meaning of essay in latin

1590s, "trial, attempt, endeavor," also "short, discursive literary composition" (first attested in writings of Francis Bacon, probably in imitation of Montaigne), from French essai "trial, attempt, essay" (in Old French from 12c.), from Late Latin exagium "a weighing, a weight," from Latin exigere "drive out; require, exact; examine, try, test," from ex "out" (see ex- ) + agere "to set in motion, drive" (from PIE root *ag- "to drive, draw out or forth, move") apparently meaning here "to weigh." The suggestion is of unpolished writing. Compare assay , also examine .

"to put to proof, test the mettle of," late 15c., from French essaier , from essai "trial, attempt" (see essay (n.)). This sense has mostly gone with the divergent spelling assay . Meaning "to attempt" is from 1640s. Related: Essayed ; essaying .

Entries linking to essay

c. 1300, "to try, endeavor, strive; test the quality of," from Anglo-French assaier , from assai (n.), from Old French assai , variant of essai "trial" (see essay (n.)). Related: Assayed ; assaying .

c. 1300, "put (someone) to question in regard to knowledge, competence, or skill, inquire into qualifications or capabilities;" mid-14c., "inspect or survey (something) carefully, scrutinize, view or observe in all aspects with the purpose of forming a correct opinion or judgment," from Old French examiner "interrogate, question, torture," from Latin examinare "to test or try; consider, ponder," literally "to weigh," from examen "a means of weighing or testing," probably ultimately from exigere "demand, require, enforce," literally "to drive or force out," also "to finish, measure," from ex "out" (see ex- ) + agere "to set in motion, drive, drive forward; to do, perform" (from PIE root *ag- "to drive, draw out or forth, move"). Legal sense of "question or hear (a witness in court)" is from early 15c. Related: Examined ; examining .

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Dictionary entries near essay

essentialism

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Translation of "essay" into Latin

thesis, progymnasma, meditatio are the top translations of "essay" into Latin. Sample translated sentence: He delivered lectures and wrote essays in a simple language, along with the statistics from original and authentic sources and documents, so that common man can also understand. ↔ Postea et alios doctores acquisivit; ipse libere fontes scriptos, originales et conversos, cognoscebat.

A written composition of moderate length exploring a particular issue or subject. [..]

English-Latin dictionary

Progymnasma.

written composition

Less frequent translations

• Progymnasma
• temptamentum

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Automatic translations of " essay " into Latin

Translations with alternative spelling

"Essay" in English - Latin dictionary

Currently we have no translations for Essay in the dictionary, maybe you can add one? Make sure to check automatic translation, translation memory or indirect translations.

Phrases similar to "essay" with translations into Latin

• Essay, Orne Essay
• essay to treat inchoo
• Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie
• proof essay temptamentum

Translations of "essay" into Latin in sentences, translation memory

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Latin Terms and Abbreviations

What this handout is about.

In your college career, you will encounter the abbreviations e.g. and i.e. E.g. is a Latin abbreviation that means “for example” and often appears before lists. I.e. is another Latin abbreviation that means “in other words,” “namely,” or “which is to say.” Use e.g. when introducing a non-exhaustive list of examples and i.e. when rephrasing the exact same idea in different words. The rest of this handout explains these and many other Latin abbreviations you might see, such as etc., N.B, cf., sic, versus, circa, et al., ibid. and id., and more.

About Latin terms and abbreviations

Despite the fact that Latin is no longer the international language of scholars, bits and pieces of it can still be found scattered around. Some of these bits are very common and are even seen in non-academic writing, while others are much more obscure.

Simply knowing what an abbreviation stands for and how to translate the underlying Latin words does not necessarily tell you how the abbreviation is used in actual modern practice. These little remnants of Latin have had a long and colorful life separated from their original language and context.

There are a few generally accepted rules that apply to most Latin abbreviations. The major style manuals (MLA, APA and Chicago) agree that Latin abbreviations should be kept out of the main body of a text-that is, they should not appear in ordinary sentences within ordinary paragraphs. Certain abbreviations may be used in parentheses within the body of a text (etc., e.g., i.e.), but the rest should appear only in footnotes, endnotes, tables, and other forms of documentation. One notable exception: APA style allows writers to use the abbreviation et al. when discussing works with multiple authors and v. in the titles of court cases.

Except for N.B., none of the abbreviations we’re about to discuss need to be italicized or capitalized.

Why should you bother learning about Latin abbreviations?

While it’s perfectly acceptable to use English phrases instead of Latin abbreviations, there’s a reason why these abbreviations have survived and continue to be used today: they contain a lot of meaning in a very small package. It takes less time and fewer characters to write e.g. than “for example.” As an added bonus, using Latin abbreviations correctly can make your writing sound more sophisticated and scholarly.

Even if you decide that you don’t want to use Latin abbreviations in your own writing, you’re still going to encounter them in other texts. Knowing what these abbreviations mean and how they are used is crucial to understanding and interpreting these works.

The big three: etc., i.e., and e.g.

The average person could go through life never having to worry about most Latin abbreviations, but there are three that have become so widespread that they’re impossible to avoid: etc., i.e. and e.g. These are also the most often misused Latin abbreviations. Let’s take a look at each of them, what they mean and how they can be used.

The abbreviation etc. stands for et cetera, which translates literally as “and others” or “and the rest.” A more useful translation that can be substituted for etc. (especially when reading aloud) is “and so on.” It is used at the end of a list to indicate that there are more elements to the list that are being left out so that the list doesn’t become too long. For example:

All of the objects in our solar system (planets, comets, etc.) orbit the sun.

Many other examples could be included in a list of objects in our solar system (like asteroids and moons), but it would take too much space and time to list them all. Also, listing them all wouldn’t add much to the sentence-readers don’t need to know the identity of every object orbiting the sun in order to understand the sentence.

In lists where you use etc., be sure all the listed items are of the same kind. If you wrote the following sentence, your readers might have a hard time telling what “etc.” is substituting for because some of the items listed are objects, while others are people or activities:

I’m very interested in astronomy—planets, stargazing, Carl Sagan, etc.

When etc. is used at the end of a list, it should be preceded by a comma just like the other elements of the list. It should never have the word “and” before it: the Latin word et has already got that covered.

e.g. and i.e.

These are the two most often misused and confused Latin abbreviations-and for good reason. In any given sentence, it’s often not immediately clear how i.e. and e.g. are different. Both appear inside parentheses and offer extra information that helps explain what’s come before. There is, however, a very important and useful difference between these two abbreviations.

The abbreviation e.g. stands for exempli gratia, which translates literally as “for the sake of an example”-but you can really just cut out the stuff in the middle and read it as “for example.” It is used to give an example or set of examples to help clarify the preceding idea. In general, if you use e.g., you should provide one or two short examples. More can be used, but only if they are simple and can be expressed in a single word or short phrase. It isn’t necessary to use etc. at the end of a list following e.g.; it’s understood that there are more examples than those that you’ve given. You should not list all of the possible examples.

The abbreviation i.e. stands for id est, which translates literally as “that is.” Sometimes it might be more useful, however, to translate it as “what that means is” or “that is to say.” This abbreviation is used to clarify the preceding idea by restating it more simply or in different terms. Strictly speaking, what follows i.e. in parentheses should be equivalent to what comes before-you should be able to switch them without changing the meaning of the sentence. If this involves making a list, you should include all of the elements that make up that list. It might be useful to think of i.e. as representing an equal sign (=). This will help you remember that i.e. stands for a strict equivalence.

Let’s look at some examples of how to use i.e. and e.g. correctly:

YES: The rocky planets (e.g., Mercury) are closest to our sun.

NO: The rocky planets (i.e., Mercury) are closest to our sun.

Mercury is not equivalent to the rocky planets-they’re not the same thing. Mercury is just one example of a rocky planet, therefore e.g. is appropriate.

YES: The rocky planets (i.e., Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are closest to our sun.

YES: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars (i.e., the rocky planets) are closest to our sun.

NO: The rocky planets (e.g., Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) are closest to our sun.

Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are all of the examples of rocky planets in our solar system (they are a full and complete list, not just a few examples), so e.g. should not be used. Instead, use i.e. to show that the list of four planets is equivalent to the rocky planets-they refer to the same thing. Notice that switching the rocky planets and Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars doesn’t change the meaning of the sentence.

In some instances, i.e. and e.g. may both be acceptable, but using one or the other will drastically change the meaning of the sentence. For example:

Farmer Brown sells his produce (e.g., apples, oranges, carrots) at the market.

Farmer Brown sells his produce (i.e., apples, oranges, carrots) at the market.

In the first sentence, the use of e.g. tells the reader that Farmer Brown sells many different types of produce, including apples oranges and carrots. The information contained in the parentheses provides a few examples to help clarify the meaning of produce. In the second sentence, the use of i.e. tells the reader that Farmer Brown sells only apples, oranges and carrots -nothing else. The information contained in the parentheses tells the reader that, as far as Farmer Brown is concerned, apples, oranges and carrots are what constitute produce-they are equivalent.

Other useful abbreviations

While etc., e.g. and i.e. are perhaps the most important Latin abbreviations for you to get acquainted with, there are other less common abbreviations that you may find useful in certain situations.

The abbreviation N.B. stands for nota bene, which literally translates as “note well,” although in practice you can read it as “pay attention.” It is used in endnotes or footnotes to call the reader’s attention to a particularly important piece of information-such as a key assumption of or exception to an argument-that is nevertheless not crucial enough to be included in the main body of the paper. Also, notice that N.B. is the only Latin abbreviation that should be capitalized.

Example: N.B.: While all of the study participants were interviewed about their prior medical histories, researchers did not have access to their medical records to confirm the accuracy of self-reported data.

The abbreviation cf. stands for the Latin word confer which means “compare.” It is primarily used in endnotes or footnotes to point readers to works that the author recommends referencing in comparison with the work at hand. Therefore, it might be more useful to read cf. as “but compare this to.” It is generally preceded by citations of works that are sources for the author’s argument and then followed by one or two examples of works that somehow differ from or depart from the argument. Although it is not strictly necessary to explain how these works are different, you might find it useful to include a short phrase for the benefit of your reader.

Example: 2. Jones 1992, Smith 2003; cf. on methodology Harris 2005.

