problem solving brain part

• Science Notes Posts
• Contact Science Notes
• Todd Helmenstine Biography
• Anne Helmenstine Biography
• Free Printable Periodic Tables (PDF and PNG)
• Periodic Table Wallpapers
• Interactive Periodic Table
• Periodic Table Posters
• How to Grow Crystals
• Chemistry Projects
• Fire and Flames Projects
• Holiday Science
• Chemistry Problems With Answers
• Physics Problems
• Unit Conversion Example Problems
• Chemistry Worksheets
• Biology Worksheets
• Periodic Table Worksheets
• Physical Science Worksheets
• Science Lab Worksheets
• My Amazon Books

Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

The human brain is the epicenter of our nervous system and plays a pivotal role in virtually every aspect of our lives. It’s a complex, highly organized organ responsible for thoughts, feelings, actions, and interactions with the world around us. Here is a look at the intricate anatomy of the brain, its functions, and the consequences of damage to different areas.

Introduction to the Brain and Its Functions

The brain is an organ of soft nervous tissue that is protected within the skull of vertebrates. It functions as the coordinating center of sensation and intellectual and nervous activity. The brain consists of billions of neurons (nerve cells) that communicate through intricate networks. The primary functions of the brain include processing sensory information, regulating bodily functions, forming thoughts and emotions, and storing memories.

Main Parts of the Brain – Anatomy

The three main parts of the brain are the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.

1. Cerebrum

• Location: The cerebellum occupies the upper part of the cranial cavity and is the largest part of the human brain.
• Functions: It’s responsible for higher brain functions, including thought, action, emotion, and interpretation of sensory data.
• Effects of Damage: Depending on the area affected, damage leads to memory loss, impaired cognitive skills, changes in personality, and loss of motor control.

2. Cerebellum

• Location: The cerebellum is at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum.
• Functions: It coordinates voluntary movements such as posture, balance, coordination, and speech.
• Effects of Damage: Damage causes problems with balance, movement, and muscle coordination (ataxia).

3. Brainstem

• Location: The brainstem is lower extension of the brain, connecting to the spinal cord. It includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
• Functions: This part of the brain controls many basic life-sustaining functions, including heart rate, breathing, sleeping, and eating.
• Effects of Damage: Damage results in life-threatening conditions like breathing difficulties, heart problems, and loss of consciousness.

Lobes of the Brain

The four lobes of the brain are regions of the cerebrum:

• Location: This is the anterior or front part of the brain.
• Functions: Decision making, problem solving, control of purposeful behaviors, consciousness, and emotions.
• Location: Sits behind the frontal lobe.
• Functions: Processes sensory information it receives from the outside world, mainly relating to spatial sense and navigation (proprioception).
• Location: Below the lateral fissure, on both cerebral hemispheres.
• Functions: Mainly revolves around auditory perception and is also important for the processing of both speech and vision (reading).
• Location: At the back of the brain.
• Functions: Main center for visual processing.

Left vs. Right Brain Hemispheres

The cerebrum has two halves, called hemispheres. Each half controls functions on the opposite side of the body. So, the left hemisphere controls muscles on the right side of the body, and vice versa. But, the functions of the two hemispheres are not entirely identical:

• Left Hemisphere: It’s dominant in language and speech and plays roles in logical thinking, analysis, and accuracy. .
• Right Hemisphere: This hemisphere is more visual and intuitive and functions in creative and imaginative tasks.

The corpus callosum is a band of nerves that connect the two hemispheres and allow communication between them.

Detailed List of Parts of the Brain

While knowing the three key parts of the brain is a good start, the anatomy is quite a bit more complex. In addition to nervous tissues, the brain also contains key glands:

• Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. Divided into lobes, it coordinates thought, movement, memory, senses, speech, and temperature.
• Corpus Callosum : A broad band of nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of the brain, facilitating interhemispheric communication.
• Cerebellum : Coordinates movement and balance and aids in eye movement.
• Pons : Controls voluntary actions, including swallowing, bladder function, facial expression, posture, and sleep.
• Medulla oblongata : Regulates involuntary actions, including breathing, heart rhythm, as well as oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
• Limbic System : Includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of the thalamus and hypothalamus.
• Amygdala: Plays a key role in emotional responses, hormonal secretions, and memory formation.
• Hippocampus: Plays a vital role in memory formation and spatial navigation.
• Thalamus : Acts as the brain’s relay station, channeling sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex, and regulating consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
• Basal Ganglia : A group of structures involved in processing information related to movement, emotions, and reward. Key structures include the striatum, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus.
• Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) : Plays a role in the reward circuit of the brain, releasing dopamine in response to stimuli indicating a reward.
• Optic tectum : Also known as the superior colliculus, it directs eye movements.
• Substantia Nigra : Involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of dopamine-producing neurons.
• Cingulate Gyrus : Plays a role in processing emotions and behavior regulation. It also helps regulate autonomic motor function.
• Olfactory Bulb : Involved in the sense of smell and the integration of olfactory information.
• Mammillary Bodies : Plays a role in recollective memory.
• Function: Regulates emotions, memory, and arousal.

Glands in the Brain

The hypothalamus, pineal gland, and pituitary gland are the three endocrine glands within the brain:

• Hypothalamus : The hypothalamus links the nervous and endocrine systems. It contains many small nuclei. In addition to participating in eating and drinking, sleeping and waking, it regulates the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. It maintains the body’s homeostasis, regulating hunger, thirst, response to pain, levels of pleasure, sexual satisfaction, anger, and aggressive behavior.
• Pituitary Gland : Known as the “master gland,” it controls various other hormone glands in the body, such as the thyroid and adrenals, as well as regulating growth, metabolism, and reproductive processes.
• Pineal Gland : The pineal gland produces and regulates some hormones, including melatonin, which is crucial in regulating sleep patterns and circadian rhythms.

Gray Matter vs. White Matter

The brain and spinal cord consist of gray matter (substantia grisea) and white matter (substantia alba).

