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Article Contents

Football narratives and the issue of sources, an underused source: the match report, excerpts from match reports, the making of modern association football: the motley origins, modern football and the folk games, making modern football: the role of cups and clydeside, conclusions, appendix: graph and methodological notes, notes and references.

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The Origins of Football: History, Ideology and the Making of ‘The People’s Game’

Gavin Kitching is Emeritus Professor of Politics at the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, and Visiting Research Fellow at the International Centre for Sports History and Culture, De Montfort University, Leicester. His current research on the origins of football is the first stage of an attempt to write a social history of his native North-East of England through the lens of football.

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Gavin Kitching, The Origins of Football: History, Ideology and the Making of ‘The People’s Game’, History Workshop Journal , Volume 79, Issue 1, Spring 2015, Pages 127–153, https://doi.org/10.1093/hwj/dbu023

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Recent scholarship on the origins of association football has been marked by a highly ideological debate on its ‘class’ nature. The traditional story – of a game created by ‘gentlemen’ but taken up, and ultimately dominated, by ‘ruffians’ – has been challenged by a revisionist account which presents football as an ancient ‘people’s’ or ‘plebeian’ game, briefly hijacked by upper-middle class men in the mid-Victorian period, before returning to its ‘popular’ roots from the 1880s onwards. This article suggests that, as currently conducted, the debate is both conceptually confused and bedevilled by paucity of sources. The conceptual problems derive partly from an endemic vagueness in the historical use of the term ‘football’, and partly from a persistent tendency to conflate football play with rules of play. The paucity of sources is well-known in the study of football as a medieval and early modern folk pastime. But it is also an issue in studying early forms of club football. This article uses a hitherto underused source – the match reports of the earliest amateur football clubs in Britain – as part of an attempt to address the conceptual confusion and also to present a genuinely new account of the impact of traditional ‘folk’ football on the modern game. It is suggested that the impact was both real and very short-lived.

October 2013 marked the 150th anniversary of the foundation of the English Football Association (FA). It was an occasion fraught with ambiguity and contradiction. Some hailed its establishment as the official beginning of what is now the most successful participant and spectator sport in the world. But the contemporary sport – ‘association football’, ‘soccer’ – whose beginnings were so celebrated, has little or nothing in common with the football for which twelve upper-middle-class gentlemen adopted that first ‘universal code’ of rules 150 years ago. In fact the game we now call ‘association football’ would be unrecognizable to those men. They would perhaps recognize the physical setting in which the game is still played – some of the pitch markings and the goals – but everything that now happens between those goals would be strange to them, the positions which contemporary players occupy, the way they pass and move the ball, the way they dispossess opponents, even the very way matches are scored.

That first set of draft rules for football adopted by the FA in November 1863 allowed a free kick at goal after ‘fair catch’ of the ball (‘provided he claims it by making a mark with his heel’), throwing of the ball to a team mate, and running with the ball in hand after a fair catch or a catch of the ball ‘on first bound’. Not only that, but the earliest football rules did not recognize a specialist goalkeeper (the ‘goal keepers’ simply being those players nearest to the goal when it was under attack) and also allowed scoring when the attacking team kicked the ball behind their opponent’s goal or ‘bye’ line (called a ‘touchdown’ or ‘rouge’) as well as when it was kicked into the opponent’s goal.

Match programme, Glasgow, 9 Oct. 1875: Wanderers, London versus Queen's Park. The Scottish team, which included 'dribble wizards' Harry McNeill and James Weir, won the match 4-0 in front of an estimated 16,000 people.

In fact, these official FA celebrations remind us how often the search for the (singular) ‘origin’ of any human activity is epistemologically odd, because always conducted through the same bimodal logic. There was a time when something that now ‘exists’ did not ‘exist’. Hence it must have been ‘invented’, and that invention must have been a discrete act by somebody, or bodies, at a discrete and identifiable moment in time. What such a logic occludes of course is the possibility (which is so often the actuality) that what now ‘exists’ was developed, not invented. It came into existence not at one moment in time but through an incremental process. And processes precisely defeat the ‘either/or’ antinomies of bimodal logic.

In the current case, the football for which rules were laid down in November 1863 not only had little or nothing in common with present-day football, it actually had rather little in common with the football that was actually played around England in the 1860s. Moreover the game played in the 1860s had little in common with the football that became a mass participant sport from the mid 1870s onward. And that ‘association football’ in turn was further changed when football was professionalized in the 1890s.

In the early period, 1863–80, association football developed through a combination of rule changes and changes in play. From the 1880s onwards however the rules of the game were largely fixed, but play continued to evolve significantly, especially after professionalization. And that evolution in play has continued (more or less rapidly at different periods) throughout the twentieth century and into the twenty-first.

It is hardly news to any historian that innovation, especially in cultural matters, is more often a matter of development than invention. But in the history of currently popular sports myths of origin are especially tenacious. They are found in rugby and baseball, for example, as well as in association football. This may be partly explicable in terms of the desire to mark and celebrate (processes cannot have anniversaries), but also by the human love of stories and story-telling. William Webb Ellis ‘inventing’ rugby at Rugby school, or the ‘inventing’ of baseball by Abner Doubleday or Alexander Cartwright, are more compelling tales than some complex narrative of accident, emulation and social influence featuring a cast of tens of thousands and having no readily identifiable heroes.

In the case of association football however, the search for origins is further compounded by ideology. Until a decade or so ago, the historical narrative of association football was more or less settled. Both rugby and association football had their origins, as codified sports, in a handful of major ‘public’ schools in England – Eton, Rugby, Harrow, Winchester, Westminster and Marlborough – in the 1840s. The Football Association itself was formed by a small group of ex-public-school boys with the original idea of creating a ‘universal code’ for football. The need for such a code emerged in the late 1850s. Former pupils of those elite schools, and of a number of grammar schools, living (mainly) in London and the home counties, were frustrated in their desire to play because different football clubs played by different rules depending on the school composition of their memberships. A way of getting round this was to create a single code of football by a melding of the different school codes. But some of the enthusiasts for such melding also thought that, over time, it might allow football to become as popular a winter game as cricket was in summer. In fact the original idea of a Football Association was to be the ‘MCC’ of football. The FA was to play the same regulating and standardizing role for football that the MCC had earlier done for cricket. 1

All the standard histories of football as a modern sport begin with its public-school codification, even if they then go on to trace the remarkable processes of development, popularization and professionalization that made it something very different from what was originally envisaged by these pioneers. 2

About ten years ago, however, John Goulstone and Adrian Harvey challenged this narrative. 3 They claimed that the standard histories proceeded in blithe disregard of the fact that football, or different varieties of football, had been popular pastimes in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland for centuries before their codification, and indeed for centuries before being played by public-school boys. And they also suggested that a profound upper-class bias was built into the original Victorian accounts of the origins of football, a bias subsequent historians had either disregarded or actively shared. The ‘People’s Game’, they asserted, was not only now the favourite game of poor people the world over, it had actually been invented and played primarily by poor people – by the plebeian ‘folk’ – from the start. And not only this, it had also been played for centuries by agreed rules, even if those rules were occasion or match-specific, and only rarely written down.

Clearly anyone who accepts this ‘revisionist’ story will be disinclined to mark October 1863 as football’s beginning, even if they are as keen on the contemporary game and its global popularity as any conventional celebrant of its 150th birthday. The game which Harvey and Goulstone wish to celebrate however has ‘always’ been a people’s game, while the devotees of the traditional account see modern football – ‘a gentleman’s game played by ruffians’ – as a wholly unintended consequence of an original desire to create a gentleman’s game for gentlemen.

The aim of this article is not to vindicate either side in this dispute, but to suggest that Harvey and Goulstone are as much in the grip of a myth of origin about football as the supposedly ‘class-biased’ histories they attack. They, as much as their opponents, radically underestimate the extent to which the development of modern football was an incremental but discontinuous process. In that process the inheritance of popular ‘folk’ forms of football certainly played a part, along with public-school codification. But the process of making modern football continued long after the period (the 1860s) when those two elements were put together, and it incorporated many subsequent playing innovations that owed nothing either to folk football or to codification. In short, the developmental history of football is a lot richer than either the ‘standard’ or the ‘revisionist’ account suggests, and a history inadequately explored to date. Using some hitherto underused sources I suggest that ‘The People’s Game’ as we have it today, is indeed predominantly the product of the actions of poor people (of ‘working-class’ people, one can properly say). But its structural fundamentals were produced in the half-century or so after 1863, not in 1863 and not ( pace Harvey and Goulstone) in some rustic medieval and post-medieval past.

When upper-middle-class men in Victorian Britain wanted to play football the first thing they did was to form a club, and the second was to inform the local and (occasionally) the national press that they had done so. As a result it is usually easy to say when and where a football club was formed, down to a precise address, a start time of the founding meeting, and even a detailed list of founder members and their occupations. In that respect the 2013 celebration of the foundation of the Football Association was of a piece with the regular celebrations of the foundation of football clubs, and of local or regional football associations, that mark the football calendar up and down the country every year.

However, in the history of football as a whole this abundance and precision of sources is anomalous. For if one wants football to ‘begin’, not on a specific evening in October 1863, but either centuries before, or in the five or so decades after 1863, there is a major problem of source materials, although that problem is rather different in the two cases.

‘Folk’ Football: a Narrative of Fragments

Those who wish to trace the origins of football back into medieval history, or even to Roman Britain, face the familiar problem of fragmentary and chronologically ‘spotty’ sources. The most comprehensive survey of them, by the medievalist Francis Magoun, was published in the 1930s. 4 One can read it from cover to cover and still be radically uncertain what kind of game, or family of games, is being described as ‘football’ or ‘foot-ball’ in the sources he cites and quotes. And it is impossible, either from Magoun or from any of the other historians of football who use antiquarian sources, 5 to know how widely football was played in the British Isles either at one time or through time, or how its popularity fluctuated.

It is tolerably clear that, right up to the late eighteenth century, we are dealing not with one game, but with a loosely linked family of pastimes (not all of them even bearing the name ‘football’). Some were relatively small-scale team games, others were large-scale ‘mass or melee’ games occurring on feast days and holidays (most notably at Shrovetide). Also, while all of these games featured the use of a ball, not all were pure ‘kicking’ games. In some the ball appears to have been moved primarily or entirely by kicking, in others it was thrown or carried in hand, and in yet others (possibly the majority) play consisted of a promiscuous mixture of handling and kicking. 6 About the only thing that all these games had in common (and the one thing they undoubtedly bequeathed to the modern sport) was the scoring of goals. In field-and-team versions of these games the ‘goal’ was some marked or informally agreed area at each end of a field or open space. 7 In Shrovetide and other feast-day games (which often featured hundreds of participants on each side, and could be played over miles of roads or open country) the ‘goals’ were either a natural feature of some kind, or parts of local buildings or structures – mills, wells, churchyard walls, bridge supports etc. 8

It is not surprising that we can learn so little, in detail, about the predominantly rural, plebeian pastimes that were ‘football’ between the later medieval period and the eighteenth century. They were an amusement of the poor primarily, and unless they threatened disorder, or were passingly regarded as undesirable by monarchs or other notables, they rarely rate a mention in written sources. All that one can say with certainty is that this group of pastimes formed a regular, taken-for-granted part of life for the poor and (occasionally) the not-so-poor for many centuries, that they were generally rough-and-tumble affairs in which injuries were common and death not unknown, 9 and that prowess at football seems often to have been identified with prowess at fighting and wrestling. 10 These pastimes were sufficiently commonplace to have entered both popular ballad and other literature – including Shakespeare 11 – and to have generated a frequently used metaphor for exploitation and abuse. To be ‘used as someone’s football’ was a common form of complaint and allegation (against politicians, for example) and the phrases ‘kicked like a football’ or ‘kicked about like a football’ are often heard in relation to assaults or fights. 12

What is more surprising is that the sources for popular or folk football do not improve significantly between the late eighteenth century and the mid-Victorian period. This is despite the fact that newspapers and periodicals increased considerably in numbers during this time, and that the first specialist sports periodical in Britain ( Bell’s Life in London ) appeared in 1824 and, until its closure in 1886, gave regular attention to both popular and club-based football.

While the occasional references in Bell’s Life (and in other periodical and newspaper sources of the Regency and Victorian periods) tell us that popular or folk football continued between 1780 and 1860, they provide no more detail than earlier sources. 13 Moreover some football historians, following the lead of many mid-Victorian writers, 14 have argued that popular or folk football actually declined as a pastime from the late eighteenth century onward, which is why we find far fewer press and periodical mentions of it than one might expect. They believe that, aside from the mass Shrovetide and other feast-day matches, folk football was a rarity by the mid nineteenth century, and small-scale ‘team’ variants of it almost unknown. On this account then, the upper-middle-class ‘club’ football that began in the late 1850s and expanded in the 1860s, entered a kind of ‘football vacuum’. 15

Whatever the reasons, the paucity and brevity of references to folk football in late eighteenth and early nineteenth-century sources pose a particular problem for the revisionist historians. For they wish to argue, not merely that football was a popular pastime long before its adoption by the public schools or its codification by those schools and the FA (for that is readily acknowledged by many older histories), but that folk football actually influenced modern football in some way. And they also wish to argue that the memory of that group of pastimes, their centuries-long interment in popular culture, accounts for the speed and alacrity with which working-class men and boys took up the new, codified games (both rugby and association football) when, from the 1870s on, they gained some time free from the crushing labour demands of the industrial revolution.

Mid-Victorian Football: Clubs, Rules and Play

For mid-Victorian club football the problem of sources is at once different and similar. Here an abundance of written sources concerning rules and institutionalization coexists with a continuing paucity of descriptions of play. Hence it remains very unclear how the playing of club football accorded with its formal rules. As a result there is a tendency in the standard histories to present a post-1863 chronology of rules and their changes and simply assume that play followed those rules and changed as they changed. 16 There is also a tendency to treat the public-school and FA codifications as ‘givens’ and not to question precisely what they were codifying, what their historical antecedents may have been. 17

But for the revisionists, too, the lack of detailed descriptions of club play is a handicap. After all, the first two decades of club football stand nearest in time to the folk heritage. So if the modern game was marked by that heritage, it would have been at this initial stage. And in the absence of any direct evidence linking the two, 18 anyone arguing that folk football influenced modern soccer (or rugby) must try to show that their early playing had characteristics that can at least be plausibly explained as ‘residues’ of the older games.

