech much easier for an audience: transitions, internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts.

Transitions between Main Points

A transition is a phrase or sentence that indicates that a speaker is moving from one main point to another main point in a speech. Basically, a transition is a sentence where the speaker summarizes what was said in one point and previews what is going to be discussed in the next point. Let’s look at some examples:

Now that we’ve seen the problems caused by lack of adolescent curfew laws, let’s examine how curfew laws could benefit our community.
Thus far we’ve examined the history and prevalence of alcohol abuse among Native Americans, but it is the impact that this abuse has on the health of Native Americans that is of the greatest concern.
Now that we’ve thoroughly examined how these two medications are similar to one another, we can consider the many clear differences between the two medications.
Although he was one of the most prolific writers in Great Britain prior to World War II, Winston Churchill continued to publish during the war years as well.

You’ll notice that in each of these transition examples, the beginning phrase of the sentence indicates the conclusion of a period of time (now that, thus far). The table below contains a variety of transition words that will be useful when keeping your speech moving.

Table 9.1 Transition Words

Beyond transitions, there are several other techniques that you can use to clarify your speech organization for your audience. The next sections address several of these techniques, including internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts.

Internal Previews

An internal preview is a phrase or sentence that gives an audience an idea of what is to come within a section of a speech. An internal preview works similarly to the preview that a speaker gives at the end of a speech introduction, quickly outlining what they will talk about (i.e., the speech’s three main body points). In an internal preview, speakers highlight what they are going to discuss within a specific main point during a speech.

Ausubel was the first person to examine the effect that internal previews had on retention of oral information (Ausubel, 1968). Essentially, when speakers clearly inform an audience what they will talk about in a clear and organized manner, the audience listens for those main points, which leads to higher retention of the speaker’s message. Let’s look at a sample internal preview:

To help us further understand why recycling is important, we will first explain the positive benefits of recycling and then explore how recycling can help our communi ty.

When an audience hears that you will be exploring two different ideas within this main point, they are ready to listen for those main points as you talk about them. In essence, you’re helping your audience keep up with your speech.

Rather than being given alone, internal previews often come after a speaker has transitioned to that main topic area. Using the previous internal preview, let’s see it along with the transition to that main point.

Now that we’ve explored the effect that a lack of consistent recycling has on our community, let’s explore the importance of recycling for our community ( transition ). To help us further understand why recycling is important, we will first explain the positive benefits of recycling and then explore how recycling can help our community ( internal preview ).

While internal previews are definitely helpful, you do not need to include one for every main point of your speech. In fact, we recommend that you use internal previews sparingly to highlight only main points containing relatively complex information.

Internal Summaries

Whereas an internal preview helps an audience know what you are going to talk about within a main point at the beginning, an internal summary is delivered to remind an audience of what they just heard within the speech. In general, internal summaries are best used when the information within a specific main point of a speech was complicated. To write your own internal summaries, look at the summarizing transition words in Table 9.1. Let’s look at an example.

To sum up, school bullying is a definite problem. Bullying in schools has been shown to be detrimental to the victim’s grades, the victim’s scores on standardized tests, and the victim’s future educational outlook.

In this example, the speaker was probably talking about the impact that bullying has on an individual victim educationally. Of course, an internal summary can also be a great way to lead into a transition to the next point of a speech.

In this section, we have explored how bullying in schools has been shown to be detrimental to the victim’s grades, the victim’s scores on standardized tests, and the victim’s future educational outlook ( internal summary ). Therefore, schools need to implement campus-wide, comprehensive antibullying programs ( transition ).

While not sounding like the more traditional transition, this internal summary helps readers summarize the content of that main point. The sentence that follows then leads to the next major part of the speech, which is going to discuss the importance of antibullying programs.

Have you ever been on a road trip and watched the green rectangular mile signs pass you by? Fifty miles to go. Twenty-five miles to go. One mile to go. Signposts within a speech function the same way. Speakers use signposts to guide their audience through the content of a speech. If you look at Table 9.1 and look at the “common sequence patterns,” you’ll see a series of possible signpost options. In essence, we use these short phrases at the beginning of a piece of information to help our audience members keep up with what we’re discussing. For example, if you were giving a speech whose main point was about the three functions of credibility, you could use internal signposts like this:

The first function of credibility is competence.
The second function of credibility is trustworthiness.
The final function of credibility is caring/goodwill.

Signposts are simply meant to help your audience keep up with your speech, so the more simplistic your signposts are, the easier it is for your audience to follow.