• White Matter: Consists mainly of axons and myelin sheaths that send signals between different brain regions and between the brain and spinal cord.
• Gray Matter: Consists of neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and axon terminals. Gray matter processes information and directs stimuli for muscle control, sensory perception, decision making, and self-control.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About the Human Brain

• The human brain contains approximately 86 billion neurons. Additionally, it has a similar or slightly higher number of non-neuronal cells (glial cells), making the total number of cells in the brain close to 170 billion.
• There are about 86 billion neurons in the human brain. These neurons are connected by trillions of synapses, forming a complex networks.
• The average adult human brain weighs about 1.3 to 1.4 kilograms (about 3 pounds). This weight represents about 2% of the total body weight.
• The brain is about 73% water.
• The myth that humans only use 10% of their brain is false. Virtually every part gets use, and most of the brain is active all the time, even during sleep.
• The average size of the adult human brain is about 15 centimeters (6 inches) in length, 14 centimeters (5.5 inches) in width, and 9 centimeters (3.5 inches) in height.
• Brain signal speeds vary depending on the type of neuron and the nature of the signal. They travel anywhere from 1 meter per second to over 100 meters per second in the fastest neurons.
• With age, the brain’s volume and/or weight decrease, synaptic connections reduce, and there can be a decline in cognitive functions. However, the brain to continues adapting and forming new connections throughout life.
• The brain has a limited ability to repair itself. Neuroplasticity aids recovery by allowing other parts of the brain to take over functions of the damaged areas.
• The brain consumes about 20% of the body’s total energy , despite only making up about 2% of the body’s total weight . It requires a constant supply of glucose and oxygen.
• Sleep is crucial for brain health. It aids in memory consolidation, learning, brain detoxification, and the regulation of mood and cognitive functions.
• Douglas Fields, R. (2008). “White Matter Matters”. Scientific American . 298 (3): 54–61. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican0308-54
• Kandel, Eric R.; Schwartz, James Harris; Jessell, Thomas M. (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-8385-7701-1.
• Kolb, B.; Whishaw, I.Q. (2003). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (5th ed.). New York: Worth Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7167-5300-1.
• Rajmohan, V.; Mohandas, E. (2007). “The limbic system”. Indian Journal of Psychiatry . 49 (2): 132–139. doi: 10.4103/0019-5545.33264
• Shepherd, G.M. (1994). Neurobiology . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508843-4.

Related Posts

Coronavirus (COVID-19): Latest Updates | Visitation Policies Visitation Policies Visitation Policies Visitation Policies Visitation Policies | COVID-19 Testing | Vaccine Information Vaccine Information Vaccine Information

Health Encyclopedia

Anatomy of the brain, what is the central nervous system (cns).

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is an important organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger, and every process that regulates our body. The brain determines your personality and how you interact with the environment, including other people. This defines who you are.

What are the different parts of the brain?

The brain can be divided into the cerebrum, brainstem, and cerebellum:

Cerebrum. This is the front of the brain. It is made up of the right and left hemispheres, which are joined by the corpus callosum. The cerebrum controls: initiation of movement, coordination of movement, temperature, touch, vision, hearing, judgment, reasoning, problem solving, emotions, and learning. The cerebrum is responsible for communication (speaking and writing), memory, abstract thought, and appreciation for music and art.

Brainstem. This is the middle of the brain. It includes the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla. The brainstem controls movement of the eyes, face, and mouth. It also relays sensory messages (such as hot, pain, and loud) and controls respirations, consciousness, cardiac function, involuntary muscle movements, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing.

Cerebellum. This is the back of the brain. It coordinates voluntary muscle movements and helps to maintain posture, balance, and equilibrium.

More specifically, other parts of the brain include the following:

Pons. A deep part of the brain, located in the brainstem, the pons contains many of the control areas for eye and face movements.

Medulla. The lowest part of the brainstem, the medulla is the most vital part of the entire brain and contains important control centers for the heart and lungs.

Spinal cord. A large bundle of nerve fibers located in the back that extends from the base of the brain to the lower back, the spinal cord carries messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body.

Frontal lobe. The largest section of the brain located in the front of the head, the frontal lobe is involved in personality characteristics and movement. Recognition of smell often involves parts of the frontal lobe.

Parietal lobe. The middle part of the brain, the parietal lobe helps a person to identify objects and understand spatial relationships (where one's body is compared to objects around the person). The parietal lobe is also involved in interpreting pain and touch in the body.

Occipital lobe. This is the back part of the brain that is involved with vision.

Temporal lobe. The sides of the brain, these temporal lobes are involved in short-term memory, speech, musical rhythm, and some degree of smell recognition. The temporal lobes are also important in understanding sound and voice.

Medical Reviewers:

• Anne Fetterman RN BSN
• Joseph Campellone MD
• Raymond Kent Turley BSN MSN RN
• Ask a Medical Librarian Make an Appointment Physicians & Services Physicians who treat Neurological conditions

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2023 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

Overview of the Problem-Solving Mental Process

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Rachel Goldman, PhD FTOS, is a licensed psychologist, clinical assistant professor, speaker, wellness expert specializing in eating behaviors, stress management, and health behavior change.

• Identify the Problem
• Define the Problem
• Form a Strategy
• Organize Information
• Allocate Resources
• Monitor Progress
• Evaluate the Results

Frequently Asked Questions

Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing, and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue.

The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are the best options.

It is not necessary to follow problem-solving steps sequentially, It is common to skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until the desired solution is reached.

In order to correctly solve a problem, it is often important to follow a series of steps. Researchers sometimes refer to this as the problem-solving cycle. While this cycle is portrayed sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution.

The following steps include developing strategies and organizing knowledge.

1. Identifying the Problem

While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless.

Some strategies that you might use to figure out the source of a problem include :

• Asking questions about the problem
• Breaking the problem down into smaller pieces
• Looking at the problem from different perspectives
• Conducting research to figure out what relationships exist between different variables

2. Defining the Problem

After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define the problem so that it can be solved. You can define a problem by operationally defining each aspect of the problem and setting goals for what aspects of the problem you will address

At this point, you should focus on figuring out which aspects of the problems are facts and which are opinions. State the problem clearly and identify the scope of the solution.

3. Forming a Strategy

After the problem has been identified, it is time to start brainstorming potential solutions. This step usually involves generating as many ideas as possible without judging their quality. Once several possibilities have been generated, they can be evaluated and narrowed down.

The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual's unique preferences. Common problem-solving strategies include heuristics and algorithms.

• Heuristics are mental shortcuts that are often based on solutions that have worked in the past. They can work well if the problem is similar to something you have encountered before and are often the best choice if you need a fast solution.
• Algorithms are step-by-step strategies that are guaranteed to produce a correct result. While this approach is great for accuracy, it can also consume time and resources.

Heuristics are often best used when time is of the essence, while algorithms are a better choice when a decision needs to be as accurate as possible.

4. Organizing Information

Before coming up with a solution, you need to first organize the available information. What do you know about the problem? What do you not know? The more information that is available the better prepared you will be to come up with an accurate solution.

When approaching a problem, it is important to make sure that you have all the data you need. Making a decision without adequate information can lead to biased or inaccurate results.

5. Allocating Resources

Of course, we don't always have unlimited money, time, and other resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine how high priority it is.

If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not want to spend too much of your available resources on coming up with a solution.

At this stage, it is important to consider all of the factors that might affect the problem at hand. This includes looking at the available resources, deadlines that need to be met, and any possible risks involved in each solution. After careful evaluation, a decision can be made about which solution to pursue.

6. Monitoring Progress

After selecting a problem-solving strategy, it is time to put the plan into action and see if it works. This step might involve trying out different solutions to see which one is the most effective.

It is also important to monitor the situation after implementing a solution to ensure that the problem has been solved and that no new problems have arisen as a result of the proposed solution.

Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies .

7. Evaluating the Results

After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after several months of treatment.