As one species of the genus ‘Club’, football clubs were possessed of the standard institutional apparatus. They had members who paid fees both to join and remain. In the beginning those members were overwhelmingly young men joining to play football, not to spectate it, and not (except as an unavoidable necessity) to organize it. Very many early football clubs played on cricket grounds, and many were offshoots of pre-existing cricket clubs. Indeed many of the gentlemen footballers of mid-Victorian Britain also played cricket in the summer.

As well as handling its official correspondence, the secretary of a Victorian football club was responsible for writing a report on each ‘home’ match played by the club’s team, or teams, and sending it to the local press. In the earliest years of club football local newspapers were often less interested in publishing these reports (from self-styled ‘football correspondents’) than were national sports periodicals like Bell’s Life and Sporting Gazette , both London based. This is why the former publication in particular is a better source for early club football, even in the provinces, than the provincial press – a situation that only begins to change in the 1870s.

These first football correspondents were not professional journalists or press employees, but often were highly educated and literate young men, and their match reports were as varied as their producers. There was, at this time, no standardized ‘patois’ or ‘argot’ of football play, and one sometimes has the impression that the honourable secretaries (or their stand-ins – the reports are always anonymous) were comparative novices to the game. All this makes these early reports much more idiosyncratic and amusing (both intentionally and unintentionally) than their present-day counterparts, but it can also make it difficult to determine whether something which sounds odd to a contemporary reader is an oddity of the play or of the describer.

Despite such shortcomings, these first football-match reports do provide a means by which changes in early football play can be tracked. In fact they are the first detailed descriptions of football play – albeit without photographs, or even drawn illustrations for the first twenty or so years – in the entire history of the game. Their sheer number and variety, and the challengingly small typeface in which they are set, have made them difficult and enormously time-consuming to use. But the digitization of Bell’s Life and other Victorian newspapers and periodicals has allowed these press archives to be mined electronically in a depth and detail that could never have been attempted manually.

There follow twenty-eight passages from football-match reports dating from the beginning of 1865 – just fifteen months after the formation of the FA – to the end of 1878. They have been selected from some 395 reports (dating between 1860 and 1880) that I have either noted verbatim or downloaded in their entirety. By 1880 both the English and Scottish FA Cups were well established, association football was becoming a mass spectator sport in Glasgow and western Scotland, and there were eight well-supported regional football associations in England and Scotland as well as a Welsh association. And, as Appendix 1 demonstrates, by the end of the period covered in these reports football play was much more standardized than it had been at the beginning. 19

1 ‘The CPC [Crystal Palace Club] soon obtained a touch down, but the place kick was unsuccessful. The CCC [Clapham Common Club] then pulled themselves together, and succeeded in gaining two touch downs behind the goal of the CPC … but they were at too great a distance from goal to allow the place kick to come off.’ Bell’s Life , 15 Jan. 1865, p. 7. 2 ‘Barnes now kicked off and the game became hotter than ever. The ball having for a while hung about the Crystal Palace goal, Drake made a catch and taking a place kick in a slanting direction drove the ball over the heads of his adversaries between the Crystal Place goal posts.’ Bell’s Life , 5 March 1865, p. 6. [A 15-a-side between Barnes and Crystal Palace, two founder member clubs of the FA, and both committed to playing FA rules.] 3 ‘In spite of the heavy rain, … and the Wanderers’ inexperience at the school rules, which were a happy mixture of Rugby, Charterhouse and Harrow, some good play was exhibited … The illustrious Wanderer who attempted to run with the ball and signally failed in the attempt, having his shirt sleeve torn off, has promised not to do it again.’ ‘Wanderers v Forest’, Bell’s Life , 2 Dec. 1865, p. 7. [The thirteen men of Wanderers beat the eleven of Forest School by ‘two bases to nil’.] 4 ‘The score was one base each … [but] … The Crystal Palace got more touch downs than their adversaries who were unaccustomed to association rules.’ ‘Harrow Chequers v Crystal Palace 15-a-side match’, Bell’s Life, 30 Dec. 1865, p. 6. 5 A match between Nottinghamshire and Sheffield began at 3pm and continued until ‘a few minutes before four o’clock’ at which point ‘a second game was commenced’. Sheffield won 2–0, scoring ‘a goal in each game’. Each goal was scored following a ‘touch down’, but Sheffield’s second goal was disputed because ‘Chesterman, the Sheffield captain … [made] … a touch-down from the ball which he had picked up from the crowd’. Bell’s Life , 27 Jan. 1866, p. 7. [Notts fielded fifteen players and Sheffield twelve.] 6 ‘The greatest license was allowed so far as rules were concerned; on the whole the Rugby game perhaps predominated, though the Eton system of ‘bullying’ was also practised.’ ‘A 15-a-side match between the 8th Depot Battalion and Essex Calves’, Bell’s Life , 29 Dec. 1866, p. 10. 7 In late January 1868, Walthamstow played South Park (Ilford) in an 11-a-side football match. It is reported as an ‘Association match’ but the correspondent noted that ‘knocking the ball on with the hands was a regular occurrence, a practice which is very doubtfully football’. Bell’s Life , 1 Feb. 1868, p. 8. 8 ‘No sooner was the ball kicked off by the R.E.s than the Barnes forwards, including Warren, Graham and others, started off on the road to fame. Their headlong course was soon impeded by the irresistible charge of Major Harrison and Lieutenants Johnstone and Daubuz. They in their turn, after a short spell of office, were ousted from their possession by Willis, then Willis was knocked down by somebody, who shortly afterwards was capsized by somebody else. Such is football. Now running gaily up with the ball, now rudely shocked by collision, now knocked on your back and kicked on your shin.’ ‘Royal Engineers v Barnes at Islington’, Bell’s Life , 3 March 1869, p. 3. 9 ‘The Newark team were much the heavier, but weight had no effect on their fortunes, for Notts succeeded in kicking three goals to Newark’s none.’ ‘Nottingham v Newark’, Bell’s Life , 17 Nov. 1869, p. 1. 10 ‘A praiseworthy attempt was made to abolish all handling in this match, but owing to the general perversity of the two teams, but little success attended the movement, both sides using their hands throughout with all the freedom that has marked recent matches.’ ‘The Wanderers v Civil Service Club at the Kennington Oval’, Bell’s Life , 4 Dec. 1869, p. 2. [They were described as ‘two well established association clubs’; Wanderers had eight men, the Civil Service nine.] 11 ‘The School won the toss … and at first the superior weight and fast play of the Wanderers kept the ball down in the vicinity of their goal.’ ‘Charterhouse School v Wanderers’, Bell’s Life , 23 March 1870, p. 1. 12 ‘The new rule of the association as to handling the ball was not so strictly enforced as it ought to have been, both sides frequently forgetting themselves.’ ‘A 10-per-side match between Leyton F.C. and the Trojans, played at Leyton’ . Bell’s Life , 30 March 1870, p. 1. 13 ‘A match between Barnes and Crystal Palace … was remarkable for the style adopted by the players. “No hands” [ sic ] were allowed, but the new rule failing to meet with favour from either side the return game will be played under the old rules.’ Sporting Gazette , 19 Nov. 1870, p. 849. 14 ‘In matches of this description the rules played by the home clubs are generally adhered to … In the previous match between the clubs at Leeds the rules played were “Rugby modified”, consequently the Garrick players were as much at a loss as Leeds were in the present match … The Rugby rules … required little or no place-playing, a goal-keeper being out of the question, as the goal is obtained by a kick over the bar, not under, as in Sheffield rules. The consequence was that the goal-keepers left their posts, and in two of the four goals obtained not a Leeds player was in or near the goal.’ ‘Sheffield Garrick v Leeds Athletic’, Bell’s Life , 21 Jan. 1871, p. 4. [Leeds had nine men and Sheffield twelve. The match ended in less than an hour, Leeds ‘having had enough of it’ by then.] 15 ‘On Thursday Jan 4 a match was played between 15 of the Lynn Club and 15 of the Norwich Football Club. The game which was played by the Norwich rules, lasted for an hour and a half … but no goal was kicked by either side till about 10 minutes before the end of the game, when a goal was gained for Norwich accidentally, the ball having been kicked by one of the Lynn men, and rebounding against another of his own side into the Lynn goal. One touch-down was made for Lynn, which was however, disputed.’ Bell’s Life , 13 Jan. 1872, p. 5. 16 ‘The English team appeared to be much heavier than their opponents but … what the Scotch lacked in weight … [was] … amply made up in swiftness and playing-together power … [they passed] … the ball, in several instances, in a way that completely astonished their opponents …  With matters now square the Champions of England and Scotland faced each other for the third time … [The Scottish captain] … sent the leather to the heart of the forwards, and there followed a scene which can never be forgotten as long as international football matches are played. Little Harry (the sobriquet was created by the multitude) had a dodging run with the ball in the first place, but being challenged by Chenery, Heron and Ottoway, he passed it to the front centre (W.Mackinnon) and it seemed as if the centres of the English team would get up, … [but] … just as Edwards was securing the ball he was finely charged by Campbell, and Ferguson now bounded forward … [and] … made tracks toward the English fortress. Angus Mackinnon soon shot out in front, and the pair, by “passing”, piloted the ball clean through the English backs, until the only opponent was Welch, the goal-keeper … With the intention of stopping Angus, whom he thought would make the final shot with his right foot, he went to the corner of his goal, but in an instant the ball left the toe of the left and went clean through the English goal.  It is scarcely possible to describe the scene which followed. The goal was taken so cleverly that it was actually a few seconds before the fact was fully realized, and loud and long were the cheers for Scotland. For several minutes the vast multitude swung to and fro, waving hats and handkerchiefs … the last scene on the ground was the form of Harry M’Neill being borne on the shoulders of four of his stalwart countrymen to the Pavilion.’ ‘Scotland v England at the West of Scotland Cricket Ground, Partick’, Bell’s Life , 14 March 1874, p. 5.  [Scotland won 2–1, their first ever football victory over England. The ‘huge multitude’ referred to is estimated elsewhere in the report at about 7,000 people inside the ground, and a further 3,000 watching from outside. This was a very large crowd for the time. Ordinary club football matches in England in the 1870s were played before a handful of people, and 3–5,000 people was reckoned an exceptional attendance for FA Cup and other major matches. By the end of the 1870s, however, crowds of 15,000–20,000 are regularly reported for major matches in Glasgow.] 17 ‘The Newark forwards were far too heavy for the visitors and gradually forced them back into their own territory.’ ‘Newark v Lincoln, at Newark’, Bell’s Life , 14 Nov. 1874, p. 5. 18 ‘The Queen’s Park again played the ‘passing game’ as brilliantly as ever, and although the Volunteers acted well in concert especially in the back department, they were unable to cope with such magnificent combined action.’ ‘Queen’s Park v Third Lanark Rifle Volunteers’, Bell’s Life , 19 Dec. 1874, p. 5. 19 ‘It appears that the Maidenhead goal-keeper struck the ball out of harm’s way with his hands, and the Etonians immediately claimed a free kick. This the umpires allowed and the result was a goal. It is considered that the umpires were wrong in their decision; at any rate the goal-keeper in most matches often touches the ball with his hands and we never had the question raised before.’ ‘Football Notes’, Bell’s Life , 30 Jan. 1875, p. 5.  [In fact the FA had legalized the handling of the ball by a designated single goalkeeper at a meeting in March 1871. In Eton field football however, no handling of the ball was allowed by any player, and the ‘goal keeper’ was simply the defending player nearest the goal when it was under threat. So it appears that this four-year-old change in the FA rules had not yet reached Etonian ears, even when they were formally playing under association rules against an exclusively association club like Maidenhead.] 20 ‘When the ball was again started, it was taken close to the home goal, and a try obtained, which was not insisted upon as a cry of ‘hand ball’ was raised.’ ‘Report of what is said to be a rugby match between “London International College and Somerset”’, Bell’s Life , 23 Oct. 1875, p. 4. 21 ‘Nottingham Castle v Burton-on-Trent was another curiosity match, the Burton men reserving to themselves the privilege of handling the ball when the same was in danger of going through their goal. This sort of thing is all very well, but it is rather startling to find a whole team, without any previous notice, using the prerogatives of a goal-keeper. We should hardly think that the Burton men find many to play against them on such terms.’ Sporting Gazette , 25 Nov. 1876, p. 1,163.  [This sounds like Etonian goalkeeping with the interesting twist of allowing everyone playing the role of goalkeeper to handle the ball.] 22 ‘There is one thing … which … showed that both sides were well up in Association football, namely during the whole course of the game the ball was only “handled” or “fouled” five times: three times by the Cambridge men and twice by the Queens Park.’ ‘Queen’s Park v Cambridge University in Glasgow’, Bell’s Life , 16 Dec. 1876, p. 9. 23 ‘… after the kick out charging became frequent on both sides, one of the Leven backs indulging in a new system of falling down and allowing his opponent to scramble over him … this was certainly a novelty in football, but whether tending to increase its popularity is another question.’ ‘Queen’s Park v Vale of Leven’, Bell’s Life , 6 Jan. 1877, p. 9. [Is this the first extant description of a slide tackle?] 24 ‘On the ball being kicked off, the Northumberland men, who were the heaviest team, made the most of their weight and bore down on their opponents’ goal. The ball, however, was well returned by Cumberlege … The Northumberland men again brought the ball back, and had several shots at the Tyne goal … Bruce now made several fine efforts to get the ball through his adversaries, but his career was generally cut short by being charged over. Just before changing ends a scrimmage took place near the Northumberland goal, but by a united rush their forwards carried the ball away. After the change the Tyne goal was again in danger, and both Logan and Eicholtz had good shots at it. The Tyne men now began to play much better together, and for some time pressed the opposite side; Logan however carried the ball away, and was only stopped close to the Tyne goal. The ball was then passed to Bruce and Cumberlege, who ran it down the field very smartly, and Blackburn secured the first goal for the Tyne … Just before time the Tyne forwards, playing together in excellent form, made a final effort and secured a second goal.’ ‘Tyne Association Football Club [TAFC] v Northumberland FC [a rugby club] , Newcastle Daily Chronicle , 5 Nov. 1877, p. 4. 25 ‘The Tyne forwards, by a general rush, secured the first goal after about ten minutes play. The visitors, however, then mettled up and pressed the Tyne hard … Each goal was from this time alternately in danger from the spirited and judicious rushes of the forwards on each side, and this state of things continued to the end of a very fast game … Goals being changed, the match was again very even; but about a quarter of an hour before time a fast dribble on the left side was made by Fawcus, who was well backed up by Bramwell, Crawford and Fenwick. Notwithstanding the charge of Cumberlege, which disposed of Fawcus, the ball was taken on by Bramwell, who dribbled in very rapidly in front of the goal and shot it under the tape … The victory was well earned by the visitors who, in spite of their being accustomed only to Rugby Union rules, dribbled remarkably well; the majority of them being Tynemouth players, and in the habit of playing a loose forward game.’ ‘TAFC v G.D Fawcus’s Team’ [also a rugby club] , Newcastle Daily Chronicle , 11 Dec. 1877, p. 4. 26 ‘The ground was hard underneath from the recent frost, and the match in itself illustrates the fact that Association football could be played under those circumstances without an accident of any kind. There was little or no charging, the players on both sides preferring to tackle each other, and all through the game the play was really brilliant.’ ‘Vale of Leven v Queen’s Park’, Bell’s Life , 19 Jan. 1878, p. 4. 27 ‘… although the reputed best Eleven ever sent to meet the Scottish champions on their own ground have been beaten by seven goals to two, the cause was not so much the want of English pluck and endurance as the superiority shown by the Scotch in playing-together-power and incessant practice … In point of weight (but that avails little in Association football) the Englishmen were far ahead of the Scotch, the contrast between Highet, M’Neil, M’Kinnon, M’Gregor and M’Dougall, with Wylie, Lyttelton, Heron, Jarrett and Hunter, being very marked … The match throughout was very fast, and chiefly remarkable for the excellent forward play of the Scotch who … were manifestly superior in pace, quickness on their feet, and dribbling.  Their tackling was also much better than that of the English forwards, who again and again missed their mark by aiming at the head or neck, rather than below the waist.’ ‘Scotland v England at Queen’s Park, Glasgow’, Bell’s Life , 9 March 1878, p. 5. 28 ‘During the second twenty, Middlesbrough for some time had the best of the play, their passing being very good … On the game being again set going, the Middlesbrough men worked harder than ever, their passing being most unselfish, and Ewbank scored a goal for them after a good piece of play … The play of the Middlesbrough men was marked by the unselfish passing and the way in which each man kept his place. Had the Tyne men done the same the result might have been different.’ ‘TAFC v Middlesbrough AFC’ , Newcastle Daily Chronicle , 25 Nov. 1878, p. 4.