Although it is not an abbreviation, sic is included here because it is one of the more frequently used Latin terms. The word sic means “thus” or “so” and is used in quotations to indicate that any strange aspects of a piece of text, such as errors in of grammar, spelling, or word choice, are part of the original text and not a typo. Therefore, it could be more appropriately translated as “yes, that’s actually what it says.” Depending on the style you’re using, sic is italicized and placed in brackets after the word or phrase it identifies (as in APA and Chicago), or it is simply placed in parentheses after the entire quote (as in MLA). Consult the most recent edition of the appropriate style handbook to ensure that you’re using the proper format.

versus (vs. or v.)

You have probably seen the term versus or one of its abbreviation, vs. or v., in the names of court cases (for example, “Smith v. the State of North Carolina”). Versus translates as “against” or “as opposed to.” Versus is used to express conflict or comparison. You may see it in the main body of academic texts, in phrases such as “man versus nature,” “measured in kilograms versus pounds,” or “protectionism versus free trade.” Versus and its abbreviations also appear frequently in the titles of books and articles.

Circa, which translates as “around” or “approximately,” usually appears with dates. You may see it abbreviated as c. or ca. (or, more rarely, as cca. or cir.). It indicates that a number or value is approximate, not exact. For example, you might see sentences like “the construction of Stonehenge began circa 3000 BCE.” More rarely, you may see circa in reference to measurements of amounts, such as “circa $45,000” or “c. 1.5 mL.” Your meaning will often be clearer to readers if you stick with English in the main body of your text and save “c.” for things in parentheses and notes. So, for example, you might write “the construction of Stonehenge began around 3000 BCE” or “when Stonehenge began to be constructed (c. 3000 BCE).”

Citation shortcuts

The abbreviations in this section are used primarily in notes and bibliographic entries in order to save space. It is important to understand these abbreviations not only so that you can correctly interpret bibliographic citations, but also so that your citations can be accessible to your readers.

The Latin abbreviation et al. stands for et alii which translates as “and other people.” It is like etc., but it is used only for people. You will generally see et al. used in bibliographical entries for books, articles, or other publications that have several authors (usually four or more) in order to save space. In such cases, the name of the first author will be given in full and then followed by et al. As with etc., there is no need to include ‘and’ before et al., but do notice that unlike etc. there is a space (and no period) after et in this abbreviation.

ibid. and id.

The abbreviation ibid. stands for the Latin word ibidem, which means “in the same place.” It is used in endnotes or footnotes when you cite the same source and page number(s) two or more times. If you cite the same source but a different page number, you can use ibid. followed by a comma and the page number(s). Also, note that ibid. is capitalized when it begins a note. For example:

• 1. Barsby, 99-101.
• 3. Ibid., 97.

Although it is becoming less common, you may encounter the abbreviation id. used in a way similar to ibid. The abbreviation id. stands for idem, which means “the same person.” It is used in place of ibid. when the same author is cited but not the same page number. In such instances, ibid. is only used to repeat the preceding citation exactly. For example:

• 3. Id., 97.

Like sic, passim is not an abbreviation, but it is included here as a Latin term commonly used to save space in bibliographic entries. The Latin word passim means “here and there” or “throughout.” It is used when a particular word, phrase or idea is not restricted to just a few pages of a work, but occurs in many different places. Using passim is not a way to avoid providing specific citations—instead, it indicates to the reader that the information being cited occurs frequently in the work and that they may want to use the table of contents or index to find specific examples.

Abbreviation obscurity

While you may occasionally encounter the following abbreviations in your academic career, they are becoming increasingly rare. There is no need for you to attempt to incorporate them into your own writing. Instead, use short English phrases; it will be easier for you to write and for your reader to understand!

loc. cit. and op. cit.

The abbreviations loc. cit. and op. cit. are old forms used in bibliographic citations similar to ibid. and id. above. The abbreviation loc. cit. stands for loco citato, which translates as “in the place cited,” whereas op. cit. stands for opere citato which translates as “in the work cited.” Generally, loc. cit. is used to refer to the same work and page number(s) as the previous citation, while op. cit. refers only to the same work and may or may not be followed by page numbers. In all modern style manuals, ibid. is preferred to loc. cit. and op. cit.

inf. and sup.

The abbreviations inf. and sup. stand for the words infra and supra, which translate as “below” and “above” respectively. They are used to indicate that information will be more fully explained or cited elsewhere. If the information has already appeared in an earlier note, sup. is used. If the information will appear in a later note (where a more complete citation or explanation is perhaps more appropriate), inf. is used. In general, you can replace both of these abbreviations with “see below” and “see above” without any change in meaning.

viz. and sc.

The abbreviation viz. stands for the Latin contraction videlicet which translates literally as “it is permitted to see,” but a more useful translation is “namely” or “that is to say.” It is used to clarify something by elaborating on it, giving a detailed description of it, or providing a complete list. In this sense, viz. is similar to i.e., although viz. tends to emphasize the precision and exactness of what follows and is thus a stronger version of i.e. It is generally acceptable to use i.e. instead of viz.

The similar abbreviation sc. stands for the Latin contraction scilicet which translates literally as “it is permitted to know,” but a more useful translation is “namely” or “as if to say.” It is often used to provide a clarification, remove an ambiguity, or supply an omitted word. Like viz., sc. is a more specific version of i.e. and stresses the clarity of what follows. As with viz., it is generally acceptable to use i.e. rather than sc.

The abbreviation q.v. stands for quod vide, which translates literally as “which see,” although in practice it means something more like “for which see elsewhere.” It is used in notes after a word or phrase to indicate that more information can be found about the topic somewhere else in the current work. Because q.v. is generally used in reference books or similar works, page numbers are not included after it. The reader is expected to know how to locate this information without further assistance. Since there is always the possibility that the reader won’t be able to find the information cited by q.v., it’s better to use a simple English phrase such as “for more on this topic, see pages 72-3” or “a detailed definition appears on page 16.” Such phrases are immediately comprehensible to the reader (who may not even know what q.v. means) and remove any ambiguity about where additional information is located.

The abbreviation s.v. stands for sub verbo, which translates as “under the word.” It is used when citing a specific entry in a dictionary or encyclopedia. The word or phrase following the abbreviation should correspond exactly to the heading in the dictionary or encyclopedia so that the reader can find the precise entry being indicated. Since s.v. is no longer recognizable to most modern readers, it is better to use a simple English phrase such as “see the Oxford English Dictionary; look under grape” or something similar.

We hope that this handout will be useful to you as you decipher the Latin terms and abbreviations in your reading and perhaps begin to use them in your own writing!

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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• Perseus : Latin-English dictionary, by Charlton Lewis & Charles Short (1879)

• Collatinus-Biblissima : online search in Latin dictionaries: Lewis & Short (Latin-English), Gaffiot (Latin-French), Calonghi (Latin-Italian, 1898), De Miguel (1867) & Valbuena (1819) (Latin-Spanish), Georges (Latin-German, 1913)

• Lsj .gr : Latin-English dictionary (Lewis & Short), Latin-French dictionary (Gaffiot), Latin-French dictionary (Georges)

• Logeion : Latin-English dictionary (Lewis & Short, Riddle & Arnold, Dictionary of Medieval Latin from British Sources), Latin-French dictionary (Gaffiot, Du Cange) & examples from the corpus

• Whitaker's words online : Latin-English dictionary (with words formed by declension and conjugation)

• LatDict : Latin-English dictionary

• Chinese University of Hong Kong : Latin-English Dictionary

• AlbertMartin : Latin-German dictionary

• Navigium : Latin-German dictionary

• LatijnNederlands : Latin-Dutch dictionary

• Latinsk-dansk ordbog : Latin- Danish dictionary

• Dizionario-latino.com : Latin- Italian dictionary

• A Latin dictionary founded on Andrews' edition of Freund's Latin dictionary , by Charlton Lewis & Charles Short (1879)

• A copious and critical Latin-English lexicon , founded on the Latin-German Lexicon of William Freund , by Ethan Allen Andrews (1857)

• Latin dictionary for schools by Charlton Lewis (1916)

• Latin-English dictionary for the use of junior students , by John White (1904)

• A copious and critical English-Latin dictionary by William Smith & Theophilus Hall (1871)

• A copious and critical English-Latin lexicon , founded on the Latin-German Lexicon of Charles Ernest Georges , by Joseph Riddle, Thomas Arnold & Charles Anthon (1864)

• English-Latin dictionary for the use of colleges and schools , by Joseph Riddle (1838)

• A copious lexicon of the Latin language , compiled chiefly from the Magnum Totius Latinitatis Lexicon of Facciolati and Forcellini , by Frederick Leverett (1838)

• English-Latin lexicon

• Ainsworth's Latin dictionary , revised by Alexander Jamieson (1847)

• Thesaurus linguæ latinæ compendiarius , Ainsworth's Latin dictionary , revised by Benjamin Beatson & William Ellis (1843)

• Dictionary, English and Latin by Robert Ainsworth, revised by Thomas Morell (1773): I & II

• Thesaurus linguæ latinæ compendarius or A compendious dictionary of the Latin tongue , by Robert Ainsworth, revised by Samuel Patrick (1751)

• Latin phrase-book by Carl Meissner & Henry William Auden (1894)

• Discernenda , phrases and idioms in Latin , by J. S. Howell (1901)

• Dictionary of Latin phrases by William Robertson (1824)

→ Dictionnaire latin-français  : Latin-French dictionary, by Félix Gaffiot (1934)

• Dictionnaire latin-français  : Latin-French dictionary, by Félix Gaffiot, revised and published by Gérard Gréco (2016)

• Gaffiot.fr : French dictionary, by Félix Gaffiot, online search & links to the Latin texts quoted

• Dizionario latino-italiano : Latin-Italian dictionary, by Ferruccio Calonghi, based on Karl Ernst Georges' dictionary (1898)

• Dizionario italiano-latino

• Diccionario auxiliar espanol-latino para el uso moderno del latin , by Jose Juan del Col (2007)

• Diccionario latino-español etimológico : etymological Latin-Spanish dictionary, by Raimundo de Miguel & Marqués de Morante (1867)

• Nuevo diccionario latino-español etimológico & Tratado de sinónimos (1921)

• Diccionario latino-español (Valbuena reformado) : Latin-Spanish dictionary, by Manuel de Valbuena, revised by Martinez Lopez (1862)