Once a problem has been solved, it is important to take some time to reflect on the process that was used and evaluate the results. This will help you to improve your problem-solving skills and become more efficient at solving future problems.

A Word From Verywell​

It is important to remember that there are many different problem-solving processes with different steps, and this is just one example. Problem-solving in real-world situations requires a great deal of resourcefulness, flexibility, resilience, and continuous interaction with the environment.

Get Advice From The Verywell Mind Podcast

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares how you can stop dwelling in a negative mindset.

Follow Now : Apple Podcasts / Spotify / Google Podcasts

You can become a better problem solving by:

• Practicing brainstorming and coming up with multiple potential solutions to problems
• Being open-minded and considering all possible options before making a decision
• Breaking down problems into smaller, more manageable pieces
• Asking for help when needed
• Researching different problem-solving techniques and trying out new ones
• Learning from mistakes and using them as opportunities to grow

It's important to communicate openly and honestly with your partner about what's going on. Try to see things from their perspective as well as your own. Work together to find a resolution that works for both of you. Be willing to compromise and accept that there may not be a perfect solution.

Take breaks if things are getting too heated, and come back to the problem when you feel calm and collected. Don't try to fix every problem on your own—consider asking a therapist or counselor for help and insight.

If you've tried everything and there doesn't seem to be a way to fix the problem, you may have to learn to accept it. This can be difficult, but try to focus on the positive aspects of your life and remember that every situation is temporary. Don't dwell on what's going wrong—instead, think about what's going right. Find support by talking to friends or family. Seek professional help if you're having trouble coping.

Davidson JE, Sternberg RJ, editors.  The Psychology of Problem Solving .  Cambridge University Press; 2003. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511615771

Sarathy V. Real world problem-solving .  Front Hum Neurosci . 2018;12:261. Published 2018 Jun 26. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00261

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

• Our Mission

Understanding How the Brain Thinks

Neurologist and teacher Judy Willis describes how brains develop critical thinking skills.

Understanding How the Brain Works

For 21st century success, now more than ever, students will need a skill set far beyond the current mandated standards that are evaluated on standardized tests. The qualifications for success in today's ever-changing world will demand the ability to think critically, communicate clearly, use continually changing technology, be culturally aware and adaptive, and possess the judgment and open-mindedness to make complex decisions based on accurate analysis of information. The most rewarding jobs of this century will be those that cannot be done by computers.

For students to be best prepared for the opportunities and challenges awaiting them, they need to develop their highest thinking skills -- the brain's executive functions. These higher-order neural networks are undergoing their most rapid development during the school years, and teachers are in the best position to promote the activation of these circuits. With the help of their teachers, students can develop the skillsets needed to solve problems that have not yet been recognized, analyze information as it becomes rapidly available in the globalized communication systems, and to skillfully and creatively take advantage of the evolving technological advances as they become available.

Factory Model of Education Prepares for "Assembly Line" Jobs

Automation and computerization are exceeding human ability for doing repetitive tasks and calculations, but the educational model has not changed. The factory model of education, still in place today, was designed for producing assembly line workers to do assigned tasks correctly. These workers did not need to analyze, create, or question.

Ironically, in response to more information, many educators are mandated to teach more rote facts and procedures, and students are given bigger books with more to memorize. In every country where I've given presentations and workshops, the problem is the same: overstuffed curriculum.

Even in countries where high-stakes standardized testing is not a dominant factor, school curriculum and emphasis have changed to provide more time for this additional rote memorization. Creative opportunities -- the arts, debate, general P.E., collaborative work, and inquiry -- are sacrificed at the altar of more predigested facts to be passively memorized. These students have fewer opportunities to discover the connections between isolated facts and to build neural networks of concepts that are needed to transfer learning to applications beyond the contexts in which the information is learned and practiced.

The High Costs of Maintaining the Factory Model

If students do not have opportunities to develop their higher order, cognitive skillsets they won't develop the reason, logic, creative problem solving, concept development, media literacy, and communication skills best suited for the daily complexities of life or the professional jobs of their future. Without these skills, they won't be able to compete on the global employment market with students currently developing their executive functions.

Instead, the best jobs will go to applicants who analyze information as it becomes available, adapt when new information makes facts obsolete, and collaborate with other experts on a global playing field. All these skills require tolerance, willingness to consider alternative perspectives, and the ability to articulate one's ideas successfully.

As educators, it is our challenge to see that all students have opportunities to stimulate their developing executive function networks so when they leave school they have the critical skillsets to choose the career and life paths that will give them the most satisfaction.

Executive Function = Critical Thinking

What my field of neurology has called "executive functions" for over 100 years are these highest cognitive processes. These executive functions have been given a variety of less specific names in education terminology such as higher order thinking or critical thinking. These are skillsets beyond those computers can do because they allow for flexible, interpretive, creative, and multidimensional thinking -- suitable for current and future challenges and opportunities. Executive functions can be thought of as the skills that would make a corporate executive successful. These include planning, flexibility, tolerance, risk assessment, informed decision-making, reasoning, analysis, and delay of immediate gratification to achieve long-term goals. These executive functions further allow for organizing, sorting, connecting, prioritizing, self-monitoring, self-correcting, self-assessing, abstracting, and focusing.

The Prefrontal Cortex: Home to Critical Thinking

The executive function control centers develop in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The PFC gives us the potential to consider and voluntarily control our thinking, emotional responses, and behavior. It is the reflective "higher brain" compared to the reactive "lower brain". This prime real estate of the PFC comprises the highest percentage of brain volume in humans, compared to all other animals, which is roughly 20% of our brains.

Animals, compared to humans, are more dependent on their reactive lower brains to survive in their unpredictable environments where it is appropriate that automatic responses not be delayed by complex analysis. As man developed more control of his environment, the luxury of a bigger reflective brain correlated with the evolution of the PFC to its current proportions.

The prefrontal cortex is the last part of the brain to mature. This maturation is a process of neuroplasticity that includes 1) the pruning of unused cells to better provide for the metabolic needs of more frequently used neurons and 2) strengthening the connections in the circuits that are most used. Another aspect of neuroplasticity is the growth of stronger and increased numbers of connections among neurons. Each of the brain's over one billion neurons holds only a tiny bit of information. It is only when multiple neurons connect through their branches (axons and dendrites) that a memory is stored and retrievable.

This prefrontal cortex maturation, the pruning and strengthening process, continues into the twenties, with the most rapid changes in the age range of 8-16. Electricity flows from neuron to neuron through the axons and dendrites. This electrical flow carries information and also provides the stimulus that promotes the growth of these connections. Each time a network is activated -- the information recalled for review or use -- the connections become stronger and faster (speed through a circuit is largely determined by the layers of myelin coating that are built up around the axons -- this is also in response to the flow of the electric current of information transport when the circuit is activated). The stimulation of these networks during the ages of their rapid development strongly influences the development of the executive functions -- the social-emotional control and the highest thinking skillsets that today's students will carry with them as they leave school and become adults.

