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Introduction, 1 installed capacity and application of solar energy worldwide, 2 the role of solar energy in sustainable development, 3 the perspective of solar energy, 4 conclusions, conflict of interest statement.

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Solar energy technology and its roles in sustainable development

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Ali O M Maka, Jamal M Alabid, Solar energy technology and its roles in sustainable development, Clean Energy , Volume 6, Issue 3, June 2022, Pages 476–483, https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkac023

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Solar energy is environmentally friendly technology, a great energy supply and one of the most significant renewable and green energy sources. It plays a substantial role in achieving sustainable development energy solutions. Therefore, the massive amount of solar energy attainable daily makes it a very attractive resource for generating electricity. Both technologies, applications of concentrated solar power or solar photovoltaics, are always under continuous development to fulfil our energy needs. Hence, a large installed capacity of solar energy applications worldwide, in the same context, supports the energy sector and meets the employment market to gain sufficient development. This paper highlights solar energy applications and their role in sustainable development and considers renewable energy’s overall employment potential. Thus, it provides insights and analysis on solar energy sustainability, including environmental and economic development. Furthermore, it has identified the contributions of solar energy applications in sustainable development by providing energy needs, creating jobs opportunities and enhancing environmental protection. Finally, the perspective of solar energy technology is drawn up in the application of the energy sector and affords a vision of future development in this domain.

With reference to the recommendations of the UN, the Climate Change Conference, COP26, was held in Glasgow , UK, in 2021. They reached an agreement through the representatives of the 197 countries, where they concurred to move towards reducing dependency on coal and fossil-fuel sources. Furthermore, the conference stated ‘the various opportunities for governments to prioritize health and equity in the international climate movement and sustainable development agenda’. Also, one of the testaments is the necessity to ‘create energy systems that protect and improve climate and health’ [ 1 , 2 ].

The Paris Climate Accords is a worldwide agreement on climate change signed in 2015, which addressed the mitigation of climate change, adaptation and finance. Consequently, the representatives of 196 countries concurred to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions [ 3 ]. The Paris Agreement is essential for present and future generations to attain a more secure and stable environment. In essence, the Paris Agreement has been about safeguarding people from such an uncertain and progressively dangerous environment and ensuring everyone can have the right to live in a healthy, pollutant-free environment without the negative impacts of climate change [ 3 , 4 ].

In recent decades, there has been an increase in demand for cleaner energy resources. Based on that, decision-makers of all countries have drawn up plans that depend on renewable sources through a long-term strategy. Thus, such plans reduce the reliance of dependence on traditional energy sources and substitute traditional energy sources with alternative energy technology. As a result, the global community is starting to shift towards utilizing sustainable energy sources and reducing dependence on traditional fossil fuels as a source of energy [ 5 , 6 ].

In 2015, the UN adopted the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and recognized them as international legislation, which demands a global effort to end poverty, safeguard the environment and guarantee that by 2030, humanity lives in prosperity and peace. Consequently, progress needs to be balanced among economic, social and environmental sustainability models [ 7 ].

Many national and international regulations have been established to control the gas emissions and pollutants that impact the environment [ 8 ]. However, the negative effects of increased carbon in the atmosphere have grown in the last 10 years. Production and use of fossil fuels emit methane (CH 4 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and carbon monoxide (CO), which are the most significant contributors to environmental emissions on our planet. Additionally, coal and oil, including gasoline, coal, oil and methane, are commonly used in energy for transport or for generating electricity. Therefore, burning these fossil fuel s is deemed the largest emitter when used for electricity generation, transport, etc. However, these energy resources are considered depleted energy sources being consumed to an unsustainable degree [ 9–11 ].

Energy is an essential need for the existence and growth of human communities. Consequently, the need for energy has increased gradually as human civilization has progressed. Additionally, in the past few decades, the rapid rise of the world’s population and its reliance on technological developments have increased energy demands. Furthermore, green technology sources play an important role in sustainably providing energy supplies, especially in mitigating climate change [ 5 , 6 , 8 ].

Currently, fossil fuels remain dominant and will continue to be the primary source of large-scale energy for the foreseeable future; however, renewable energy should play a vital role in the future of global energy. The global energy system is undergoing a movement towards more sustainable sources of energy [ 12 , 13 ].

Power generation by fossil-fuel resources has peaked, whilst solar energy is predicted to be at the vanguard of energy generation in the near future. Moreover, it is predicted that by 2050, the generation of solar energy will have increased to 48% due to economic and industrial growth [ 13 , 14 ].

In recent years, it has become increasingly obvious that the globe must decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, ideally towards net zero, if we are to fulfil the Paris Agreement’s goal to reduce global temperature increases [ 3 , 4 ]. The net-zero emissions complement the scenario of sustainable development assessment by 2050. According to the agreed scenario of sustainable development, many industrialized economies must achieve net-zero emissions by 2050. However, the net-zero emissions 2050 brought the first detailed International Energy Agency (IEA) modelling of what strategy will be required over the next 10 years to achieve net-zero carbon emissions worldwide by 2050 [ 15–17 ].

The global statistics of greenhouse gas emissions have been identified; in 2019, there was a 1% decrease in CO 2 emissions from the power industry; that figure dropped by 7% in 2020 due to the COVID-19 crisis, thus indicating a drop in coal-fired energy generation that is being squeezed by decreasing energy needs, growth of renewables and the shift away from fossil fuels. As a result, in 2020, the energy industry was expected to generate ~13 Gt CO 2 , representing ~40% of total world energy sector emissions related to CO 2 . The annual electricity generation stepped back to pre-crisis levels by 2021, although due to a changing ‘fuel mix’, the CO 2 emissions in the power sector will grow just a little before remaining roughly steady until 2030 [ 15 ].

Therefore, based on the information mentioned above, the advantages of solar energy technology are a renewable and clean energy source that is plentiful, cheaper costs, less maintenance and environmentally friendly, to name but a few. The significance of this paper is to highlight solar energy applications to ensure sustainable development; thus, it is vital to researchers, engineers and customers alike. The article’s primary aim is to raise public awareness and disseminate the culture of solar energy usage in daily life, since moving forward, it is the best. The scope of this paper is as follows. Section 1 represents a summary of the introduction. Section 2 represents a summary of installed capacity and the application of solar energy worldwide. Section 3 presents the role of solar energy in the sustainable development and employment of renewable energy. Section 4 represents the perspective of solar energy. Finally, Section 5 outlines the conclusions and recommendations for future work.

1.1 Installed capacity of solar energy

The history of solar energy can be traced back to the seventh century when mirrors with solar power were used. In 1893, the photovoltaic (PV) effect was discovered; after many decades, scientists developed this technology for electricity generation [ 18 ]. Based on that, after many years of research and development from scientists worldwide, solar energy technology is classified into two key applications: solar thermal and solar PV.

PV systems convert the Sun’s energy into electricity by utilizing solar panels. These PV devices have quickly become the cheapest option for new electricity generation in numerous world locations due to their ubiquitous deployment. For example, during the period from 2010 to 2018, the cost of generating electricity by solar PV plants decreased by 77%. However, solar PV installed capacity progress expanded 100-fold between 2005 and 2018. Consequently, solar PV has emerged as a key component in the low-carbon sustainable energy system required to provide access to affordable and dependable electricity, assisting in fulfilling the Paris climate agreement and in achieving the 2030 SDG targets [ 19 ].

The installed capacity of solar energy worldwide has been rapidly increased to meet energy demands. The installed capacity of PV technology from 2010 to 2020 increased from 40 334 to 709 674 MW, whereas the installed capacity of concentrated solar power (CSP) applications, which was 1266 MW in 2010, after 10 years had increased to 6479 MW. Therefore, solar PV technology has more deployed installations than CSP applications. So, the stand-alone solar PV and large-scale grid-connected PV plants are widely used worldwide and used in space applications. Fig. 1 represents the installation of solar energy worldwide.

Installation capacity of solar energy worldwide [ 20 ].

1.2 Application of solar energy

Energy can be obtained directly from the Sun—so-called solar energy. Globally, there has been growth in solar energy applications, as it can be used to generate electricity, desalinate water and generate heat, etc. The taxonomy of applications of solar energy is as follows: (i) PVs and (ii) CSP. Fig. 2 details the taxonomy of solar energy applications.

The taxonomy of solar energy applications.

Solar cells are devices that convert sunlight directly into electricity; typical semiconductor materials are utilized to form a PV solar cell device. These materials’ characteristics are based on atoms with four electrons in their outer orbit or shell. Semiconductor materials are from the periodic table’s group ‘IV’ or a mixture of groups ‘IV’ and ‘II’, the latter known as ‘II–VI’ semiconductors [ 21 ]. Additionally, a periodic table mixture of elements from groups ‘III’ and ‘V’ can create ‘III–V’ materials [ 22 ].

PV devices, sometimes called solar cells, are electronic devices that convert sunlight into electrical power. PVs are also one of the rapidly growing renewable-energy technologies of today. It is therefore anticipated to play a significant role in the long-term world electricity-generating mixture moving forward.

Solar PV systems can be incorporated to supply electricity on a commercial level or installed in smaller clusters for mini-grids or individual usage. Utilizing PV modules to power mini-grids is a great way to offer electricity to those who do not live close to power-transmission lines, especially in developing countries with abundant solar energy resources. In the most recent decade, the cost of producing PV modules has dropped drastically, giving them not only accessibility but sometimes making them the least expensive energy form. PV arrays have a 30-year lifetime and come in various shades based on the type of material utilized in their production.

The most typical method for solar PV desalination technology that is used for desalinating sea or salty water is electrodialysis (ED). Therefore, solar PV modules are directly connected to the desalination process. This technique employs the direct-current electricity to remove salt from the sea or salty water.

The technology of PV–thermal (PV–T) comprises conventional solar PV modules coupled with a thermal collector mounted on the rear side of the PV module to pre-heat domestic hot water. Accordingly, this enables a larger portion of the incident solar energy on the collector to be converted into beneficial electrical and thermal energy.

A zero-energy building is a building that is designed for zero net energy emissions and emits no carbon dioxide. Building-integrated PV (BIPV) technology is coupled with solar energy sources and devices in buildings that are utilized to supply energy needs. Thus, building-integrated PVs utilizing thermal energy (BIPV/T) incorporate creative technologies such as solar cooling [ 23 ].

A PV water-pumping system is typically used to pump water in rural, isolated and desert areas. The system consists of PV modules to power a water pump to the location of water need. The water-pumping rate depends on many factors such as pumping head, solar intensity, etc.

A PV-powered cathodic protection (CP) system is designed to supply a CP system to control the corrosion of a metal surface. This technique is based on the impressive current acquired from PV solar energy systems and is utilized for burying pipelines, tanks, concrete structures, etc.

Concentrated PV (CPV) technology uses either the refractive or the reflective concentrators to increase sunlight to PV cells [ 24 , 25 ]. High-efficiency solar cells are usually used, consisting of many layers of semiconductor materials that stack on top of each other. This technology has an efficiency of >47%. In addition, the devices produce electricity and the heat can be used for other purposes [ 26 , 27 ].

For CSP systems, the solar rays are concentrated using mirrors in this application. These rays will heat a fluid, resulting in steam used to power a turbine and generate electricity. Large-scale power stations employ CSP to generate electricity. A field of mirrors typically redirect rays to a tall thin tower in a CSP power station. Thus, numerous large flat heliostats (mirrors) are used to track the Sun and concentrate its light onto a receiver in power tower systems, sometimes known as central receivers. The hot fluid could be utilized right away to produce steam or stored for later usage. Another of the great benefits of a CSP power station is that it may be built with molten salts to store heat and generate electricity outside of daylight hours.

Mirrored dishes are used in dish engine systems to focus and concentrate sunlight onto a receiver. The dish assembly tracks the Sun’s movement to capture as much solar energy as possible. The engine includes thin tubes that work outside the four-piston cylinders and it opens into the cylinders containing hydrogen or helium gas. The pistons are driven by the expanding gas. Finally, the pistons drive an electric generator by turning a crankshaft.

A further water-treatment technique, using reverse osmosis, depends on the solar-thermal and using solar concentrated power through the parabolic trough technique. The desalination employs CSP technology that utilizes hybrid integration and thermal storage allows continuous operation and is a cost-effective solution. Solar thermal can be used for domestic purposes such as a dryer. In some countries or societies, the so-called food dehydration is traditionally used to preserve some food materials such as meats, fruits and vegetables.

Sustainable energy development is defined as the development of the energy sector in terms of energy generating, distributing and utilizing that are based on sustainability rules [ 28 ]. Energy systems will significantly impact the environment in both developed and developing countries. Consequently, the global sustainable energy system must optimize efficiency and reduce emissions [ 29 ].

The sustainable development scenario is built based on the economic perspective. It also examines what activities will be required to meet shared long-term climate benefits, clean air and energy access targets. The short-term details are based on the IEA’s sustainable recovery strategy, which aims to promote economies and employment through developing a cleaner and more reliable energy infrastructure [ 15 ]. In addition, sustainable development includes utilizing renewable-energy applications, smart-grid technologies, energy security, and energy pricing, and having a sound energy policy [ 29 ].