• Diccionario español-latino by Manuel de Valbuena (1866)

• Dicionario escolar latino-portugues : Latin-Portuguese dictionary, by Ernesto Faria (1975): A-J & K-Z

• Dicionário latino-português : Latin-Portuguese dictionary, by Francisco Torrinha (1937)

• Dicionário português-latino (1939)

• Diccionario latino-portuguez : Latin-Portuguese dictionary, by Francisco dos Santos Saraiva, founded on Quicherat's dictionary (1910)

• Diccionario portuguez-latino : Portuguese-Latin dictionary Pedro José da Fonseca (1879)

• Ausführliches lateinisch-deutsches Handwörterbuch : Latin-German dictionary, by Karl Ernst Georges (1918) + 1843 edition: A-J & K-Z

• Kleines deutsch-lateinisches Handwörterbuch (1910)

• Wörterbuch der lateinischen Sprache : Latin-German dictionary, by William Freund (1834)

A-C - D-K - L-Q - R-Z

• Etyma Latina : Etymological lexicon of classical Latin , by Edward Ross Wharton (1890)

• Etymological dictionary of the Latin language  by Francis Valpy (1828)

• Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue latine  : etymological dictionary of the Latin language, by Antoine Meillet & Alfred Ernout, revised by Jacques André (2001)

• Dictionnaire étymologique latin by Michel Bréal & Anatole Bailly (1918)

• Etymologisches Wörterbuch der lateinischen Sprache : etymological dictionary of the Latin language, by August Zimmermann (1915)

• Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch : Latin etymological dictionary, by Alois Walde (1910)

• Handbuch der lateinischen Etymologie : handbook of Latin etymology, by Ludwig Doederlein (1841)

• Etymologisches Wörterbuch der lateinischen Sprache : etymological dictionary of the Latin language & comparison with Greek and German, by Konrad Schwenck (1827)

• Tensaurus italograecus  : dictionary of Latin words of Greek origin, by Günther Alexander Saalfeld (1884)

• Handbook of Latin synonymes by Edgar Shumway (1884) based on Meissner's Kurzgefaßte lateinische Synonymik

• Döderlein's hand-book of Latin synonymes (1874)

• Handbuch der lateinischen Synonymik by Ludwig Doederlein (1849)

• Dictionary of Latin synonymes for the use of schools and private students , by Ludwig Ramshorn (1841)

• Lateinische Synonymik by Ludwig Ramshorn (1831): A-G & H-Z

• Latin synonyms , with their different significations , by Jean-Baptiste Gardin-Dumesnil, translated into English & revised by J. M. Gosset (1819)

• Synonymes latins by Jean-Baptiste Gardin-Dumesnil & J.-A. Auvray (1845)

• Traité des synonymes de la langue latine by Émile Barrault & Ernest Grégoire (1853)

• Contributions to Latin lexicography by Henry Nettleship (1889)

• Dizionario di abbreviature latine ed italiane , usate nelle carte e codici : dictionary of Latin and Italian abbreviations, by Adriano Cappelli (1929)

• Yuni : Latin quotations & locutions translated into English

• Latin maxims translated into English

• Ab nihilo : Latin quotations & locutions, translated into French

• DeChile.net : Latin quotations translated into Spanish

• Dictionary of quotations Latin , by Thomas Benfield Harbottle (1909)

• Dictionary of Latin quotations , proverbs, maxims, and mottos, classical and mediæval, including law terms and phrases , by Henry Thomas Riley (1866)

• Dictionary of Medieval Latin from British Sources

• Glossarium mediæ et infimæ latinitatis by Charles du Fresne du Cange, revised by Léopold Favre (1883)

or scanned version: A-B - C - D-F - G-K - L-N - O-Q - R-S - T-Z - Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages & index

• Glossarium mediæ et infimæ latinitatis by Charles du Fresne du Cange, revised by Louis Henschel (1840)

A-D - E-K - L-Q - P-R - S-Z   & Glossaire français

• Glossarium mediæ et infimæ latinitatis by Charles du Fresne du Cange (1710)

• Petit supplément au dictionnaire de Du Cange by Charles Schmidt (1906)

• Historique du Glossaire de la basse latinité de Du Cange by Hercule Géraud, in Bibliothèque de l'École des chartes (1840)

• Glossarium latino-germanicum mediae et infimae aetatis : Latin-German dictionary, by Lorenz Diefenbach (1867)

→ Thresor de la langue françoyse tant moderne qu'ancienne  : French-Latin dictionary, by Jean Nicot (1606)

• Dictionarium latinogallicum  : Latin-French dictionary, by Robert Estienne (1552) : online search (or pdf version)

• Dictionariolum latinogallicum by Robertus Stephanus (Robert Estienne) (1602)

• Les mots françois selon lordre des lettres, ainsi que les fault escrire : tournez en latin, pour les enfans , French-Latin dictionary, by Robert Estienne (1552)

• Dictionariolum puerorum  : Latin-French dictionary for children

• Vocabulaire de cinq langues Latin, Italien, Francoys, Espagnol, & Aleman , by Francesco Garrone (1542)

• Colloquia cum dictionariolo sex linguarum Teutonicæ, Anglicæ, Latinæ, Gallicæ, Hispanicæ, & Italicæ , by Noël de Berlaimont (1593)

• Dictionarium by Ambrogio Calepino (1573)

• Glossarium anglico-latinum : philosophical English-Latin glossary, by Gualterius Redmond

• Conversational Latin for oral proficiency: phrase book and dictionary, Classical and Neo-Latin , by John Traupman (2007)

• Guide to Latin conversation (English-Latin vocabulary by topics, useful words, familiar expressions & phrases) by Michel Lanusse & Stephen Wilby (1892)

→ Latin keyboard to type the diacritic signs (long & short vowels)

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• Essentials of Latin for beginners by Henry Carr Pearson (1915)

• Gildersleeve's Latin grammar by Basil Gildersleeve & Gonzalez Lodge (1903)

• Allen and Greenough's Latin grammar for schools and colleges , by Joseph Allen & James Greenough (1903)

• Latin grammar for schools and colleges , by George Lane (1903)

• First year Latin by William Collar (1901)

• A grammar of the Latin language for the use of schools and colleges , by Ethan Allen Andrews & Solomon Stoddard (1870)

• The public school Latin grammar by Benjamin Hall Kennedy (1879)

• Practical grammar of the Latin language by George Adler (1858)

• Outlines of Latin phonetics by Max Niedermann (1910)

• The Latin language : a historical outline of its sounds inflections and syntax , by Charles Bennett (1907)

• The Latin language : an historical account of Latin sounds, stems and flexions , by Wallace Lindsay (1894)

• Formenlehre der lateinischen Sprache : morphology of the Latin language, by Friedrich Neue (1902): I & II - III - IV

• Handbuch der lateinischen Laut- und Formenlehre : Latin phonetics and morphology, by Ferdinand Sommer (1902)

• On the Latin language ( De latina lingua ) by Varro, Latin text & English translation (1938): I & II

• Tib Av -Portal  : Early Latin, introduction, phonology, morphology, morphosyntactic structure , by Giuseppe Pezzini & Wolfgang de Melo, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen (2020)

• Perseus : Latin texts & translation into English

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→ Latin translation of the Bible , the Vulgate

• Ephemeris : news in latin

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Omnes homines liberi aequique dignitate atque juribus nascuntur. Ratione conscientiaque praediti sunt et alii erga alios cum fraternitate se gerere debent.

→ First article in different languages

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Definition of essay noun from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary

• I have to write an essay this weekend.
• essay on something an essay on the causes of the First World War
• essay about somebody/something Have you done your essay about Napoleon yet?
• in an essay He made some very good points in his essay.
• Essays handed in late will not be accepted.
• Have you done your essay yet?
• He concludes the essay by calling for a corrective.
• I finished my essay about 10 o'clock last night!
• Lunch was the only time she could finish her essay assignment.
• We have to write an essay on the environment.
• You have to answer 3 out of 8 essay questions in the exam.
• the teenage winner of an essay contest
• We have to write an essay on the causes of the First World War.
• be entitled something
• be titled something
• address something
• in an/​the essay
• essay about

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77 Common Latin Words and Phrases Used in English That You Should Know.

It’s guaranteed that you have or will run into some of these Latin terms in anything including the lightest reading. That’s because they’re everywhere. In newspapers, textbooks, manuals,  et cetera . They are used in,  inter alia , academic writing, text messaging, and, quite extensively, law documents. So, they are,  ipso facto , very important to know.  Ergo , we thought it’s a good idea to combine these common Latin words and phrases in one place and explain what they mean so that when you run into some of them next time, you go like, ha! I have seen this word somewhere and I know what it means. So, let’s get down to it. 

1.  a priori

A belief or conclusion based on assumptions or reasoning of some sort rather than actual experience or empirical evidence. Before actually encountering, experiencing, or observing a fact.

2.  a posteriori.  

A fact, belief, or argument that is based on actual experience, experiment, or observation. After the fact.

3.  ad astra.

To the stars.

4.  ad hoc.

For a particular situation, without planning or consideration of some broader purpose or application.

5.  ad hominem.

Directed to a particular person rather than generally, such as an attack on a person rather than a position they are espousing.

6.  ad infinitum.

Repeat forever.

7.  ad lib

Short for  ad libitum.  As you desire, at one’s pleasure. To speak or perform without preparation.

8.  ad nauseam. 

Repetition that has become annoying or tiresome.

9.  affidavit.

He has sworn. Sworn statement.

10.  alma mater.

Nourishing, kind, bounteous mother. School from which one graduated.

11.  alias.

Also known as. Otherwise known as. Less commonly as the proper meaning of at another time, otherwise.

12.  alibi.  

In another place. Elsewhere. Reason one couldn’t have been in a location where an act was committed.

13.  alter ego.

Other self. Another side of oneself.

14.  A.D.

short for  anno Domini.  In the year of our Lord. Number of years since the birth of Jesus Christ.

15.  a.m.

Short for  ante meridiem.  Before midday (noon.) Morning.

16.  animus . 

Spirit, mind, courage anger. Animosity. Intense opposition and ill will towards something, somebody, or some social group, commonly emotional, passionate, and mean-spirited. Hatred.

17.  ante . 

Before. Earlier. In a Supreme Court opinion,  ante  refers to an earlier page of the same opinion.