Preparing Students for the Challenges and Opportunities of the 21st Century

We have the obligation to provide our students with opportunities to learn the required foundational information and procedures through experiences that stimulate their developing neural networks of executive functions. We activate these networks through active learning experiences that involve students' prefrontal cortex circuits of judgment, critical analysis, induction, deduction, relational thinking with prior knowledge activation, and prediction. These experiences promote creative information processing as students recognize relationships between what they learn and what they already know. This is when neuroplasticity steps in and new connections (dendrites, synapses, myelinated axons) physically grow between formerly separate memory circuits when they are activated together. This is the physical manifestation of the "neurons that fire together, wire together" phenomenon.

Unless new rote memories are incorporated into larger, relational networks, they remain isolated bits of data in small, unconnected circuits. It is through active mental manipulation with prior knowledge that new information becomes incorporated into the already established neural network of previously acquired related memory.

Teaching that Strengthens Executive Function Networks

Making the switch from memorization to mental manipulation is about applying, communicating, and supporting what one already knows. The incorporation of rote memorization into the sturdy existing networks of long-term memory takes place when students recognize relationships to the prior knowledge stored in those networks.

When you provide students with opportunities to apply learning, especially through authentic, personally meaningful activities with formative assessments and corrective feedback throughout a unit, facts move from rote memory to become consolidated into related memory bank, instead of being pruned away from disuse.

The disuse pruning is another aspect of the brain's neuroplasticity. To best support the frequently used networks, the brain essentially dissolves isolated small neural networks of "unincorporated" facts and procedures that are rarely activated beyond drills and tests.

In contrast, opportunities to process new learning through executive functions promote its linkage to existing related memory banks through the growth of linking dendrites and synapses.

Students need to be explicitly taught and given opportunities to practice using executive functions to organize, prioritize, compare, contrast, connect to prior knowledge, give new examples of a concept, participate in open-ended discussions, synthesize new learning into concise summaries, and symbolize new learning into new mental constructs, such as through the arts or writing across the curriculum.

How to Engage Students' Developing Neural Networks to Promote Executive Function

The recommendations here are a few of the ways to engage students' developing networks of executive functions while they are undergoing their most rapid phase of maturation during the school years. Part 2 of this blog will delve more deeply into the mental manipulation strategies that promote consolidation of new input into existing memory circuits.

Judgment: This executive function, when developed, promotes a student's ability to monitor the accuracy of his or her work. Guidance, experiences, and feedback in estimation; editing and revising one's own written work; and class discussions for conflict resolution can activate the circuitry to build judgment.

Prioritizing: This executive function helps students to separate low relevance details from the main ideas of a text, lecture, math word problem, or complete units of study. Prioritizing skills are also used when students are guided to see how new facts fit into broader concepts, to plan ahead for long-term projects/reports, and to keep records of their most successful strategies that make the most efficient use of their time.

Setting goals, providing self-feedback, monitoring progress: Until students fully develop this PFC executive function, they are limited in their capacity to set and stick to realistic and manageable goals. They need support in recognizing the incremental progress they make as they apply effort towards their larger goals (see my previous two blogs about the "video game" model: How to Plan Instruction Using the Video Game Model and A Neurologist Makes the Case for the Video Game Model as a Learning Tool ).

Model Metacognition Development Yourself

Planning learning opportunities to activate executive function often means going beyond the curriculum provided in textbooks. This is a hefty burden when you are also under the mandate of teaching a body of information that exceeds the time needed for successful mental manipulation.

When you do provide these executive function-activating opportunities, students will recognize their own changing attitudes and achievements. Students will begin to experience and comment on these insights, "I thought ... would be boring, but it was pretty interesting" and "This is the first time I really understood ... " or simply, "Thanks" and "That was cool."

These student responses are teachable moments to promote metacognition. Consider sharing the processes you use to create the instruction that they respond to positively. These discussions will help students recognize their abilities to extend their horizons and focus beyond simply getting by with satisfactory grades. They can build their executive functions of long-term goal-directed behavior, advance planning, delay of immediate gratification. In this way, they can take advantage of opportunities to review and revise work -- even when it has been completed -- rather than to be satisfied with "getting it done." Your input can help students see the link between taking responsibility for class participation, collaboration, and setting high self-standards for all classwork and homework, such that they can say, "I did my best and am proud of my efforts."

As written on the gate of my college, the message we can send our students is:

Climb high. Aim Far. Your goal the sun; Your aim the stars.

Copyright © Judy Willis 2011

Connection denied by Geolocation Setting.

Reason: Blocked country: Russia

The connection was denied because this country is blocked in the Geolocation settings.

Please contact your administrator for assistance.

• Supplement Store
• Brain Health

Strategies to Improve Your Problem-Solving Skills

Got problems? We all do.

They’re something we encounter daily, both at work and at home. Tackling problems and finding solutions are useful skills that are in high demand.

At a basic level, there are three steps to solving any problem:

• Define the problem
• Generate ideas for solutions
• Implement solutions

You might be tempted to think that the first step is unnecessary. After all, that’s why you’re here in the first place, to solve a problem. However, defining the problem is arguably the most important step in problem-solving.

Albert Einstein is famously quoted as saying, “If I had an hour to solve a problem I’d spend 55 minutes thinking about the problem and 5 minutes thinking about solutions.”

When you can spend more time defining the real problem, and not just a symptom, it will be easier to find a lasting solution.

How to better define the problem:

• Ask “why” questions
• Talk it through with others
• Write down the problem in words
• Use graphs or flow charts

Now that we’ve talked about the steps of solving a problem and how to better define it, let’s dig into some strategies to help your brain perform at its best for solving problems.

“Thanks to a process called neuroplasticity, your brain is continually reorganizing itself by forming new neural connections throughout your life, which gives you the power to make your brain better.” – Daniel G. Amen, MD

Neuroplasticity enables your brain to continue to learn and grow throughout your life. Like your muscles, your brain needs exercise to become stronger. Becoming a life-long learner will not only strengthen your brain, but also sharpen your memory, boost confidence, and bring new knowledge and skills into your life.

3 Ways to Improve Your Problem-Solving Skills

1.    Regularly Engage in Brain Boosting Activities

There are a number of easy and fun ways to strengthen your brain. Adding one or more of these activities into your daily routines can help boost your brain and result in better problem-solving abilities.

• Work on a jigsaw puzzle – Puzzles can be done on your own, or as a social activity. Putting together a puzzle requires concentration and spatial awareness, activating multiple parts of the brain and improving short-term memory.
• Play a musical instrument – Research has shown that learning to play an instrument can improve neuroplasticity and help improve your memory. Playing music engages multiple regions of the brain, providing numerous benefits. Maybe it’s been a while since you last played, or maybe you’ve never learned an instrument. Either way, it’s never too late to tap into your musical side and begin making music.
• Try a new hobby – Remember the “use it or lose it” concept when it comes to the brain. It’s recommended to never stop learning new things. Challenge yourself, no matter your age! Trying new hobbies is a great mental exercise to sharpen your brain. You also may find a new activity that brings more joy to your life.
• Meditate – The practice of meditation has been around for thousands of years as a tool for reducing stress, clearing your mind, promoting relaxation, and improving focus. Meditation is a powerful tool that can boost your brain anytime, anywhere.
• Play brain games – Chess, crossword puzzles, and sudoku all fall under this category. Brain games are an easy and fun way to improve concentration and strengthen memory. The best part is that they only take a few minutes to play and offer a nice break during the day.
• Read a book with a book club – Reading a book offers many benefits, including stimulating different areas of your brain to process and analyze information. When you participate in a reading group , your brain will need to remember information for later recall. This information recall is highly beneficial to protecting short-term memory. Book clubs also can provide a fun and supportive social network.