The demand-side response can help meet the flexibility requirements in electricity systems by moving demand over time. As a result, the integration of renewable technologies for helping facilitate the peak demand is reduced, system stability is maintained, and total costs and CO 2 emissions are reduced. The demand-side response is currently used mostly in Europe and North America, where it is primarily aimed at huge commercial and industrial electricity customers [ 15 ].

International standards are an essential component of high-quality infrastructure. Establishing legislative convergence, increasing competition and supporting innovation will allow participants to take part in a global world PV market [ 30 ]. Numerous additional countries might benefit from more actively engaging in developing global solar PV standards. The leading countries in solar PV manufacturing and deployment have embraced global standards for PV systems and highly contributed to clean-energy development. Additional assistance and capacity-building to enhance quality infrastructure in developing economies might also help support wider implementation and compliance with international solar PV standards. Thus, support can bring legal requirements and frameworks into consistency and give additional impetus for the trade of secure and high-quality solar PV products [ 19 ].

Continuous trade-led dissemination of solar PV and other renewable technologies will strengthen the national infrastructure. For instance, off-grid solar energy alternatives, such as stand-alone systems and mini-grids, could be easily deployed to assist healthcare facilities in improving their degree of services and powering portable testing sites and vaccination coolers. In addition to helping in the immediate medical crisis, trade-led solar PV adoption could aid in the improving economy from the COVID-19 outbreak, not least by providing jobs in the renewable-energy sector, which are estimated to reach >40 million by 2050 [ 19 ].

The framework for energy sustainability development, by the application of solar energy, is one way to achieve that goal. With the large availability of solar energy resources for PV and CSP energy applications, we can move towards energy sustainability. Fig. 3 illustrates plans for solar energy sustainability.

Framework for solar energy applications in energy sustainability.

The environmental consideration of such applications, including an aspect of the environmental conditions, operating conditions, etc., have been assessed. It is clean, friendly to the environment and also energy-saving. Moreover, this technology has no removable parts, low maintenance procedures and longevity.

Economic and social development are considered by offering job opportunities to the community and providing cheaper energy options. It can also improve people’s income; in turn, living standards will be enhanced. Therefore, energy is paramount, considered to be the most vital element of human life, society’s progress and economic development.

As efforts are made to increase the energy transition towards sustainable energy systems, it is anticipated that the next decade will see a continued booming of solar energy and all clean-energy technology. Scholars worldwide consider research and innovation to be substantial drivers to enhance the potency of such solar application technology.

2.1 Employment from renewable energy

The employment market has also boomed with the deployment of renewable-energy technology. Renewable-energy technology applications have created >12 million jobs worldwide. The solar PV application came as the pioneer, which created >3 million jobs. At the same time, while the solar thermal applications (solar heating and cooling) created >819 000 jobs, the CSP attained >31 000 jobs [ 20 ].

According to the reports, although top markets such as the USA, the EU and China had the highest investment in renewables jobs, other Asian countries have emerged as players in the solar PV panel manufacturers’ industry [ 31 ].

Solar energy employment has offered more employment than other renewable sources. For example, in the developing countries, there was a growth in employment chances in solar applications that powered ‘micro-enterprises’. Hence, it has been significant in eliminating poverty, which is considered the key goal of sustainable energy development. Therefore, solar energy plays a critical part in fulfilling the sustainability targets for a better plant and environment [ 31 , 32 ]. Fig. 4 illustrates distributions of world renewable-energy employment.

World renewable-energy employment [ 20 ].

The world distribution of PV jobs is disseminated across the continents as follows. There was 70% employment in PV applications available in Asia, while 10% is available in North America, 10% available in South America and 10% availability in Europe. Table 1 details the top 10 countries that have relevant jobs in Asia, North America, South America and Europe.

List of the top 10 countries that created jobs in solar PV applications [ 19 , 33 ]

Solar energy investments can meet energy targets and environmental protection by reducing carbon emissions while having no detrimental influence on the country’s development [ 32 , 34 ]. In countries located in the ‘Sunbelt’, there is huge potential for solar energy, where there is a year-round abundance of solar global horizontal irradiation. Consequently, these countries, including the Middle East, Australia, North Africa, China, the USA and Southern Africa, to name a few, have a lot of potential for solar energy technology. The average yearly solar intensity is >2800 kWh/m 2 and the average daily solar intensity is >7.5 kWh/m 2 . Fig. 5 illustrates the optimum areas for global solar irradiation.

World global solar irradiation map [ 35 ].

The distribution of solar radiation and its intensity are two important factors that influence the efficiency of solar PV technology and these two parameters vary among different countries. Therefore, it is essential to realize that some solar energy is wasted since it is not utilized. On the other hand, solar radiation is abundant in several countries, especially in developing ones, which makes it invaluable [ 36 , 37 ].

Worldwide, the PV industry has benefited recently from globalization, which has allowed huge improvements in economies of scale, while vertical integration has created strong value chains: as manufacturers source materials from an increasing number of suppliers, prices have dropped while quality has been maintained. Furthermore, the worldwide incorporated PV solar device market is growing fast, creating opportunities enabling solar energy firms to benefit from significant government help with underwriting, subsides, beneficial trading licences and training of a competent workforce, while the increased rivalry has reinforced the motivation to continue investing in research and development, both public and private [ 19 , 33 ].

The global outbreak of COVID-19 has impacted ‘cross-border supply chains’ and those investors working in the renewable-energy sector. As a result, more diversity of solar PV supply-chain processes may be required in the future to enhance long-term flexibility versus exogenous shocks [ 19 , 33 ].

It is vital to establish a well-functioning quality infrastructure to expand the distribution of solar PV technologies beyond borders and make it easier for new enterprises to enter solar PV value chains. In addition, a strong quality infrastructure system is a significant instrument for assisting local firms in meeting the demands of trade markets. Furthermore, high-quality infrastructure can help reduce associated risks with the worldwide PV project value chain, such as underperforming, inefficient and failing goods, limiting the development, improvement and export of these technologies. Governments worldwide are, at various levels, creating quality infrastructure, including the usage of metrology i.e. the science of measurement and its application, regulations, testing procedures, accreditation, certification and market monitoring [ 33 , 38 ].

The perspective is based on a continuous process of technological advancement and learning. Its speed is determined by its deployment, which varies depending on the scenario [ 39 , 40 ]. The expense trends support policy preferences for low-carbon energy sources, particularly in increased energy-alteration scenarios. Emerging technologies are introduced and implemented as quickly as they ever have been before in energy history [ 15 , 33 ].

The CSP stations have been in use since the early 1980s and are currently found all over the world. The CSP power stations in the USA currently produce >800 MW of electricity yearly, which is sufficient to power ~500 000 houses. New CSP heat-transfer fluids being developed can function at ~1288 o C, which is greater than existing fluids, to improve the efficiency of CSP systems and, as a result, to lower the cost of energy generated using this technology. Thus, as a result, CSP is considered to have a bright future, with the ability to offer large-scale renewable energy that can supplement and soon replace traditional electricity-production technologies [ 41 ]. The DESERTEC project has drawn out the possibility of CSP in the Sahara Desert regions. When completed, this investment project will have the world’s biggest energy-generation capacity through the CSP plant, which aims to transport energy from North Africa to Europe [ 42 , 43 ].

The costs of manufacturing materials for PV devices have recently decreased, which is predicted to compensate for the requirements and increase the globe’s electricity demand [ 44 ]. Solar energy is a renewable, clean and environmentally friendly source of energy. Therefore, solar PV application techniques should be widely utilized. Although PV technology has always been under development for a variety of purposes, the fact that PV solar cells convert the radiant energy from the Sun directly into electrical power means it can be applied in space and in terrestrial applications [ 38 , 45 ].

In one way or another, the whole renewable-energy sector has a benefit over other energy industries. A long-term energy development plan needs an energy source that is inexhaustible, virtually accessible and simple to gather. The Sun rises over the horizon every day around the globe and leaves behind ~108–1018 kWh of energy; consequently, it is more than humanity will ever require to fulfil its desire for electricity [ 46 ].

The technology that converts solar radiation into electricity is well known and utilizes PV cells, which are already in use worldwide. In addition, various solar PV technologies are available today, including hybrid solar cells, inorganic solar cells and organic solar cells. So far, solar PV devices made from silicon have led the solar market; however, these PVs have certain drawbacks, such as expenditure of material, time-consuming production, etc. It is important to mention here the operational challenges of solar energy in that it does not work at night, has less output in cloudy weather and does not work in sandstorm conditions. PV battery storage is widely used to reduce the challenges to gain high reliability. Therefore, attempts have been made to find alternative materials to address these constraints. Currently, this domination is challenged by the evolution of the emerging generation of solar PV devices based on perovskite, organic and organic/inorganic hybrid materials.

This paper highlights the significance of sustainable energy development. Solar energy would help steady energy prices and give numerous social, environmental and economic benefits. This has been indicated by solar energy’s contribution to achieving sustainable development through meeting energy demands, creating jobs and protecting the environment. Hence, a paramount critical component of long-term sustainability should be investigated. Based on the current condition of fossil-fuel resources, which are deemed to be depleting energy sources, finding an innovative technique to deploy clean-energy technology is both essential and expected. Notwithstanding, solar energy has yet to reach maturity in development, especially CSP technology. Also, with growing developments in PV systems, there has been a huge rise in demand for PV technology applications all over the globe. Further work needs to be undertaken to develop energy sustainably and consider other clean energy resources. Moreover, a comprehensive experimental and validation process for such applications is required to develop cleaner energy sources to decarbonize our planet.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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• Published: 17 July 2023

Recent advances in solar photovoltaic materials and systems for energy storage applications: a review

• Modupeola Dada   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9227-197X 1 &
• Patricia Popoola 1  

Beni-Suef University Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences volume  12 , Article number:  66 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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In recent years, solar photovoltaic technology has experienced significant advances in both materials and systems, leading to improvements in efficiency, cost, and energy storage capacity. These advances have made solar photovoltaic technology a more viable option for renewable energy generation and energy storage. However, intermittent is a major limitation of solar energy, and energy storage systems are the preferred solution to these challenges where electric power generation is applicable. Hence, the type of energy storage system depends on the technology used for electrical generation. Furthermore, the growing need for renewable energy sources and the necessity for long-term energy solutions have fueled research into novel materials for solar photovoltaic systems. Researchers have concentrated on increasing the efficiency of solar cells by creating novel materials that can collect and convert sunlight into power.

Main body of the abstract

This study provides an overview of the recent research and development of materials for solar photovoltaic devices. The use of renewable energy sources, such as solar power, is becoming increasingly important to address the growing energy demand and mitigate the impact of climate change. Hence, the development of materials with superior properties, such as higher efficiency, lower cost, and improved durability, can significantly enhance the performance of solar panels and enable the creation of new, more efficient photovoltaic devices. This review discusses recent progress in the field of materials for solar photovoltaic devices. The challenges and opportunities associated with these materials are also explored, including scalability, stability, and economic feasibility.

The development of novel materials for solar photovoltaic devices holds great potential to revolutionize the field of renewable energy. With ongoing research and technological advancements, scientists and engineers have been able to design materials with superior properties such as higher efficiency, lower cost, and improved durability. These materials can be used to enhance the performance of existing solar panels and enable the creation of new, more efficient photovoltaic devices. The adoption of these materials could have significant implications for the transition toward a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy system. However, there are still challenges to be addressed, such as scalability, stability, potential environmental effects, and economic feasibility, before these materials can be widely implemented. Nonetheless, the progress made in this field is promising and continued reports on the research and development of materials for solar photovoltaic devices are crucial for achieving a sustainable future. The adoption of novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices could lead to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy system, but further research and development are needed to overcome current limitations and enable large-scale implementation.

1 Background

Energy and environmental problems are at the top of the list of challenges in the world, attributed to the need to replace the combustion exhaust of fossil fuels, which has resulted in environmental contamination and the greenhouse effect as opposed to renewable energy sources [ 1 ]. This replacement will be achieved while keeping pace with the increasing consumption of energy resulting from an increase in population and rising demand from developing countries since the use of non-renewable energy sources would not meet the energy demand because they are an exhaustible and limited source of energy [ 2 ]. Thus, the search for clean and sustainable renewable energy resources has become an urgent priority. Researchers regard solar energy as one of the alternative sustainable energy resources that is low-cost, non-exhaustible, and abundantly available, giving solid and increasing output efficiencies compared to other sources of energy solutions and energy sources of renewable energy [ 3 ]. The sun radiates at 3.8 1023 kW, intercepting the Earth at 1.8 1014 kW, while the remaining energy is scattered, reflected, and taken in by clouds [ 4 ]. 1.7 × 1022 J of the energy from the sun in 1.5 days is equal to the energy produced from three trillion barrels of oil reserves on Earth [ 5 ]. The total annual energy used by the world in 1 year is 4 s.6 × 1020 J, and the sun provides this energy in 1 h [ 5 ]. The solar photovoltaic (SPV) industry heavily depends on solar radiation distribution and intensity. Solar radiation amounts to 3.8 million EJ/year, which is approximately 10,000 times more than the current energy needs [ 6 ]. Solar energy is used whether in solar thermal applications where solar energy is the source of heat or indirectly as a source of electricity in concentrated solar power plants, photo-assisted fuel cells, generating electricity in SPVs, hydrocarbons from CO 2 reduction, and fuels such as hydrogen [ 7 ].