These reports make clear that modern association football was not created by a simple process of imposing the FA’s code of rules then ‘diffusing’ it as the game expanded. Rather the modern game was gradually distilled out from pluralistic origins in which a handful of clubs playing by the FA rules coexisted with clubs playing by a variety of other rules. These included the public-school codes of football, encompassing Eton, Harrow, Westminster, Winchester and Marlborough rules, as well as Rugby [see excerpts 3, 6 and 19]; the rules of the ‘Sheffield Association’ of football clubs, 20 which continued to allow outfield handling of the ball after it was banned by the FA [5, 14]; and clubs playing by eclectic combinations of public-school rules or of the FA and public-school rules [3, 6, 15].

Moreover throughout the 1860s many supposed rugby clubs also played association forms of football. Indeed the distinction between association football and rugby was a very blurred and unclear one in these early years [2 and 6]. Many association clubs in the 1860s did not play with ‘height-delimited’ goals, and many rugby clubs did not play with the ‘H’-shaped goals familiar today. Thus in both forms of football goals could be scored with high punted kicks passing between the ‘goal poles’ at any height. In addition, until 1868 the FA rules allowed scoring through ‘touchdowns’ or ‘rouges’, as well as through goals [1, 4, 15, 20]. Most remarkably of all, many association clubs played matches in which outfield players handled the ball, and were doing so fully four or five years after the FA had banned the practice [19, 21].

In short, right through the 1860s and early 1870s, ‘association football’ was the name, not of a specific form or code of football, but of what Shakespeare would have called ‘a motley’. And in the 1860s at least, this motley did not invariably exclude rugby. It is true that, at a famous ill-tempered meeting of 28 November 1863, the representatives of Blackheath and other rugby clubs left the FA in protest at the ban on tripping and hacking just passed at that meeting, and the split between rugby and association football is conventionally dated to this time. But this conventional story overlooks the fact that many of the football clubs in and around London, and the handful of early football clubs in Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire, simply did not treat this split as definitive or even important. They did not feel bound by the decisions, or affected by the quarrels, of twelve men making up an obscure organization based in a London tavern. In fact throughout the 1860s the FA had no greater importance in regulating football than the Sheffield Association of football clubs, or than an individual club for that matter. 21

So this leaves two questions. First, how did proto-modern association football distil itself out of this ‘motley’, if not simply by the ‘spreading’ or ‘adoption’ of the FA code of rules? And second, did older forms of folk football play any part in influencing or structuring that original motley? We will take the second question first.

If early club football was influenced by folk football, that influence must have been mediated through the various public-school codifications. Certainly all the public-school codes originated from scholars bringing folk football into the schools from their surrounding hinterlands.

In the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, when public schools were much less regulated institutions than they were to become from the late eighteenth century, their scholars readily joined in local pastimes, including hunting and boxing, as well as football. But when the institutions became more physically and class-segregated the scholars were compelled to play football as an exclusively intra-school pastime, and it was as such that football was first formalized and codified in the 1840s (as ‘Eton’ football, ‘Rugby’ football, ‘Harrow’ football, etc.). 22

As already noted, the FA itself came into existence with the aim of creating a ‘universal code’ to overcome the major incompatibilities between these public-school codes that made inter-club play difficult. Or at least that is the view promulgated by most press writers and correspondents in late 1863 and early 1864 when the FA was being set up. It is also the view that finds its way into the standard histories.

It is very easy to start a game of football without insisting upon intricate rules and technicalities. The great object is to kick the ball from goal to goal; and although some insist that the ball shall be carried, and some maintain that hands should not be used under any pretence whatever, we should all put our shoulders to the wheel and start a game as best we can, giving and taking, as the case may be. 23

Not only this however, much early association football is also distinguished by the following characteristics. First, a strong emphasis on player weights, and on strength and physicality generally. This is most clearly manifest in the use of charging rather than tackling as the main way of arresting and dispossessing opponents [see excerpts 8, 9, 11, 17, 23, 24].

Second, scoring by kicking the ball behind the opponent’s bye-line – as a touchdown or rouge – as well as by kicking the ball into the goal space [1, 4, 15, 20]. Third, strong emphasis on ‘pack’ forward play (with the lead forward dribbling the ball and his co-forwards ‘backing-up’) rather than on dispersed and individualized ‘positional’ play [7, 24, 25]. And fourth, a tendency to use goals not only as a form of scoring but as a means of ‘time-dividing’ a match. Thus a match is described as divided into ‘games’, each game ending when a goal is scored. This is often reflected in the use of ‘goal’ and ‘game’ as partial synonyms – so that teams can win by ‘two goals or games to none’. It is also embodied in the FA rule, which remained in force into the 1880s, that teams should change ends on the scoring of a goal as well as at half-time [5, 16, 24, 25].

All these practices were also common in folk football. We have already seen that the latter was long regarded as a rough and dangerous pastime, in which direct physical clashes of players were common and the superior weight of one team could be a considerable asset. We also know that in smaller-scale team-and-field-based forms of folk football, the goals were often demarcated areas of the field rather than upright structures, which would have meant that much ‘goal scoring’ was more like the scoring of touchdowns or rouges. Such descriptions of folk football as we possess also suggest that most forms of it featured pack rushes against pack defences. 24 Folk football games were not, it seems, dispersed ‘positional’ games. And finally, there is a reasonable abundance of evidence that, from the late eighteenth century at least, a division of football matches into discrete ‘games’ (with each game ending when a goal was scored, and the winner of the match being the team to score two ‘goals or games’ out of three, or three ‘goals or games’ out of five) was a very common form of folk-football organization. 25

The fourteen famous ‘rules of football’ adopted by the Football Association on that celebrated evening of 28 November 1863 were not its only contribution to the making of modern football. In fact those initial rules were amended several times in the 1860s and early 1870s. The most significant of these amendments were the outlawing of the ‘fair catch’ at an AGM of February 1866; prohibiting the stopping of the ball with the hands (and thus all outfield handling of the ball) in 1870 and the creation of height-delimited goals, through a tape or bar, at the same meeting; the outlawing of scoring through touchdowns or rouges in 1868; and the creation of a designated role of ‘goalkeeper’ with the exclusive right to handle the ball, at a meeting of 1871.

Although, as the match reports show, these rule changes did not lead to instant transformation of playing practices, play did gradually and unevenly follow them. As a result, by the late 1870s most playing of association football did generally accord with FA rules (see Appendix).

However, it was not those original rules, nor the changes in them, that increased the influence of the FA’s code over football play, but its creation of a challenge-cup competition in 1871. The important role played by challenge cups (not only the FA Cup, but the Scottish FA’s cup competition of 1873 and the local association challenge cups which sprang up right across England and Scotland in the 1870s) in increasing the popularity of association football was regularly commented on by contemporaries, and is a staple of all histories of the game. Less noticed is that such competitions were also powerful influences in the standardizing of code and play. Clubs entering a cup competition had to agree to abide by the rules of the association sponsoring it, and all the new regional football associations which emerged in the 1870s tended to play either by the FA code, or by a code which differed from it only in minor ways.

So by the late 1870s players of association football knew that they were not to handle the ball, knew what constituted a goal in their game, knew that only a single ‘goalkeeper’ could handle the ball, etc. However, none of that actually told them how to play the game. Rules provide games with an objective to achieve (‘win by scoring more goals than the opposition’), but in regard to play their role is primarily negative. They say what cannot be done, what is foul or illegal, but they say nothing about what can be done, what constitutes good or effective play.

As the match reports suggest [8, 24, 25], in early association football the main attacking strategy was a group or pack of forwards running together toward the opposing goal, dribbling the ball as they went, and passing it (if at all) only very short distances within the pack. And the main mode of defence was for a group of the opposing team to bar the way, while one or more of their members barged into whichever opposing forward was dribbling the ball. Once in possession, this defending group would in turn become a forward pack, and the whole process would be reversed. Thus early football tended to involve groups of defenders and attackers following the ball around the pitch, and massing in battling ‘clumps’ around it. And since matches amounted to a continually-moving collision or confrontation between two groups of players, weight and size mattered a lot, because it often determined whether body or shoulder charges would be successful.

However, in the mid 1870s, around Glasgow and western Scotland, a number of physically slight Scottish footballers, of mainly working-class backgrounds, discovered that by dispersing themselves across the pitch rather more, passing the ball greater distances, and dribbling by manipulating the ball right and left in space (rather than straight ahead at the front of a pack) they could both ‘outflank’ pack defences and compensate for their lack of height and weight by speed of movement – of both players and ball. They also discovered that by ‘tackling’ an adversary in possession rather than charging him – that is by approaching with feet and legs advanced and aiming at the ball rather than the body – they could dispossess an opponent, even a much heavier opponent, quickly and cleanly, and commence their own counter-attack with a quick pass to a colleague. 26 Indeed one of the major advantages of the slide tackle (which appears to have originated in Scotland) was that, in certain circumstances, one physical movement could be both a dispossessing tackle and a pass to a colleague [16, 18, 23, 26, 27, 28]. 27

In addition, as football was developed in ways which made passing more important and pack dribbling less so, the skill of passing itself was developed in new ways. Players had to learn to pass in different directions by the use of the instep and the outside of the foot, and, if they wished to pass accurately over longer distances and avoid opposing players, they had to learn how to hit the ball cleanly through a variety of trajectories.

As forward play dispersed so as to outflank defences, so defences had to disperse in order to counter that threat. So both forwards and defenders began to occupy individualized ‘positions’ on the pitch, and confrontations between a specific defender and a specific forward replaced the group confrontations of early football. This also meant that both attack and defence could be seriously compromised if players drifted away from their positions. In particular, simply ‘following the ball’ became a dangerous tactic for defenders, because rapid passing of the ball around them soon left them stranded and ‘out of position’ [16, 27, 28]. 28

‘Opening up’ football in this way meant in turn that quick, small players with a low centre of gravity and the ability to twist and turn sharply while in possession (so evading a tackle or shoulder charge), and to control and pass the ball with speed and fluency, made far more dangerous forwards than larger and stronger, but much less mobile and skilful, opponents. In fact the above is an abstract sketch of the attributes of what became known as the ‘ball-playing’ Scottish forward or ‘dribble wizard’, a type of player who became the first cult hero of association football – in England as well as in Scotland – from the late 1870s onwards. 29

The combined result of all these changes was that by 1880 football matches, at least between the most technically advanced clubs, looked completely different from matches played in the 1860s, and much more like the ‘soccer’ we know today.

Enthusiast historians of football, just like early football crowds [16] celebrate the early Scottish dribblers and ‘ball-players’ (such as Harry McNeill) as the heroes of this ‘new’ football, while sociologists and others of a speculative bent make connections between the new ‘combinatory’, ‘positional’ football and the highly organized technical division of labour with which players from an industrial working-class background on Clydeside would have been familiar. 30

However I am sceptical of both these explanations. Nothing is required to explain these developments beyond the intelligent adaptability of men taking up a game dominated by players who were bigger and stronger, but less mobile, than they were. It is not impossible, I suppose, that some individual hero invented the so-called ‘wall pass’ or ‘slide tackle’, but it is more likely that they were just improvised simultaneously by many players in the course of play. And if there was one distinctively ‘working-class’ characteristic that encouraged such improvisation it was surely poor nutrition (and hence reduced stature) not extrapolations from factory or shipyard labour processes. 31

Finally, it should be emphasized that, in 1880, the changes anatomized above were seriously incomplete. Their epicentre was Glasgow and western Scotland, where, from the mid 1870s, working-class football clubs – or at any rate clubs with a significant working-class membership – sprang into being, 32 and by the mid 1880s constituted a majority of Scottish clubs. In England, although a few of the more traditionally middle-class clubs – like the Wanderers and the Royal Engineers – began to follow the Scottish example, the older ‘group-rushing’ style of play remained common in any and all parts of the country where middle-class clubs predominated [24, 25, 28].

However, by 1880 working-class clubs had begun to appear in Lancashire and Yorkshire too, and they brought Scottish players into their clubs and games, and/or organized matches against Scottish clubs as part of a quite conscious attempt to learn and emulate. By the late 1880s working-class football clubs formed a majority of all football clubs in every region of England. This almost immediately brought in its train pressures for the professionalization of the game, pressures that came fully to fruition from 1890 onward.

Writing the history of football has significant challenges of both method and sources. The primary methodological difficulty is that one is studying a human activity which has combined extraordinary continuity and stability of nomenclature – ‘football’, ‘playing football’, ‘playing footie’, ‘a match at football’ – with considerable change and dynamism of practice, especially since the mid nineteenth century.