2.    Spend time NOT looking for the solution

This is counterintuitive, but it’s an important strategy to use when working on a problem. Allow yourself some downtime after defining the problem.

Let your subconscious do some work. Setting a task aside for a time can actually improve your efforts later. When you return to the problem at hand, you’ll likely have a fresh perspective.

What should you do while giving your brain a break from active problem-solving? Enjoy a hobby, get some rest, or move your body with a walk or other form of exercise.

3.    Practice healthy habits

You guessed it, those healthy habits that affect so many areas of your life are also tied to a healthy brain. Exercise, a healthy diet, and quality sleep can all help your brain function better and improve your problem-solving skills overall.

• Exercise – Moving your body increases blood flow to the brain, which can improve your ability to think critically, clearly, and creatively. Additionally, physical activity is a known way to reduce stress and anxiousness. Research has shown creativity and problem-solving to be negatively affected by stress. Using exercise to combat stress can improve your ability to find solutions with a clear mind. By exercising regularly, your overall physical, emotional, and brain health may be positively impacted.
• Healthy Diet – Dr. Daniel Amen teaches that one of the secrets to a healthy brain is to focus on detoxification in your diet. This includes avoiding alcohol, drinking plenty of water, and consuming detoxifying vegetables . Some good vegetables to incorporate into your diet would be lettuce, spinach, kale, broccoli, and asparagus. You also may try increasing your protein intake for a healthy brain, or try adding in turmeric , which can increase neuroplasticity.
• Quality Sleep – Finally, don’t forget about the impact quality sleep, or the lack of it, can have on your brain function and problem-solving abilities. Getting a good night’s rest gives your brain time to recharge and that necessary downtime of not actively thinking about the problems needing solving. While you sleep, your subconscious has a chance to do some work for you!

When you engage in brain-boosting activities, take some downtime, and practice healthy habits you’ll be better prepared for the problems in your days. And, next time you’re faced with the inevitable problems that come with life and work, you can address them with more clarity and confidence.

• Recent Posts

• Say Goodbye to Winter Slump: 10 Ways to Energize Your Body and Mind this Spring - April 25, 2024
• Chlorella vs. Spirulina: Differences and Health Benefits of Greens Powders - April 16, 2024
• Expert Tips on How to Raise Confident Kids in the Modern World - April 4, 2024

Related posts

How to Choose the Best Prenatal Vitamin

The Essential Nutrient Your Body Can’t Make & How To Get It

Benefits of Taking Omega-3 Fatty Acids Daily

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

What Your Brain Looks Like When It Solves a Math Problem

By Benedict Carey

• July 28, 2016

Solving a hairy math problem might send a shudder of exultation along your spinal cord. But scientists have historically struggled to deconstruct the exact mental alchemy that occurs when the brain successfully leaps the gap from “Say what?” to “Aha!”

Now, using an innovative combination of brain-imaging analyses, researchers have captured four fleeting stages of creative thinking in math. In a paper published in Psychological Science, a team led by John R. Anderson, a professor of psychology and computer science at Carnegie Mellon University, demonstrated a method for reconstructing how the brain moves from understanding a problem to solving it, including the time the brain spends in each stage.

The imaging analysis found four stages in all: encoding (downloading), planning (strategizing), solving (performing the math), and responding (typing out an answer).

“I’m very happy with the way the study worked out, and I think this precision is about the limit of what we can do” with the brain imaging tools available, said Dr. Anderson, who wrote the report with Aryn A. Pyke and Jon M. Fincham, both also at Carnegie Mellon.

To capture these quicksilver mental operations, the team first taught 80 men and women how to interpret a set of math symbols and equations they had not seen before. The underlying math itself wasn’t difficult, mostly addition and subtraction, but manipulating the newly learned symbols required some thinking. The research team could vary the problems to burden specific stages of the thinking process — some were hard to encode, for instance, while others extended the length of the planning stage.

The scientists used two techniques of M.R.I. data analysis to sort through what the participants’ brains were doing. One technique tracked the neural firing patterns during the solving of each problem; the other identified significant shifts from one kind of mental state to another. The subjects solved 88 problems each, and the research team analyzed the imaging data from those solved successfully.

The analysis found four separate stages that, depending on the problem, varied in length by a second or more. For instance, planning took up more time than the other stages when a clever workaround was required. The same stages are likely applicable to solving many creative problems, not just in math. But knowing how they play out in the brain should help in designing curriculums, especially in mathematics, the paper suggests.

“We didn’t know exactly what students were doing when they solved problems,” said Dr. Anderson, whose lab designs math instruction software. “Having a clearer understanding of that will help us develop better instruction; I think that’s the first place this work will have some impact.”

Like the Science Times page on Facebook. | Sign up for the Science Times newsletter.

The Curious World of Mathematics

Earlier this year, mathematicians discovered  a unique shape : an “einstein.”  Now do-it-yourselfers have found ingenious ways to put it to use .

An online math community faced a problem-solving dilemma when it was asked a simple question: How can you chop a square into four similar rectangles?

What is the sum of an infinite series of natural numbers? The answer may be   smaller than you think .

A Texas oil heir was fascinated with one of math’s greatest enigmas: Fermat’s theorem. His private support may have been a critical factor in its solution .

• Brain Development
• Childhood & Adolescence
• Diet & Lifestyle
• Emotions, Stress & Anxiety
• Learning & Memory
• Thinking & Awareness
• Alzheimer's & Dementia
• Childhood Disorders
• Immune System Disorders
• Mental Health
• Neurodegenerative Disorders
• Infectious Disease
• Neurological Disorders A-Z
• Body Systems
• Cells & Circuits
• Genes & Molecules
• The Arts & the Brain
• Law, Economics & Ethics
• Neuroscience in the News
• Supporting Research
• Tech & the Brain
• Animals in Research
• BRAIN Initiative
• Meet the Researcher
• Neuro-technologies
• Tools & Techniques

Core Concepts

• For Educators
• Ask an Expert
• The Brain Facts Book

Reasoning, Planning, and Problem-Solving

• Published 15 Aug 2019
• Author Hannah Zuckerman
• Source BrainFacts/SfN

Checking the weather forecast then planning what to wear to work doesn’t seem like a serious challenge as you age. That’s because your brain has prepared you to solve everything from the problems of your daily routine to deep conundrums.