Each technology harvests sunlight rays and converts them into different end forms. For instance, solar energy can be naturally converted into solar fuel through the process of photosynthesis. Also, through photosynthesis, plants store energy from the sun, where protons and electrons are produced, which can be further metabolized to produce H 2 and CH 4. Thus, 11% of solar energy is utilized in the natural photosynthesis of biomass [ 8 ]. Photovoltaics convert photons into electrons to get electrical energy, while in solar thermal applications, the photons are absorbed and their energy is converted into tangible heat [ 9 ]. This heat is used to heat a working fluid that can be directly collected and used for space and water heating [ 10 ].

However, the energy converted may be too low for consumption, and production efficiency can be improved by producing fuel from water and carbon dioxide through artificial bio-inspired nanoscale assemblies, connecting natural photosynthetic pathways in novel configurations, and using genetic engineering to facilitate biomass production [ 11 ]. One of the major challenges for photovoltaic (PV) systems remains matching intermittent energy production with dynamic power demand [ 12 , 13 ]. A solution to this challenge is to add a storage element to these intermittent power sources [ 14 , 15 ].

Furthermore, intermittent sources like SPV are allowed to address timely load demands and add flexibility to storage devices like batteries [ 16 , 17 ]. Nonetheless, compared with the photosynthesis process, which has conversion efficiencies of 5–10%, photovoltaic cells have better solar conversion efficiencies of approximately 22.5% [ 6 , 18 ]. There are other technologies used for enhancing the efficiency of PV systems encountered by temperature changes, which include floating tracking concentrating cooling systems (FTCC), hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal systems (PV/T) cooled by water spraying, hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermoelectric (PV/TE) systems cooled by a heat sink, hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal systems cooled by forced water circulation, improving the performance of solar panels through the use of phase change materials, and solar panels with water immersion cooling techniques [ 19 , 20 ]. SPV panels with transparent covering (photonic crystal cooling), hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal systems (PV/T) having forced air circulation, and SPV panels with thermoelectric cooling [ 21 ]

This review discusses the latest advancements in the field of novel materials for solar photovoltaic devices, including emerging technologies such as perovskite solar cells. It evaluates the efficiency and durability of different generations of materials in solar photovoltaic devices and compares them with traditional materials. It investigates the scalability and cost-effectiveness of producing novel materials for solar photovoltaic devices and identifies the key challenges and opportunities associated with the development and implementation of novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices, such as stability, toxicity, and economic feasibility. Hence, proposing strategies to overcome current limitations and promote the large-scale implementation of novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices, including manufacturing processes and material characterization techniques, while assessing the potential environmental impact of using novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices, including the sustainability and carbon footprint of the production process.

2 Main text

2.1 solar photovoltaic systems.

Solar energy is used in two different ways: one through the solar thermal route using solar collectors, heaters, dryers, etc., and the other through the solar electricity route using SPV, as shown in Fig.  1 . A SPV system consists of arrays and combinations of PV panels, a charge controller for direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC); (DC to DC), a DC-to-AC inverter, a power meter, a breaker, and a battery or an array of batteries depending on the size of the system [ 22 , 23 ].

Schematic diagram of the solar photovoltaic systems

This technology converts sunlight directly into electricity, with no interface for conversion. It is pollutant-free during operation, rugged and simple in design, diminishes global warming issues, is modular, has a lower operational cost, offers minimal maintenance, can generate power from microwatts to megawatts, and has the highest power density compared to the other renewable energy technologies [ 24 , 25 ]. A high rate of 100 megawatts (MW) of capacity installed per day in 2013 has been used to illustrate the rise in research interest in PV systems, with a record of 177 gigawatts (GW) of overall PV capacity taking place in 2015 [ 26 , 27 ]. However, according to Nadia et al. [ 19 ], solar photovoltaic systems have considerable limitations, including high prices as compared to fossil fuel energy resources, low efficiency, and intermittent operation. Hence, the solar tracker systems shown in Fig.  2 were designed to mitigate some of these challenges by keeping the solar devices at the optimal angle to track the sun’s position for maximum power production.

Solar tracking systems

Various environmental pressures and characteristics, such as angle of photon incidence, panel orientation, photovoltaic module conductivity, the material of solar cells, and time to measure the direction of the sun, can all impact the output of solar panel cells; therefore, before using tracker systems, a large number of measurement results are necessary [ 29 ]. There are active and passive tracking systems. Active tracking systems move the solar panel toward the sun using motors and gear trains, while passive tracking systems rely on a low-boiling-point compressed gas fluid through canisters generated by solar heat [ 30 ]. The disadvantages of passive solar tracking systems are their reliance on weather conditions and the selection of the right gas and glass to develop an efficient passive solar tracking system since the glass absorption levels depend on the color, strength, and chemical properties of the glass. While active solar is high maintenance and reduces power output if the panel is not directly under the sun [ 31 ]. There are also single- and double-axis solar trackers and closed- and open-loop solar trackers. Some trackers use electro-optical units, while others use microprocessor units [ 32 ]. However, the initial cost and running cost of the tracking system, coupled with the cost of energy generated by a PV tracking system, are greater than the cost of energy generated by a fixed system, making their tracking system’s economic advantages unclear. Thus, most recent research on tracking systems has concentrated solely on the optimization of tracking technologies, with little attention devoted to all other critical elements influencing cost and efficiency, PV cell materials, temperature, solar radiation levels, transport, auxiliary equipment, and storage techniques [ 6 ]. Hence, the future outlook on tracking systems includes developing innovative ways for tracking the sun cost-effectively and efficiently. Jamroen et al. [ 32 ] proposed the design and execution of a low-cost dual-axis solar tracking system based on digital logic design and pseudo-azimuthal mounting systems. Their findings reveal that the suggested tracking system improves electrical energy efficiency by 44.89% on average with power costs of 0.2 $/kWh and 0.3 $/kWh, which is relatively low when compared to other tracking methods. Chowdhury et al. [ 35 ], on an 8-bit microcontroller architecture, developed a stand-alone low-cost yet high-precision dual-axis closed-loop sun-tracking system based on the sun position algorithm. Their simulation results showed a very high prediction rate and a very low mean square error, which was concluded to be better than neutral and fuzzy network principles as photovoltaic energy sources.

2.1.1 Photovoltaic energy sources

Photovoltaic energy sources are used as grid-connected systems and stand-alone systems. Their applications include battery charging, water pumping, home power supplies, refrigeration, street lighting, swimming pools, hybrid vehicles, heating systems, telecommunications, satellite power systems, military space, and hydrogen production [ 28 , 29 ]. SPV and storage systems are classified into grid-tied or grid-direct PV systems, off-grid PV systems, and grid/hybrid or grid interaction systems with energy storage [ 30 , 31 ]. The grid-tied solar PV system does not have a battery bank for storage, but a grid-tied inverter is used to convert the DC generated into AC; hence, power can be generated and utilized only during the daytime, which may also be a limiting factor [ 31 , 32 ]. However, the disadvantage of only using the system during the day can be overcome by using a battery bank to store the generated power during the daytime, but this new setup will eventually increase the cost of the system [ 6 , 34 ]. Hence, just using this system during the day makes the grid-tied SPV system very cost-effective, simple to design, easily manageable, and requires less maintenance. Furthermore, solar panels mostly produce more electricity than is required by the loads. Hence, this excess electricity can be given back to the grid instead of being stored in batteries [ 35 , 36 ].

The off-grid PV system, on the other hand, uses a battery for the storage of the generated electricity during the daytime, which can be used in the future or during any emergency. This is beneficial when the load cannot be easily connected to the grid [ 37 , 38 ]. This system not only gives sufficient energy to a household, but it can also power places that are far away from the grid; hence, these systems use more components and are comparatively more expensive than grid-direct systems. Grid-connected PV systems run in parallel and are linked to the electric utility grid [ 39 , 40 ]. The power conditioning unit (PCU) or inverter is the main component of grid-connected PV systems, converting the DC power produced by the PV array into AC power that meets the voltage and power quality requirements of the utility grid for either direct use of appliances or sending to the utility grid to earn feed-in tariff compensation [ 41 , 42 ]. Grid-connected PV systems without backup energy storage (ES) are environmentally friendly, while systems with backup ES are usually interconnected with the utility grid [ 43 , 44 ].

Essential characteristics of PV technology are the operating range of 1 kW up to 300 MW, which can be used as fuel on residential, commercial, and utility scales. The efficiency of PV cells is about 12–16% for crystalline silicon, 11–14% for thin film, and 6–7% for organic cells [ 44 ]. There is no direct environmental impact due to the lack of CO 2 , CO, and NO x emissions. These systems have low operating and maintenance costs. The few drawbacks are higher installation costs, fluctuating output power due to the variation in weather patterns, and the need for mechanical and electronic tracking devices and backup storage for maximum efficiency. Installation costs can vary from 600 to 1300 USD/kW, while operation and maintenance annual costs vary from 0.004 and 0.07 USD/kWh (ac) for utility-scale generation and grid-connected residential systems, respectively [ 21 ].

3 Solar photovoltaic materials

Solar photovoltaic materials shown in Fig.  3 , when exposed to light, absorb the light and transform the energy of the light photons into electrical energy. Commercially available photovoltaic systems are based on inorganic materials, which require costly and energy-intensive processing techniques.

Schematic diagram of the solar photovoltaic materials

Moreover, some of those materials, like CdTe, are toxic and have a limited natural abundance. These problems are preventable by using organic photovoltaics. Nonetheless, the effectiveness of organic-based photovoltaic cells is still far below that of solely inorganic-based photovoltaic systems. Photovoltaic devices usually employ semiconductor materials to generate energy, with silicon-based solar cells being the most popular. Photovoltaic (PV) cells or modules made of crystalline silicon (c-Si), whether single-crystalline (sc-Si) or multi-crystalline (c-Si) (mcSi). PV modules, which are fundamental components, can function in harsh outdoor environments and deliver high energy density to electronic loads. These are the most common forms of solar cells, accounting for over 90% of the PV industry. PV modules must have an efficiency of at least 14%, a price of less than 0.4 USD/Wp, and a service life of at least 15 years [ 22 ]. Now, wafer-based crystalline silicon technologies have best satisfied the criteria because of their high efficiency, cheap cost, and extended service life, and they are projected to dominate future PV power generation due to the abundance of materials. The greatest known energy conversion efficiency for research on crystalline silicon PV cells is 25%, although ordinary industrial cells are restricted to 15–18%. Optimizing these cells is a hard undertaking; hence, novel solutions to break past the efficiency barrier of 25% are wafer-slicing technologies and equipment for ultrathin (50 m) wafer technologies, and equipment for direct slicing ultrathin wafers with negligible kerf loss, solar cell and module manufacturing technologies and equipment based on ultrathin wafers. High-quality polycrystalline ingot technologies that outperform monocrystalline cells, contact-forming processes, and materials that are less expensive than screen-printed and burned silver paste are used. To reduce overall PV system costs, low-concentration, and high-efficiency module technologies are used [ 22 , 23 ].

Crystalline silicon solar cells are spectrally selective absorbers that are semiconductor devices. The percentage of incident solar irradiance absorbed by the cell is the absorption factor of a PV cell. Under operational settings, this absorption factor is one of the key criteria controlling cell temperature. The absorption factor may be calculated experimentally using reflection and transmission data. According to Santbergen et al. [ 23 ], using a two-dimensional (2D) computational model that agrees with experimental results, the AM1.5 absorption factor of a typical encapsulated c-Si photovoltaic cell can reach 90.5%. The existence of an appropriate steepness texture at the front of the c-Si wafer was used to obtain such a high absorption factor. As a result, by limiting reflecting losses over the solar spectrum, c-Si cell AM1.5 absorption may potentially be improved to 93.0%. Notably, there is widespread use of c-Si bifacial PV devices compared to their monofacial counterparts due to their potential to achieve a higher annual energy yield. Factors that promote these devices are the bifacial PV performance measurement method/standard for indoor characterization and comprehensive simulation models for outdoor performance characterization [ 24 ]. Non-commercial 3D tools such as PC3D, an open-source numerical analysis program for simulating the internal operation of silicon solar cells, have been reported to provide accurate simulation results that are only ≈1.7% different from their commercial counterparts [ 25 ]. In recent studies, Sun et al. [ 27 ] studied the high-efficiency silicon heterojunction solar cells, which were reported to be the next generation of crystalline silicon cells. The authors reported that increasing the efficiency limits can be achieved by increasing the short-circuit current while maintaining its high open-circuit voltage, and for mass production, there should be minimal consumption of indium and silver. Ibarra et al. [ 6 ] stated that high water quality is now commonplace for crystalline silicon ( c -Si)-based solar cells, meaning that the cell's efficiency potential is largely dictated by the effectiveness of its carrier-selective contacts based on highly doped-silicon, which can introduce negative side effects such as parasitic absorption. According to Chee et al. [ 37 ], carrier-selective crystalline silicon heterojunction (SHJ) solar cells have already achieved remarkable lab-scale efficiencies, with SiOx/heavily doped polycrystalline silicon (n + -/p + -poly-Si) creating the most attractive polysilicon-on-oxide (POLO) junctions.