The main problem of sources is that, except for a crucial but brief period between about 1840 and 1880, this is an activity of poor people primarily and is little represented in written records. This is most obviously true of the medieval and early modern history of football as a set of folk pastimes. But it is also applies to the early years of modern football, especially if one’s desire is to trace changes in patterns of play, rather than the institutional organization of the game or its broader social and economic impacts.

The game at which they had met for common recreation is called by some the ‘foot-ball-game’. It is one in which young men, in country sport, propel a huge ball not by throwing it into the air but by striking it along the ground, and that not with their hands but with their feet … The boundaries had been marked and the game had started; and, when they were striving manfully, kicking in opposite directions, and our hero had thrown himself into the midst of the fray, one of his fellows … came up against him in front and kicked him by misadventure, missing his aim at the ball. 33

But of course they have not, and I hope this article explains why they have not. However such is the love and esteem in which soccer and rugby are held today that the search for antiquarian legitimacy reproduces itself endlessly, and is immensely aided by the genuine antiquity of ‘football’ as a word, and by the tantalizingly vague descriptions in which it is employed for some 600 or more years.

In the case of the origins of modern association football the problem is at once very different and subtly related. For if by ‘the origins of modern football’ one means the origins of institutionalized and codified football, there is certainly no shortage of sources, and no real doubt what they tell us. However, if by ‘the origins of modern football’ one means the origins of the game of soccer as it is played today, there remains a considerable problem of sources, and considerable room for doubt about what they tell us.

In this article I have suggested that the foundations of the modern game of soccer were laid in Scotland and England in the thirty or so years after 1863, and I have exploited a previously underused source (early club-match reports) to trace the first twenty years of that process in a level of detail not previously attempted, and not found in the standard histories.

However, and more originally, I have also used those match reports to show that the family of loosely-related pastimes that bore the hallowed old name of ‘football’ did influence, did leave their impress upon, the first forms of codified football (although only in a mediated way through the public-school codification of specific playing and scoring practices). Those aspects of 1850s and 1860s codified football that most clearly bore the impress of the old world were precisely those that were radically altered, or removed in order to make soccer the extraordinarily attractive game, both to play and spectate, that it is today.

And, if I am right, it was working-class players above all who did that altering and removing. If one wants to push the irony, the working-class footballers of Scotland created the foundations of modern soccer by dispensing with all those aspects of play in which their plebeian forefathers had revelled and passed down through the generations. Those forms of play came down unto the late eighteenth century, even unto Victorian public-school boys. But, as a quintessentially plebeian bequest, they were politely refused by modern proletarian players.

Soccer is ‘the People’s Game’ par excellence . It is also (not least in this author’s eyes) ‘the Beautiful Game’, possessed, at its best, of a kind of bewitching liquid geometry that seems to appeal, irrespective of culture, class or even gender, to a huge number of human beings. But in order to ‘make’ soccer, and in order to make it beautiful, the modern ‘People’ (or some of them) had first to remove or transform virtually all of the elements that had come down to association football from ‘the People’ of pre-modern Britain. Quite why that was, and whether it had psychologically and emotionally deep connections – ‘sensibility’ connections – to other dimensions of modernity, it is beyond the purview of history to tell us.

The graph plots the percentage of ‘oddities’ in 395 football-match reports appearing in Bell’s Life and the Sporting Gazette between 1862 and 1880.

The sample was not randomly selected. On the contrary, all match reports appearing in the two journals over this period were ‘scanned’, but the 395 reports noted or downloaded were selected because they contained some details of play (no matter how brief) and/or contained ‘oddities’ of play, scoring, rules or other matters (for example, mention of player weights).

‘Oddities’ here means observations which appear odd from the point of view of association football today . Some of them (for example, outfield handling of the ball, or scoring by means of touch-downs or rouges as well as by goals) would not have seemed odd to players or observers at the time, and some (such as scoring by touch-downs or rouges) were not illegal under FA rules until the late 1860s. However, since the idea is precisely to emphasize how different 1860s and 1870s ‘association football’ was from contemporary soccer, the graph embodies contemporary, not Victorian, standards of oddity.

The straight line is the Excel-plotted trend line. It shows that the percentage of ‘odd’ observations declined continuously over the period, their absolute level falling, first to below 20% and then to 10% or less, as the 1870s advanced. This is broadly as one would expect if the analysis in the article is correct. At the very least it suggests that the pattern shown by the sub-sample of twenty-eight reports is typical of a broader universe.

Note however the anti-trend observations for 1867 (just one oddity in fifteen reports) and 1880 (two in seven – or 29% – after three previous years in which there had been none out of ten, two out of twenty-one, and one out of twenty-two). I am unable to explain the 1867 anomaly (it could simply be a product of chance), but the 1880 anomaly is more apparent than real. For 1880 I found only seven reports with details of play, and it happened that two of these contained oddities.

1 See for example, ‘A few hints to aid with the formation of the universal code’ by ‘A Lover of Football’, Sporting Gazette , 19 Dec. 1863. Also J. C. Thring, ‘Letter to the Editor’, Sporting Gazette , 26 Dec. 1863. Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) was founded in 1787 and came to codify and standardize national cricketing practices.

2 Tony Mason, Association Football and English Society, 1863–1915 , Brighton, 1980; Dave Russell, Football and the English: a Social History of Association Football in England 1863–1995 , Preston, 1997; and Matthew Taylor, The Association Game: a History of British Football , Harlow, 2008.

3 John Goulstone, Football’s Secret History , Upminster, 2001; Adrian Harvey, Football: the First Hundred Years – the Untold Story , London, 2005. See also Goulstone, ‘The Working-Class Origins of Modern Football’, International Journal of the History of Sport [ IJHS ] 17: 1, 2000, pp. 135–43, and Harvey, ‘Football’s Missing Link: the Real Story of the Evolution of Modern Football’, European Sports History Review 1, 1999.

4 Francis Peabody Magoun Jr, A History of Football from the Beginnings to 1871 , Cologne, 1938.

5 Percy M. Young, A History of British Football , London, 1973, chaps 1–3; Montague Shearman, Athletics and Football , London, 1881, chap. 1 and Charles Alcock, Football: Our Winter Game , London, 1874, chap. 1. Since Young however, football historians have tended to avoid the topic, which is why Harvey and Goulstone have been able to rediscover it as a ‘secret history’ or ‘real story’. Taylor ( Association Game , pp. 24–9), gives it a little attention, but only as part of a brief review of Harvey and Goulstone’s revisionism.

6 ‘The original game from which both Rugby and Association football have been developed … was simply the getting of a ball to or through a goal in spite of the efforts of the opposite side to prevent it’: Shearman, Athletics and Football , p. 260.

7 According to Goulstone, ‘The boundary or goal was known as the “bye” … a “bye” or a “by-goal” denoted a ball kicked or placed over the opposing team’s goal-line, from the dialect word ‘bye’ meaning the corners and two ends of a field impossible to be turned by any plough which instead had to be dug by hand. Similarly ‘headland’ was applied to the strip of land left unoccupied at the grassy or waste borders of a field close to the hedge. Thus in Rochdale in 1841 the ball had to be placed ‘on the opponents’ headland’, which the report defined as ‘each extremity of the field’. Goulstone, Football’s Secret History , p. 39.

8 For good overviews of Shrovetide football, see Magoun, History of Football , chap. 9, and Harvey, Football , chap. 1. For a case study, see my ‘ “From Time Immemorial”: the Alnwick Shrovetide Football Match and the Continual Making and Remaking of Tradition, 1828–90’, IJHS 6, 2011, pp. 831–52.

9 See Magoun, History of Football , p. 140.

10 See for example, ‘… an extraordinary match of football took place at Dunstable-down; a young gentleman took the hill for 200 guineas, against eleven of the best football players in the country, which was decided in his favour after a contest of four hours and a half’: General Evening Post , 16 May 1789; or ‘… we live in hopes of seeing a manifesto published against the practice on the cricket ground of the exercises of wrestling and football, either of which have quite as much of the legal essence of an assault as a prize fight’: Bell’s Life in London , 15 March 1829, p. 6. One finds single-man challenges to a match at ‘wrestling or football’ in the columns of Bell’s Life. The first of these (from 1847) even specified the maximum weight of the opponent – ten stone.

Oswald. : ‘I’ll not be struck my lord.’ Kent: ‘Nor tripped neither, you base football player.’ [ Tripping up his heels .]

12 See for example ‘The Lord’s Last Kick: Or Corporation Football’, in Figaro in London , 9 July 1836, p. 113 (a lengthy analogy of a Lords-Commons dispute to a football match). Also ‘the head of LOUIS SEIZE became the football of the Poissardes’: The Age , 13 Sept. 1840, p. 291; and ‘The motion of Lord Beaumont met with a very equivocal supporter, who may be considered the football (not a little inflated, by the way, notwithstanding the numerous kicks received) – of the contending parties’: The Satirist; or the Censor of the Times , 22 Feb. 1846, p. 59. For many other examples (often reproduced) see Magoun, History of Football , pp. 38–44.

Wigston won the toss and consequently had the wind in their favour. The play was excellent on both sides for half an hour. Wigston, finding they were losing, got out of temper, and began kicking the Blaby youths, but they smartly returned it. Blaby seemed to have the play entirely to themselves, winning the first goal. A rest then took place for half an hour, after which, the ball being put down, Blaby having the wind the contest was very short, they winning easily.

The only reason why football has not long since become as generally popular in winter as cricket has in summer, is to be found in the diversity of the laws by which it is regulated in different centres, and the disputes which have in consequence arisen. It was at one time common to most village-greens, and a pastime of the people. It has now for many years languished almost everywhere except at the public schools, where, under peculiar forms, it has flourished, and still flourishes, in all its pristine vigour. This decay has not been unattended by murmurs of dissent and disapprobation, and these have at last arisen into a cry which promises now to be answered by a more general spread of the game upon better principles.

15 On this see Eric Dunning, Sport Matters : Sociological Studies of Sport, Violence, and Civilization , London, 1998, pp. 90–1, and especially E. Dunning and Ken Sheard, Barbarians, Gentlemen and Players : a Sociological Study of the Development of Rugby Football , London, 2005. For reasons already given, it is impossible to know for certain whether folk football declined from the late eighteenth century (although that was the almost unanimous view of well-informed contemporaries). But the massively increased labour demands of the industrial revolution and the general social dislocation attendant upon rapid urbanization and rural-urban migration provide plausible reasons for thinking so. A well-known account arguing this is Robert W. Malcolmson, Popular Recreations in English Society 1700–1850 , Cambridge, 1973, especially chap. 5. See also Richard Holt , Sport and the British: a Modern History , Oxford 1989, pp. 38–40. For some qualifying comments around the paucity of evidence, see Hugh Cunningham, Leisure in the Industrial Revolution , London, 1980, chap. 2, pp. 60–5.

16 See for example Russell, Football and the English , chap. 1.

17 Mason, Association Football and English Society , chap. 1 and Taylor, Association Game , chap. 1, both exemplify this approach. The older histories do better in this respect. See for example Young, History of British Football , chap. 6, and Shearman, Athletics and Football , pp. 279–93, both of which discuss the public-school codes and their antecedents in some detail.

18 Richard Sanders attempts to make a connection between the early emergence of club football in Sheffield and a ‘lingering' tradition of folk football in South Yorkshire, ‘particularly the hill country around the villages of Penistone, Thurlstone and Holmforth just a dozen miles north-west of Sheffield’. But he provides no convincing evidence of a direct link between the two, just inviting his readers to construe coincidence as causality. ‘It is surely no coincidence that Britain's first modern football culture outside London should have emerged in a city so close to this hotbed of folk football.’ Richard Sanders, Beastly Fury: the Strange Birth of British Football , London: Bantam, 2009, pp.48–9. Eric Dunning, ‘Something of a Curate's Egg: Comments on Adrian Harvey's “An Epoch in the Annals of Modern Sport”’, IJHS 18:4, 2001, pp. 88–93 identifies the same weakness in Harvey’s account of the Sheffield club and Association.

19 The table and chart in Appendix 1 use my entire sample of 395 reports to provide a statistical confirmation of the increased standardization of football play in England and Scotland between 1860 and 1880. They show that this proceeded much more rapidly after 1872–3.

20 There is much debate about the Sheffield Association, and in particular how far it was or was not a ‘public-school’ institution. For the principal contributions, see Harvey, Football , chap. 4, and ‘An Epoch in the Annals of National Sport: Football in Sheffield and the Creation of Modern Soccer and Rugby’, IJHS 18: 4, 2001. For a critique see Dunning, ‘Something of a Curate’s Egg’, and exchanges in IJHS 18: 4, 2001 and 19: 4, 2002.

21 On 17 November 1863 the FA received a request to join from the Secretary of Lincoln Football Club, whose letter noted that ‘the laws by which we have hitherto played are drawn, I believe, from the Marlborough, Eton and Rugby rules’. Less than a year later however, Lincoln withdrew from the FA on the grounds that ‘we played under the association rules last year but did not find them act’ ( sic ). Meanwhile, Lincoln’s neighbours, the Louth Football Club, determined at an AGM of 17 Feb. 1864 to adopt the ‘the new [FA] … laws … with the following exceptions – The sentence in Rule IV with regard to the numbers of the sides to be expunged, the word thrown to be substituted for the word hit occurring in Rule XIII’. Rule 4 said, among other things, that ‘the numbers on each side [were] to be settled by the heads of the sides’. Rule 13 stated that ‘The ball, when in play, may be stopped by any part of the body, but it may NOT be held or hit by the hands, arms or shoulders’. So clearly Louth were playing a game in which the ball was ‘hit’ with the hands and arms, but was not ‘thrown’. And they wanted to keep it that way. Bell’s Life , 21 Nov. 1863, p. 1, 27 Feb. 1864, p. 7, and 24 Feb. 1866, p. 3.

22 See J. A. Mangan, ‘Bullies, Beatings, Battles and Bruises: “Great Days and Jolly Days” at one Mid-Victorian Public School’, in Disreputable Pleasures: Less Virtuous Victorians at Play , ed. Mike Huggins and J. A. Mangan, London, 2004, pp. 3–34, for this transition at Marlborough School. See also Tony Collins, Rugby’s Great Split: Class, Culture and the Origins of Rugby League Football , London, 1989, pp. 4–6, for pre-existing forms of folk football in the area around Rugby school. For more general assertions about the connections between the public-school codes and their plebeian predecessors, see Young, History of British Football , chap. 6, and Shearman, Athletics and Football , pp. 279–93.