In addition to helping audience members keep up with a speech, signposts can also be used to highlight specific information the speaker thinks is important. Where the other signposts were designed to show the way (like highway markers), signposts that call attention to specific pieces of information are more like billboards. Words and phrases that are useful for highlighting information can be found in Table 9.1 under the category “emphasis.” All these words are designed to help you call attention to what you are saying so that the audience will also recognize the importance of the information.

Note from the author, Gruber: As we have previously stated, organization is integral to your audience understanding your message, and thus, being influenced by it. A clear organizational pattern with connectives, such as transitions and summaries, creates a clear and memorable message.

Finally, we sometimes get funny looks when we suggest you write the body of your speech before your Introduction & Conclusion. The natural thought may be “The introduction comes first, so I should write it first.” However, consider the objectives of the Introduction, as described in the next chapter, and you’ll understand why you should always write the body first and then the introduction and conclusion.

Baker, E. E. (1965). The immediate effects of perceived speaker disorganization on speaker credibility and audience attitude change in persuasive speaking. Western Speech, 29 , 148–161.
Smith, R. G. (1951). An experimental study of the effects of speech organization upon attitudes of college students. Speech Monographs, 18 , 292–301.
Thompson, E. C. (1960). An experimental investigation of the relative effectiveness of organizational structure in oral communication. Southern Speech Journal, 26 , 59–69.
Bostrom, R. N., & Waldhart, E. S. (1988). Memory models and the measurement of listening. Communication Education, 37 , 1–13.
Dunham, J. R. (1964). Voice contrast and repetition in speech retention (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from: http://etd.lib.ttu.edu/theses .
LeFrancois, G. R. (1999). Psychology for teaching (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Smith, R. G. (1951). An experimental study of the effects of speech organization upon attitudes of college students. Speech Monographs, 18 , 292–301.
Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology . New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
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Sections of this chapter were adapted from Stand up, Speak Out: The practice and ethics of public speaking. Stand up, Speak out by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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The Conversation

Hold On to Your Hats, America

A graduating student holds a light blue mortar board cap on her head as she walks with a few other graduates dressed in light blue gowns.

By Gail Collins and Bret Stephens

Ms. Collins and Mr. Stephens are Opinion columnists. They converse every week.

Bret Stephens: Hi, Gail. It’s commencement season, though at least a few ceremonies are being canceled on account of all the protests. If you were giving a graduation address, what would you say?

Gail Collins: Well, I’ve given a commencement address or two in my time, but even when things were troubled, I could tell that most of the audience was hoping I’d make them laugh. Just in a way that made them feel it was OK to celebrate their achievements by having a good time with their families and friends.

Bret: Last time I spoke to a graduating class, I tried to compare great arguments to great sex. Not sure how that one went over .

Gail: Wish I had been in the audience for that. Don’t know exactly what I’d say to the current graduates, except that I’d congratulate them for having made it through a time of international turmoil, where both presumptive presidential nominees were almost old enough to be their great-grandfathers.

Bret: I’d urge them to do everything they can to cultivate an inner life, especially since social media is always trying to suck it out of them. Commit great poems to heart, starting with those by Gerard Manley Hopkins and Edna St. Vincent Millay. Recite them aloud on solitary walks. Compose dirty limericks in your head. Read more for pleasure, less for purpose. Read, immediately, Marguerite Yourcenar’s “Memoirs of Hadrian.” Imitate the writers or artists you most admire; you’ll find your own voice and style in all the ways your imitation falls short. Don’t post self-indulgent glam shots of yourself on Instagram, and please stop photographing your damn meals.

Gail: Unless you cooked them — if you’re being creative in the kitchen, it’s like trying to write a poem. Not that I’m any good at either.

Bret: Fair point.

Also: Think of TikTok as your generation’s cocaine and get off it. Work hard on keeping a few good friendships, not gaining thousands of followers. Eschew envy, cynicism and virtue signaling. Ponder the meaning of the word “ hineni. ” Make only enough money so that you don’t have to think about it much. Preserve an independence of mind and spirit, and nurture a contrarian opinion or two, especially if it goes against your own political side.

Gail: Go, Bret.

Bret: Reserve the right to change your mind — and really do it from time to time. Never join a cause if you aren’t fully familiar with the argument against it. Heed the words of Rabbi Hillel: “Where there are no men, be thou a man.” Or woman. Don’t equate success with fame or fame with happiness. Find your core satisfaction in a soul mate, not a career. Laugh more, mostly at yourself.

What have I missed?

Gail: That’s pretty damn good, especially the laughing part. But I’m not going to go so far as to suggest student protesting is a bad or silly idea. Maybe I’d say: Don’t ruin the day for your friends who’ve brought their parents over from Cleveland for one special moment they’ve been looking forward to for ages.