Your brain incorporates all available information from your senses, memories, and emotions to help you reason and understand your environment. All these things support your judgement, guiding you to respond effectively to events, make decisions, and predict future outcomes — like seeing there’s a 70% chance of showers and taking an umbrella as you head out the door.

Click on the targets in the image to explore how your brain reasons, plans, and solves problems.

About the Author

Hannah Zuckerman

Hannah is the former Production and Editorial Associate for BrainFacts.org . She graduated from Bryn Mawr College in 2014 with a degree in history. She previously worked at Princeton University Press and the art magazine  Sculpture .

CONTENT PROVIDED BY

BrainFacts/SfN

Also In Learning & Memory

Popular articles on BrainFacts.org

A beginner's guide to the brain and nervous system.

BrainFacts Book

Download a copy of the newest edition of the book, Brain Facts: A Primer on the Brain and Nervous System.

Brain Awareness Week

A worldwide celebration of the brain that brings together scientists, families, schools, and communities during the third week in March.

Join the Campaign

SUPPORTING PARTNERS

• Privacy Policy
• Accessibility Policy
• Terms and Conditions
• Manage Cookies

Some pages on this website provide links that require Adobe Reader to view.

Parts of the Brain: Anatomy, Structure & Functions

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

On This Page:

The brain controls all functions of the body, interprets information from the outside world, and defines who we are as individuals and how we experience the world.

The brain receives information through our senses: sight, touch, taste, smell, and hearing. This information is processed in the brain, allowing us to give meaning to the input it receives.

The brain is part of the central nervous system ( CNS ) along with the spinal cord. There is also a peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprised of 31 pairs of spinal nerves that branch from the spinal cord and cranial nerves that branch from the brain.

Brain Parts

The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. The brain has three main parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.

The cerebrum is the largest and most recognizable part of the brain. It consists of grey matter (the cerebral cortex ) and white matter at the center. The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, the left and right, and contains the lobes of the brain (frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes).

The cerebrum produces higher functioning roles such as thinking, learning, memory, language, emotion, movement, and perception.

The Cerebellum

The cerebellum is located under the cerebrum and monitors and regulates motor behaviors, especially automatic movements.

This structure is also important for regulating posture and balance and has recently been suggested for being involved in learning and attention.

Although the cerebellum only accounts for roughly 10% of the brain’s total weight, this area is thought to contain more neurons (nerve cells) than the rest of the brain combined.

The brainstem is located at the base of the brain. This area connects the cerebrum and the cerebellum to the spinal cord, acting as a relay station for these areas.

The brainstem regulates automatic functions such as sleep cycles, breathing, body temperature, digestion, coughing, and sneezing.

Right Brain vs. Left Brain

The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and left hemispheres (Fig. 2). The left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left half.

The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural fibers known as the corpus callosum, consisting of about 200 million axons.

The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate and allows information being processed on one side of the brain to be shared with the other.

Figure 2. The cerebrum is divided into left and right hemispheres. The nerve fibers corpus callosum connects the two sides.

Hemispheric lateralization is the idea that each hemisphere is responsible for different functions. Each of these functions is localized to either the right or left side.

The left hemisphere is associated with language functions, such as formulating grammar and vocabulary and containing different language centers (Broca’s and Wernicke’s area).

The right hemisphere is associated with more visuospatial functions such as visualization, depth perception, and spatial navigation. These left and right functions are the case in most people, especially those who are right-handed.

Lobes of the Brain

Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes, each associated with different functions.

The four lobes of the brain are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The cerebrum is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.

Frontal lobes

The frontal lobes are located at the front of the brain, behind the forehead (Figure 4).

Their main functions are associated with higher cognitive functions, including problem-solving, decision-making, attention, intelligence, and voluntary behaviors.

The frontal lobes contain the motor cortex  responsible for planning and coordinating movements.

It also contains the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for initiating higher-lever cognitive functioning, and Broca’s Area, which is essential for language production.

Figure 4. Frontal lobe structure.

Temporal lobes

The temporal lobes are located on both sides of the brain, near the temples of the head, hence the name temporal lobes (Figure 5).

The main functions of these lobes include understanding, language, memory acquisition, face recognition, object recognition, perception, and auditory information processing.

There is a temporal lobe in both the left and right hemispheres. The left temporal lobe, which is usually the most dominant in people, is associated with language, learning, memorizing, forming words, and remembering verbal information.

The left lobe also contains a vital language center known as Wernicke’s area, which is essential for language development. The right temporal lobe is usually associated with learning and memorizing non-verbal information and determining facial expressions.

Figure 5. Temporal lobe structure.

Parietal lobes

The parietal lobe is located at the top of the brain, between the frontal and occipital lobes, and above the temporal lobes (Figure 6).

The parietal lobe is essential for integrating information from the body’s senses to allow us to build a coherent picture of the world around us.

These lobes allow us to perceive our bodies through somatosensory information (e.g., through touch, pressure, and temperature). It can also help with visuospatial processing, reading, and number representations (mathematics).

The parietal lobes also contain the somatosensory cortex, which receives and processes sensory information, integrating this into a representational map of the body.

This means it can pinpoint the exact area of the body where a sensation is felt, as well as perceive the weight of objects, shape, and texture.

Figure 6. Parietal lobe structure.

Occipital lobes

The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain behind the temporal and parietal lobes and below the occipital bone of the skull (Figure 7).

The occipital lobes receive sensory information from the eyes’ retinas, which is then encoded into different visual data. Some of the functions of the occipital lobes include being able to assess the size, depth, and distance, determine color information, object and facial recognition, and mapping the visual world.

The occipital lobes also contain the primary visual cortex, which receives sensory information from the retinas, transmitting this information relating to location, spatial data, motion, and the colors of objects in the field of vision.

Figure 7. Occipital lobe structure.

Cerebral Cortex

The surface of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex  and has a wrinkled appearance, consisting of bulges, also known as gyri, and deep furrows, known as sulci (Figure 8).

A gyrus (plural: gyri) is the name given to the bumps and ridges on the cerebral cortex (the outermost layer of the brain). A sulcus (plural: sulci) is another name for a groove in the cerebral cortex.

Figure 8. The cortex contains neurons (grey matter) interconnected to other brain areas by axons (white matter). The cortex has a folded appearance. A fold is called a gyrus, and the valley between is a sulcus.

The cerebral cortex is primarily constructed of grey matter (neural tissue made up of neurons), with between 14 and 16 billion neurons found here.

The many folds and wrinkles of the cerebral cortex allow a wider surface area for an increased number of neurons to live there, permitting large amounts of information to be processed.

Deep Structures

The amygdala is a structure deep in the brain that is involved in the processing of emotions and fear learning. The amygdala is a part of the limbic system, a neural network that mediates emotion and memory (Figure 9).

This structure also ties emotional meaning to memories, processes rewards, and helps us make decisions. This structure has also been linked with the fight-or-flight response.