As a result, industry trends will shift away from p-Si passivated emitter and rear polysilicon (PERPoly) designs and toward TOPCon architectures. Costals et al. [ 38 ] described how vanadium oxide films provide excellent surface passivation with effective lifetime values of up to 800 s and solar cells with efficiencies greater than 18%, shedding light on the possibilities of transition metal oxides deposited using the atomic layer deposition technique. To solve the challenge of realizing a high aspect ratio (AR) of the metal fingers in a bifacial (BF) copper-plated crystalline silicon solar cell, Han et al. [ 31 ] created a new type of hybrid-shaped Cu finger device, electromagnetically fabricated in a 2-step deposition BF plating process, which shows a front-side efficiency of 22.1% and a BF factor of 0.99. Finally, using a grading technique to increase the efficiency of c-Si solar cells, Pham et al. [ 32 ] attained a conversion efficiency of 22%.

Other materials currently in use are low-cost solar cells based on hybrid polymer semiconductor materials containing a light-harvesting material, which absorbs photons with energy equal to or greater than the energy of the band gap ( E g). This leads to the creation of excitons (bound electron–hole pairs) ranging from 5 to 15 nm in most organic semiconductors, which diffuse in the material and may either undergo dissociation to the separate charge carriers or recombination with the emission of energy [ 32 ]. To improve the dissociation of excitons and enhance the efficiency of the PV cell, the photoactive material is combined with a strong acceptor of electrons of high electron affinity. Then, the separated electrons and holes migrate through different materials in the internal electric field generated across the device and are accommodated by the appropriate collecting electrodes. Organic particle–polymer (PCBM-P3HT) solar cells’ conversion efficiencies are much lower than those obtained for semiconductor devices [ 6 ]. Recent research on hybrid cells discusses performance analysis and the parameter optimization of hybrid PV cells [ 34 , 35 ], while porous organic polymer cells have received current research attention for drug delivery and biomedical applications [ 36 , 37 , 38 ].

Thin films (TF) only represent 10% of the global PV market. However, researchers around the world are exploring other options to produce electricity more efficiently using solar cells; hence, R&D for developing new materials is currently going on. A strategic approach to tuning absorbance, grain size rearrangement, conductivity, morphology, topography, and stoichiometric compositions for absorber layer solar cell applications is the incorporation of foreign dopants in the CdSe host lattice. Chasta et al. [ 18 ] using the thermal-evaporation approach, thin films of CdSe:Cu alloys with 1%, 3%, and 5% Cu contents were grown and annealed at 350 °C. Because of their efficiency, simplicity of manufacturing, and low cost, hybrid organic–inorganic halides are regarded as excellent materials when utilized as the absorber layer in perovskite solar cells (PSCs). According to Marí-Guaita et al. [ 39 ], its lower efficiency using MASnI3 as an absorber is more stable, which could be improved by enhancing the bandgap alignment of MaSnI3 [ 39 ]. Tarbi et al. [ 40 ] stated that the physical parameters of the absorption coefficients are more related to the variation of pressure than the temperature variation and deformation of a double-junction solar cell (Jsc) equal to 47.03 mA/cm 2 , and this results in a shift from maximum current density to low voltages while retaining its maximum value of 36.03 mW/m 2 . According to Chaudhry et al. [ 49 ], improving the optical absorption and current density in an active layer, under the standard AM-1.5 solar spectra, is achieved through the inclusion of semiconductor nanoparticles (NPs). The efficiencies were raised by 10% for the aluminum nanoparticles (NPs) design and by 21% and 30% for solar cells with and without anti-reflective thin film coating, respectively. In another study, Al- and Cu-doped ZnO nanostructured films were deposited using a sputtering technique, and doping resulted in enhanced conductivity as well as improved mobility in Al–ZnO and Cu–ZnO films in comparison with pure ZnO films, resulting in efficiencies of 0.492% and 0.559% for Al–ZnO- and Cu–ZnO-based solar cells, respectively.

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC) shown in Fig.  4 are an alternative concept to present-day p–n junction photovoltaic devices for optoelectronics applications. DSC is made up of a cathode, a photoactive layer, an electrolyte, and an anode [ 53 ]. The functional layers for flexible DSC, notably the electrodes that also serve as active layer substrates, must be flexible. In contrast to typical systems in which the semiconductor performs both light absorption and charge carrier transport, light is absorbed by a sensitizer attached to the surface of a wide-band semiconductor in this system [ 54 ]. The dye sensitizer absorbs incoming sunlight and uses the energy to initiate a vectorial electron transfer process. Around 10% of overall solar-to-current conversion efficiencies (IPCE) have been achieved [ 55 ]. However, DSC has no practical conversion efficiency breakthrough and suffers from low mechanical stability and problematic sealing, but enhancing the properties of the sensitizers, metal oxide/semiconductor film, substrate, redox electrolyte, and counter electrode (CE) accelerates DSC applications [ 56 ].

Schematic diagram of the dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC)

The N3 dye was reported to be stable as a pure solid in the air up to 280 °C, where decarboxylation occurs. It lasts 108 redox cycles under long-term light with no obvious loss of function. Metal oxides, such as TiO 2 , SnO 2 , ZnO 2 , In 2 O 3 , CeO 3 , and NbO 3 , have been employed as photoanodes to investigate materials for effective photoanodes [ 57 ]. Hence, the breakthrough in DSC was the use of a high-surface-area nanoporous TiO 2 layer, and the outstanding stability is the very rapid deactivation of its excited state via charge injection into the TiO 2 , which occurs in the femtosecond time domain [ 58 ].

TiO 2 became the preferred semiconductor because of its low cost, non-toxicity, and abundance. Although the N3/N3 + pair exhibits reversible electrochemical activity in various organic solvents, showing that the lifespan of N3 + is at least several seconds under these conditions, the oxidized form of N3 + , the dye created by electron injection, is significantly less stable [ 59 ]. However, when maintained in the oxidized state, the dye degrades through the loss of sulfur. To avoid this undesirable side reaction, regeneration of the N3 in the photovoltaic cell should occur quickly, i.e., within nanoseconds or microseconds [ 60 ]. Cell failure may occur due to the circumstances of the dye renewal. Recent advances in the field of sensitizers for these devices have resulted in dyes that absorb over the visible spectrum, resulting in better efficiencies. The DSC may be based on a huge internal interface prepared in a simple laboratory environment without strict demands on the purity of the materials or the absence of a built-in electric field. DSC offers low production costs and, interestingly, much lower investment costs compared with conventional PV technologies. It offers flexibility, lightweight, and design opportunities, such as transparency and multicolor options (building integration, consumer products, etc.). There is feedstock availability to reach the terawatt scale, and there is also a short energy payback time (< 1 year), where the enhanced performance is under real outdoor conditions, which are relatively better than competitors at diffuse light and higher temperatures [ 61 ].

In high-efficiency DSCs, ruthenium (Ru) complex dyes and organic solvent-based electrolytes such as N719, N3, and black dye are commonly utilized. Ru dyes, on the other hand, are costly and require a complicated chemical method. Its products, such as ruthenium oxide (RuO 4 ), are also very poisonous and volatile. Organic solvents are also poisonous, ecologically dangerous, and explosive, and their low surface tension can cause leakage difficulties [ 48 , 50 , 52 ]. Hence, organic solvents and Ru-based complex dyes may need to be replaced to realize low-cost, biocompatible, and environmentally benign devices. Water and natural dyes derived from plants could be excellent alternatives, according to Kim et al. [ 56 ]. Yadav et al. [ 60 ] assembled TiO 2  nanorod (NR)-based hibiscus dye with different counter electrodes such as carbon, graphite, and gold. The authors measured efficiencies of 0.07%, 0.10%, and 0.23%, respectively. The key to the breakthrough for DSCs in 1991 was the use of a mesoporous TiO 2 electrode with a high internal surface area to support the monolayer of a sensitizer and the increase in surface area by using mesoporous electrodes [ 42 ]. The standard DSC dye was tris (2,2′-bipyridyl-4,4′-carboxylate) ruthenium (II) (N3 dye), and the carboxylate group in the dye attaches the semiconductor oxide substrate by chemisorption; hence, when the photon is absorbed, the excited state of the dye molecule will relax by electron injection to the semiconductor conduction band. Since 1993, the photovoltaic performance of N3 dye has been irreplaceable by other dye complexes [ 42 ]. Bandara et al. [ 43 ] mentioned that recent developments comprising textile DSCs are being looked at for their sustainability, flexibility, pliability, and lightweight properties, as well as the possibility of using large-scale industrial manufacturing methods (e.g., weaving and screen printing) [ 62 ].

A conducting polymer such as pyrrole was electrochemically polymerized on a porous nanocrystalline TiO 2 electrode, which was sensitized by N3 dye. Polypyrrole successfully worked as a whole transport layer, connecting dye molecules anchored on TiO2 to the counter electrode. Conducting polyaniline has also been used in solid-state solar cells sensitized with methylene blue.

Light-emitting diodes based on halide perovskites have limited practical uses [ 63 ]. Additional drawbacks of the technique include a lack of knowledge of the influence of the electric field on mobile ions present in perovskite materials, a drop in external quantum efficiency at high current density, and limited device lifetimes [ 63 , 64 ]. Nonetheless, the technology has advanced rapidly in recent years, and it can currently provide external quantum efficiencies of more than 21%, equivalent to silicon solar cells [ 64 ]. Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) were created in the same way as other SPV materials like organic photovoltaics, dye-sensitized solar cells, and vacuum-processed PVs such as CdTe and CIGSOne. PSCs have a high open-circuit voltage (VOC), which distinguishes them from all other photovoltaics (PVs). The loss in VOC induced by non-radiative recombination in the case of PSCs is significantly low, even as low as that reported for vacuum-processed Si. By enhancing the high open-circuit voltage VOC, all-inorganic and tin-based perovskites have the potential to exceed the Shockley–Queisser (S–Q) limitations [ 65 ]. Luo et al. [ 80 ] used a (FAPbI 3 )0.95(MAPbBr 3 )0.05 perovskite to produce a VOC of 1.11 V and an efficiency of 21.73% using a new fluorinated iron (III) porphine dopant for PTAA. Unlike Wu et al. [ 81 ], who achieved a 1.59 eV hybrid perovskite, the Jen group obtained a VOC of 1.21 V and a high efficiency of 22.31%.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have demonstrated a significant potential for enhancing polymer material characteristics. CNTs have better electrical and thermal conductivity, they are highly stiff, robust, and tough. Combining CNTs with brittle materials allows one to convey some of the CNTs' appealing mechanical qualities to the resultant composites, making CNT a good choice for reinforcement in polymeric materials. Zhu et al. [ 109 ] used carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with single walls to strengthen the epoxy Epon 862 matrix. The molecular dynamics method is used to investigate three periodic systems: a long CNT-reinforced Epon 862 composite, a short CNT-reinforced Epon 862 composite, and the Epon 862 matrix itself. The stress–strain relationships and elastic Young's moduli along the longitudinal direction (parallel to CNT) are simulated, and the results are compared to those obtained using the rule-of-mixture. Their findings reveal that when longitudinal strain rises, the Young's modulus of CNT increases whereas that of the Epon 862 composite or matrix drops. Furthermore, a long CNT may significantly increase the Epon 862 composite's Young's modulus (approximately 10 times stiffer), which is consistent with the prediction based on the rule-of-mixture at low strain level. Even a short CNT can improve the Young's modulus of the Epon 862 composite, with a 20% increase when compared to the Epon 862 matrix. Sui et al. [ 110 ] made CNT/NR composites after CNTs were treated in an acid bath and then ball-milled using HRH bonding methods. The thermal properties, vulcanization properties, and mechanical properties of CNT/NR composites were studied. When compared to CB, the absorption of CNTs into NR was quicker and consumed less energy. CNT/NR composites' over-curing reversion was reduced. The dispersion of CNTs in the rubber matrix and the interaction between CNTs and the matrix enhanced after acid treatment and ball milling. When compared to plain NR and CB/NR composites, the addition of treated CNTs improved the performance of the CNT/reinforced NR composites. Medupin et al. [ 111 ] used multi-walled carbon nanotube (WMCNT) reinforced natural rubber (NR) polymer nanocomposite (PNC) for prosthetic foot applications. On an open two-roll mill, the components were mixed according to the ASTM D-3182 standard during vulcanization. The nanocomposites (NCs) were cured in an electrically heated hydraulic press for 10 min at a temperature of 1502 °C and a pressure of 0.2 MPa. Mechanical testing found that NR/ MWCNT-3 had the maximum tensile and dynamic loading capability (449.79 MPa). It also had better filler dispersion, which increased crystallinity and cross-linking. The newly created prosthetic material is also said to have better wear resistance than conventional prosthetic materials as shown in Fig.  5 . The developed nanocomposite from MWCNTs for reinforced natural rubber is suited for the construction of the anthropomorphic prosthetic foot.

Wear rate of the carbon nanotube composites

4 Efficiency, stability, and scalability of solar photovoltaic materials

4.1 economic feasibility.

The economic feasibility of solar photovoltaic devices refers to their cost-effectiveness compared to other sources of energy. In the past, solar panels were relatively expensive, and their high cost made them less attractive to many consumers. However, in recent years, the cost of solar panels has dropped significantly, making them much more affordable. Recent advances in SPV technologies have driven this cost reduction in manufacturing technology and economies of scale. Additionally, many governments around the world offer incentives and subsidies to encourage the use of renewable energy sources like solar power, further increasing their economic feasibility. Angmo et al. [ 77 ] prepared polymer solar cell modules directly on thin flexible barrier polyethylene terephthalate foil, which is a cost-effective alternative to ITO-based devices with potential applications in information, communications, and mobile technology (ICT) where low humidity (50%) and lower temperatures (65 °C) are expected and operational lifetimes over one year are estimated.