18.  ante bellum.

Before the war.

19.  ante mortem.  

Before death. 

20.  bona fide.

Genuine. Real. With no intention to deceive.

21.  c.  /  ca. /   or   cca.

Short for  circa.  Around. About. Approximately. Relative to a certain year.

22.  carpe diem.

Seize the day or moment. Make the best of the present rather than delay or focus on the future.

23.  caveat .

Warning, caution, disclaimer, or stipulation.

24.  cf.

Short for  confer.  Compare to. In reference to, as a comparison.

25.  cogito ergo sum . 

I think, therefore I am — Descartes.

26.  consensus.

Agreement. General or widespread agreement.

27.  corpus.

Body, especially of written or textual matter such as books and papers.

28.  curriculum .

Race. Course of a race. Path of a race. Subjects comprising a course of academic study.

29.  CV  

Short for  curriculum vitae.  The course of one’s life. Resume. List of significant academic and professional accomplishments, achievements, awards, education, and training.

30.  de facto.  

True or matter of fact as it is, regardless of intent, good reason, authority, or official reason for being such.

31.  dictum.

Something said. Noteworthy, authoritative statement or principle. Common wisdom.

32.  doctor.  

Teacher. Learned person. Doctor.

33. ergo. 

34.  et al.  .

Short for  et alia  (neuter plural) or  et alii  (masculine plural) or  et aliae  (feminine plural). And others. And all of the others.

35.  etc.  

Short for  et cetera.

36.  e pluribus unum.  

— Out of many, one — U.S. motto.

37.  ex post.

38.  ex post facto..

After the fact.

39.  e.g.  

Short for e xempli gratia.  For the sake of example. For example.

40.  ibid.  

Short for  ibidem  or  ib idem.  In the same place. For a citation, indicates that it is from the same place as the preceding citation.

41.  id.  

short for  idem.  From the same source. For a citation, indicates that it is from the same source, but not from the same location in that source. In contrast to  ibidem  ( ibid. ) which means the same location or place in the same source as the preceding citation.

42.  i.e.  

Short for  id est.  That is. In other words.

43.  in absentia.  

Conducted in the absence of.

44.  in camera.  

In chambers. In private, commonly for legal proceedings, in the judge’s office (chambers.) before digital photography cameras were little “chambers.”

45.  in situ.  

In position. In place.

46.  in toto.  

As a whole. Entirely. All of it.

47.  incognito.  

Unknown. With one’s identity concealed. This is actually an Italian word, derived from the Latin word  incognitus.

48.  inter alia.  

Among others. Among other things.

49.  innuendo.  

By nodding. Implied. Indirectly implied. Suggested. Oblique allusion.

50.  intra.  

Within. In a Supreme Court opinion, refers to a decision of another court, typically an appeals court.

51.  ipso facto.  

By that very fact or act. Therefore.

51.  lingua franca.  

Common language in a multi-language environment. Technically, it’s Italian.

52.  magnum opus.  

Great work. Greatest work. Masterpiece.

53.  M.O.  

short for  modus operandi.  Mode or method of operation. How you do things.

54.  n.b.  or  N.B.  

short for  nota bene.  Note well. It is worth noting that.

55.  per capita.  

Per person, for each person, of a population. Individually, but not for any particular person.

56.  per cent.  

or  percent  short for  per centum.  For each one hundred.

57.  per se.  

By itself. Intrinsically. Specifically.

58.  p.m. /   PM  

short for  post meridiem.  After midday (noon.) Afternoon.

59.  post.  

After. Later. In a Supreme Court opinion,  post  refers to a later page of the same opinion.

60.  post mortem.  

After death.

61.  prima facie.  

On its face. Accepted on its face. Accepted as true based on initial impression. Accepted as true unless proven false.

62.  PS.  

short for  post scriptum.  Written after. After what has been written. In addition to what has been written. In addition.

63.  quasi.  

As if. As though. Resembling. Similar but not quite exactly the same. Having many but not all the features of.

64.  quid pro quo.  

This for that. An exchange of goods or services. A barter transaction. Any contractual transaction.

65.  sic  

or  [sic].  So, this. The previous word should be taken literally even if it is not correct or appropriate.

66.  stat.  

or  stat  short for  statim.  Immediately. Now. without delay.

67.  status quo.  

The existing state of affairs. As it is. As things are.

68.  stricto sensu

or  sensu stricto.  In a narrow, tight, or strict sense. Strictly speaking.

69.  sui generis.  

Of its own kind. Unique. Outside of existing categories. In law, outside of existing law.

70.  supra.  

Above. From the previous cited source.

71.  tabula rasa.  

Clean slate. Blank slate. Absence of any preconceived notions, ideas, goals, or purpose.

72.  veni, vidi, vici.  

I came, I saw, I conquered.

73.  verbatim.  

The same exact words. Literally.

74.  vs.  

short for  versus.  Against. In opposition to. As opposed to. In contrast to.

75.  veto.  

I forbid. Reject.

76. v ice versa.  

As well as the two immediately preceding subjects of a statement reversed. The same either way. The other way around.

77.  viz.  

short for  videre licet  or  videlicet.  Namely. That is.

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11 thoughts on “77 common latin words and phrases used in english that you should know.”.

These are just great. Keep going Nerds – you provide a great service. Thank you.

A question: given the presence of Latin in English why is it not considered a member of the Romance languages?

Correction:

This should be “ad nauseam”

OMG — Did you actually misspell “ad nauseam”? lol

Dear Nerds, pleae note the small spelling error: it should read „ad nauseam“. Keep up the good work!

English branched out from Germanic languages picking up structures, phones, and other characteristics of the language group, though most vocabulary came from Latin and other romantic languages, it still is not considered one as changes came after when trades and globalisation happened and not originally from the English language.

You could include “stet”, meaning “let it stand”. It is a term used in editing, and means “disregard the correction that was made previously”.

The list is incomplete. You missed QED. Quod errat demonstrandum. It has been proved/shown;-)

Excellent keep up the good work Nerds

One r Quod erat demonstratum

Best to write AM / PM in capital letters. (‘periods’ are out of fashion) and it’s harder to read. a.m. / p.m. and quicker to type.

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Definition of essay

 (Entry 1 of 2)

Definition of essay  (Entry 2 of 2)

transitive verb

• composition

attempt , try , endeavor , essay , strive mean to make an effort to accomplish an end.

attempt stresses the initiation or beginning of an effort.

try is often close to attempt but may stress effort or experiment made in the hope of testing or proving something.

endeavor heightens the implications of exertion and difficulty.

essay implies difficulty but also suggests tentative trying or experimenting.

strive implies great exertion against great difficulty and specifically suggests persistent effort.

Examples of essay in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'essay.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle French essai , ultimately from Late Latin exagium act of weighing, from Latin ex- + agere to drive — more at agent

14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 4

14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 2

Phrases Containing essay

• essay question
• photo - essay

Articles Related to essay

To 'Essay' or 'Assay'?

You'll know the difference if you give it the old college essay

Dictionary Entries Near essay

Cite this entry.

“Essay.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/essay. Accessed 19 May. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of essay.

Kids Definition of essay  (Entry 2 of 2)

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Nglish: Translation of essay for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of essay for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about essay

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• 1.1.1 Pronunciation
• 1.1.2.1 Derived terms
• 1.1.2.2 Related terms
• 1.1.2.3 Translations
• 1.2.1 Pronunciation
• 1.2.2.1 Translations
• 1.3 Anagrams
• 2.1 Etymology
• 2.2 Pronunciation
• 2.3.1 Hypernyms
• 2.3.2 Derived terms
• 2.3.3 Descendants
• 3.1 Etymology
• 3.2.1 Derived terms
• 3.3 References
• 4.1 Etymology
• 4.2.1 Derived terms
• 4.3 References

English [ edit ]

Etymology 1 [ edit ].

Since late 16th century, borrowed from Middle French essay , essai ( “ essay ” ) , meaning coined by Montaigne in the same time, from the same words in earlier meanings 'experiment; assay; attempt', from Old French essay , essai , assay , assai , from Latin exagium ( “ weight; weighing, testing on the balance ” ) , from exigere + -ium .

Pronunciation [ edit ]

• ( Received Pronunciation , General American ) IPA ( key ) : /ˈɛs.eɪ/ (1), IPA ( key ) : /ɛˈseɪ/ (2-4)
• Rhymes: -ɛseɪ
• Homophone : ese

Noun [ edit ]

essay ( plural essays )

• 2013 January, Katie L. Burke, “Ecological Dependency”, in American Scientist ‎ [1] , volume 101 , number 1, archived from the original on 9 February 2017 , page 64 : In his first book since the 2008 essay collection Natural Acts: A Sidelong View of Science and Nature , David Quammen looks at the natural world from yet another angle: the search for the next human pandemic, what epidemiologists call “the next big one.”
• ( obsolete ) A test , experiment ; an assay .
• 1861 , E. J. Guerin, Mountain Charley , page 16 : My first essay at getting employment was fruitless; but after no small number of mortifying rebuffs from various parties to whom I applied for assistance, I was at last rewarded by a comparative success.
• 1988 , James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom , Oxford, published 2003 , page 455 : This was Lee's first essay in the kind of offensive-defensive strategy that was to become his hallmark.
• ( philately , finance ) A proposed design for a postage stamp or a banknote .

Derived terms [ edit ]

• argumentative essay
• automated essay scoring
• eight-legged essay
• essay question
• photo-essay
• photo essay

Related terms [ edit ]

Translations [ edit ], etymology 2 [ edit ].

From Middle French essayer , essaier , from Old French essaiier , essayer , essaier , assaiier , assayer , assaier , from essay , essai , assay , assai ( “ attempt; assay; experiment ” ) as above.

• ( UK , US ) IPA ( key ) : /ɛˈseɪ/

Verb [ edit ]

essay ( third-person singular simple present essays , present participle essaying , simple past and past participle essayed )

• 1900 , Charles W. Chesnutt , chapter II, in The House Behind the Cedars : He retraced his steps to the front gate, which he essayed to open.
• 1950 April, R. A. H. Weight, “They Passed by My Window”, in Railway Magazine , page 260 : The train took the slow to branch spur at the north end at a not much slower speed, then essayed the short sharply curved climb with a terrific roar, smoke rising straight from the chimney to a height of some 60 ft., the long train twisting and curling behind.
• ( intransitive ) To move forth, as into battle.