23 The Old Boy, ‘Football’, Routledge’s Magazine for Boys , 1 Nov. 1868, p. 4.

24 See for example my ‘ “From Time Immemorial”’, especially pp. 841–5, and also my ‘What’s in a Name? Playing “Football” in the mid-Victorian North-East’, Ethnologie Française , 2011: 4, pp. 601–13, especially pp. 604–6.

25 See for example John Bull , 17 March 1828, p. 88. Also Bell’s Life , 9 Feb. 1851 and 21 March 1852.

The backs should be clever tacklers, able to kick with either foot, and take the earliest opportunity of retarding the progress of the dribbler … At close quarters they should avoid charging, for depend upon it, another of the opposing forwards, seeing a gap in the line of defence, caused by the time wasted in an attack of this kind, may get the ball through.

27 There has been some debate over who introduced ‘the passing game’ to association football, with the Royal Engineers and Sheffield teams sometimes being credited along with the Scots. See for example, C. W. Alcock, Football: the Association Game , London, 1906, pp. 33 and 35–6. Also Young, History of Football , p. 161 and Russell, Football and the English , p. 21. Here again the match-report evidence is helpful. Reports dating between March 1875 and March 1880, and including several matches between Queen’s Park (and other Glasgow teams and clubs) and the Royal Engineers, Sheffield, and the leading English team of this period – the Wanderers – show clearly that the Scots were the pioneers here. In 1876 for example, after suffering a heavy defeat by a combined Glasgow XI, the Sheffield Association introduced trial matches (for the selection of its team for the return fixture) for the first time in its history. Those matches were explicitly designed to ‘find out the best passing players’ and to expel from the team ‘any of the players exhibiting selfishness’: Bell’s Life , 11 March 1876, p. 5.

28 Alcock, Football: the Association Game , pp. 35–6, notes that, ‘the Scotch’ as well as pioneering ‘systematic passing’ were also the first to give ‘each player … his allotted station’. He also claims that the greater attacking threat posed by the passing game produced an answering shift in the structure of teams, with the numbers of forwards reduced (from seven to five) and the number of defenders increased (from three or four to five or six), and that this too happened first in Scotland.

29 On the evening of 30 Jan. 1886 some young men of the Morpeth Harriers Football Club in Northumberland were met in committee when they learned that ‘a Queens Park player was located at Pegswood and was in town that very evening. As soon as the Committee had recovered from the delightful shock of this unexpected news, the Secretary and Treasurer rushed off to capture this rara avis ’: Morpeth Harriers Football Club Minute Book 1884–7, Northumberland Records Office, ZMD 156/1.

30 See, for example James Walvin, The People’s Game: a Social History of British Football , London, 1975, p. 77. For Harry McNeill, see Matthew L. McDowell, A Cultural History of Association Football in Scotland , Edinburgh, 2013, chap. 3, pp. 67–8. (I am deeply grateful to Dr McDowell for so generously making his pioneering work on the very early history of Scottish football available to me.) The McNeill brothers were members of the first Rangers team (1872), although Harry also played for Queen’s Park later in the 1870s, and is tagged as a ‘Queen’s Park’ player in the Scottish team lists for the 1874 and 1878 internationals against England: see excerpts 16 and 27 above.

31 For comments on the notably lighter weight and smaller stature of the Scottish players in the England v Scotland matches of 1874 and 1878, see Bell’s Life , 14 March 1874, p. 5, and 9 March 1878, p. 5. For data on the generally poorer nutrition and smaller size of all Scottish people vis-à-vis the English in the late nineteenth century, see Roderick Floud, Kenneth Wachter and Annabel Gregory, Health, Height and History: Nutritional Status in the UK 1750–1980 , Cambridge, 1990, chap. 1 and Conclusions, and for data on working-class nutrition specifically in the late nineteenth century, chap. 5. It is unclear whether Scottish working-class men generally were smaller, or had poorer nutrition, than working-class men in Victorian England and Wales. But for our purposes this does not matter, since until the late 1880s the English national team, and all the leading English club teams, were made up entirely of men from middle-class and upper-middle-class backgrounds.

32 For the very early (1870s) development of Scottish working-class football clubs, often though not always under employer auspices and control, in Dumbartonshire, Ayrshire and Lanarkshire (including Glasgow), see McDowell, A Cultural History , chap. 5, pp. 99–119; chap. 6, pp. 122–3, 129 and 135; and chap. 7, pp. 147–8, 152, 155–6, 160–1. For the rapid changes in the size, class composition and behaviour of Scottish football crowds with the appearance of working–class teams (notably Vale of Leven and Rangers) see Bell’s Life , 24 March 1877, p. 4 and 23 March 1878, p. 5.

33 Magoun, History of Football , pp. 14–15.

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A Sociological Analysis of United Kingdom Football Fans: Historical Debates and Contemporary Issues

• First Online: 26 January 2023

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• Jamie Cleland 5 &
• Richard Giulianotti 6 , 7  

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This chapter examines the main themes, debates and issues relating to the sociological study of football fans in the United Kingdom. The discussion covers five main areas of sociological research. First, we explore national issues relating to football and fandom in the United Kingdom, primarily along the old lines of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, but also with reference to later debates on migration and multiculturalism. Second, we examine debates on football hooliganism that extend back to the late 1960s, and which provided the main focus for sociological study through much of the subsequent decades. Third, we explore how social scientists have examined the socio-cultural aspects of football fandom, with respect to themes such as identity, community, memory, belonging, and rivalry. Fourth, we examine sociological analyses of fans with respect to social divisions, notably along the lines of class, gender, race/ethnicity, sexuality, and (dis)ability. Fifth, we examine the contemporary cultural politics of fandom, notably in relation to opposition or resistance movements established by fan movements at club and national levels.

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Cleland, J., Giulianotti, R. (2023). A Sociological Analysis of United Kingdom Football Fans: Historical Debates and Contemporary Issues. In: Buarque de Hollanda, B., Busset, T. (eds) Football Fandom in Europe and Latin America. Football Research in an Enlarged Europe. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06473-9_2

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333 Football Research Topics & Essay Titles

Football is a game that millions of people around the world enjoy watching and playing. With 3.57 billion views of the 2018 FIFA World Cup, this sport appears to be the most popular. Besides, each match is more than just a game — football is all about passion, skill, and teamwork.

In this article, our expert team has collected great football topics to write about and research that you can use for your school or college assignments.

🔝 Top 12 Football Topics to Write About

✍️ football writing prompts, 📝 football titles for essays, 🗣️ football speech topics, 💡 football topics for presentation, 🔎 football research topics, ⚽ football essay outline, 🔗 references.

• The history of football.
• Football as the world’s most popular ball game.
• The development of modern football.
• The greatest football moments.
• Why do tactics play a vital role in football?
• Football as a traumatic kind of sport.
• What is football’s most prestigious competition?
• The legends of American football.
• The impact of football on society.
• Advantages of playing football.
• Men’s and women’s football.
• The issue of racism in football.

Are you looking for some prompts on the football topic? Then you are at the right place! Below, you can find ideas for writing your essay.

Why Football Is the Best Sport: Essay Prompt

Football is a global sport that connects practically everyone on the planet. It has the power to bring an entire city or nation to a standstill. In the essay that explains why football is the best game, you can share your own experience or the emotions of your friend who is passionate about this game. Also, you can list the reasons why people love this sport. For example:

• Football connects millions of people.
• There are no age restrictions to enjoy the match.
• The world’s best talents are football players, such as Lionel Messi.
• Watching or participating in football evokes genuine emotions.

Prompt for Panyee Football Club Essay

Have you ever heard about a football club that is floating on water? Panyee FC is one of them! Since there is not enough space on the island, football fans and players built a football pitch in the middle of the sea. Find the answers to the following questions about Panyee Football Club and use this information in your essay:

• What is the history behind Panyee Football Club?
• Why is a Panyee FC pitch built on water?
• What are the core values of Panyee Football Club?
• Can we say that Panyee FC is a symbol of passion for football?

Why Football Is Dangerous: Essay Prompt

The fact that football has the greatest injury rate of any other kind of sport should not come as a surprise. Football players often incur injuries like ankle sprains, knee injuries, concussions, and acromioclavicular sprains. In your essay on the dangers of football, you can raise the following questions:

• Why is it so easy for football players to get injured?
• What types of injuries are most common during a football game?
• What precautions must be taken to prevent trauma?
• How does injury impact the future career of a football player?

Prompt for Essay on Concussions in Football

While every sport has some risk of getting hurt, football, as a high-impact sport , is infamous for causing severe injuries. Concussions are a common injury among football players. They happen when the head is hit hard enough to cause a minor brain injury. To research the topic of concussions in football, write your essay based on the following aspects:

• The effect of concussion on the brain.
• Statistics on concussion in American football.
• Medical concussion protocol.
• The recovery process after a concussion.
• Screening procedures examining football players for brain damage.

If you’re looking for the most engaging football essay titles, check out the ideas we’ve collected below!

Topics for a Descriptive Essay on a Football Game

• The thrill of a last-minute goal in football.
• The intensity of the players’ warm-up and last-minute preparations.
• Sports psychologist: working with athletes .
• The different styles of play in football around the world.
• The rapid movement of players and the choreography of their tactics.
• The role of a coach in football.
• Capturing the joys and frustrations of the players and fans.
• The interaction between players and referees: decisions, protests, and resolutions.
• A description of a football stadium and its architecture.
• The art of dribbling in football.
• How do players and fans celebrate a goal?
• Describing pre-match rituals and superstitions in football.
• How do fans create a supportive atmosphere for their team during the game?
• The joy and excitement of attending a live football match.
• Describing how coaches handle their emotions on the sidelines.
• The description of food served during the football game.
• The magnetic pull of the scoreboard: watching the numbers change.
• The vibrant fan gear and merchandise in a football stadium.
• The drama of penalty kicks: tension, hope, and heartbreak.
• The description of a goalkeeper’s save.
• The sounds of the football match.

Football Argumentative Essay Topics

• Is football too dangerous for young children to play?
• Does football develop leadership skills and teamwork?
• Title IX in the female sports development.
• College football players should be paid for their performance on the field.
• Should football stadiums have stricter security measures?
• Is the use of performance-enhancing drugs in football acceptable?
• Reasons why the NFL should expand to include more teams.
• Why paying college athletes is beneficial.
• Is the NFL doing enough to prevent concussions and other injuries in players?
• Should football games be played on artificial turf or natural grass?
• Is it ethical for colleges to recruit high school football players?
• Should players be allowed to protest during games?
• Does youth sports play a part in the character formation ?
• Reasons why cheerleading should be considered a sport in football.
• Should the Super Bowl be considered a national holiday?
• The economic influence of football: the benefits and costs.
• Is football too focused on commercialization and profit?
• Should football players be allowed to use marijuana for medical purposes?
• The NFL should have a shorter season to reduce the risk of injuries to players.
• Using performance-enhancing drugs in the world of sport.
• Should college football teams be allowed to schedule games against non-college teams, such as high school teams?
• Should the NFL have a salary cap to ensure fairness among teams?
• Football players should wear full body armor to reduce injuries.
• Is football too expensive for schools and communities to support?
• Should the NFL allow players to use alternative therapies for pain management?
• Should football players be required to take regular drug tests ?
• Should the NFL have stricter penalties for players who break the rules, such as suspensions or fines?
• Children participation in sports.
• Football players should take classes on financial management to prepare for life after football.
• Should the NFL have a quota for hiring minority coaches and executives?
• High school football players should pass a physical exam before being allowed to play.
• Should the NFL have stricter rules on player conduct off the field?
• College football players should be allowed to transfer to other schools without penalty.
• Should the NFL have a policy on players using social media ?
• Football players should attend media training to prepare for interviews and press conferences.
• Sport psychology: biases and influence of external rewards .
• Should the NFL have a policy on players participating in political activism?
• Football players should undergo regular psychological evaluations.
• Should the NFL have a policy on players using alcohol and drugs off the field?
• Should football players be required to wear protective eyewear to reduce eye injuries?
• College football teams should provide mental health resources for their players.
• Should high school football teams limit the number of weekly practices to reduce the risk of injuries?
• Paying college athletes: reinforcing privilege or promoting growth?
• Should college football players be allowed to unionize?
• Should football be banned in schools to protect students from injuries?
• Is playing football in college detrimental to academics?
• Should college football players be allowed to hire agents?

Ideas for a Narrative Essay about Football

• The first time I stepped onto the football field: an unforgettable experience.
• Overcoming adversity: how I bounced back from a football injury.
• A story of teamwork: how football taught me the value of collaboration.
• The most memorable football match I have ever witnessed.
• Coping with stress in athletes .
• The importance of football in building lifelong friendships.
• From underdog to champion: my journey with the football team.
• A day in the life of a football player: behind the scenes.
• The role of football in shaping my identity.
• A tale of rivalry: the intense football match against our arch-nemesis.
• The impact of football on my physical fitness and well-being.
• How a football coach changed my life.
• The thrill of scoring the winning goal: a football victory to remember.
• The evolution of football: from my grandfather’s time to the modern era.
• A football match that taught me the importance of humility .
• The emotional rollercoaster of supporting a football team.
• Lessons learned from defeat: how football taught me resilience.
• A football game that tested my leadership skills.
• Football and community: how the sport brings people together.
• A football camp experience: training, team building , and friendship.
• From fan to player: fulfilling my football dream.

Football Essay Topics: Compare and Contrast

• Regular football vs. American football: a comparative analysis.
• Lionel Messi vs. Cristiano Ronaldo: contrasting two football legends.
• Comparing football and soccer .
• College football vs. professional football: similarities and differences.
• The World Cup vs. the Super Bowl: contrasting two major football events.
• The roles and impact of offensive and defensive players.
• The Premier League vs. La Liga: comparing two dominant football leagues.
• Contrasting playing styles and cultural significance of football in Europe and South America.
• Club football vs. international football: examining the differences in competition and loyalty.
• Football stadiums vs. arenas: comparing the experiences of live football events.
• The similarities and differences between Olympic football and FIFA World Cup.
• Football in the past vs. modern-day football.
• Comparing the roles and responsibilities of quarterbacks and goalkeepers.
• Football fan culture in Europe vs. the US: contrasting fan traditions and behaviors.
• Amateur football vs. professional football.
• Football uniforms vs. gear: analyzing the equipment used in the sport.
• Comparing and contrasting famous football team rivalries.
• Football team dynamics vs. individual brilliance: contrasting the impact of teamwork and individual performances.
• Football referees vs. video assistant referees (VAR).
• Club vs. country: comparing the passion and loyalty for club and national teams.
• Football and injuries: comparing the risk and types of injuries in the sport.
• Football leagues during the pandemic vs. regular seasons.
• Football commentary vs. live match experience: comparing the different ways of engaging with the sport.
• The impact of football on local vs. global economies.
• Football documentaries vs. fictional football movies.
• The role of football in promoting diversity vs. perpetuating stereotypes.
• Football fandom vs. player idolization: contrasting how fans engage with the sport.
• Comparing the traditional grass pitches vs. artificial turf.
• The impact of social media on football vs. traditional media.
• Comparing the challenges of football in different weather conditions .
• Football in mainstream culture vs. football subcultures.
• The health benefits of football vs. injuries and health risks.
• Betting in football vs. gambling.
• The cultural significance of football in different regions.
• Football literature vs. football films: contrasting different forms of storytelling about the sport.
• Football stadiums: traditional vs. modern architecture .
• College football vs. professional football: differences in gameplay and culture.
• Offensive vs. defensive strategies: which is more important?
• Comparing traditional and modern football training methods.
• The history of football in America and Europe.
• Injuries in football vs. soccer: which sport is more dangerous?