4.2 PV device efficiencies

Several procedures are required to generate electricity from PVs. Strongly bonded holes and electron pairs, known as photo-produced excitons, are formed by incoming light and separated at the interface between the donor and acceptor. Materials with a greater electron affinity take electrons, while materials with a low electronization potential admit holes. The produced electrons and holes are then carried through the p-type and n-type material phases, respectively, toward both electrodes, resulting in an external photocurrent flow. Hence, the efficiency of power conversion in organic solar cells is determined by the combination of the following steps: dissociation of electron–hole pairs at the p-n interface; exciton formation following incoming solar light absorption; charge collection at the electrodes; and transport of electrons and holes to both electrodes. The first-generation solar cell has a recorded performance of around 15–20%, as displayed in Fig.  6 . The second-generation solar cell is made of amorphous silicon, CdTe, and CIGS and has a 4–15% efficiency. Because second-generation technologies do not rely on silicon wafers, they are less expensive than first-generation technologies.

Solar photovoltaic materials and their efficiencies

Hence, first-generation solar cells have higher reported efficiencies than thin-film solar cells, but they are more expensive due to the use of pure silicon in the production process. Thin-film solar cells, on the other hand, use less material, take less time, and are less expensive. Solar cells of the first generation are non-toxic and bountiful in nature. Second-generation solar cells have a lower per-watt price and efficiency when compared to other technologies. Organic materials and polymers are used in the third-generation solar cell. As compared to other varieties, the third-generation solar cell is more efficient and less expensive. The process for producing third-generation cells is simple and unique, but it has yet to be verified. The third-generation new kind of solar cell technology, the perovskite solar cell, has a record efficiency of more than 25% [ 78 ]. Nevertheless, UV light, oxygen, and moisture can all contribute to the poor stability of polycrystalline perovskite materials, the most pressing issue that must be addressed before the application of perovskite photovoltaic technology is the long-term stability of PSCs [ 79 ].

4.3 Stability of photovoltaics

The stability of solar photovoltaic devices refers to their ability to maintain their efficiency and reliability over time. In the past, solar panels had a reputation for being unreliable due to their sensitivity to weather and the environment. However, modern solar panels are much more stable and durable than earlier versions. They can withstand extreme temperatures and harsh weather conditions, making them suitable for use in a wide range of environments. Additionally, advances in solar panel technology have made them more efficient, which means they produce more energy for longer periods. However, increasing the long-term stability of perovskite solar cells is currently one of the most crucial concerns. According to Lee et al. [ 94 ], nanoscale metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) with chemically, moistly, and thermally stable nanostructures have better PSCs’ stability as well as higher device performance, which has increased the interest of the perovskite photovoltaic community in recent times. This can be attributed to MOF’s flexible structure, considerable pore volume, high surface area, high concentration of active metal sites, controllable topology, and tuneable pore diameters [ 81 ]. MOFs are used to improve device stability in applications such as gas separation and storage, optoelectronics, and catalysis devices [ 67 , 82 , 83 ]. Furthermore, to improve operational stability in hybrid perovskite solar cells, a thorough understanding of photodegradation and thermal degradation processes is required [ 84 ]. Additionally, interfacial engineering with hydrophobic materials, or the 2D/3D concept, has significantly improved long-term stability.

4.4 Scalability of photovoltaics

Furthermore, the ability of solar photovoltaic devices to meet rising energy demands is referred to as their scalability. Solar panels can be installed on a wide range of structures, from homes to commercial and industrial structures. They can also be scaled up for utility-scale power generation, allowing solar energy to power entire communities. Furthermore, advancements in solar panel manufacturing have increased their efficiency, allowing them to be more scalable in terms of the amount of energy they can produce from a given surface area. The challenges for scaling up perovskite solar cells include developing scalable deposition strategies for the uniform coating of all device layers over large-area substrates, including the perovskite photoactive layer, electron-transport layer (ETL), hole-transport layer (HTL), and electrodes. Other challenges include developing procedures for fabrication and achieving better control of film formation across the device stack at large scales by improving the precursor chemistry to match the processing methods. Nonetheless, despite the challenges, in 2019, a stable solid-state perovskite solar cell with a certified power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 25.2% was recorded [ 75 ]. Although small-area cells are extremely efficient, scaling-up technology is required for commercialization. Scalable Technologies is now focused on high-efficiency module production and large-area perovskite coating, where dimethyl sulfoxide or N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF), which are perovskite precursor solutions used for spin coating and scalable depositions, may not be feasible due to sluggish evaporation and significant interactions with Lewis acid precursors. For producing a homogeneous perovskite coating over a large area substrate, Park [ 87 ] suggested using acetonitrile or 2-methoxyethanol solvents, while Li et al. [ 89 ] mentioned blade coating, meniscus coating, slot-die coating, spray coating, screen-printing, inkjet printing, and electrodeposition as scalable solution deposition processes for perovskite development. Altinkaya et al. [ 90 ] reported that tin oxide (SnO 2 ) is a scalable alternative to mesoporous titanium dioxide (TiO 2 )/compact TiO 2 stacks as electron-selective layers (ESLs) due to its wide bandgap, high carrier mobility, high optical transmission, decent chemical stability, and suitable band alignment with perovskites.

Finally, the scalability, stability, and economic feasibility of solar photovoltaic devices have all improved significantly in recent years. Advances in technology and manufacturing have made solar panels more efficient and affordable, while incentives and subsidies have encouraged their use. As a result, solar energy is becoming an increasingly popular source of renewable energy capable of meeting growing energy demands sustainably and reliably.

5 Environmental effects of solar photovoltaics

PV systems are recognized as clean and long-term energy sources. Although PV systems may generate little pollution while in operation, the environmental effects of such systems observed from manufacture through disposal must not be disregarded. The environmental problems of PV systems include the generation of hazardous chemicals, the pollution of water resources, and the emission of air pollutants during the production process, and the impact of PV installations on land utilization. According to Tawalbeh et al. [ 68 ], by improving PV design, recycling solar cell materials to reduce GHG emissions by up to 42%, creating novel materials with improved properties, improving cell lifespans, avoiding hazardous components, recycling, and making careful site selection, the negative environmental impacts of PV systems may be considerably reduced. These mitigation actions will reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, restrict solid waste accumulation, and save essential water resources. PV systems have a carbon footprint of 14–73 CO 2 -eq/kWh, which is 10 to 53 orders of magnitude lower than the emissions observed from oil burning (742 CO2-eq/kWh from oil). The carbon footprint of the PV system might be lowered by using novel production materials. When compared to traditional solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), Smith et al. [ 69 ] proposed the use of these novel material combinations leads to a reduction in embodied materials and toxicological impact, but a higher electrical energy consumption during manufacturing. Their findings provide support for the drive to reduce the operating temperatures of SOFCs using unique material designs, resulting in a lower overall environmental impact due to the lower operational energy from the constituents of the selected material. Blanco et al. [ 70 ] reported that thin-film silicon and dye-sensitized cells lead the way in terms of total environmental impact, followed by thin-film chalcogenide, organic, and silicon. Chetyrkina et al. [ 71 ] analyzed the constituents of perovskite cells for their environmental hazards: lead, tin, or bismuth iodide on the one hand, and methylammonium, formamidinium, or cesium iodide on the other. The authors stated that bismuth iodide was the least hazardous in the first round of cell testing. Cesium and formamidinium iodides were less harmful to cells than methylammonium iodide. This study argued that their reports show that perovskite cells will fully phase out silicon-based cells since the former is not as toxic as the latter [ 72 ].

6 Summary and outlook

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have been reported to exhibit covalent bond-supported crystallinity as well as capture and mass transport characteristics [ 90 ]. Organic semiconductors are gaining popularity in research, and materials for organic electronics are currently intensively researched for other purposes, such as organic photovoltaics, large-area devices, and thin-film transistors, benefiting from the emergence of non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs) and the organic light-emitting diode (OLED) [ 91 ]. There have also been reports of issues arising from applications such as displays on flexible substrates, OLED lighting, huge area displays, and printable or solution processible greater area solar cells. Inorganic halide templates in carbon nanotubes of 1.2 nm, which are currently the smallest halide perovskite structures, have been reported to function as solar cells [ 92 ]. While other research has developed strategies to increase the durability of perovskites by using computer models based on density functional theory (DFT) to determine which molecules would be best at bridging the perovskite layer and the charge transport layers since the interface between the perovskite layer and the next layers is a critical location of vulnerability in perovskite solar cells. The results showed that inverted perovskite solar cells containing 1,3-bis(diphenylphosphine)propane, or DPPP, had the best performance because the cell's total power conversion efficiency remained high for around 3,500 h [ 93 ].

There are also environmental problems with PV systems, from production through installation and disposal [ 94 ]. Moreso, because perovskites are unstable, they must be protected with transparent polymers. Perovskite decomposes into chemicals that may pose environmental and human health hazards when this protection deteriorates [ 95 ]. Hence, PV solar systems have a carbon footprint of 14–73 g CO 2 -eq/kWh, which is lower than gas (607.6 CO 2 -eq/kWh), oil (742.1 CO 2 -eq/kWh), and coal-fired (975.3 g CO 2 -eq/kWh) power plants. New materials and/or recycled silicon material can reduce GHG emissions by up to 50% [ 96 ]. Floating PV systems and self-cleaning installations offer the benefit of using less water during the cleaning process. Except during installation, the PV modules have little noise and visual impact [ 97 ]. The life cycle analysis revealed that PV systems cannot be considered zero-emission technology due to the potential environmental effects imposed by land use, air quality, water use, the inclusion of hazardous materials, and possible noise/visual pollution; however, these effects can be mitigated by novel technologies such as hybrid power systems and/or floating PV systems [ 98 , 99 , 100 ]. Overall, future materials for solar photovoltaic devices must balance efficiency, cost, durability, toxicity, availability, and integration to provide a sustainable and cost-effective source of renewable energy [ 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 ].

7 Conclusion

Recent advancements in solar photovoltaic (PV) materials and systems have resulted in considerable efficiency, cost, and durability improvements. PV has become a more realistic choice for a wide range of applications, including power production, water pumping, and space exploration, as a result of these advancements. The creation of high-efficiency crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells has been one of the most significant recent developments in PV technology. C-Si solar cells can currently convert more than 20% of the sun's energy into electricity.

This is a huge advance over early c-Si solar cells, which could only convert roughly 10% of the sun's energy into power. The creation of thin-film solar cells is another significant recent advancement in PV technology. Thin-film solar cells are constructed from substantially thinner materials than c-Si solar cells. As a result, they are lighter and less expensive to produce. Thin-film solar cells are also more flexible than c-Si solar cells, allowing them to be used in a broader range of applications. In addition to advancements in PV materials, substantial advancements in PV systems have occurred. PV systems today feature a number of components that aid in efficiency, durability, and dependability.

Solar trackers, inverters, and batteries are among the components. PV has become a more realistic choice for a wide range of applications due to advancements in PV materials and systems. PV is currently used to power homes and businesses, as well as to pump water and power satellites and other spacecraft. PV technology is expected to become more commonly employed in the future as it improves.

Other recent advances in solar PV materials and systems include the development of new materials, such as perovskites, that have the potential to achieve even higher efficiencies than c-Si solar cells, the development of new manufacturing processes that can lower the cost of PV modules, and the development of new PV applications, such as solar-powered cars and homes. These advancements make solar PV a more appealing alternative for a broader range of applications. As the cost of PV continues to fall, solar PV is anticipated to become the major form of renewable energy in the future.

Availability of data and material

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

• Solar photovoltaic

Photovoltaic

Floating tracking concentrating cooling system

Hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal system

Hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermoelectric

Hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal

Direct current

Alternating current

Power conditioning unit

• Energy storage

Two-dimensional

Three-dimensional)

Silicon heterojunction

Polysilicon-on-oxide

Perovskite solar cells

Open-circuit voltage

Junction solar cell

Nanoparticles

Dye-sensitized solar cells

Counter electrode

Shockley–Queisser

Information and communications and mobile technology

Ultraviolet

Metal–organic frameworks

Electron-transport layer

Hole-transport layer

Power conversion efficiency

N-dimethylformamide

Electron-selective layers

Solid oxide fuel cells

Covalent organic frameworks

Non-fullerene acceptors

Organic light-emitting diode

Density functional theory

1,3 Bis(diphenylphosphino)propane

Greenhouse gas

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Dada, M., Popoola, P. Recent advances in solar photovoltaic materials and systems for energy storage applications: a review. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci 12 , 66 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43088-023-00405-5

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15 Topics for Solar Energy Research

Solar energy is a renewable resource that can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels.

Additionally, solar energy research can lead to the development of new technologies and jobs in the solar industry.

Finally, solar energy research can help to improve the efficiency of solar cells and make them more affordable for consumers.

Machine learning

Bionic leaf, others five topics, solar energy research topics for high school, how is solar energy the future, how does solar energy work (for your research), what are the 2 main disadvantages of solar energy, 15 topics for you to do solar energy research.