Anagrams [ edit ]

• Sayes , Seays , Sesay , eyass

Dutch [ edit ]

Etymology [ edit ].

Borrowed from English essay ( “ essay ” ) , from Middle French essai ( “ essay; attempt, assay ” ) , from Old French essai , from Latin exagium (whence the neuter gender).

• IPA ( key ) : /ɛˈseː/ , /ˈɛ.seː/
• Hyphenation: es‧say
• Rhymes: -eː

essay   n ( plural essays , diminutive essaytje   n )

Hypernyms [ edit ]

Descendants [ edit ], norwegian bokmål [ edit ].

Borrowed from English essay , from Middle French essai .

essay   n ( definite singular essayet , indefinite plural essay or essayer , definite plural essaya or essayene )

• an essay , a written composition of moderate length exploring a particular subject
• essaysamling

References [ edit ]

• “essay” in The Bokmål Dictionary .

Norwegian Nynorsk [ edit ]

essay   n ( definite singular essayet , indefinite plural essay , definite plural essaya )

• “essay” in The Nynorsk Dictionary .

• English terms derived from Proto-Indo-European
• English terms derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *h₂eǵ-
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25 Latin Phrases Every Student Should Know Posted by Brittany Britanniae on Jun 3, 2015 in Latin Language

These phrases will assist in all student’s ability to write well and impress their instructors. Thus, here is a list of Latin phrases that student should try to use and commit to memory during the summer for their fall terms (if they are not in summer school/session). Latin is more than a dead language; it is access to a better understanding to terms that are used in daily academics.

A generated meme created at Philosoraptor

1. Carpe diem : This well-known phrase comes from a poem by Horace. While there have been arguments about the exact translation, it is most commonly held to mean “seize the day” encouraging individuals to live life to the fullest today without expectation of a tomorrow.

2. Cogito ergo sum : Translated from the Latin, the quote means “I think, therefore I am” and comes from the writing of philosopher Rene Descartes. 6

3. Veni, vidi, vici : These famous words were purported uttered by Roman emperor Julius Caesar after a short war with Pharnaces II of Pontus. Translated, it means “I came, I saw, I conquered” an adage you can hopefully keep in mind come finals time.

4. In vino veritas : If you’re old enough to drink or have been around others who have imbibed, you’re more than likely already familiar with the wisdom behind this quote from Pliny the Elder meaning, “in wine there is the truth.” It is often followed up with “in aqua sanitas” or “in water there is health”– something all college students should remember.

5. E pluribus unum : Simply take a look at American currency to see this Latin phrase in use. It means “out of many, one” and is found on anything bearing the seal of the United States.

6. Et tu, Brute?: These are the famous last words of Julius Caesar after he is murdered by his friend Marcus Brutus in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar. They mean “Even you, Brutus?” and are used poetically today to designate any form of the utmost betrayal.

7. Ad infinitum : You might be able to guess what this phrase means simply through its similarity to the word we use in English. It means “to infinity” and can be used to describe something that goes on, seemingly or actually endlessly, as some students might feel about certain classes.

8. De facto : In Latin, de facto means “from the fact” and in use in English it is often used to distinguish was is supposed to be the case from what is actually the reality. For example, legally, employers are not allowed to discriminate in hiring because of age, but many still practice de facto (in reality, in fact) discrimination.

9. In toto : No, this phrase doesn’t mean that the cute little dog from The Wizard of Oz ate something, it means in all or entirely. Think of it as saying “in total” in a really weird voice.

10. Ipso facto : Meaning “by the fact itself” this commonly used and misused term is denotes when something is true by its very nature. For example, if you don’t feed your dog you are ipso facto a bad owner.

11. Tabula rasa : When you were a child, your mind might have been more of a tabula rasa than it is today. This Latin phrase means “clean slate” and denotes something or someone not affected by experiences and impressions.

12. Terra firma : Those who hate to fly or get seriously seasick will be able to put this term to good use. It means firm ground, and you might be thanking your lucky stars to be back on it after a trip through the air or rough waters.

13. Mea culpa : If you want to admit your own guilt or wrongdoing in a situation, use this Latin phrase that translates literally to “my fault.” It’s a bit like a fancier, less outdated way of saying “my bad.”

14. Persona non grata : From the Latin meaning an “unacceptable person” this term designates someone who’s no longer welcome in a social or business situation.

15. In situ : If something happens in situ it happens in place or on site, though the term often designates something that exists in an original or natural state. Like a rare species sighted in situ or an invaluable artifact found on an archeological site.

16. In vitro : Most students will be familiar with this term because of modern fertility treatments, but have you ever considered what the term actually means? In Latin, in vitro means “in glass” and any biological process that occurs in the laboratory rather than in the body or a natural setting can be called in vitro.

17. In vivo : While an experiment taking place in a glass test tube might not cause a stir, many are up in arms about this kind of experimentation. In vivo means “within the living” and the two most common examples of this kind of experimentation are animal testing and clinical trials.

18. Ante bellum : During your history courses, you’re bound to encounter this term. It means in the most basic sense “before the war” and while it can be applied to any 4 war it is most commonly used to refer to the American Civil War and the Antebellum Era the preceded it.

19. Sic : Found in writing, this Latin word most commonly finds a home in brackets (like this: [sic]) when quoting a statement or writing. It indicates that there is a spelling or grammar error (or just something out of the ordinary) in the original quotation and that the publication has only reproduced it faithfully, not made an error of their own.

20. Id est : You’ve likely seen this term in writing before, even if you weren’t aware as it is commonly abbreviated to i.e. In Latin, it means “that is” and is used in English when the speaker or writer wants to give an example or explanation that specifies a statement.

21. Deus ex machina : In direct translation, this term means, “God out of a machine” and it harkens back ancient Greek and Roman plays. When the plot would become too tangled or confusing, the writers would simply bring in God, lowered in via a pulley system (the machine) and he would wrap it all up. Today, it’s still used in literature to describe a plot where an artificial or improbable means of resolving a conflict is used.

22. Exempli gratia : You’ll often see this term abbreviated to e.g. in writing. It means “for the sake of example” and when it see it in a sentence you can expect that is will be followed by some examples.

23. Et cetera : Few out there aren’t familiar with this term but may not know it as well when it’s spelled out like this and not abbreviated as etc. Meaning “and the others” it is used to denote that a list of things could continue ad infinitum (see below for definition) and that for the sake of brevity it’s better to just wrap things up with a simple etc.

24. Ex libris : Back in the days when books were rarer and more expensive commodities than they were today, it was common to mark your books with a label bearing your own name and this phrase which means “from the library of.” While not as common today, some true bibliophiles still use the labels.

25. Ibidem : Another abbreviated term, this word is more commonly seen in research writing in the form of “ibid.” From the Latin for “in the same place” it is found in footnotes and bibliographies to designate that the same source has been cited twice in succession.

26. Et alii: You’re unlikely to encounter this Latin phrase in its unabbreviated form, and will most likely only ever see it as et al when included. This is also a term that is found in footnotes and bibliographies which allows writers to refer to a large 3 number of authors without having to write each name out (for example, you could say that your source is Dr. Henry Jones et al.)

Information courtesy of www.oedb.org

Build vocabulary, practice pronunciation, and more with Transparent Language Online. Available anytime, anywhere, on any device.

About the Author: Brittany Britanniae

Hello There! Please feel free to ask me anything about Latin Grammar, Syntax, or the Ancient World.

Re #10 above – reportedly Art Buchwald had a lapso apso named Ipso Facto.

@Maggie Lhasa* Apso

I would live to learn everything about Latin as a language – I would love to learn all the meaning translation etc

Jose Barba Martin:

Ego re vera aliquem (virum vel mulierem) voluerim cognoscere qui/quae sua vice etiam desideraret Litteras latine mecum exarare et mutuatim dare.

David L. Crockett:

CARPE SCROTUM: ‘Seize the testicles and the man will follow.’ Seriously, I have heard the common greeting among Roman men was to briefly cup each other’s testicles. It emplied both power and trust. Has anyone else heard this? I’ve asked this elsewhere, but I’ll put it out there again: Has anyone heard of a comical poem in Latin, English and a corruption of both, entitled: “Unus Canis et Duo Pouer”? My latin teacher gave her class a copy if this many years ago, but I lost it and can’t find it anywhere on the web. It’s about two boys and their hound dog on a “coon” hunt under a full moon. All I remember is the very beginning…”The nocht was lit by lux of luna, twas a nocht most opportuna for a possum or a coona. Unus cainus et dou pouer, the former, of which, there was none truer…” And the rest I don’t remember. Quite possibly it was never published. Would appreciate any help. My Latin teacher always used the phrase “Ad Infinitum, Ad Nausium”, so I’ll end here. Remember: ID EST QUOD ID EST!

Asinus asinum fricat

Have you ever come across an ancient Greek or Hebrew phrase, “sealed of,” denoting the sealing authority, whose name or mark is represented in the seal itself, for example (and this is hypothetical), “the letter was sealed of Plato,” or “was sealed of Athens?” I suspect that such a phrase would naturally evolve over the thousands of years of the seal’s use, an abbreviated phrase distinguishing between the one who might perform the sealing and the authorizing power that stands behind it.

Were the words, “sealed of,” used anciently in Greek or in Hebrew to denote the particular authority standing behind a given seal?

Thanks for the resource

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Ultimate Guide to the AP Latin Exam

The Advanced Placement (AP) curriculum is a set of standardized courses designed by the College Board and delivered at high schools throughout the country and abroad. Of the 38 available AP classes, eight are world languages and cultures courses. For more information about the Advanced Placement curriculum and why you should consider it, check out CollegeVine’s What is an AP Class?

The AP Latin course, though not hugely popular overall, still attracts a steady stream of students each year, as it has done since its first administration in 1956. In fact, the exam has had a near constant registration of approximately 6,500 students each year since 2010. Prior to 2013, the curriculum consisted of two courses. One of these was a prose course called AP Latin Literature, and the other was a poetry course titled AP Latin Vergil. In 2013, the courses were combined and AP Latin students can now expect to study both poetry and prose during a single school year.