American Football Topics

• The evolution of American football: from its origins to the present day.
• The impact of race on American football.
• Concussions and brain injuries in American football.
• The psychology of football: understanding the mental game of players and coaches.
• The role of women in American football: from cheerleaders to coaches and executives.
• The strategies and tactics used in American football.
• The role of coaches in American football: leadership and game planning.
• The significance of the offensive line in American football.
• The impact of college football on the NFL.
• The influence of the media on American football.
• The role of the head coach in American football.
• The importance of physical fitness in American football.
• The impact of technology on American football: from instant replay to virtual reality training.
• The economic impact and financial aspects of American football.
• The history of Super Bowl halftime shows.
• American football and national identity.
• The impact of weather on American football games.
• The influence of player protests on American football.
• The role of American football in the entertainment industry (movies, TV shows, etc.).
• The development of American football youth programs: benefits and challenges.
• The importance of the running back in the offense in American football.
• The role of the defensive line in stopping the run and rushing the passer in American football.
• The influence of American football on sports marketing and sponsorship.
• The impact of fan behavior on American football.
• Exploring the legacy of American football’s great players and their impact on the sport.
• The influence of a new coach on team culture and performance in American football.
• The consequences of player suspensions in American football.
• Player trades in American football: exploring how teams acquire new talent.
• American football and sportsmanship: fair play and ethical considerations.
• The impact of player injuries on American football: exploring the recovery process.
• The role of American football in building teamwork and camaraderie.
• The impact of American football on society’s perception of masculinity .
• The history and cultural significance of American football rivalries.
• The role of American football in promoting community engagement and volunteerism.
• The influence of American football on US pop culture.
• American football and social justice: protests, activism, and athlete empowerment.
• The role of American football in public health and fitness initiatives.
• The ethics of sports gambling in American football.
• American football and sports diplomacy: international relations and competitions.
• The future of American football: challenges and opportunities.

Are you looking for exciting football topics to talk about? Check out our suggestions for persuasive and informative speeches about this sport!

Football Persuasive Speech Topics

• The benefits of playing football for overall physical fitness.
• The importance of youth football programs in fostering teamwork.
• Kids and sports: lack of professional sports guides.
• The positive impact of football on character development and leadership skills.
• The role of football in promoting gender equality and inclusion.
• The economic benefits of hosting major football events like the World Cup or Super Bowl.
• The need for increased safety measures and concussion protocols in football.
• The necessity of providing proper healthcare and support for retired football players.
• The role of football in breaking down cultural and racial barriers.
• Balancing college sports and academic mission.
• The benefits of investing in football infrastructure and facilities for communities.
• The positive influence of football in reducing youth involvement in crime and drugs.
• The potential of football as a tool for empowering disadvantaged communities.
• The role of football in promoting a healthy and active lifestyle among fans and spectators.
• The benefits of including football as part of the physical education curriculum in schools.
• The positive effects of football in promoting national pride.
• Corporate social responsibility in sports organizations .
• The use of football as a platform for raising awareness and funds for charitable causes.
• The importance of football in boosting tourism and international visibility of cities.
• The potential of football in fostering international diplomacy and cultural exchange.
• The importance of providing equal opportunities for females in football at all levels.
• The impact of football on local economies through job creation and tourism revenue.
• The significance of iconic moments in football history.

Football Informative Speech Topics

• The different positions in football and their roles.
• The psychology of football fans and their passion for the game.
• Agencies in the international football industry .
• Famous football stadiums around the world and their significance.
• The rules and regulations of football: understanding the game’s structure.
• The role of referees and their importance in enforcing the rules of football.
• Positive self-talk and its impact on athletes .
• The evolution of football equipment: from leather balls to high-tech gear.
• The most successful football clubs in history and their achievements.
• Exploring the tactics and strategies used in modern football.
• The science behind successful football coaching.
• Sports coaching career and its history.
• Football rivalries: the history and intensity behind classic match-ups.
• The art of scoring goals: techniques and skills of top goal scorers.
• Football and media: the influence of broadcasting and coverage on the sport.
• The psychological aspects of football: mental preparation and performance.
• The cultural impact of football around the world.
• The development and growth of women’s football.
• Physical therapy services for sports injuries.
• The importance of nutrition and fitness in football.
• The significance of football academies in nurturing young talent.
• The role of technology in modern football: VAR, goal-line technology, and more.
• Football hooliganism : understanding the causes and efforts to combat it.
• Famous football managers and their managerial styles: strategies for success.

If you need compelling topics about football for your presentation, here are some ideas you can consider:

• The FIFA World Cup: the most significant event in international football.
• Techniques and skills in football: dribbling, shooting, passing, and more.
• Leadership development in football management .
• The rules and regulations in football.
• Football tactics: exploring different formations and strategic approaches.
• Famous football players of all times: their achievements and impact on the sport.
• Football and sports injuries: common types, prevention, and treatment.
• Steroid use effects on professional young athletes.
• Football stadiums around the world: architecture and unique features.
• The business side of football: sponsorship, transfer fees, and revenue streams.
• Football and social media: the influence of digital platforms on the sport.
• Football documentaries and films: capturing the drama and passion of the sport.
• The effects of football on fashion and popular culture.
• Virtual reality technology in soccer referee training .
• The financial impact of football on cities and regions.
• Football and sports journalism: media coverage and analysis of the sport.
• Football stats and analytics: how data is revolutionizing the sport.
• The causes and consequences of fan violence in football.
• The cultural rituals and traditions associated with football matches.
• Football and the environment: sustainable practices and stadiums.
• The impact of football on tourism.
• Health care site: fitness, sports, and nutrition.
• Football and celebrity culture: players as icons and brand ambassadors.
• Football in video games: the popularity of virtual football experiences.
• The importance of infrastructure in hosting major football events.
• Football tactics in different eras: from Catenaccio to Tiki-Taka.
• Football and broadcasting: the growth of televised matches and media rights.
• Football training drills for improving agility and speed.
• Physical activity and sports team participation.
• Strategies for effective team communication on the football field.
• The importance of proper warm-up exercises in preventing injuries in football.
• Tips for strengthening and conditioning specific muscle groups for football players.
• Defensive formations and tactics for shutting down opponents in football.
• Analyzing football game films to improve performance and strategy.
• Recovering from football injuries: rehabilitation exercises and protocols.
• Sports-related problems and conflicts .
• Sports psychology techniques for boosting confidence and mental resilience in football.
• Nutrition and hydration guidelines for optimal performance in football.
• The connection between globalization and football.
• The role of stretching routines in preventing muscle imbalances in football players.
• Practical strategies for successful penalty shootouts in football.
• Steroid usage in professional sports.
• Football scouting and player evaluation techniques for talent identification.
• The use of technology in football training and performance analysis.
• Football equipment maintenance and safety guidelines for players.
• Preparing and executing penalty kicks in pressure situations in football.
• Advanced passing techniques in football: long passes, through balls, and more.

Do you need to write a research paper about football but don’t know where to start? Consider our list of football research questions and topics:

• How have football tactics evolved over the past decade?
• The impact of technology on decision-making in football.
• Business industry: trend analysis for soccer .
• The psychology of team cohesion and its effects on football performance.
• What is the role of nutrition and diet in optimizing football players’ performance?
• What is the relationship between football and concussions?
• How do FIFA World Cup events affect host countries’ economies?
• What is the carbon footprint of major football events?
• The effects of climate conditions on football matches.
• Shortage of officials at the high school sports level.
• The influence of social media on football players’ image and brand.
• The role of VAR in the fairness of football matches.
• The impact of home-field advantage in professional football.
• How does the football stadium atmosphere affect player performance?
• The rise of women’s football and its impact on gender equality.
• The economic implications of football player transfers and fees.
• The correlation between a team’s wage bill and on-pitch success.
• Factors influencing fan loyalty in football.
• Research handbook of employment relations in sport.
• The role of leadership and coaching in a team’s success.
• The impact of sponsorship deals on football clubs’ financial stability.
• The relationship between player positioning and successful goal scoring.
• The effects of VAR on the emotions and behavior of fans during football matches.
• How does football influence youth development and participation in sport?
• How can big data analytics improve football performance and decision-making?
• The effects of football on cultural identity and national pride.
• How do sports affect disabled people psychologically ?
• The impact of football on the local community and economy.
• The influence of crowd noise on football referee decisions.
• The role of sports psychology in enhancing football performance.
• The impact of financial fair play regulations on football clubs.
• How does football betting affect match outcomes and integrity?
• The cultural significance of football chants and songs in fan culture.
• Steroid abuse in the world of sports .
• The influence of doping scandals on the reputation of football players and clubs.
• The role of football in promoting social inclusion and breaking down barriers.
• How do international football competitions affect tourism?
• The effects of player transfers on team dynamics and performance.
• The correlation between player height and success in football.
• The influence of different playing surfaces on football player performance and injury rates.
• How do referees maintain fairness and order in football matches?
• Achievement motivation theory in sports psychology .
• The impact of football on academic performance and school attendance.
• The role of football hooliganism in shaping public perceptions of the sport.
• The influence of football sponsorship on brand image and consumer behavior.
• The effects of football on social integration and community cohesion.
• How do rule changes affect football game dynamics?
• The influence of football on individual and societal gender norms.
• Sports analysis: steroids and HGH in sports .
• Investigating the impact of celebrity endorsement on football merchandise sales.
• The role of technology in improving football player performance and injury prevention.
• The correlation between alcohol consumption and football-related violence.
• The impact of fan protests and boycotts on football clubs and leagues.
• The effects of retirement on the mental well-being of former professional football players.
• The influence of football on urban development and infrastructure investment.
• How does football affect students’ academic motivation and educational attainment?
• The impact of football on destination marketing in tourism.

Structuring your essay on football is a piece of cake, and we’re going to prove it! Follow our mini guide with valuable tips and examples!

Football Essay Introduction

The first paragraph of an essay is crucial to creating a strong paper. A successful introduction often starts by addressing broad ideas related to the essay’s topic. Follow the steps below to write a compelling introduction:

1. Start with a hook.

Make a good first impression by using a captivating hook . In football essays, it can include a surprising fact, statistics, a question, or a relevant quote. Here’s an example:

What is the one thing that can unite a country and foster its pride? Yes, it is football!

2. Provide background information.

Give essential details on the essay’s main subject. This part can include the history of your topic, an explanation of key terms, and anything that can help your reader understand the context of your issue.

Football is a group of team sports that involve kicking a ball to score goals.

3. End with a thesis statement.

Put a concise thesis statement at the end to outline your motivation for the paper and present central arguments. Let’s talk about this element in detail.

Thesis Statement about Football

The thesis statement is a sentence expressing the primary idea of a piece of writing and guiding the thoughts within the work.

There are several steps that you should take to develop a thesis statement:

• Research information on your issue.
• Limit your topic to a specific area.
• Brainstorm to come up with interesting ideas.

Look at the example of a football thesis statement:

Football offers the chance to feel pride for the favorite team and positively impacts physical, social, and emotional development.

Essay about Football: Body Paragraphs

The main body of an essay is the most crucial part where you deliver your arguments. Here are some tips on writing a good body paragraph:

• Start with a topic sentence to capture the key points.
• Provide additional information to support your opinion.
• Use a transition sentence to get to the next paragraph smoothly.

Here’s an example of what your topic sentence and supporting evidence might look like:

Topic sentence : Football requires effective communication and listening skills since the game will not work without them. Supporting evidence : Communication helps athletes perform and focus better on the pitch and improves the decision-making process.

Conclusion for Football Essay

A conclusion brings your discussion to a close. The following outline may assist you in completing your essay:

• Restate your thesis.
• Explain why your topic is significant.
• Summarize the core points.
• Call for action or provide an overview of future research opportunities

Check out an example of a paraphrased thesis and the summary of the main points:

Rephrased thesis : Football is a fascinating sport with many societal benefits. Summary : To sum up, football can be considered a hobby, a sport, or an obsession. But still, its most important role is to unite people or even entire countries.

We hope you will find our football topics to write about and research beneficial! Want to receive some more ideas? Try our free online title generator ! Just click the button, and the result will not keep you waiting!

• Health and Wellness | The Football Players Health Study at Harvard University
• Sports | Harvard Business School
• Head Injuries & American Football | McCombs School of Business
• Research | Global Sport Institute
• University Archives: History of Football | Marquette University
• NCAA and the Movement to Reform College Football | Library of Congress
• Medical Issues in Women’s Football | National Library of Medicine
• Football Injuries | University of Rochester Medical Center
• Head to Head: The National Football League & Brain Injury | NYU Langone Health

351 Anxiety Research Topics & Essay Titles (Argumentative, Informative, and More)

223 deforestation topics for essays, research papers, & speeches.

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Academic literature on the topic 'History of Football'

Create a spot-on reference in apa, mla, chicago, harvard, and other styles.

Consult the lists of relevant articles, books, theses, conference reports, and other scholarly sources on the topic 'History of Football.'

Next to every source in the list of references, there is an 'Add to bibliography' button. Press on it, and we will generate automatically the bibliographic reference to the chosen work in the citation style you need: APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago, Vancouver, etc.

You can also download the full text of the academic publication as pdf and read online its abstract whenever available in the metadata.

• Journal articles
• Dissertations / Theses
• Book chapters
• Conference papers

Journal articles on the topic "History of Football":

Hargrave, Russell. "Football Fans and Football History: A Review Essay." Soccer & Society 8, no. 2-3 (March 26, 2007): 240–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14660970701224459.