Solar energy research and development is a big topic. Here are 15 different solar energy topics you can write about for your next solar energy research paper:

Researchers at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign developed a machine learning program to forecast the performance of future solar photovoltaic materials, including “virtual” compounds that do not yet exist.

The technique was developed in collaboration with Industry Partner CSIRO and is now freely accessible and simple to use for research teams all over the world.

It will significantly accelerate the development of more efficient solar cells, which are increasingly important as renewable energy’s popularity rises and carbon emissions reduction becomes more crucial.

Scientists recently created a model named bionic leaf that can separate sunlight into water into hydrogen and oxygen. With bacteria engineering, it converts carbon dioxide and hydrogen into a liquid fuel called isopropanol. The efficiency of this process is 1 percent, and you can turn sunlight into fuel.

This research is currently in the initial stage, and you can improve it if you are interested. This is a possible process that can become an outstanding source of renewable energy. The improvement of energy recreation will be a great solution. It allows scientists to use natural resources for energy production.

Some other topics you can start researching are listed below. The thin film solar is one of the key directions that many governments want to develop due to its advantages. If you are super serious about your subject, you can dig deeper into that field and maybe, spend more time on the lab, connect to others in the solar e, and who knows, in the future, we will have a new technology that can save a million trees.

• Thin Film Solar
• Carbon-Based Solar Cells
• Polymer Solar Cells
• Solar Concentration Technology
• Lignocellulose Hydrolysis Technology

Those are topics for your next research paper. If you are a high school student and want to do some research about solar energy, below are some simpler topics that you can learn and present in front of the class.

• The cost of solar energy research and development
• Solar energy storage methods
• Solar power in transportation
• Solar energy in the home
• Solar water heating
• Solar space heating and cooling
• Solar cooking
• Solar pool heating
• Passive solar building design
• Active solar building technologies
• Solar air conditioning
• Solar photovoltaic cells
• Solar thermal power plants
• Solar desalination
• The future of solar energy research and development

I have listed a few possible topics for you to write about in your solar energy research paper. These are only a few of the many possibilities available to you. Be sure to brainstorm other ideas and do some preliminary research before settling on a topic. Good luck!

The future of solar energy is very bright. Solar energy is a clean, renewable resource that can be used to generate electricity, heat homes and businesses, and power transportation. With the right policies in place, solar energy could provide a significant portion of the world’s energy needs.

Solar energy works by trapping sunlight in solar panels and converting it into electricity. Solar panels are made up of a series of cells that contain semiconductors, such as silicon. When sunlight hits the cell, it causes an electric field to be created. The electricity generated can then be used to power homes and businesses.

First, solar energy is not a consistent source of energy because it is dependent on the amount of sunlight available. Second, solar energy is also relatively expensive to set up compared to other forms of energy generation.

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How to write a research paper on solar energy: a graduate-level guide  0.

How many types of paper do you think a college student should know? Apart from writing essays, discussion posts, and replies, a person pursuing an undergraduate and graduate degree should be conversant with a format or outline of scientific papers, research proposals, and dissertations. This know-how assists a student in coherently organizing and structuring his or her ideas.

As such, this article aims to offer insightful tips on how to make a research paper on solar energy meet proficient or distinguished criteria on the rubric. In other words, this graduate-level guide provides a clear distinction between this type of writing and a general essay. 

Solar Energy Research Paper: A Recommended Structure 

When you review several research papers on solar energy, you’ll notice that an abstract appears before other sections. However, it’s important to note that a student should write it after completing the paper. Why should you adhere to this rule? Very simple, it’s because an abstract summarizes the key arguments of a research paper. This section, according to Naval Postgraduate School , differs from an executive summary in terms of length and information included. In particular, an abstract ranges from 100 to 200 words, while an executive summary might be 2 to 5 pages. What does this mean? A student might include citations in an executive summary. 

So, when writing a research paper on solar energy, you should ensure that its abstract contains concise statements about the following:

• The significance of the research 
• The research question
• The scientific method used to answer the research question
• The findings

Introduction

If you pride yourself on the knowledge of how to write a perfect essay, this section shouldn’t be a problem for you. When writing a solar energy research paper, you should present comprehensive theories underlying the problem. Take a close look at this paragraph.

Even though the discovery of fossil fuel to substitute wood charcoal promoted industrialization and economic development, it has presented multiple challenges to the environment and human health. According to Zoghi et al. (2017), as cited by Choifin et al.’s (2021) article, “most of the energy sources that are currently relied on are limited and will run out due to increasing demand” (p. 1). Due to the supply deficit of fossil fuel, many countries opt to purchase cheap fossil fuels. However, such petroleum contains high octane that reduces the lifespan of vehicle engines. As a consequence, nations end up with piles of scrap and heavy metals that pollute the environment. The country can remedy this problem if it implements renewable energy sources such as solar, hydropower, and wind power, among many other options. According to Biçen, Szczutkowski, and Vardar (2018), “solar energy, which is an almost infinite energy source that does not have a negative effect on the environment, is utilized in two ways as “Thermal Systems” and “Electrical Systems”.”

After reading this introduction, you’ll notice that the presented theoretical background of the problem contains scholarly pieces of evidence. Afterwards, it offers the significance of the research by highlighting why countries should adopt renewable sources of energy such as solar. 

Literature review

When writing a solar energy research paper, you should consider reviewing studies on the same subject. In this case, you can explore topics on the latest trends and the future. Take a look at the below literature review.

The expansion of solar energy solutions worldwide is attributable to its high demand. According to Solar Energy Industries Association [SEIA] (n.d.), this sector has experienced approximately 24% yearly growth over the past ten years. About 26 million houses benefit from over 149 gigawatts (GW) because of the federal financial support through the solar Investment Tax credit. Another reason for the expansion of this sector, according to Choifin et al. (2021), a suitable solution for the supply deficit of electricity is renewable energy sources (RE).

Ideally, your literature review should present arguments on different topics. Each paragraph should have at least two citations with ideas that build on a central theme. Depending on the length of your research paper, a literature review should contain several paragraphs. 

Methodology

Unlike a dissertation that a student has several weeks or months to complete, your professor might want you to complete a research paper on solar energy within days. As such, the recommended design would be a systematic review. In this case, you need to select a few journals on the topic of interest. How can you do this? Considering that you require access to articles with the latest information on solar energy, you can consider contacting professional services like CustomWritings to get your write my research paper request processed by expert writers. The reason for opting for a research paper writer on this website to assist you in systematic review concerns their experience of using online databases.  

While most systematic reviews on solar technology tend to be qualitative, you can opt to utilize mixed design. In this case, you can get some figures from the articles and conduct an extensive analysis to reveal some trends or patterns. At this point, you can consider including tables or graphs on the usage of renewable sources over the years.  

Discussions

After presenting the results, you need to support the trends and patterns with scholarly sources. You can find relevant articles by searching solar energy research paper topics on the web. The length of the discussion depends on your knowledge of interpreting results and summarizing evidence-based findings. 

While writing this section, you should ensure that it doesn’t look or structured similar to the abstract. As such, a student should summarize the main points of the study and the research implications. In some papers, you can combine discussion and conclusion. You can add recommendations in this section. 

References 

Regardless of your format, you should place all the materials cited in the paper in this section. 

Write a Research Paper on Solar Energy: Dos and Don’ts

• Use headings and subheadings . Unlike most essays, your research paper should have clear sections. This strategy facilitates the organization of ideas. 
• Define terms. Considering that you are most likely to apply technical writing in research papers, you should consider providing definitions of the vocabulary and figures used. This strategy is important when it comes to the result section.
• Cite all borrowed ideas . The rationale for citing and referencing concerns eliminating intentional plagiarism. 
• Let the research question guide the writing process . This strategy ensures that you stay on the topic.
• Fabricate the results. Since most research papers on solar energy tend to utilize secondary data, some students might provide fake data. 
• Overuse ‘I”. Although personal opinions are necessary when writing a research paper, you should devise a way of presenting them. 
• Introducing new results. When writing a discussion of a research paper, you should stick to your result. In other words, you should not get a source with similar information and just paraphrase. Make sure the information you are looking for either supports or challenges your results. 

Even though this article offers a standard structure for writing a research paper on solar energy, students should understand that any deviation in instruction is unacceptable. What does this mean? Some professors might require students to only look at the impact and consequences of solar energy. Such a research paper might have only two headings. It’s because of this reason you should always consult a research paper service if anything is unclear! 

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Research papers: solar energy.

By Shao-Hua Wu, Michelle L. Povinelli

Optics Express

We use a coupled thermal-optical approach to model the operating temperature rise in GaAs nanowire solar cells. We find that despite more highly concentrated light absorption and lower thermal conductivity, the overall temperature rise in a nanowire structure is no higher than in a planar structure. Moreover, coating the nanowires with a transparent polymer can increase the radiative cooling power by 2.2 times, lowering the operating temperature by nearly 7 K.

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A review of solar photovoltaic-powered water desalination technologies

• Original Article
• Published: 11 May 2024
• Volume 10 , article number  123 , ( 2024 )

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• Albashir K. Elfaqih   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6294-5868 1 ,
• Abdurazaq Elbaz 1 &
• Yousef M. Akash 1  

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The availability of energy and water sources is basic and indispensable for the life of modernistic humans. Because of this importance, the interrelationship between energy derived from renewable energy sources and water desalination technologies has achieved great interest recently. So this paper reviews the photovoltaic (PV) system-powered desalination technologies as stand-alone systems or hybrid systems in the last decade, and this review includes the technologies of reverse osmosis (RO), electrodialysis (ED), reverse electrodialysis (RED), and membrane distillation (MD). This review aims to assess the extent of its development during this decade by evaluating the extent of the reduction in energy consumption and the costs of water production for each technology. Besides, this review reveals the significant developments in the use of photovoltaic system as a source of electric energy for various desalination technologies, especially their use with hybrid sources, such as wind turbines, thermal solar tubulars, and hydrogen fuel cells. These studies and research mainly focused on reverse osmosis technology. Also, most research indicates that PV-RO, PV-ED, and PV-RED systems are friendly to the environment, economical, and suitable for treating contaminated water, especially in remote areas. The review also shows that there is a development in other desalination technologies that can be powered by photovoltaic energy due to their lower energy consumption.

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Elfaqih, A.K., Elbaz, A. & Akash, Y.M. A review of solar photovoltaic-powered water desalination technologies. Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. 10 , 123 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-024-01067-6

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110 Solar Energy Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best solar energy topic ideas & essay examples, 📌 simple & easy solar energy essay titles, 👍 good essay topics on solar energy, ❓ questions about solar energy.