Figure 9. The amygdala in the limbic system plays a key role in how animals assess and respond to environmental threats and challenges by evaluating the emotional importance of sensory information and prompting an appropriate response.

Thalamus and Hypothalamus

The thalamus relays information between the cerebral cortex, brain stem, and other cortical structures (Figure 10).

Because of its interactive role in relaying sensory and motor information, the thalamus contributes to many processes, including attention, perception, timing, and movement. The hypothalamus modulates a range of behavioral and physiological functions.

It controls autonomic functions such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual activity. To do this, the hypothalamus integrates information from different brain parts and responds to various stimuli such as light, odor, and stress.

Figure 10. The thalamus is often described as the brain’s relay station as a great deal of information that reaches the cerebral cortex first stops in the thalamus before being sent to its destination.

Hippocampus

The hippocampus is a curved-shaped structure in the limbic system associated with learning and memory (Figure 11).

This structure is most strongly associated with the formation of memories, is an early storage system for new long-term memories, and plays a role in the transition of these long-term memories to more permanent memories.

Figure 11. Hippocampus location in the brain

Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are a group of structures that regulate the coordination of fine motor movements, balance, and posture alongside the cerebellum.

These structures are connected to other motor areas and link the thalamus with the motor cortex. The basal ganglia are also involved in cognitive and emotional behaviors, as well as playing a role in reward and addiction.

Figure 12. The Basal Ganglia Illustration

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Within the brain, there are fluid-filled interconnected cavities called ventricles , which are extensions of the spinal cord. These are filled with a substance called cerebrospinal fluid, which is a clear and colorless liquid.

The ventricles produce cerebrospinal fluid and transport and remove this fluid. The ventricles do not have a unique function, but they provide cushioning to the brain and are useful for determining the locations of other brain structures.

Cerebrospinal fluid circulates the brain and spinal cord and functions to cushion the brain within the skull. If damage occurs to the skull, the cerebrospinal fluid will act as a shock absorber to help protect the brain from injury.

As well as providing cushioning, the cerebrospinal fluid circulates nutrients and chemicals filtered from the blood and removes waste products from the brain. Cerebrospinal fluid is constantly absorbed and replenished by the ventricles.

If there were a disruption or blockage, this can cause a build-up of cerebrospinal fluid and can cause enlarged ventricles.

Neurons are the nerve cells of the central nervous system that transmit information through electrochemical signals throughout the body. Neurons contain a soma, a cell body from which the axon extends.

Axons are nerve fibers that are the longest part of the neuron, which conduct electrical impulses away from the soma.

There are dendrites at the end of the neuron, which are branch-like structures that send and receive information from other neurons.

A myelin sheath, a fatty insulating layer, forms around the axon, allowing nerve impulses to travel down the axon quickly.

There are different types of neurons. Sensory neurons transmit sensory information, motor neurons transmit motor information, and relay neurons allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate.

The communication between neurons is called synapses. Neurons communicate with each other via synaptic clefts, which are gaps between the endings of neurons.

During synaptic transmission, chemicals, such as neurotransmitters, are released from the endings of the previous neuron (also known as the presynaptic neuron).

These chemicals enter the synaptic cleft to then be transported to receptors on the next neuron (also known as the postsynaptic neuron).

Once transported to the next neuron, the chemical messengers continue traveling down neurons to influence many functions, such as behavior and movement.

Glial Cells

Glial cells are non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system which work to provide the neurons with nourishment, support, and protection.

These are star-shaped cells that function to maintain the environment for neuronal signaling by controlling the levels of neurotransmitters surrounding the synapses.

They also work to clean up what is left behind after synaptic transmission, either recycling any leftover neurotransmitters or cleaning up when a neuron dies.

Oligodendrocytes

These types of glial have the appearance of balls with spikes all around them. They function by wrapping around the axons of neurons to form a protective layer called the myelin sheath.

This is a substance that is rich in fat and provides insulation to the neurons to aid neuronal signaling.

Microglial cells have oval bodies and many branches projecting out of them. The primary function of these cells is to respond to injuries or diseases in the central nervous system.

They respond by clearing away any dead cells or removing any harmful toxins or pathogens that may be present, so they are, therefore, important to the brain’s health.

Ependymal cells

These cells are column-shaped and usually line up together to form a membrane called the ependyma. The ependyma is a thin membrane lining the spinal cord and ventricles of the brain .

In the ventricles, these cells have small hairlike structures called cilia, which help encourage the flow of cerebrospinal fluid.

Cranial Nerves

There are 12 types of cranial nerves which are linked directly to the brain without having to pass through the spinal cord. These allow sensory information to pass from the organs of the face to the brain:

Mnemonic for Order of Cranial Nerves:

S ome S ay M arry M oney B ut M y B rother S ays B ig B rains M atter M ore

• Cranial I: Sensory
• Cranial II: Sensory
• Cranial III: Motor
• Cranial IV: Motor
• Cranial V: Both (sensory & motor)
• Cranial VI: Motor
• Cranial VII: Both (sensory & motor)
• Cranial VIII: Sensory
• Cranial IX: Both (sensory & motor)
• Cranial X: Both (sensory & motor)
• Cranial XI: Motor
• Cranial XII: Motor

Purves, D., Augustine, G., Fitzpatrick, D., Katz, L., LaMantia, A., McNamara, J., & Williams, S. (2001). Neuroscience 2nd edition . sunderland (ma) sinauer associates. Types of Eye Movements and Their Functions.

Mayfield Brain and Spine (n.d.). Anatomy of the Brain. Retrieved July 28, 2021, from: https://mayfieldclinic.com/pe-anatbrain.htm

Robertson, S. (2018, August 23). What is Grey Matter? News Medical Life Sciences. https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Grey-Matter.aspx

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, April 13). Temporal lobe: definition, functions, and location. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/temporal-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, April 15). Parietal lobe: definition, functions, and location. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/parietal-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, April 19). Occipital lobe: definition, functions, and location. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/occipital-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, May 08). Frontal lobe function, location in brain, damage, more. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/frontal-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, June 09). Gyri and sulci of the brain. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/gyri-and-sulci-of-the-brain.html

January 25, 2008

What Are We Thinking When We (Try to) Solve Problems?

New research indicates what happens in the brain when we're faced with a dilemma

By Nikhil Swaminathan

Aha! Eureka! Bingo! "By George, I think she's got it!" Everyone knows what it's like to finally figure out a seemingly impossible problem. But what on Earth is happening in the brain while we're driving toward mental pay dirt ? Researchers eager to find out have long been on the hunt, knowing that such information could one day provide priceless clues in uncovering and fixing faulty neural systems believed to be behind some mental illnesses and learning disabilities.

Researchers at Goldsmiths, University of London report in the journal PLoS ONE that they monitored action in the brains of 21 volunteers with electroencephalography (EEG) as they tackled verbal problems in an attempt to uncover what goes through the mind—literally—in order to observe what happens in the brain during an "aha!" moment of problem solving.