Bhattacharya, Suparna Ghosh. "History of Indian Football." Soccer & Society 13, no. 4 (June 20, 2012): 610–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14660970.2012.695532.

Ingrassia, Brian M. "Public Influence inside the College Walls: Progressive Era Universities, Social Scientists, and Intercollegiate Football Reform." Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 10, no. 1 (January 2011): 59–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1537781410000034.

Fabian, Thomas. "Le Football: A History of American Football in France." International Journal of the History of Sport 34, no. 16 (November 2, 2017): 1797–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2018.1463495.

Crepeau, Richard C. "Le Football: A History of American Football in France." Journal of American History 104, no. 2 (September 2017): 565–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jahist/jax295.

Khimenes, Kh, Yu Briskin, M. Pityn, I. Hluhov, and K. Drobot. "Monopoly and Rivalry in American Football in History and Nowadays." Ukraïnsʹkij žurnal medicini, bìologìï ta sportu 5, no. 5 (October 24, 2020): 364–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.26693/jmbs05.05.364.

Prokofiev, Igor, Valentin Lavrinenko, and Artem Shakhov. "Yelets football: history, development prospects." Uchenye zapiski universiteta imeni P.F. Lesgafta , no. 114 (May 2014): 143–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.5930/issn.1994-4683.2014.05.111.p143-146.

Sperber, Murray, and John Sayle Watterson. "College Football: History, Spectacle, Controversy." Journal of American History 88, no. 4 (March 2002): 1584. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2700716.

Tiratsoo, N. "The Football Manager: A History." English Historical Review CXXII, no. 497 (June 1, 2007): 859–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ehr/cem174.

Kušnierová, Daniela. "Ultras in Trnava: History, Activities and Ideology." Ethnologia Actualis 14, no. 2 (December 1, 2014): 59–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/eas-2015-0004.

Dissertations / Theses on the topic "History of Football":

Lo, Dominic. "Football, The World's Game: A Study on Football's Relationship with Society." Scholarship @ Claremont, 2011. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cmc_theses/94.

Burke, Peter, and peter burke@rmit edu au. "A social history of Australian workplace football, 1860-1939." RMIT University. Global Studies, Social Science and Planning, 2009. http://adt.lib.rmit.edu.au/adt/public/adt-VIT20100311.144947.

Kerrigan, Columba Joseph. "Teachers and football : the origins, development and influence of schoolboy football associations in London from 1885 to 1915." Thesis, University College London (University of London), 2002. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10020400/.

Taylor, Matthew. "'Proud Preston' : a history of the Football League, 1900-1939." Thesis, De Montfort University, 1997. http://hdl.handle.net/2086/4174.

Greenhalgh, Paul Andrew. "The history of the Northern Rugby Football Union, 1895-1915." Thesis, Lancaster University, 1992. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.359824.

O'Callaghan, Liam. "A social and cultural history of rugby football in Munster." Thesis, Leeds Beckett University, 2010. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.528350.

Huston, Amanda Norma. "Concussion history and neuropsychological baseline testing in collegiate football athletes." Honors in the Major Thesis, University of Central Florida, 2010. http://digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETH/id/1424.

Tomkins, John. "Football gazes and spaces : a Foucauldian history of the present." Thesis, University of Brighton, 1995. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.282916.

Melling, Alethea Elisabeth Anne. "'Ladies' football' : gender and the socialisation of women football players in Lancashire, c.1916-1960." Thesis, University of Central Lancashire, 1999. http://clok.uclan.ac.uk/21909/.

Lewis, Robert William. "The development of professional football in Lancashire, 1870-1914." Thesis, Lancaster University, 1993. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.240269.

Books on the topic "History of Football":

Perrin, Tom. Football: A college history . Jefferson, N.C: McFarland, 1987.

Mark, Stewart. Football . Pleasantville, NY: Gareth Stevens Pub., 2009.

Hornby, Hugh. Football . London: Dorling Kindersley, 2008.

Davies, Andrew. Football . London: Portico, 2011.

Duden, Jane. Football . New York: Crestwood House, 1991.

Hornby, Hugh. Football . London: Dorling Kindersley in association with the Football Museum, 2000.

Garber, Angus G. Inside football . New York: MetroBooks, 1998.

Tongue, Steve. World football . London: Treasure, 1986.

Kovacs, Vic. Touchdown!: The history of football . New York: Crabtree Publishing Company, 2016.

Hawthorne, Bobby. Longhorn football: An illustrated history . Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2007.

Book chapters on the topic "History of Football":

Lee, Chun-Wing. "Football." In Hong Kong History , 217–40. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2806-1_9.

Santoro, Anthony. "Professional Football." In A Companion to American Sport History , 221–45. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118609446.ch10.

Santos, João Manuel Casquinha Malaia. "Brazilian Football and History." In Football and Social Sciences in Brazil , 85–96. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84686-2_6.

Dunn, Carrie. "The History of Women’s Football." In Football and the Women’s World Cup: Organisation, Media and Fandom , 5–15. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137567338_2.

Swain, Peter. "A short history of early football." In The Emergence of Football , 7–15. First Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2020. |: Routledge, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203702666-2.

Piskurek, Cyprian. "The Recent History of English Football." In Fictional Representations of English Football and Fan Cultures , 19–55. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76762-8_2.

Walvin, James. "Violence in Context and History." In Football and the Decline of Britain , 59–69. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-18196-4_5.

Chiweshe, Manase Kudzai. "Commercialization of football in Africa." In Sports in African History, Politics, and Identity Formation , 206–19. Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY : Routledge, 2019.: Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429508110-15.

Hobson, J. Hardin. "Football Culture at New South Universities." In The History of American College Football , 37–63. New York, NY : Routledge, 2021. | Series: Perspectives on the history of higher education: Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003138761-3.

Elsey, Brenda. "Introduction: Marking the Field." In Football and the Boundaries of History , 1–10. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95006-5_1.

Conference papers on the topic "History of Football":

Paramonova, Irina Mikhailovna. "THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN FOOTBALL." In Russian science: actual researches and developments . Samara State University of Economics, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.46554/russian.science-2020.03-1-543/546.

Kerr, ZY, J. Prim, JD DeFreese, LC Thomas, and EA Wikstrom. "O6 Ankle sprain history in a cohort of retired national football league athletes." In 7th International Ankle Symposium, 2017 . BMJ Publishing Group Ltd and British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-anklesymp.6.

Munia, Tamanna T. K., Jeffrey L. Gendreau, Benjamin D. Johnson, Mark Romanick, Kouhyar Tavakolian, and Reza Fazel-Rezai. "Neurocognitive deficits observed on high school football players with history of concussion: A preliminary study." In 2016 IEEE International Conference on Electro Information Technology (EIT) . IEEE, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/eit.2016.7535330.

Azimi, Mahdi, Mona Torkaman, and Seyed Amir Reza Hosseinipour Rafsanjani. "The effect of disciplinary background and sporting history of Premier League football players on sport legal awareness." In Journal of Human Sport and Exercise - 2019 - Summer Conferences of Sports Science . Universidad de Alicante, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.14198/jhse.2019.14.proc5.29.

Ladner, Ian, Kyle Johnson, M. F. Horstemeyer, L. N. Williams, J. Liao, and R. Prabhu. "Simulation Based Development and Analysis of Helmet-to-Helmet Collision." In ASME 2013 Summer Bioengineering Conference . American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/sbc2013-14649.

Tierney, Rachel, Ahmad Salma, and Ulrik McCarthy Persson. "388 The reliability and association of the repeated Copenhagen adduction exercise to gaelic football players with a history of groin injury: a pilot study." In IOC World Conference on Prevention of Injury & Illness in Sport 2021 . BMJ Publishing Group Ltd and British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2021-ioc.355.

Schneider, Charles M., Ajay K. Verma, Tamanna T. K. Munia, Mark Romanick, Kouhyar Tavakolian, and Reza Fazel-Rezai. "Analysis of Postural Stability After Concussion Using Empirical Mode Decomposition: A Pilot Study." In 2017 Design of Medical Devices Conference . American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/dmd2017-3541.

150 Strong History Dissertation Topics to Write about

Writing a dissertation is one of the most challenging and exciting moments of an academic career. Such work usually takes a great deal of time, courage, and intellectual effort to complete. That’s why every step in your work process is essential.

It all starts with finding a good topic, which can be a challenge of its own. It especially matters when it comes to liberal arts subjects. In social studies, literature, or world history options are practically endless.

Coming up with history dissertation ideas, you need to think of historical events that interest you. We get it, choosing one is tough. There can be too much to wrap your head around. That’s why IvyPanda experts prepare some dissertation topics in history ready for you.

• How to Choose a Topic?
• Ancient History
• Medieval History
• Modern History
• Cold War Topics
• American History
• European History
• Indian History
• African History
• Performing Arts
• Visual Arts
• How to Structure

🧐 How to Choose a History Dissertation Topic?

Before examining our ideas for dissertation topics in history, you should get ready for this. You have to understand how to pick a history dissertation topic, which will ensure your academic success. Keep in mind that this is a vital step in your career.

So, check some tips on picking what to write about:

• Make sure that the topic fits in your field of study. You have to understand what you’re writing about. Basing your paper on existing knowledge and experience is a part of any dissertation. Working on an overly complicated idea can sound impressive but lead to failure. It will become a nightmare already on the stage of writing a dissertation proposal. How can you write the entire thing without comprehending it?
• Estimate whether you’re interested in the topic you intend to write on. Although this might seem obvious, yes. However, being actually invested makes a massive difference for your further work. There are plenty of students who settle for “easy but boring” topics and end up struggling twice as much.
• Ensure that your topic is specific enough. Your idea should have the potential for fruitful research. Narrowing down your area of study is essential for writing a good dissertation. It helps you to find the direction of your examination and enough sources to work with. Moreover, this way, you’ll be able to explore your topic in its entirety.
• Do some prior research. It will give you an understanding of how much literature on your topic is out there. Take notes of the materials for the reference list and your analysis. Checking history essay samples is a good idea, too.
• Don’t be shy to ask your dissertation advisor for some assistance. After all, they are here to help and guide you through the process. Besides, you have to see what ideas they consider relevant and appropriate.

👍 Good Dissertation Topics in History: Time Period

History is a subject as ancient and vast as the humankind itself. It’s only rational to study it according to a particular timeline. Here are some good history dissertation topics for different periods.

🏺 Ancient History Dissertation Topics

• Ancient Civilizations: The Maya Empire . The Maya was an incredibly powerful Empire with its prime around six century A.D., excelling in mathematics, calendar-making, astrology, and writing. It faced the decline of its city-states in nine century A.D., leaving a rich cultural heritage to the studies of subsequent generations.
• Women’s Roles and Gender relations in the Ancient World
• Greek City-States . Ancient Greece is the place where the first city-states were formed. How did the first governments in the ancient history timeline develop? How did people’s attitudes towards leadership change in that context?

• Ancient Near-Eastern Thought and the Old Testament
• The Inca Empire as a Great Civilization of Pre-Columbian America
• The Impact of Mongol Invasion in Ancient Arab
• The personality of Julius Caesar and His Effect on Rome
• The Role of Poets and the place of Poetry in Ancient Greece
• Mesopotamian Civilization . This was a fertile land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It has been home to some of the world’s wealthiest and most advanced ancient cities. It can also make an excellent archaeology dissertation topic. There are plenty of fascinating sites that could be studied.
• History: Ancient Greek Olympics . Started in 776 BC, the Olympic Games were the most important cultural event in Ancient Greece. They were held in honor of Zeus every four years. Besides, the Olympics were representative of the triumph of physical and spiritual power.
• Warfare and Violence in Ancient Times. Try to do a comparative analysis of warfare techniques used by different ancient civilizations. It could be a great dissertation topic.
• Burial Rituals in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece: a comparison
• Plutarch’s Vision on Alexander the Great
• Dissolution of the Roman Empire . The Empire sprawled from the coast of North Africa to the territories of the modern UK and Armenia. Once, it was the most powerful political entity in the entire Mediterranean. The empire, however, collapsed in 476 CE. What were the reasons for its eventual decline?

• How Geography Has Impacted the Development of Ancient Cultures
• Cause and Effect of Art on Classical Societies
• The Invention of Papyrus and its impact on the World
• Chichen Itza Archaeological Site . Chichen Itza is a great pre-Columbian archaeological site, home to the Maya civilization. It is a fascinating study case in many aspects. Consider the origins and Maya history. Analyze the cultural preservation issues that it faces nowadays.
• Egyptian Pyramid’s Importance in Egypt’s society
• The Stone Age Period and its Evolution

🛡 Medieval History Dissertation Ideas

• Cultural Exchanges in the Medieval Period . In the aftermath of the Roman Empire’s fall, new geopolitical conditions formed. The early Middle Ages period already marked the appearance of new trade routes. It fostered cultural exchange between nations.
• Rome in the Middle Ages and its cultural transformation
• The Development of Feudalism and Manorialism in the Middle Ages
• The Catholic Church and the Black Death in the 14th Century . During the high Middle Ages, the plague epidemic terrorized Europe. It was a dreadful challenge to medicine, religious institutions, and the social apparatus of the time. How did the Catholic Church deal with such a complex and disastrous medical phenomenon?
• Jews and Muslims in Medieval Spain . Christian, Islamic, and Jewish communities shared the Iberian peninsula in the early Middle Ages. It formed a vibrant cultural environment.
• London during the Roman Age: A Critical Overview
• Causes of the First Crusade of 1095-1099
• Twelfth-Century Renaissance, how Franciscans reacted to it and benefited from its development
• Business and Empire, the British ideal of an Orderly World
• The Black Death, Late Medieval Demographic crisis, and the Standard of Living controversies
• The Role of the Church in the life of the Middle Ages

• Medieval Siege Warfare . Exploring methods of defense used during the Middle Ages might be an interesting research project.
• The Conditions of Hindu and Islamic women in Medieval India
• Why the Crusades Failed
• The Mechanical Water clock of Ibn Al-Haytham, his philosophy of the rise and fall of empires
• The Renaissance and its Cultural, Political and Economic Influence
• The Dark Ages as the Golden Ages of European History . Plenty of facts demonstrate civilization’s decline during the Middle Ages. It was, nevertheless, the time of significant scientific, literary, and technological progress. For some interested in writing a medieval literature dissertation: think of Dante’s Divine Comedy . Da Vinci made his groundbreaking study projects during the Middle Ages. It was the time when first universities, such as Cambridge and Oxford, were founded. Overall, this period has a lot to offer!
• Japan’s Development Under Edo/Tokugawa Shogunate
• Historical and Theological Context of Byzantine Iconoclasm
• Medieval Convivencia: Document Analysis