Bret: Because the Browns are punishment enough?

Gail: I probably told you I was a student protester at my college graduation time. My friends and I went to the ceremony, and they let us onstage, but we didn’t get presented diplomas — because we’d gotten an incomplete in Ethics of Journalism.

Not going any further with this story except to say that it was all about free speech and the effort my friends and I made to get the gay poet Allen Ginsberg the right to speak at our Catholic college.

Bret: I long for the days when campus protests were for the Jew.

Gail: Trillion years ago. We thought things were tough then but truly never had a Donald Trump on our horizon.

Any Trumpian thoughts during the Stormy Daniels … storm?

Bret: I’m trying to understand how the question of whether Trump wore a condom in the alleged encounter is relevant to whether and for what purpose he falsified business records. Or how the prosecution thinks that any of this hurts Trump legally or, most important, politically. Like Bill Clinton, he’ll gain sympathy from some voters for being the victim of prosecutorial overreach. He’ll also gain the sneaking admiration of other voters for, uh, having a stormy with Stormy. What do you think?

Gail: Find it hard to believe anybody who bothers to vote has learned anything new about Trump’s character. Although still kinda haunted by the vision of him lying on the bed in his underwear waiting for her to come out of the bathroom. And maybe as the abortion debate goes on and on, it’ll be useful to question whether a guy who has a lot of sex, at least some of which we now hear was unprotected, could not have a strong opinion on the right to terminate a pregnancy.

Bret: True, although I somehow doubt that an unwanted pregnancy was the main risk in that particular encounter.

Gail: Let’s move on to Congress, where I am increasingly unnerved by my appreciation for Speaker Mike Johnson. Truly, Bret, this was not in my plan for 2024.

Bret: It really says something about the state of the G.O.P. that Marjorie Taylor Greene, who should be a Republican embarrassment, has become a power player, while Mike Johnson, who should be a backbencher, is not only the speaker but also the voice of sense and moderation. Relatively speaking. Did I mention that I’m not a fan of the Antisemitism Awareness Act that passed the House the other week? It might surprise a few of our readers.

Gail: Tell why.

Bret: It embraces an expansive definition of antisemitism, known as the I.H.R.A. definition, after the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, and effectively criminalizes a wide range of speech that is generally abhorrent but shouldn’t be criminalized. Much as I hate antisemitism, I also don’t think laws against “hate speech,” including against my own group, should be in federal legislation. And I don’t think conservatives who complain about campus speech codes should be in the business of writing those codes themselves.

Gail: I’m in awe of your analysis. Bowing down.

Bret: The best way to defeat antisemitism is first to understand what it is, to teach people why it’s evil and to call it out when it happens. That’s a job for civil society, not the government.

Gail: We’re agreeing a lot today. Let me take a guess I can change the tone by expressing my admiration for President Biden’s top economic adviser, Lael Brainard, who just called for reducing the budget deficit and extending tax cuts for middle- and lower-income families by raising taxes on the wealthy and the most profitable companies.

Bret: Terrible. Tax increases on companies are just passed through to consumers, in the form of higher prices; to employees, in the form of cost cutting or less hiring; and to shareholders, including a lot of people who hold stock through retirement accounts, in the form of lower profitability. And raising taxes on the so-called wealthy usually ends up thwacking the upper-middle class, including those who live in high-tax states, while the superrich always have the means to hire fancy accountants and lawyers to shield their assets in trusts, offshore accounts and other complex vehicles.

Gail: The government has a tad of cash itself, and an administration with the right priorities can fight to get those tax shields down. Won’t always work, of course, but it would push us in the right direction.

Bret: But wait, there’s worse! Every time Democrats raise taxes, they get clobbered at the polls — as they did in the 1994 midterms after Bill Clinton raised taxes in his first year and again in 2014 after Barack Obama did in his fifth. I know “taxing the rich” polls well, but a lot of voters fear those higher tax rates may soon fall on them.

Gail: Presidents generally get clobbered in the congressional votes after the election. The fact that Biden fared pretty well, historically speaking, does show he knows a lot more about sending a message voters appreciate, including matters of economic fairness.

Although before you leap at it, I’ll admit the Democrats’ relative success had a whole lot to do with abortion rights rather than the economy. Abortion is an issue Biden’s been very consistent on despite his own private religious feelings. While Trump — yipes, where’s he at this week? This afternoon?

Bret: If Biden winds up winning in November — and I couldn’t be more anxious about his chances — the Supreme Court’s Dobbs decision, along with the awful restrictions so many conservative states have put on abortion rights, will have had a lot to do with it. Which would be … a pleasing irony.

Gail: I’ll take any irony that keeps us Trump-free.