About the AP Latin Exam

The course is intended to provide you and other advanced high school students with a rich and rigorous Latin curriculum, approximately equivalent to an upper-intermediate college or university course. A class of this level would generally be taken during the fourth or fifth semester of college-level studies. In this course, you will learn to read, understand, translate, and analyze Latin poetry and prose.

The previous versions of the class, wherein the two genres were taught separately, made structural sense in that poetry and prose in Latin have distinctly different features. Combining both curriculums into a single course, however, is indicative of the belief that a strong student should understand the broad features of both genres. As such, the syllabus of required readings includes a work of poetry and a work of prose to ensure that students will be confident in handling both.

Each year, the AP Latin course uses the same required selections from the same two classical texts. The poetry selection is always the Aeneid by Augustan author Publius Vergilius Maro (also known as Vergil or Virgil). The prose text is always Commentaries on the Gallic War, by Gaius Julius Caesar, commonly referred to simply as Caesar. During the course, selections from these texts will be studied in both Latin and English. Be sure to check the Required Reading List for exact details about which selections will be required in which languages. In addition to reading and translating these seminal works, you will also need to place them in a greater historical and literary context.

There are no prerequisites for the AP Latin course, though you will need to have enough proficiency in Latin to read and understand the required texts. For most students, this typically means that you’ll need to be in at least your fourth year to undertake the required work.

The AP Latin exam is one of the longer AP exams and lasts for three hours. The first section contains 50 multiple-choice questions, which you’ll have one hour to complete. This section is worth 50% of your total score. The second section, called the free-response section, contains two translation prompts, one analytical essay, and approximately 12 short-answer questions. You will have two hours to complete this section and it will account for the remaining 50% of your score.

In 2016, the curve for AP Latin scores was generally in line with the average AP score curve. Of the 6,500 students who took the exam, 65.6% passed the test by receiving a score of three or higher. Only 12.7% of all students received the highest score of a five, while nearly a third of all students scraped by with a three. Students receiving the lowest score of a one accounted for 11.5% of all test-takers.

Before you begin your studying for the AP Latin exam, review the College Board course description to help shape your understanding of the course content and exam format.

Read on for tips for preparing for the exam.

Step 1: Start with Assessing Your Skills

Start your studying for the exam by taking a practice or diagnostic test. It might seem counterintuitive to dive straight into test-taking when you haven’t even reviewed the material, but the easiest way to narrow in on content areas that need your attention is to get a realistic and objective score through a formative assessment. Check out CollegeVine’s What is a Formative Assessment and Why You Should Be Using One To Study? for more information.

You can find some sample test questions in the College Board course description , but to get a more comprehensive picture of the work ahead, you might choose to also take more practice test questions about Vergil’s Aenid or practice test questions about Caesar’s Gallic War .

Once you’ve taken some kind of diagnostic test, score your answers and make a list of areas that need more studying. Use this list to target content that will shape your studying.

Step 2: Study the Material

In the case of the AP Latin exam, your studying will focus on four major skills applied to the seven major themes of the course. The skills that you will need to develop are: reading & comprehension, translation, contextualization, and analysis of texts. These skills will be used in the context of the seven themes, which include:

• Literary Genre and Style
• Roman Values
• War and Empire
• Views of Non-Romans
• History and Memory
• Human Beings and the Gods

As you study, you should concentrate in part on vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. These hard skills will make it easier for you to prepare and translate the required Latin readings with accuracy. In addition to translating known selections from the Latin texts, you will also be required to read and comprehend passages at sight. This doesn’t mean that you will have to precisely decode each word, but you will need to be able to get the general gist of selections that are not familiar to you.

You will also need to practice your critical reading skills, since the exam will test your ability to build clear and coherent arguments supported by evidence from the text. It will also assess your mastery of the many terms that have been devised by scholars and teachers over the years to describe and analyze Latin grammar, syntax, and literary style.

In order to build these critical analyses, you should be able to place the readings in the broader context of Roman history and civilization. The two required texts ( Gallic War and Aeneid) were selected specifically to allow exposure to some of the important people, events, and literary genres of Roman times, focusing on the core periods of the late Republic and the early Principate.

Aeneid is widely regarded as the most influential work of Latin literature for both its model of Latin poetry and its deep reflection on Roman history and civilization. Similarly, Gallic War provides a pure and straightforward example of prose in the historical context of controversial themes such as war and peace, leadership, and ethnicity.

Unlike the case for most AP exams, it is difficult to find a high-quality, commercial study guide that is widely used for the AP Latin exam. There are many relevant study materials available, but few produced specifically for the exam. The two primary study guides that were produced for the exam are Vergil’s Aeneid: A Fully Parsed Vocabulary Guide for the AP Latin Exam and Caesar’s Gallic War: A Fully Parsed Vocabulary Guide for the AP Latin Exam .

These books were developed by a former university professor who spent several years grading the exam, and they contain complete vocabulary lists and detailed grammatical and historical notes. They do not, however, contain sample questions, quizzes, or practice tests.

More study materials can be found online. Many AP teachers have posted complete study guides, review sheets, and test questions. There is also a large database of materials  used in one high school AP course. Navigate through the menu in the left-hand margin to find materials related to Caesar and Vergil, along with sample multiple-choice questions. Another helpful site for perfecting your grammar and vocabulary  is also available. Although it wasn’t specifically developed for AP studying, this website contains many Latin phrases, abbreviations, proverbs, and maxims along with links to more study materials on other sites.

You should also take advantage of the materials provided by the College Board. Be sure to review the official course Learning Objectives , beginning on page seven of the course description. Also look through the vast compilation of study materials listed on the teacher’s AP Latin Web Guide .

Finally, a fun and easy way to brush up on your vocabulary and grammar can be through the use of the many apps available on your mobile device. These range widely in price and quality, so be sure to read reviews before downloading one. The SPQR Latin app is one that consistently receives high marks.

Step 3: Practice Multiple-Choice Questions

Once you have spent some time focusing on the theory behind the exam, you’ll be ready to put it to use by practicing some multiple-choice questions. You can find 30 sample questions beginning on page 41 of the course description . More are available on the AP Latin teacher’s Sample Passages and Multiple-Choice Questions page.

The multiple-choice portion of your exam will consist of 50 multiple-choice questions that include both readings from the syllabus and sight reading. Approximately 20 questions will focus on Vergil and Caesar selections from the required readings while about 30 will contain sight readings. As you review questions, keep a running list of vocabulary, grammar, and skills that are still tripping you up. These will be areas for further review when you go back over the materials one last time.

Step 4: Practice Free-Response Questions

Before you begin practicing for the free-response section of your exam, make sure that you know what to expect on it. The first two free-response questions will be literal translations of required course readings. You will be asked to translate one given selection from the Caesar text and one given selection from the Vergil text as verbatim as possible. Each selection will be approximately five lines long, and you will be provided with any particularly unique vocabulary terms. It is recommended that you spend about 15 minutes on each of these translations.

The next section of the free-response will require you to write an analytical essay based on a selection from the course’s required readings . As you build your argument, you will need to refer specifically to the Latin text by writing it out and/or citing line numbers. You must also translate, accurately paraphrase, or otherwise make clear in your discussion that you understand the Latin that you are using. It is recommended that you spend about 45 minutes on the essay.

The final two sections of the free-response portion will ask you a series of short-answer questions about one selection from Vergil and another selection from Caesar. In the past, these questions have included translations, identifying stylistic devices, and making inferences about character intentions, among others. You should plan to spend about 15 minutes answering questions for each selection.

The best way to prepare for the free-response portion of your exam is to practice by using the many available free-response questions from past administrations of the exam. You can find all of the past free-response questions dating back to 2013, including authentic examples of student responses, scoring explanations, and scoring statistics available at the bottom of the exam page . Review the free-response questions and the scoring criteria from one year to get started. This should give you a good understanding of what you’ll be expected to perform on this section and how your answers will be evaluated.

Using this knowledge, you should then read and reply to the free-response questions from another year, trying your best to stay within the recommended time constraints. Score your own responses after reading the scoring guidelines for that year, then have a friend score your responses too. It can be difficult giving yourself an objective score, so having a classmate to trade scores with is a good idea. Continue to practice free-response questions from prior years until you feel confident in your approach.

Step 5: Take Another Practice Exam

Though it is difficult to find complete practice tests for the AP Latin exam, you should be able to cobble one together using some of the resources for multiple-choice questions listed above, and the released free-response questions from previous exams. Try to make as realistic a practice test as you can, then score it with a classmate to identify content areas that need more studying or practice.

With your list of areas to review, repeat the steps above to incrementally increase your score.

Step 6: Exam Day

In 2017, the AP Latin exam will take place on Friday (May 12) at 12 PM.

For information about registering for the exam, especially if you have self-studied or are a homeschooled student, read CollegeVine’s How to Register for AP Exams (Even If You Didn’t Take the Course) .

For specifics about what to bring with you to the exam, read CollegeVine’s What to Bring To Your AP Exam .

Want access to expert college guidance — for free? When you create your free CollegeVine account, you will find out your real admissions chances, build a best-fit school list, learn how to improve your profile, and get your questions answered by experts and peers—all for free. Sign up for your CollegeVine account today to get a boost on your college journey.

For more about APs, check out these CollegeVine posts:

• Can AP Tests Actually Save You Thousands of Dollars?
• Should I Take AP/IB/Honors Classes?
• How to Choose Which AP Courses and Exams to Take
• What If My School Doesn ’ t Offer AP or IB Courses?
• Are All APs Created Equal in Admissions?

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What is climate change mitigation and why is it urgent?

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• Climate change mitigation involves actions to reduce or prevent greenhouse gas emissions from human activities.
• Mitigation efforts include transitioning to renewable energy sources, enhancing energy efficiency, adopting regenerative agricultural practices and protecting and restoring forests and critical ecosystems.
• Effective mitigation requires a whole-of-society approach and structural transformations to reduce emissions and limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
• International cooperation, for example through the Paris Agreement, is crucial in guiding and achieving global and national mitigation goals.
• Mitigation efforts face challenges such as the world's deep-rooted dependency on fossil fuels, the increased demand for new mineral resources and the difficulties in revamping our food systems.
• These challenges also offer opportunities to improve resilience and contribute to sustainable development.

What is climate change mitigation?