• Solar Energy Installation Project Management 0 Pilot solar energy project Managers will run a pilot project to determine the feasibility of the project. A number of resources will be required to complete the project.
• Using Solar (PV) Energy to Generate Hydrogen Gas for Fuel Cells With the current technologies, an electrolyzer working at 100% efficiency needs 39 kWh of electricity to liberate 1 kg of hydrogen.
• Solar Energy in the United Arab Emirates The success of the solar power initiatives in the UAE is largely attributed to the wide range of financial incentives that the UAE government has offered to the companies that are prepared to advance the […]
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• Solar Energy in the UAE It is important to note that the nature of the solar field is modular, and that it has a number of parallel solar collector rows.
• New Techniques for Harnessing Solar Energy Due to the scarcity of fossil fuels and the expenses incurred in the mining of fossil fuels, it is important that we find a new source of energy to fulfill the energy needs of the […]
• Efficient Solar Refrigeration: A Technology Platform for Clean Energy and Water Refrigeration cycle capable to be driven by low grade energy, substituting gas-phase ejector used in conventional mechanical compressor.
• Making Solar Energy Affordable Solar energy is a type of energy that is obtained through tapping the sun’s rays radiant and converting it into other energy forms such as heat and electricity.
• Government Subsidies for Solar Energy This approach has enabled solar companies and developers to penetrate the energy market despite the high costs involved in developing solar power.
• The Sun’s Light and Heat: Solar Energy Issue The figure below provides an overview of the major parts of the solar system, which include the solar core, the radiative zone, the convective zone, the photosphere, the chromosphere, and the corona among others.
• Solar Energy: Review and Analysis Available literature shows that most commercial CSP plants in Spain and the United States using synthetic oil as the transfer fluid and molten salt as the thermal energy storage technology are able to achieve a […]
• Solar and Wind Energy in the Empty Quarter Desert However, the main bulk of the report focuses on the proposal to build a stand alone renewable energy source, a combination of a solar power wind turbine system that will provide a stable energy source […]
• Solar Energy Selling Framework The list of actions to complete the required activity goes in the following sequence: planning actions, sales pitch itself, and reflection. The actions, aimed at doing are the four stages of a sales pitch, that […]
• The Solar Energy and Photovoltaic Effect The key difference factor of the solar cells is the material and technology that is used. Photon behavior in a solar cell is defined by the materials used and the construction of the cell itself.
• Solar Energy Project: Stakeholder and Governance Analysis The stakeholders on this issue are the central governments of the three countries, the local government bodies the industrial and business groups and the civil society groups interested on the issue.
• Solar Energy: Commercial and Industrial Power Source This is made further possible by the inspirational circulars related to the application of more solar energy in the state. This is one of the major participations that came in to the notice.
• Solar Energy and Its Impact on Society He believed that the wheel was the extension of our feet, the hammer was an extension of our hands, and technology is the extension of our mind and mentality.
• Bismuth Vanadate Photocatalyst for Solar Energy 20 In the scheelite BiVO4, it is possible to find out a hybridized band structure with Bi 6s and O 2p orbitals.
• Solar Energy Power Plant & Utility Supply Contract The first assumption from the case above is that the advisement by SEPP to the US not to provide EEC certificates was made orally and was came after the contract had been signed.
• Solar Energy Industry in the UAE The UAE International Investors Council insists that the sustainable use of the available financial resources, particularly, FDI, should be viewed as the foundation for enhancing the development of the state industries, especially as far as […]
• Solar Energy: Definition and Ways of Usage Observers believe that the energy from the sun has the potential to satisfy the world’s energy requirements. Energy from the solar is free, and we can never deplete solar energy.
• Solar Energy Panels in UAE This report will examine the future of solar energy and the incentive schemes that can be put in place to develop the United Arab Emirates solar energy industry.
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• Solar & Wind Sources: Hybrid Energy System Of the Australian capital cities, Darwin, Australia is the smallest and is located in the north-most part of the country. The following is the analysis of the factors to be considered.
• Solar Energy Houses’ Benefits In the same breadth, another advantage of the solar energy houses is that they reduce the emission of carbon dioxide through other processes.
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• Tecck Industries: Business Climate and Ethics The moral issues in the current business climate emanate from the values that the different sections of the society hold. Tecck Industries recognizes that there are laws that govern certain aspects of the ethical, moral, […]
• Making Solar Energy More Affordable The use of solar energy can be critical for environmental and economic sustainability of many communities that can be located in different regions of the world.
• Wind and Solar Energy as a Sources of Alternative Energy Fthenakis, Mason and Zweibel also examined the economical, geographical and technical viability of solar power to supplement the energy requirements of the U.S.and concluded that it was possible to substitute the current fossil fuel energy […]
• Alternative Sources of Energy: Solar, Wind, and Hydropower Countries, which depend on oil are getting worried because they are not certain of the availability of this source of energy in future, also, the prices of oil has been escalating over the years, and […]
• Evolution of Solar Energy in US The policy of solar energy in the US is established by the federal, public entities and the state that addresses energy issues of production, consumption like the standards on gas mileage.
• Is Solar Energy Good for the State of New Jersey? The state of the New Jersey is second to California in terms of the use of solar energy. As people are waking up to the reality that the limited world’s resources are increasingly being depleted, […]
• The Use of Solar Energy Should be Adopted in All States in the U.S. The emphasis on renewable sources of energy has been enhanced by the fact that the limited world’s resources are increasingly being depleted; thus, the states have adopted the use of solar energy so as to […]
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• Solar Energy’s Place In The Power Industry
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• Solar Energy Is A More Effective Source Than Wind Energy
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• The Right Time For Using Solar Energy For Houses
• Why Residential Solar Energy Is A Positive Form Of Progress In Our World Today
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• The Description of Solar Energy and Its Potential as the Energy of the Future
• The Many Uses and Applications of Solar Energy
• The Effect of Public Policies on Inducing Technological Change in Solar Energy
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• The Effects Of Solar Energy On The Environment
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• Chicago (A-D)
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Ieee spectrum, follow ieee spectrum, support ieee spectrum, enjoy more free content and benefits by creating an account, saving articles to read later requires an ieee spectrum account, the institute content is only available for members, downloading full pdf issues is exclusive for ieee members, downloading this e-book is exclusive for ieee members, access to spectrum 's digital edition is exclusive for ieee members, following topics is a feature exclusive for ieee members, adding your response to an article requires an ieee spectrum account, create an account to access more content and features on ieee spectrum , including the ability to save articles to read later, download spectrum collections, and participate in conversations with readers and editors. for more exclusive content and features, consider joining ieee ., join the world’s largest professional organization devoted to engineering and applied sciences and get access to all of spectrum’s articles, archives, pdf downloads, and other benefits. learn more →, join the world’s largest professional organization devoted to engineering and applied sciences and get access to this e-book plus all of ieee spectrum’s articles, archives, pdf downloads, and other benefits. learn more →, access thousands of articles — completely free, create an account and get exclusive content and features: save articles, download collections, and talk to tech insiders — all free for full access and benefits, join ieee as a paying member., a skeptic’s take on beaming power to earth from space, why we shouldn’t try to stick solar plants where the sun always shines.

The accelerating buildout of solar farms on Earth is already hitting speed bumps, including public pushback against the large tracts of land required and a ballooning backlog of requests for new transmission lines and grid connections. Energy experts have been warning that electricity is likely to get more expensive and less reliable unless renewable power that waxes and wanes under inconstant sunlight and wind is backed up by generators that can run whenever needed. To space enthusiasts, that raises an obvious question: Why not stick solar power plants where the sun always shines?

Space-based solar power is an idea so beautiful, so tantalizing that some argue it is a wish worth fulfilling. A constellation of gigantic satellites in geosynchronous orbit (GEO) nearly 36,000 kilometers above the equator could collect sunlight unfiltered by atmosphere and uninterrupted by night (except for up to 70 minutes a day around the spring and fall equinoxes). Each megasat could then convert gigawatts of power into a microwave beam aimed precisely at a big field of receiving antennas on Earth. These rectennas would then convert the signal to usable DC electricity.

The thousands of rocket launches needed to loft and maintain these space power stations would dump lots of soot, carbon dioxide, and other pollutants into the stratosphere, with uncertain climate impacts. But that might be mitigated, in theory, if space solar displaced fossil fuels and helped the world transition to clean electricity.

The glamorous vision has inspired numerous futuristic proposals. Japan’s space agency has presented a road map to deployment. Space authorities in China aim to put a small test satellite in low Earth orbit (LEO) later this decade. Ideas to put megawatt-scale systems in GEO sometime in the 2030s have been floated but not yet funded.

The U.S. Naval Research Laboratory has already beamed more than a kilowatt of power between two ground antennas about a kilometer apart. It also launched in 2023 a satellite that used a laser to transmit about 1.5 watts, although the beam traveled less than 2 meters and the system had just 11 percent efficiency. A team at Caltech earlier this year wrapped up a mission that used a small satellite in LEO to test thin-film solar cells, flexible microwave-power circuitry, and a small collapsible deployment mechanism. The energy sent Earthward by the craft was too meager to power a lightbulb, but it was progress nonetheless.

The European Space Agency (ESA) debuted in 2022 its space-based solar-power program, called Solaris, with an inspiring (but entirely fantastical) video animation . The program’s director, Sanjay Vijendran , told IEEE Spectrum that the goal of the effort is not to develop a power station for space. Instead, the program aims to spend three years and €60 million (US $65 million) to figure out whether solar cells, DC-to-RF converters, assembly robots, beam-steering antennas, and other must-have technologies will improve drastically enough over the next 10 to 20 years to make orbital solar power feasible and competitive. Low-cost, low-mass, and space-hardy versions of these technologies would be required, but engineers trying to draw up detailed plans for such satellites today find no parts that meet the tough requirements.

With the flurry of renewed attention, you might wonder: Has extraterrestrial solar power finally found its moment? As the recently retired head of space power systems at ESA—with more than 30 years of experience working on power generation, energy storage, and electrical systems design for dozens of missions, including evaluation of a power-beaming experiment proposed for the International Space Station—I think the answer is almost certainly no.

Despite mounting buzz around the concept, I and many of my former colleagues at ESA are deeply skeptical that these large and complex power systems could be deployed quickly enough and widely enough to make a meaningful contribution to the global energy transition. Among the many challenges on the long and formidable list of technical and societal obstacles: antennas so big that we cannot even simulate their behavior.

Here I offer a road map of the potential chasms and dead ends that could doom a premature space solar project to failure. Such a misadventure would undermine the credibility of the responsible space agency and waste capital that could be better spent improving less risky ways to shore up renewable energy, such as batteries, hydrogen, and grid improvements. Champions of space solar power could look at this road map as a wish list that must be fulfilled before orbital solar power can become truly appealing to electrical utilities.

Space Solar Power at Peak Hype—Again

For decades, enthusiasm for the possibility of drawing limitless, mostly clean power from the one fusion reactor we know works reliably—the sun—has run hot and cold. A 1974 study that NASA commissioned from the consultancy Arthur D. Little bullishly recommended a 20-year federal R&D program, expected to lead to a commercial station launching in the mid-1990s. After five years of work, the agency delivered a reference architecture for up to 60 orbiting power stations, each delivering 5 to 10 gigawatts of baseload power to major cities. But officials gave up on the idea when they realized that it would cost over $1 trillion (adjusted for inflation) and require hundreds of astronauts working in space for decades, all before the first kilowatt could be sold.

NASA did not seriously reconsider space solar until 1995, when it ordered a “fresh look” at the possibility. That two-year study generated enough interest that the U.S. Congress funded a small R&D program, which published plans to put up a megawatt-scale orbiter in the early 2010s and a full-size power plant in the early 2020s. Funding was cut off a few years later, with no satellites developed.

Then, a decade ago, private-sector startups generated another flurry of media attention. One, Solaren, even signed a power-purchase agreement to deliver 200 megawatts to utility customers in California by 2016 and made bold predictions that space solar plants would enter mass production in the 2020s. But the contract and promises went unfulfilled.

The repeated hype cycles have ended the same way each time, with investors and governments balking at the huge investments that must be risked to build a system that cannot be guaranteed to work. Indeed, in what could presage the end of the current hype cycle, Solaris managers have had trouble drumming up interest among ESA’s 22 member states. So far only the United Kingdom has participated, and just 5 percent of the funds available have been committed to actual research work.

Even space-solar advocates have recognized that success clearly hinges on something that cannot be engineered: sustained political will to invest, and keep investing, in a multidecade R&D program that ultimately could yield machines that can’t put electricity on the grid. In that respect, beamed power from space is like nuclear fusion, except at least 25 years behind.

In the 1990s, the fusion community succeeded in tapping into national defense budgets and cobbled together the 35-nation, $25 billion megaproject ITER, which launched in 2006. The effort set records for delays and cost overruns, and yet a prototype is still years from completion. Nevertheless, dozens of startups are now testing new fusion-reactor concepts . Massive investments in space solar would likely proceed in the same way. Of course, if fusion succeeds, it would eclipse the rationale for solar-energy satellites.

Space Industry Experts Run the Numbers

The U.S. and European space agencies have recently released detailed technical analyses of several space-based solar-power proposals. [See diagrams.] These reports make for sobering reading.

SPS-ALPHA Mark-III

Chris Philpot

Proposed by: John C. Mankins, former NASA physicist

Features: Thin-film reflectors (conical array) track the sun and concentrate sunlight onto an Earth-facing energy-conversion array that has photovoltaic (PV) panels on one side, microwave antennas on the other, and power distribution and control electronics in the middle. Peripheral modules adjust the station’s orbit and orientation.

Proposed by : China Academy of Space Technology

Features : Fifty PV solar arrays, each 200 meters wide and 600 meters long, track the sun and send power through rotating high-power joints and perpendicular trusses to a central microwave-conversion and transmission array that points 128,000 antenna modules at the receiving station on Earth.

Proposed by: Ian Cash, chief architect, Space Solar Group Holdings

Features: Circular thin-film reflectors track the sun and bounce light onto a helical array that includes myriad small PV cells covered by Fresnel-lens concentrators, power-conversion electronics, and microwave dipole antennas. The omnidirectional antennas must operate in sync to steer the beam as the station rotates relative to the Earth.

SPS (Solar power satellite)

Proposed by: Thales Alenia Space

Features: Nearly 8,000 flexible solar arrays, each 10 meters wide and 80 meters long, are unfurled from roll-out modules and linked together to form two wings. The solar array remains pointed at the sun, so the central transmitter must rotate and also operate with great precision as a phased-array antenna to continually steer the beam onto the ground station.

Electricity made this way, NASA reckoned in its 2024 report , would initially cost 12 to 80 times as much as power generated on the ground, and the first power station would require at least $275 billion in capital investment. Ten of the 13 crucial subsystems required to build such a satellite—including gigawatt-scale microwave beam transmission and robotic construction of kilometers-long, high-stiffness structures in space—rank as “high” or “very high” technical difficulty, according to a 2022 report to ESA by Frazer-Nash , a U.K. consultancy. Plus, there is no known way to safely dispose of such enormous structures, which would share an increasingly crowded GEO with crucial defense, navigation, and communications satellites, notes a 2023 ESA study by the French-Italian satellite maker Thales Alenia Space.

An alternative to microwave transmission would be to beam the energy down to Earth as reflected sunlight. Engineers at Arthur D. Little described the concept in a 2023 ESA study in which they proposed encircling the Earth with about 4,000 aimable mirrors in LEO. As each satellite zips overhead, it would shine an 8-km-wide spotlight onto participating solar farms, allowing the farms to operate a few extra hours each day (if skies are clear). In addition to the problems of clouds and light pollution, the report noted the thorny issue of orbital debris, estimating that each reflector would be penetrated about 75 billion times during its 10-year operating life.

My own assessment, presented at the 2023 European Space Power Conference and published by IEEE , pointed out dubious assumptions and inconsistencies in four space-solar designs that have received serious attention from government agencies. Indeed, the concepts detailed so far all seem to stand on shaky technical ground.