Bret: Gail, before we go, I have to recommend Robert McFadden’s fantastic obituary for Mary Wells Lawrence (nee Mary Georgene Berg), the advertising genius who came up with the I ❤️ NY campaign and was the first woman to own a major ad agency. I especially loved this story:

In 1966, having several high-profile campaigns under her belt and feeling entitled, Ms. Wells Lawrence asked for the presidency of Tinker & Partners. Her boss, Marion Harper Jr., the president and chairman of Interpublic, told her that he would give her presidential authority but not the title — a woman, he said, could not win acceptance as president. It was her moment of truth. “He could see that I was feeling a red rage,” she told The Times in 2012. “And he said, ‘You wouldn’t want to ruin something you built.’ And at that point I just walked out the door. It wasn’t as though I wanted to be Betty Friedan. I just wanted my own agency.”

How marvelous. It’s another case of the right kind of chutzpah defeating the wrong kind of chutzpah.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow the New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Instagram , TikTok , WhatsApp , X and Threads .

Gail Collins is a Times Opinion columnist focusing on domestic politics. @ GailCollins • Facebook

Bret Stephens is an Opinion columnist for The Times, writing about foreign policy, domestic politics and cultural issues. Facebook

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COMMENTS

PS Chapter 18 Flashcards
When Carlos Bustamante received the Alumni of the Year award at his alma mater's annual award dinner, he gave a speech thanking the school for recognizing his work. What kind of speech did Carlos give? An acceptance speech. According to your textbook, in a speech of acceptance a speaker usually. A and C only.
12.1 Speaking in Personal and Civic Contexts
Since these occasions are often celebratory, it is important to be enthusiastic or reverent to the tone of the occasion. A toast may be lighthearted and jovial, a eulogy somber, a tribute stirring, or an acceptance speech celebratory. Even when accepting an award, speakers will spend most of their speech talking about others rather than them.
18.2 Special-Occasion Speeches
Key Takeaways. There are eight common forms of ceremonial speaking: introduction, presentation, acceptance, dedication, toast, roast, eulogy, and farewell. Speeches of introduction are designed to introduce a speaker. Speeches of presentation are given when an individual is presenting an award of some kind.
17.3: Types of Special Occasion Speeches
The presentation of an award is usually followed by an acceptance speech, which the recipient delivers upon immediate receipt of the award. This speech gives the recipient an opportunity to show appreciation for the award as well as humility and grace (O'Hair & Stewart, 1999). Such a speech should be prepared ahead of time, if possible.
How to Write an Acceptance Speech? Detailed Guide with Tips
Lack of Structure: Avoid a disorganized or lengthy speech. Structure your speech with a clear beginning, middle, and end to maintain your audience's attention. Being Negative: Stay positive and avoid any negative remarks or criticisms, whether related to the award or other aspects. Maintain a gracious and optimistic tone.
Chapter Sixteen
First, a speaker needs to give a clear and concise statement of the problem. This part of a speech should be crystal clear for an audience. Second, the speaker needs to provide one or more examples to illustrate the need. The illustration is an attempt to make the problem concrete for the audience.
Persuasive Speeches
Although a persuasive speech involves information—even as much as an informative speech—the key difference is that a persuasive speech is designed for "creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions" (Lucas, 2015. p. 306). A persuasive speech makes something happen. In other words, it performs a job.
Chapter Six
Some might say "yes," but usually most would rather be doing something else with their time. This is an important factor to keep in mind when preparing your speech: some people simply do not want to listen to a speech they believe is compulsory. ... a speaker should not shift the message and should remain true to their motives. Only you ...
Acceptance Speech Thanks Those Who Made Excellence Possible
The purpose of an acceptance speech is to acknowledge those who have helped you achieve your success, whether it be family members, colleagues, mentors, or fans. It also allows you to share any insights or advice you gleaned with others. An effective acceptance speech should be concise and heartfelt, conveying humility, confidence, and gratitude.
Persuasive Strategies
To avoid coercing an audience, speakers should use logical and emotional appeals responsibly. The pendulum of the mind alternates between sense and nonsense, not between right and wrong. - Carl Jung. Persuasive speakers must be careful to avoid using fallacies in their reasoning. Fallacies are errors in reasoning that occur when a speaker ...
Persuasive Speaking
11.1 Foundation of Persuasion. Persuasive speaking seeks to influence the beliefs, attitudes, values, or behaviors of audience members. In order to persuade, a speaker has to construct arguments that appeal to audience members (Poggi, 2005). Arguments form around three components: claim, evidence, and warrant.
Chapter 13: Special Occasion Speaking
The speech is to tell them about the programs in hopes of their consideration for registering. See, it's an informative speech with a hint of persuasion. Dedication Speech. This speech gives special meaning to something being presented to the public. It is usually given at a ceremony of an official opening or the completion of something.
Chapter 13: Persuasive Speaking
Ethos is one of the more studied aspects of public speaking, and it was discussed earlier in Chapter 3. During the speech, a speaker should seek to utilize their existing credibility, based on the favorable things an audience already knows or believes about the speaker, such as education, expertise, background, and good character.
Chapter Thirteen
The best way to develop good eye contact is to have an objective listener watch and comment on the eye contact. The eyes are called the windows to the soul, and the importance of eye contact in communication cannot be overemphasized. Ideally, a speaker should include 80% to 90% of the delivery time with eye contact.
Chapter 18 Review Flashcards
As your textbook explains, when you give a speech of introduction you should be sure to adapt your remarks to the. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like create a welcoming climate to build enthusiasm for the main speaker., save the name of the main speaker until the final moment., a gift or an award to the recipient ...
World Training Institute
c. commemorative speech * d. acceptance speech e. speech of presentation . 54. According to your textbook, in a speech of acceptance a speaker should usually a. thank the people who are bestowing the award. b. praise himself or herself for having the talent to win the award. c. express appreciation for the people who helped him or her gain the ...
How to Give an Award Acceptance Speech (With Examples)
First and foremost, an acceptance speech is a chance to express your heartfelt appreciation for the honor you've received. This isn't the time to be modest or downplay your achievements. Let your emotions shine through and show how much the award means to you. Take a cue from Sandra Bullock's acceptance speech at the 2010 Oscars.
Chapter Nine
When creating a speech, it's important to remember that speeches have three clear parts: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The introduction establishes the topic and whets your audience's appetite, and the conclusion wraps everything up at the end of your speech. The real "meat" of your speech happens in the body.
Opinion
Ms. Collins and Mr. Stephens are Opinion columnists. They converse every week. Bret Stephens: Hi, Gail. It's commencement season, though at least a few ceremonies are being canceled on account ...
Module 6 Quiz- Public Speaking I Flashcards
According to your textbook, when citing sources during a speech, a speaker should usually identify the. all of the above. A hypothetical example describes an imaginary or fictitious situation. True. Hypothetical examples can be especially powerful as supporting materials when they create scenarios that involve the audience.
Speech Final Flashcards
The purpose of a speech of introduction is to reveal the major points that will be made by the main speaker. true. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Under normal circumstance, a speech of introduction should be no more than _____ minutes long., An acceptance speech gives thanks for a gift, an award, or some other ...