Climate change mitigation refers to any action taken by governments, businesses or people to reduce or prevent greenhouse gases, or to enhance carbon sinks that remove them from the atmosphere. These gases trap heat from the sun in our planet’s atmosphere, keeping it warm. 

Since the industrial era began, human activities have led to the release of dangerous levels of greenhouse gases, causing global warming and climate change. However, despite unequivocal research about the impact of our activities on the planet’s climate and growing awareness of the severe danger climate change poses to our societies, greenhouse gas emissions keep rising. If we can slow down the rise in greenhouse gases, we can slow down the pace of climate change and avoid its worst consequences.

Reducing greenhouse gases can be achieved by:

• Shifting away from fossil fuels : Fossil fuels are the biggest source of greenhouse gases, so transitioning to modern renewable energy sources like solar, wind and geothermal power, and advancing sustainable modes of transportation, is crucial.
• Improving energy efficiency : Using less energy overall – in buildings, industries, public and private spaces, energy generation and transmission, and transportation – helps reduce emissions. This can be achieved by using thermal comfort standards, better insulation and energy efficient appliances, and by improving building design, energy transmission systems and vehicles.
• Changing agricultural practices : Certain farming methods release high amounts of methane and nitrous oxide, which are potent greenhouse gases. Regenerative agricultural practices – including enhancing soil health, reducing livestock-related emissions, direct seeding techniques and using cover crops – support mitigation, improve resilience and decrease the cost burden on farmers.
• The sustainable management and conservation of forests : Forests act as carbon sinks , absorbing carbon dioxide and reducing the overall concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Measures to reduce deforestation and forest degradation are key for climate mitigation and generate multiple additional benefits such as biodiversity conservation and improved water cycles.
• Restoring and conserving critical ecosystems : In addition to forests, ecosystems such as wetlands, peatlands, and grasslands, as well as coastal biomes such as mangrove forests, also contribute significantly to carbon sequestration, while supporting biodiversity and enhancing climate resilience.
• Creating a supportive environment : Investments, policies and regulations that encourage emission reductions, such as incentives, carbon pricing and limits on emissions from key sectors are crucial to driving climate change mitigation.

Photo: Stephane Bellerose/UNDP Mauritius

Photo: La Incre and Lizeth Jurado/PROAmazonia

What is the 1.5°C goal and why do we need to stick to it?

In 2015, 196 Parties to the UN Climate Convention in Paris adopted the Paris Agreement , a landmark international treaty, aimed at curbing global warming and addressing the effects of climate change. Its core ambition is to cap the rise in global average temperatures to well below 2°C above levels observed prior to the industrial era, while pursuing efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C.

The 1.5°C goal is extremely important, especially for vulnerable communities already experiencing severe climate change impacts. Limiting warming below 1.5°C will translate into less extreme weather events and sea level rise, less stress on food production and water access, less biodiversity and ecosystem loss, and a lower chance of irreversible climate consequences.

To limit global warming to the critical threshold of 1.5°C, it is imperative for the world to undertake significant mitigation action. This requires a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 45 percent before 2030 and achieving net-zero emissions by mid-century.

What are the policy instruments that countries can use to drive mitigation?

Everyone has a role to play in climate change mitigation, from individuals adopting sustainable habits and advocating for change to governments implementing regulations, providing incentives and facilitating investments. The private sector, particularly those businesses and companies responsible for causing high emissions, should take a leading role in innovating, funding and driving climate change mitigation solutions. 

International collaboration and technology transfer is also crucial given the global nature and size of the challenge. As the main platform for international cooperation on climate action, the Paris Agreement has set forth a series of responsibilities and policy tools for its signatories. One of the primary instruments for achieving the goals of the treaty is Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) . These are the national climate pledges that each Party is required to develop and update every five years. NDCs articulate how each country will contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhance climate resilience.   While NDCs include short- to medium-term targets, long-term low emission development strategies (LT-LEDS) are policy tools under the Paris Agreement through which countries must show how they plan to achieve carbon neutrality by mid-century. These strategies define a long-term vision that gives coherence and direction to shorter-term national climate targets.

Photo: Mucyo Serge/UNDP Rwanda

Photo: William Seal/UNDP Sudan

At the same time, the call for climate change mitigation has evolved into a call for reparative action, where high-income countries are urged to rectify past and ongoing contributions to the climate crisis. This approach reflects the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which advocates for climate justice, recognizing the unequal historical responsibility for the climate crisis, emphasizing that wealthier countries, having profited from high-emission activities, bear a greater obligation to lead in mitigating these impacts. This includes not only reducing their own emissions, but also supporting vulnerable countries in their transition to low-emission development pathways.

Another critical aspect is ensuring a just transition for workers and communities that depend on the fossil fuel industry and its many connected industries. This process must prioritize social equity and create alternative employment opportunities as part of the shift towards renewable energy and more sustainable practices.

For emerging economies, innovation and advancements in technology have now demonstrated that robust economic growth can be achieved with clean, sustainable energy sources. By integrating renewable energy technologies such as solar, wind and geothermal power into their growth strategies, these economies can reduce their emissions, enhance energy security and create new economic opportunities and jobs. This shift not only contributes to global mitigation efforts but also sets a precedent for sustainable development.

What are some of the challenges slowing down climate change mitigation efforts?

Mitigating climate change is fraught with complexities, including the global economy's deep-rooted dependency on fossil fuels and the accompanying challenge of eliminating fossil fuel subsidies. This reliance – and the vested interests that have a stake in maintaining it – presents a significant barrier to transitioning to sustainable energy sources.

The shift towards decarbonization and renewable energy is driving increased demand for critical minerals such as copper, lithium, nickel, cobalt, and rare earth metals. Since new mining projects can take up to 15 years to yield output, mineral supply chains could become a bottleneck for decarbonization efforts. In addition, these minerals are predominantly found in a few, mostly low-income countries, which could heighten supply chain vulnerabilities and geopolitical tensions.

Furthermore, due to the significant demand for these minerals and the urgency of the energy transition, the scaled-up investment in the sector has the potential to exacerbate environmental degradation, economic and governance risks, and social inequalities, affecting the rights of Indigenous Peoples, local communities, and workers. Addressing these concerns necessitates implementing social and environmental safeguards, embracing circular economy principles, and establishing and enforcing responsible policies and regulations .

Agriculture is currently the largest driver of deforestation worldwide. A transformation in our food systems to reverse the impact that agriculture has on forests and biodiversity is undoubtedly a complex challenge. But it is also an important opportunity. The latest IPCC report highlights that adaptation and mitigation options related to land, water and food offer the greatest potential in responding to the climate crisis. Shifting to regenerative agricultural practices will not only ensure a healthy, fair and stable food supply for the world’s population, but also help to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions.  

Photo: UNDP India

Photo: Nino Zedginidze/UNDP Georgia

What are some examples of climate change mitigation?

In Mauritius , UNDP, with funding from the Green Climate Fund, has supported the government to install battery energy storage capacity that has enabled 50 MW of intermittent renewable energy to be connected to the grid, helping to avoid 81,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide annually. 

In Indonesia , UNDP has been working with the government for over a decade to support sustainable palm oil production. In 2019, the country adopted a National Action Plan on Sustainable Palm Oil, which was collaboratively developed by government, industry and civil society representatives. The plan increased the adoption of practices to minimize the adverse social and environmental effects of palm oil production and to protect forests. Since 2015, 37 million tonnes of direct greenhouse gas emissions have been avoided and 824,000 hectares of land with high conservation value have been protected.

In Moldova and Paraguay , UNDP has helped set up Green City Labs that are helping build more sustainable cities. This is achieved by implementing urban land use and mobility planning, prioritizing energy efficiency in residential buildings, introducing low-carbon public transport, implementing resource-efficient waste management, and switching to renewable energy sources. 

UNDP has supported the governments of Brazil, Costa Rica, Ecuador and Indonesia to implement results-based payments through the REDD+ (Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries) framework. These include payments for environmental services and community forest management programmes that channel international climate finance resources to local actors on the ground, specifically forest communities and Indigenous Peoples. 

UNDP is also supporting small island developing states like the Comoros to invest in renewable energy and sustainable infrastructure. Through the Africa Minigrids Program , solar minigrids will be installed in two priority communities, Grand Comore and Moheli, providing energy access through distributed renewable energy solutions to those hardest to reach.

And in South Africa , a UNDP initative to boost energy efficiency awareness among the general population and improve labelling standards has taken over commercial shopping malls.

What is UNDP’s role in supporting climate change mitigation?

UNDP aims to assist countries with their climate change mitigation efforts, guiding them towards sustainable, low-carbon and climate-resilient development. This support is in line with achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly those related to affordable and clean energy (SDG7), sustainable cities and communities (SDG11), and climate action (SDG13). Specifically, UNDP’s offer of support includes developing and improving legislation and policy, standards and regulations, capacity building, knowledge dissemination, and financial mobilization for countries to pilot and scale-up mitigation solutions such as renewable energy projects, energy efficiency initiatives and sustainable land-use practices. 

With financial support from the Global Environment Facility and the Green Climate Fund, UNDP has an active portfolio of 94 climate change mitigation projects in 69 countries. These initiatives are not only aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but also at contributing to sustainable and resilient development pathways.

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How Celibate Women Became a Threat

A mid a number of recent pivots, including scrapping the women-message-first system it launched with 10 years ago, dating app Bumble recently unveiled a new ad campaign that seemed to take aim at its primary demographic: women. Over the weekend of May 11, a number of TikTok users in the Los Angeles area posted the dating app’s new anti-celibacy billboards, which appear to tease women who have sworn off sex and dating. One billboard reads, “You know full well that celibacy is not the answer.” The campaign comes two weeks after a commercial announcing “the new Bumble,” which shows a woman who becomes a nun because she’s fed up with dating, only to immediately relapse once she sees a hot guy. The billboards generated considerable backlash from women on TikTok, with a creator @Fleeksie posting , “LADIES! The patriarchy is SCARED!! They’re losing us and they’re panicking!!” Julia Fox, for her part, commented on one of the posts: “2.5 years of celibacy and never been better tbh.”