Massive Transmitters and Receiving Stations

The high costs and hard engineering problems that prevent us from building orbital solar-power systems today arise mainly from the enormity of these satellites and their distance from Earth, both of which are unavoidable consequences of the physics of this kind of energy transmission. Only in GEO can a satellite stay (almost) continuously connected to a single receiving station on the ground. The systems must beam down their energy at a frequency that passes relatively unimpeded through all kinds of weather and doesn’t interfere with critical radio systems on Earth. Most designs call for 2.45 or 5.8 gigahertz, within the range used for Wi-Fi. Diffraction will cause the beam to spread as it travels, by an amount that depends on the frequency.

Thales Alenia Space estimated that a transmitter in GEO must be at least 750 meters in diameter to train the bright center of a 5.8-GHz microwave beam onto a ground station of reasonable area over that tremendous distance—65 times the altitude of LEO satellites like Starlink. Even using a 750-meter transmitter, a receiver station in France or the northern United States would fill an elliptical field covering more than 34 square kilometers. That’s more than two-thirds the size of Bordeaux, France, where I live.

“Success hinges on something that cannot be engineered: sustained political will to keep investing in a multidecade R&D program that ultimately could yield machines that can’t put electricity on the grid.”

Huge components come with huge masses, which lead to exorbitant launch costs. Thales Alenia Space estimated that the transmitter alone would weigh at least 250 tonnes and cost well over a billion dollars to build, launch, and ferry to GEO. That estimate, based on ideas from the Caltech group that have yet to be tested in space, seems wildly optimistic; previous detailed transmitter designs are about 30 times heavier.

Because the transmitter has to be big and expensive, any orbiting solar project will maximize the power it sends through the beam, within acceptable safety limits. That’s why the systems evaluated by NASA, ESA, China, and Japan are all scaled to deliver 1–2 GW, the maximum output that utilities and grid operators now say they are willing to handle. It would take two or three of these giant satellites to replace one large retiring coal or nuclear power station.

Energy is lost at each step in the conversion from sunlight to DC electricity, then to microwaves, then back to DC electricity and finally to a grid-compatible AC current. It will be hard to improve much on the 11 percent end-to-end efficiency seen in recent field trials. So the solar arrays and electrical gear must be big enough to collect, convert, and distribute around 9 GW of power in space just to deliver 1 GW to the grid. No electronic switches, relays, and transformers have been designed or demonstrated for spacecraft that can handle voltages and currents anywhere near the required magnitude.

Some space solar designs, such as SPS-ALPHA and CASSIOPeiA , would suspend huge reflectors on kilometers-long booms to concentrate sunlight onto high-efficiency solar cells on the back side of the transmitter or intermingled with antennas. Other concepts, such as China’s MR-SPS and the design proposed by Thales Alenia Space, would send the currents through heavy, motorized rotating joints that allow the large solar arrays to face the sun while the transmitter pivots to stay fixed on the receiving station on Earth.

The net result, regardless of approach, is an orbiting power station that spans several kilometers, totals many thousands of tonnes, sends gigawatts of continuous power through onboard electronics, and comprises up to a million modules that must be assembled in space—by robots. That is a gigantic leap from the largest satellite and solar array ever constructed in orbit: the 420-tonne, 109-meter International Space Station (ISS), whose 164 solar panels produce less than 100 kilowatts to power its 43 modules.

The ISS has been built and maintained by astronauts, drawing on 30 years of prior experience with the Salyut, Skylab, and Mir space stations. But there is no comparable incremental path to a robot-assembled power satellite in GEO. Successfully beaming down a few megawatts from LEO would be an impressive achievement, but it wouldn’t prove that a full-scale system is feasible, nor would the intermittent power be particularly interesting to commercial utilities.

T Minus...Decades?

NASA’s 2024 report used sensitivity analysis to look for advances, however implausible, that would enable orbital solar power to be commercially competitive with nuclear fission and other low-emissions power. To start, the price of sending a tonne of cargo to LEO on a large reusable rocket, which has fallen 36 percent over the past 10 years, would have to drop by another two-thirds, to $500,000. This assumes that all the pieces of the station could be dropped off in low orbit and then raised to GEO over a period of months by space tugs propelled by electrical ion thrusters rather than conventional rockets. The approach would slow the pace of construction and add to the overall mass and cost. New tugs would have to be developed that could tow up to 100 times as much cargo as the biggest electric tugs do today. And by my calculations, the world’s annual production of xenon—the go-to propellant for ion engines—is insufficient to carry even a single solar-power satellite to GEO.

Thales Alenia Space looked at a slightly more realistic option: using a fleet of conventional rockets as big as SpaceX’s new Starship—the largest rocket ever built—to ferry loads from LEO to GEO, and then back to LEO for refueling from an orbiting fuel depot. Even if launch prices plummeted to $200,000 a tonne, they calculated, electricity from their system would be six times as expensive as NASA’s projected cost for a terrestrial solar farm outfitted with battery storage—one obvious alternative.

What else would have to go spectacularly right? In NASA’s cost-competitive scenario, the price of new, specialized spaceships that could maintain the satellite for 30 years—and then disassemble and dispose of it—would have to come down by 90 percent. The efficiency of commercially produced, space-qualified solar cells would have to soar from 32 percent today to 40 percent, while falling in cost. Yet over the past 30 years, big gains in the efficiency of research cells have not translated well to the commercial cells available at low cost [see chart, “Not So Fast”].

Is it possible for all these things to go right simultaneously? Perhaps. But wait—there’s more that can go wrong.

The Toll of Operating a Solar Plant in Space

Let’s start with temperature. Gigawatts of power coursing through the system will make heat removal essential because solar cells lose efficiency and microcircuits fry when they get too hot. A couple of dozen times a year, the satellite will pass suddenly into the utter darkness of Earth’s shadow, causing temperatures to swing by around 300 °C, well beyond the usual operating range of electronics. Thermal expansion and contraction may cause large structures on the station to warp or vibrate.

Then there’s the physical toll of operating in space. Vibrations and torques exerted by altitude-control thrusters, plus the pressure of solar radiation on the massive sail-like arrays, will continually bend and twist the station this way and that. The sprawling arrays will suffer unavoidable strikes from man-made debris and micrometeorites, perhaps even a malfunctioning construction robot. As the number of space power stations increases, we could see a rapid rise in the threat of Kessler syndrome , a runaway cascade of collisions that is every space operator’s nightmare.

Probably the toughest technical obstacle blocking space solar power is a basic one: shaping and aiming the beam. The transmitter is not a dish, like a radio telescope in reverse. It’s a phased array, a collection of millions of little antennas that must work in near-perfect synchrony, each contributing its piece to a collective waveform aimed at the ground station.

Like people in a stadium crowd raising their arms on cue to do “the wave,” coordination of a phased array is essential. It will work properly only if every element on the emitter syncs the phase of its transmission to align precisely with the transmission of its neighbors and with an incoming beacon signal sent from the ground station. Phase errors measured in picoseconds can cause the microwave beam to blur or drift off its target. How can the system synchronize elements separated by as much as a kilometer with such incredible accuracy? If you have the answer, please patent and publish it, because this problem currently has engineers stumped.

There is no denying the beauty of the idea of turning to deep space for inexhaustible electricity. But nature gets a vote. As Lao Tzu observed long ago in the Tao Te Ching , “The truth is not always beautiful, nor beautiful words the truth.”

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• New Study Updates NASA on Space-Based Solar Power - NASA ›

Henri Barde joined the European Space Agency in 2007 and served as head of the power systems, electromagnetic compatibility, and space environment division until his retirement in 2017. He remains active as an expert consultant to ESA and the European Commission. Prior to ESA, Barde worked in various engineering roles in the space industry for 27 years at MATRA Espace, which became EADS Astrium and is now Airbus Defence and Space. 

Henri Barde has mostly focused on the difficulty of building out the space station collector and transmitter. But I see also a huge risk for the earth based end of the system. We would absolutely depend on the accuracy and integrity of the collector/transmitter to beam the power accurately to the collector array on earth. But what if any number of failure mechanisms (including micrometeorite damage or sabotage) caused the beam to veer off-target. Would not that immense power of incoming microwaves be capable of causing direct harm to civilian infrastructure, or even possibly harm living things?

Not a mention in the article about safety. What about the aiming of the satellite going bad and whole towns being fried like our dinner! Personally, I don't want a GW of energy over my house.

I strongly support the authors critical view (in all aspects) on the this idea beaming a lot of microwave power from space to the earth. The near earth space is already very crowed and full of space junk. In addition one has to bring thos e gigantic structure not only up to some some high orbit but also down .

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Deep-sea sponge's 'zero-energy' flow control could inspire new energy efficient designs

The Venus flower basket sponge, with its delicate glass-like lattice outer skeleton, has long intrigued researchers seeking to explain how this fragile-seeming creature's body can withstand the harsh conditions of the deep sea where it lives.

Now, new research reveals yet another engineering feat of this ancient animal's structure: its ability to filter feed using only the faint ambient currents of the ocean depths, no pumping required.

This discovery of natural '"zero energy" flow control by an international research team co-led by University of Rome Tor Vergata and NYU Tandon School of Engineering could help engineers design more efficient chemical reactors, air purification systems, heat exchangers, hydraulic systems, and aerodynamic surfaces.

In a study published in Physical Review Letters , the team found through extremely high-resolution computer simulations how the skeletal structure of the Venus flower basket sponge (Euplectella aspergillum) diverts very slow deep sea currents to flow upwards into its central body cavity, so it can feed on plankton and other marine detritus it filters out of the water.

The sponge pulls this off via its spiral, ridged outer surface that functions like a spiral staircase. This allows it to passively draw water upwards through its porous, lattice-like frame, all without the energy demands of pumping.

"Our research settles a debate that has emerged in recent years: the Venus flower basket sponge may be able to draw in nutrients passively, without any active pumping mechanism," said Maurizio Porfiri, NYU Tandon Institute Professor and director of its Center for Urban Science + Progress (CUSP), who co-led the study and co-supervised the research. "It's an incredible adaptation allowing this filter feeder to thrive in currents normally unsuitable for suspension feeding."

At higher flow speeds, the lattice structure helps reduce drag on the organism. But it is in the near-stillness of the deep ocean floors that this natural ventilation system is most remarkable, and demonstrates just how well the sponge accommodates its harsh environment. The study found that the sponge's ability to passively draw in food works only at the very slow current speeds -- just centimeters per second -- of its habitat.

"From an engineering perspective, the skeletal system of the sponge shows remarkable adaptations to its environment, not only from the structural point of view, but also for what concerns its fluid dynamic performance," said Giacomo Falcucci of Tor Vergata University of Rome and Harvard University, the paper's first author. Along with Porfiri, Falcucci co-led the study, co-supervised the research and designed the computer simulations. "The sponge has arrived at an elegant solution for maximizing nutrient supply while operating entirely through passive mechanisms."

Researchers used the powerful Leonardo supercomputer at CINECA, a supercomputing center in Italy, to create a highly realistic 3D replica of the sponge, containing around 100 billion individual points that recreate the sponge's complex helical ridge structure. This "digital twin" allows experimentation that is impossible on live sponges, which cannot survive outside their deep-sea environment.

The team performed highly detailed simulations of water flow around and inside the computer model of the skeleton of the Venus flower basket sponge. With Leonardo's massive computing power, allowing quadrillions of calculations per second, they could simulate a wide range of water flow speeds and conditions.

The researchers say the biomimetic engineering insights they uncovered could help guide the design of more efficient reactors by optimizing flow patterns inside while minimizing drag outside. Similar ridged, porous surfaces could enhance air filtration and ventilation systems in skyscrapers and other structures. The asymmetric, helical ridges may even inspire low-drag hulls or fuselages that stay streamlined while promoting interior air flows.

The study builds upon the team's prior Venus flower basket sponge research published in Nature in 2021, in which it revealed it had created a first-ever simulation of the deep-sea sponge and how it responds to and influences the flow of nearby water.

In addition to Porfiri and Falcucci, the current study's authors are Giorgio Amati of CINECA; Gino Bella of Niccolò Cusano University; Andrea Luigi Facci of University of Tuscia; Vesselin K. Krastev of University of Rome Tor Vergata; Giovanni Polverino of University of Tuscia, Monash University, and University of Western Australia; and Sauro Succi of the Italian Institute of Technology.

A grant from the National Science Foundation supported the research. Other funding came from CINECA, Next Generation EU, European Research Council, Monash University and University of Tuscia.

• Extreme Survival
• Marine Biology
• Nature of Water
• Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Solar Energy
• Constructal theory
• Aerodynamics
• Deep sea fish
• Security engineering
• Desalination
• Three-phase electric power
• Traffic engineering (transportation)

Story Source:

Materials provided by NYU Tandon School of Engineering . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Related Multimedia :

• Venus flower basket glass sponges

Journal Reference :

• Giacomo Falcucci, Giorgio Amati, Gino Bella, Andrea Luigi Facci, Vesselin K. Krastev, Giovanni Polverino, Sauro Succi, Maurizio Porfiri. Adapting to the Abyss: Passive Ventilation in the Deep-Sea Glass Sponge Euplectella aspergillum . Physical Review Letters , 2024; 132 (20) DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.132.208402

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