"This insight is at the core of human intelligence … this is a key cognitive function that the human can boast to have," says Joydeep Bhattacharya, an assistant professor in Goldsmiths's psychology department. "We're interested [in finding out] whether—there is a sudden change that takes place or something that changes gradually [that] we're not consciously aware of," he says. The researchers believed they could pin down brain signals that would enable them to predict whether a person could solve a particular problem or not.

On supporting science journalism

If you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing . By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today.

In many cases, the subjects hit a wall, or what researchers refer to as a "mental impasse." If the participants arrived at this point, they could press a button for a clue to help them untangle a problem. Bhattacharya says blocks correlated with strong gamma rhythms (a pattern of brain wave activity associated with selective attention) in the parietal cortex, a region in the upper rear of the brain that has been implicated in integrating information coming from the senses. The research team noticed an interesting phenomenon taking place in the brains of participants given hints: The clues were less likely to help if subjects had an especially high gamma rhythm pattern. The reason, Bhattacharya speculates, is that these participants were, in essence, locked into an inflexible way of thinking and less able to free their minds, and thereby unable to restructure the problem before them.

"If there's excessive attention, it somehow creates mental fixation," he notes. "Your brain is not in a receptive condition."

At the end of each trial, subjects reported whether or not they had a strong "Aha!" moment. Interestingly, researchers found that subjects who were aware that they had found a new way to tackle the problem (and so, had consciously restructured their thinking) were less likely to feel as if they'd had eureka moment compared to more clueless candidates.

"People experience the "Aha!" feeling when they are not consciously monitoring what they are thinking," Bhattacharya says, adding that the sentiment is more of an emotional experience he likens to relief. "If you're applying your conscious brain information processing ability, then you're alpha." (Alpha brain rhythms are associated with a relaxed and open mind; volunteers who unwittingly solved problems showed more robust alpha rhythms than those who knowingly adjusted their thinking to come up with the answer.)

He says the findings indicate that it's better to tackle problems with an open mind than by concentrating too hard on them. In the future, Bhattacharya says, his team will attempt to predict in real-time whether a stumped subject will be able to solve a vexing problem and, also, whether they can manipulate brain rhythms to aid in finding a solution.

The second probe into problem-solving focused on the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), a region in the front of the brain tied to functions such as decision making, conflict monitoring and reward feedback. A team at the University of Lyon's Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute in Bron, France reports in Neuron that it verified that the ACC helps detect errors during problem solving (as previously discovered), but also that it does so by acting more as a general guide, monitoring and scoring the steps involved in problem solving, pointing out miscalculations as well as success.

The team discovered this by recording electrical activity in the brains of two male rhesus monkeys as they tried to determine which targets on a screen would result in a tasty drink of juice. "When you're trying to solve a problem, you need to search; when you discover the solution, you need to stop searching," says study co-author Emmanuel Procyk, coordinator of the Institute's Department of Integrative Neurobiology. "We need brain areas to do that."

He says that researchers observed increased neuronal activity in the animals' ACCs when they began searching. When the monkeys hit the jackpot, there was still heightened activity in the ACC (though only a selective population of nerve cells remained hopped up), indicating that the region is responsible for more than simply alerting the rest of the brain when errors are made. Once the monkeys got the hang of it—and routinely pressed the correct target—ACC activity slowed.

"What we think based on this experiment and other experiments," Procyk says, "is that this structure is very important in valuing things." It essentially scores each of the monkey's behaviors as successful or not successful. "It is an area," he adds, "that will help to decide when to shift from the functioning that goes on when [the brain is] learning to when the learning [is] done."

Procyk says that if this system is compromised, it could have implications for issues such as drug dependency. If the ACC is functioning abnormally, he says, it could overvalue drugs, leading to addiction. (Other studies have shown that an impaired cingulate cortex can result in maladaptive social behavior and disrupted cognitive abilities.)

Alas, the ultimate "Aha!" moment for researchers probing problem solving is likely is far off, but at least the latest research may help them avoid an impasse.

Brain's Problem-solving Function At Work When We Daydream

A new University of British Columbia study finds that our brains are much more active when we daydream than previously thought.

The study, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , finds that activity in numerous brain regions increases when our minds wander. It also finds that brain areas associated with complex problem-solving – previously thought to go dormant when we daydream – are in fact highly active during these episodes.

"Mind wandering is typically associated with negative things like laziness or inattentiveness," says lead author, Prof. Kalina Christoff, UBC Dept. of Psychology. "But this study shows our brains are very active when we daydream – much more active than when we focus on routine tasks."

For the study, subjects were placed inside an fMRI scanner, where they performed the simple routine task of pushing a button when numbers appear on a screen. The researchers tracked subjects' attentiveness moment-to-moment through brain scans, subjective reports from subjects and by tracking their performance on the task.

The findings suggest that daydreaming – which can occupy as much as one third of our waking lives – is an important cognitive state where we may unconsciously turn our attention from immediate tasks to sort through important problems in our lives.

Until now, the brain's "default network" – which is linked to easy, routine mental activity and includes the medial prefrontal cortex (PFC), the posterior cingulate cortex and the temporoparietal junction – was the only part of the brain thought to be active when our minds wander.

However, the study finds that the brain's "executive network" – associated with high-level, complex problem-solving and including the lateral PFC and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex – also becomes activated when we daydream.

"This is a surprising finding, that these two brain networks are activated in parallel," says Christoff. "Until now, scientists have thought they operated on an either-or basis – when one was activated, the other was thought to be dormant." The less subjects were aware that their mind was wandering, the more both networks were activated.

The quantity and quality of brain activity suggests that people struggling to solve complicated problems might be better off switching to a simpler task and letting their mind wander.

"When you daydream, you may not be achieving your immediate goal – say reading a book or paying attention in class – but your mind may be taking that time to address more important questions in your life, such as advancing your career or personal relationships," says Christoff.

The research team included members who are now at Stanford University and University of California, Santa Barbara.

• Brain-Computer Interfaces
• Neuroscience
• Intelligence
• Brain Injury
• Learning Disorders
• Language Acquisition
• Disorders and Syndromes
• Human brain
• Functional neuroimaging
• Psychedelic drug

Story Source:

Materials provided by University of British Columbia . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Kalina Christoff, Alan M. Gordon, Jonathan Smallwood, Rachelle Smith, and Jonathan W. Schooler. Experience sampling during fMRI reveals default network and executive system contributions to mind wandering . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 2009; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0900234106

Cite This Page :

Explore More

• Advance in Heart Regenerative Therapy
• Bioluminescence in Animals 540 Million Years Ago
• Profound Link Between Diet and Brain Health
• Loneliness Runs Deep Among Parents
• Food in Sight? The Liver Is Ready!
• Acid Reflux Drugs and Risk of Migraine
• Do Cells Have a Hidden Communication System?
• Mice Given Mouse-Rat Brains Can Smell Again
• How Do Birds Flock? New Aerodynamics
• Cancer: Epigenetic Origin Without DNA Mutation

Trending Topics

Strange & offbeat.