18.2 Special-Occasion Speeches

Ceremonial Speaking

Speeches of Introduction

Speeches of Presentation

Speeches of Acceptance

Speeches of Dedication

Speeches of Farewell

Inspirational Speaking

Speeches to Ensure Goodwill

Speeches for Public Relations

Speeches of Justification

Speeches of Apology

Speeches for Commencements

Key Takeaways

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17.3: Types of Special Occasion Speeches

speech of introduction

speech to present an award

acceptance speech

keynote address

commemorative speech and tribute

after-dinner speech

How to Write the Best Acceptance Speech for Your Audience?

What is an Acceptance Speech?

How to Write an Acceptance Speech?

Immediately Start With a Thank You

Discuss the Organization

Recognize Supportive People

Include Humor in Your Speech

End With Impact

Express Gratitude

Acceptance Speech Examples

Mistakes to Avoid When Writing An Acceptance Speech

Phrases You Can Use in Acceptance Speech Writing

Tips for Acceptance Speech Writing

Keep reading

15 Persuasive Speeches

Traditional Views of Persuasion

Persuasion and the Audience

Why is Persuasion Hard?

Solutions to the Difficulty of Persuasion

Structure of a Persuasive Speech

Propositions

Types of Propositions

Proposition of Fact

Proposition of Value

Proposition of Policy

Propositions of Definition

Pro-Arguments

Two-Tailed Arguments

Building Upon Your Persuasive Speech’s Arguments

Organization of a Persuasive Speech

Organization for a proposition of fact

Organization for a proposition of value

Organization for a propositions of policy

Media Attributions

Acceptance Speech Thanks Those Who Made Excellence Possible

What Is An Acceptance Speech

How Do You Write A Speech About Accepting An Award?

What Is The First Step In An Acceptance Speech?

What Should An Acceptance Speech Include?

What Is The Most Important Part Of An Acceptance Speech?

How Do You Write A 5-Minute Acceptance Speech?

What Is An Example Of A Short Speech About Accepting An Award?

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Inductive Reasoning

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