The overwhelmingly negative response to the campaign pushed Bumble to issue an apology on May 13, acknowledging the many valid reasons that move someone towards celibacy: restrictions on reproductive rights, recovering from trauma or abuse, or existing as asexual. “We have heard the concerns shared about the ad’s language and understand that rather than highlighting a current sentiment towards dating, it may have had a negative impact on some of our community,” a Bumble spokesperson shared in a statement to TIME . The app has promised to remove the ads, as well as donate to the National Domestic Violence Hotline. But in attempting to make light of a social climate in which, as they worded it in their apology, “a community” (read: women) “are frustrated by modern dating,” Bumble ended up, inadvertently or not, mirroring the language many women experience when they tell men they are not interested. The sexless, “crazy cat lady” trope is a tale as old as time, but in the context of rising incel ideology—which psychologists partly attribute to women’s increased economic and social power—the sentiment still feels like a toxic, all-too-familiar neg.

Read More: Bumble Apologizes After Getting Stung for Anti-Celibacy Campaign

Desiree (all last names in this article have been kept private to preserve anonymity), for instance, is a 26-year-old woman who is no longer using dating apps because she felt people “were using physical connection to make up for the lack of emotional intimacy.” She has found that the emotional intimacy she craves—something she needs to be physical with someone—is increasingly hard to come by. “I find myself constantly setting boundaries due to the normalization of hookup culture by apps,” she told me. Too often she’d be on dates where, all of a sudden, someone would lean in for a kiss and get a bit touchy without respecting her wishes to connect on a personal level first. “For me, it’s not worth the hassle, or the risk that someone might not respect or abide by my decision.”

Even beyond the persistent pressure from individuals to participate in hookup culture, as Desiree experienced, the dating industry at large is perpetually badgering single people to redownload, buy premium subscriptions, and remain in the romantic marketplace. This begs the question: Has a celibate woman become more threatening than a sexual one?

Increasingly, women are both sexual and celibate at once, and perhaps that makes them doubly threatening: A new generation is proving that sexual empowerment doesn’t hinge on having lots of sex, or even sex at all. In 2023, I wrote about the rise of “celibate sluts,” people who consider themselves sexual but have taken big steps back from sex, usually when they realize sex isn’t serving them, and found peace. One 23-year-old woman told me she and her friends referred to themselves as sluts “to signal us being hot and in control of our bodies,” regardless of sexual activity. Furthermore, growing visibility surrounding asexuality has given many people the freedom to redefine intimacy for themselves.  

Across age groups and genders, studies suggest that people are having less sex, a phenomenon that’s been called the “ sex recession ” and largely cast in a negative light. In 2021, the General Social Survey found that over a quarter of Americans over 18 hadn’t had sex once in the past year, which is a 30-year high. Not to mention women, overall, are opting out of dating: 2020 Pew Research Data found 61% of single men were actively looking for dates, compared to 38% of women. Rather than examining the social, economic, and political conditions that may make sex and dating unappealing for individuals, particularly women, the impetus is put on the individuals to fix it. 

What I found when reporting my book, Laid and Confused: Why We Tolerate Bad Sex and How to Stop , is that young people are consciously opting out of sex and dating, largely due to swiping burnout, but also due to setting higher standards for romantic partners. This can be a beautiful, empowering choice—one that I can speak to from personal experience. After a nearly two-year break from dating, which included my recent year of cancer treatment , I decided to dip my toe back in the waters and almost immediately forfeited the few shreds of peace I’d been clinging to. If I, a person recovering from cancer, didn’t respond to prospective suitors fast enough, I received weirdly snarky follow-ups like “don’t be too shy” or “lol ok.” I felt overwhelmed by how many men’s profiles declared they weren’t “looking for a pen pal,” or that they wanted to meet up right away without much back-and-forth (which is actually a tool women use to vet potential partners, for their safety.) To exist on a dating app is to be constantly inundated by the pressure to meet up, regardless of your readiness. And for women, that pressure is reinforced by existing in a world that hates them for being single .

The truth is, being single is incredibly healthy for people who want or need to be, and studies show that single women without children are often happier than their married counterparts with children. Celibacy can facilitate some of this joy. “I would rather be at home on my couch hanging out with my plants,” said Sunah, a 41-year-old woman who found that when she raised her dating standards, her sex life dried up. “People are like, ‘Why aren’t you dating?’ They feel like it’s sad. Everyone acts like their shining accomplishment is being romantically partnered.” (Her guy friends, in particular, accuse her of being “too mean” and “too quick to dismiss people.”) 

Online conversations about the “male loneliness epidemic” tend to rope in women as a potential solve, particularly on incel forums. Yes, male loneliness is a real problem: A 2021 American Perspectives survey found that the number of men who reported not having a single close friend had quintupled to 15% since 1990. For unmarried men under 30, 25% say they have no close friends at all. Consistently, studies show that men have a harder time making and keeping friendships. But women don’t owe men companionship, even if those men are lonely. While all Americans are reporting fewer close friendships than they had before the pandemic, the same American Perspectives Survey found that young women are more likely than young men to lean on their friends for support. While loneliness affects all genders, women who opt out of dating are more likely to do so by choice. If men’s loneliness is stemming from a lack of sex, many women clearly benefit from that lack.

Read More: Why Gen Z Is Ditching Dating Apps

Alex, a 30-year-old woman who feels enormous “relief” to be on a dating app hiatus, told me, “I’ve recently realized how exhausted I am from the grind of it all and wanted to take a break to rebuild myself a little bit, take a pause from setting up dates all the time, save money, and reevaluate my feelings on dating in general.” 

When it comes to the business of dating apps, the most relevant principle isn’t necessarily patriarchal, but inherently capitalist: celibate, app-less women are not lucrative, an issue that the entire industry is grappling with. The business of dating, in general, is floundering: Dating app downloads are starting to fall , and a Pew Research study found that more people are dissatisfied with the apps than ever before. 

“Most of the time when I tell people I’m not dating, they immediately view it as a negative and start saying, ‘Well, you just need to put time in on the apps,’” a 30-year-old woman who is currently celibate told me. “And of course, society reminds me that I am elderly and should have ten kids right now. Thankfully, I’m on a particularly anti-dating side of TikTok though, which helps.” 

Alex, on the other hand,  says it’s been hard “to quiet the societal voice of ‘you’re in your prime time!’” Especially when she scrolls through so much content about dating online. But she’s not anti-dating, just anti-dating-in-a-way-that-doesn’t-work-for-her.  

“I’m not opposed to seeing people if I were to meet them in the wild,” she told me. “But I plan to keep my apps deleted for a while and that in itself feels really good.”

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Guest Essay

Don’t Slam the Door on Inexpensive Chinese Electric Vehicles

By Gernot Wagner and Conor Walsh

Dr. Wagner and Dr. Walsh are economists at Columbia Business School.

President Biden came out swinging this week when he announced a series of steep tariffs on Chinese imports, including 25 percent on certain steel and aluminum products, 50 percent on semiconductors and solar panels and 100 percent on electric vehicles.

The administration’s official reason for the policy is simple: Chinese imports are undercutting American manufacturers in swing states like Michigan, Wisconsin and Pennsylvania. And Mr. Biden wants to protect them from competition, as he pours huge amounts of government money into building up the manufacturing of electric vehicles and solar panels that can eventually compete with China’s inexpensive offerings. But the truth is these new tariffs on electric vehicles are little more than a handout to legacy car companies like General Motors and Ford. Middle-class Americans should have access to these cars, and because of these tariffs, they will remain a luxury, available mainly to the rich.

With more cash and better credit, wealthy Americans are the only ones who can afford the electric vehicles currently on the market, which cost over $55,000 on average. A recent survey found that 83 percent of E.V. drivers in the United States had a household income above $75,000, which is the median in the country ; 57 percent had incomes above $100,000.

Low-cost Chinese models that lower- and middle-income Americans could afford — like BYD’s Seagull, which runs for less than $10,000 — aren’t currently sold here largely because of tariffs over 25 percent. The new tariffs of 100 percent will make it even harder for these cars to compete in the U.S. market.

The hope is that one day, U.S. automakers can offer Americans the low-cost electric cars they have long promised. But that’s still a long way off, in part because the companies (with the exception of Tesla) have been slow to scale up their E.V. production to the point where the costs could come down. (And Tesla, too, has scrapped plans to sell a car under $35,000.) Every electric vehicle sold still cuts into the profits they make from selling gasoline-powered vehicles, and General Motors and Ford together sold fewer than 150,000 E.V.s in 2023, a tiny fraction of the 15 million new cars sold in the United States last year.

It is clear that American car manufacturers need to catch up to the competition, and fast . The problem with using tariffs to protect them from competition is that the companies then have less incentive to invest in new technologies. Chinese companies will continue making huge strides , selling their cars abroad while cutting off opportunities for American companies to export their own products to foreign markets. What’s more, Chinese cars could still enter the United States through the back door, if companies like BYD set up manufacturing plants in Mexico or Southeast Asia.

We’ve been here before. In the 1980s, the Reagan and Bush administrations worried about the fact that Japan was dumping cheap cars onto our market. The response then was voluntary export quotas, which allowed Japanese entry into the market in a way the new tariffs will not. Japanese competition ultimately forced U.S. car manufacturers to innovate. This time around, Chinese competition could have had a similar effect.

This isn’t to say that the United States shouldn’t consider tariffs at all. There is a different kind of tariff focused on the greenhouse gas emissions created in making imported goods that would protect America’s nascent green economy and give consumers access to the cheaper clean cars and solar panels from China they want. The European Union will apply such carbon tariffs beginning in 2026, with prices now around $75 per ton of carbon dioxide, which will set an equal playing field for domestic manufacturers and importers alike. We could do the same in the United States.

Carbon tariffs create all the right incentives : They encourage foreign manufacturers to decarbonize their products, leading to a virtuous cycle of lower prices and emissions. They also enjoy bipartisan support in the United States, from senators such as Sheldon Whitehouse, Democrat of Rhode Island, and Bill Cassidy, Republican of Louisiana. Both have introduced bills that would collect tariffs based on the carbon intensity of imports.

The Biden administration is right that climate policies must work for the people of Detroit and Pittsburgh as much as they work for well-off Tesla drivers. But to accomplish these goals, it ought to be taxing China for its soaring carbon emissions, not for its electric vehicles and solar panels, which for now, at least, the United States needs badly. Given China’s soaring carbon emissions , carbon tariffs will be tough on the country, but for the right reasons.

Gernot Wagner is a climate economist at Columbia Business School. Conor Walsh is a macroeconomist at the school.

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