🕰 Modern History Dissertation Topics

• World History: Enlightenment in Society and its Impact on Global Culture
• Nationalism and its 19th Century History
• Why Mussolini and the Fascists Were Able to Seize Power in Italy
• Religious Symbolism in Renaissance paintings . Renaissance is well-known as a period when fine arts were thriving. It was an early modern birthplace of many technological and cultural advancements. Religion, however, was still a central topic in visual art.
• Industrial Revolution and its Impact on Western Civilizations
• Principles of Liberalism and Its Connection to Enlightenment and Conservatism
• “History and Topography of Ireland” by Gerald of Wales . Looking for an incredible Irish history dissertation topic? Then this document might be an interesting prompt. Its somewhat controversial tone of describing contemporary Irish culture, history, and traditions can be subject to a comprehensive analysis.
• Moral treatment of Mental Illness . Over the 19th and 20th centuries, psychology has changed. Moving from a scientific periphery, it became one of the central subjects of scholarly discussions. Mental illnesses were highly disregarded in earlier centuries. People even considered them to be manifestations of demonic possession. How did this attitude change? Why did people rethink psychology as a scholarly discipline?
• A History of the Cuban Revolution

• Abraham Lincoln’s Historical Influence
• Role of Women During the Spanish Civil War
• Conquest and Colonization of America by European Countries . Colonization of America is one of the grandest enterprises in the world’s political history. What were its driving forces?
• Origins and Trajectory of the French Revolution
• Major Impacts of Consumerism in contemporary world history
• Coco Chanel Fashion: History of Costume . Probably not the first topic for a history dissertation that comes to mind. Chanel is truly an iconic figure in modern history, though. She revolutionized the fashion industry concerning gender as well.
• Causes of the Breakup of the Former Yugoslavia
• The Russian Working Class Movement . Before 1861, the agriculture and peasant-owning system were the foundation of the Russian Empire’s economy. Serfs made up a significant part of the population, accounting for over 60% in some regions. Then the serfdom abolition happened. A lot has changed in the economic and social life of the country.
• Segregation During the 1960s
• Historical Development of Feminism and Patriarchy
• Monetary and Fiscal Policy during the Great Depression

🔔 History Dissertation Topics on Cold War

• The Role of Cold War in Shaping Transatlantic Relations in the Period from 1945 to 1970
• The showdown between the United States and the USSR . Cold Was was essentially the power struggle between the US and the Soviet Union. It unleashed in the aftermath of World War II. This political precedent came to an end with the collapse of the Soviet Union. However, the answer to the “Who won the Cold War?” question may be unclear.
• The Cuban Missile Crisis , its causes, and effects
• US Foreign Policy during the Cold War. Cold War, as a phenomenon, has many layers to it. Yet the one crucial is the contest of two ideologies: democracy and communism. How did the US shape its foreign policy and pursue its interests abroad? And how did the cultural and political setup within the country adjust to it?
• To what extent did the Cold War shape the US relations with Latin America?
• What was the importance of Berlin in the Cold War?
• Japan’s role since the end of the Cold War
• Cold War Politics, Culture, and War . Exploring the Cold War causes and effects can be quite a challenge. It is such a multifaceted phenomenon. It was a war led on many fronts. Both USSR and the US pursued their interests using a variety of methods.

• How did Cold War propaganda influence the film industry?
• What were the challenges in the post-cold war world?

🗺 History Dissertation Topics: Geographical Regions

Every country has its historical course, and so does every continent. Geography has always been an important factor when talking about history. It shapes historical trajectory in varied, unique ways.

Look at a dissertation topics history list based on geographical regions:

🦅 American History Dissertation Topics

• History of Hollywood, California . Oh, Hollywood. A place where American movie history was born. What about Hollywood’s history? Although a less traditional American history dissertation topic, it is still a fascinating one. Explore the way technological advancements in filmmaking were introduced over the decades. How did they influence the film’s general style?
• History: Migration into the United States . How did migration influence the economy of the time?
• The Relationships between the Settlers and Native Americans
• Literary works’ Views on Slavery in the United States
• Causes of the Civil War in America
• What is the real meaning of a cowboy?
• The United States military experience through the eyes of films
• Attack on Pearl Harbor: Effects of Foreign policy
• Causes of Depression in the 1890s
• Has President Obama’s Presidency changed the US?
• The role of Founding Fathers in American Society and Religion
• Post-Civil War reconstruction . Consider the way America’s economy, trade, and finance transformed in the aftermath of the Civil War.
• Principal causes and consequences of the Spanish-American War
• Why was the Declaration of Independence written?
• The Significance of the Frontier in American History
• How is a “new racial narrative” in the U.S.A created?
• American Revolution and the Crisis of the Constitution of the U.S.A. Rethink the origins of the American constitution, as well as the following events. It could be an exciting thesis idea for an American history dissertation.

• Growth and Development of San Francisco and Los Angeles after the Gold Rush
• The Role of Racism in American Art
• Drug Use and Abuse in America: Historical Analysis

🏰 European History Dissertation Topics

• Age of Discovery in Europe. The Age of Exploration in Europe lasted from the 15th to the 17th century. Over this period, Europe actively engaged with other territories and continents. Discoverers formed new international relations and expanded geographical knowledge. This topic could also make an excellent cultural history dissertation.
• Analyzing the Impact of British Colonization
• Nationalism in World War II
• Effects of the Industrial Revolution concerning World War I
• The Rise and Fall of Napoleon and the Cause of Revolution . Napoleon is one of the most prominent figures in French history. What has shaped his career as a political leader?
• History of Hitler’s Nazi Propaganda . Consider a brief history of Germany. Undoubtedly, the rule of Hitler and the Third Reich was its most devastating chapter. The “art” of propaganda flourished during the nazi regime. It penetrated the cultural, political, and social life of the country.
• Evolution of the IRA
• Napoleon’s Strategy and Tactics in his Invasion of Russia . For someone interested in writing a military history dissertation.
• Industrial Revolution Impact on Gender Roles
• Witchcraft in Europe (1450-1750) . Witch hunts took place as early as the Middle Ages in Europe. Held by the Church in most cases, witch hunts targeted those who were suspected of practicing black magic. Examine this both astonishing and problematic phenomenon.

• French Revolution: Liberal and Radical Portions
• West European Studies: Columbus’s Journey
• History of Feudalism . Feudalism dominated the European way of life during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. What were its distinctive features as a system? Why did it eventually fade away?
• Europe’s perception of Islam in the Early and Middle centuries
• Cold War Consequences for European Countries
• Mutated Medical Professionals in the Third Reich: Third Reich Doctors
• Was the Holocaust the Failure or the Product of Modernity?
• How did the use of print change the lives of early modern Europeans ?
• Early Modern England: a Social History
• Jewish Insight of Holocaust

⛰ Indian History Dissertation Topics

• History of the Indian Castes. The Indian Caste system is a complex and unique example of social stratification.
• Mahatma Gandhi’s Leadership . Gandhi is, for sure, among the greatest human rights advocates in the world’s history. His one of a kind leadership style is subject to many studies. While practicing a peaceful form of civil protest, he fought for equality, independence, and compassion.
• Political conflicts in India in the XVII century
• Impacts of the First World War on British Policies in India
• Movement Against the British rule in India. Led by Mahatma Gandhi, with the support of the National Congress, the movement took place in 1920-22. It sought to fight for the freedom of Indians.
• The Origin and Course of the Indian revolt of 1857
• The Issues of the Partitioning of India in 1947
• India Since 1900 . India is a region rich with unique traditions. Its spiritual and cultural heritage goes back to antiquity. The country’s authentic art and architecture, music, and cuisine have served as an inspiration worldwide. A considerable part of its history is, however, affected by British rule.

• Women in Hinduism and Buddhism
• The British East India Company

🌍 African History Dissertation Topics

• Ancient Societies in Mesopotamia and Ancient Societies in Africa: a comparison . Egypt is one of the most ancient African civilizations. Its origins go back to the third millennium B.C. Back then, the cultural exchange between Egypt and Mesopotamia was flourishing. What were the significant differences between the two civilizations? What did they have to offer to one another?
• Political Violence in South Africa between 1985 and 1989
• Did History of Modern South Africa begin with the Discovery of Diamonds and Gold?
• Nelson Mandela: “Freedom in Africa.” Nelson Mandela is, without a doubt, one of the central figures in African history. His devotion and tireless effort in fighting against apartheid were remarkable. Thanks to him, many sub-Saharan countries enjoy the freedoms and advances of a democratic society.
• The Cult of the Dead in West Africa: The Kongo People . African tribal rituals and traditions are unique and specific to their region. Cult of the Dead is prevalent in Western African culture. It can be notoriously known as the origin place of voodoo and other black magic practices. There is yet much more to this culture. Dismantling some prejudices could make an excellent African history thesis.
• Christianity, Slavery, and Colonialism: the paradox
• The Colonial War in Southwest Africa
• African-Europe Relations between 1800 and 2000
• Impacts of Slavery and Slave Trade in Africa
• African Communities in America

🎨 Art History Dissertation Topics

Art comes in all shapes and forms. To grasp it better, we can explore each kind separately. Here’s a list of art history dissertation ideas:

🎶 Topics on Performing Arts

• History and Development of Ballet . Ballet is an art form with a long history. Initially, a specific dance originated in Medieval Italy. It was later brought to France and Great Britain. Ballet thrived in the 20th century Russia, where Russian choreographers brought it to the highest level of mastery.
• The Life and Work of William Shakespeare: His Contribution to The Contemporary Theater
• Jazz Music in American Culture . Jazz is one of the most complex and exciting music genres of all time. It was born in the 20’s century black communities of New Orleans and quickly spread across America and then the world. The genre, however, will always be an integral part of African-American identity.
• The Instrumental Music of Baroque: Forms and Evolution
• Rock Music of the 1970s
• Michael Jackson’s Life as a Musician and Choreographer
• Development of the Symphony Orchestra in the 19th and 20th Century
• Woodstock Music Festival . This massive music festival that first took place in 1969 was the epitome of hippie culture. It has a rich history that once again underscores the importance of performing arts in Western culture.
• The History of Modern Chinese Music
• The Renaissance Theater Development. The era in which both visual and performing arts were thriving. It has a lot to offer for proper dissertation research.

🖼Topics on Visual Arts

• Art Period Comparison: Classicism and Middle Age
• Vincent Van Gogh: Changes in the Technique
• The Ambiguity of Mona Lisa Painting

• Orientalism in Western Art . It’s commonly associated with romanticism and some 20th-century artworks. Orientalism is a Western term that speculates the aesthetics of the Orient. Consider this concept as a prism through which Westerners viewed the Eastern world.
• Classical Art and Cubism: History and Comparison
• Postmodern and Modern Art . The 20th and 21st centuries have been a breeding ground for many forms of fine art to emerge and flourish. Some art movements presented their philosophy in the form of manifestos. These texts can be nothing but a pure treasure for someone writing an art history dissertation.
• Female Figures in Ancient Greek Sculpture
• Andy Warhol’s Career . Pioneer of pop-art, creator of Studio 54, and a style icon.
• Filippo Brunelleschi and Religious Architecture
• The Photographic Approaches Towards American Culture of Robert Frank and Garry Winogrand

📋 How to Structure Your Dissertation?

An adequately structured history dissertation can immensely help students. It ensures that they present their ideas and thoughts logically. Sticking to a particular dissertation structure is an essential element of such work.

The general plan of any dissertation type is the following:

• Title Page. A title page should only contain essential information about your work. It usually shows your name, type of the document (thesis, research paper, dissertation), and the title itself. A good history dissertation title is crucial! It’s the first thing a reader will see.
• Acknowledgments. Do you wish to give credit to someone for supporting you during the tiresome months of your work? This is the right part to do so, be it your family, friends, or professors. It is an excellent form to express gratitude to those who proofread your drafts. Or those who brought you another cup of coffee when you needed it.
• Declaration. This section is your written confirmation. You declare that all the research and writing is entirely original and was conducted by you. If someone intellectually contributed to your project, state it in the acknowledgments.
• Table of Contents. Essentially, it’s a brief structure of your dissertation. List every section that you’ve included in your academic paper here.
• Abstract. This is the section where you write a brief summary of your dissertation. It should describe the issue, summarize your core message and essential points. List your research methods and what you’ve done. Remember to make it short, as the abstract shouldn’t exceed 300 words or so. Finish the part with a few essential keywords so that others can find your work.
• Introduction. A dissertation introduction presents the subject to the reader. You can talk about the format of your work. Explain what you plan to contribute to the field with your research.
• Literature Review. The chapter reviews and analyzes pieces of scholarly work (literature) that have been made on the subject of your research. The sources should present relevant theories and support your thesis. Be sure to discuss the weaknesses and strengths of the selected area of study and highlight possible gaps in this research.
• a code of conduct;
• research limitations;
• research philosophy;
• research design;
• ethical consideration;
• data collection methods;
• data analysis strategy.
• Findings and Results. Restate everything you have found in your research. However, do not interpret the data or make any conclusions yet.
• Discussion and Conclusion. In this chapter, you should personally interpret all of the data and make conclusions based on your research. It is essential to establish a logical link between the results and evidence. Finally, conclude the overall study. You can add final judgments, opinions, and comments.
• References. This section contains a list of references to all the sources that you used. Write down every material, which you quoted, mentioned, or paraphrased in your work. Check your educational institution’s guidelines to see how to do so correctly.
• Bibliography. Similar to the reference section, a bibliography is a list of sources you used in your dissertation. The only difference is that it should contain even the sources you don’t directly mention in your writing. Whatever helped you with the research, you state here.
• Appendices. The section may include any supplementary information that explains and complement the arguments. Add pictures, diagrams, and graphs that serve as examples for your research subject.

Writing a dissertation is the right challenge for those with ambitions and lots of determination. It is a lot like a marathon, and it starts with choosing the right topic. We hope that you will find one for yourself on this list. Good luck! Share the article to help those who may need a piece of advice or some history dissertation topics.

🔗 References

• How To Write A Dissertation: Department of Computer Science, West Lafayette, Purdue University
• Ph.D. Thesis Research, Where Do I Start: Don Davis, Columbia University
• Writing with Power: Elbow P., Oxford University
• Writing a Thesis or Dissertation – A Guide to Resources: Gricel Dominguez
• The Elements of Style: Strunk, W. Jr., White, E.B., Angell, R.
• A Collection Of Dissertation Topics In American History: asqauditconference.org
• Yale History Dissertations: Department of History, Yale University
• Dissertation Outline: School of Education, Duquesne University
• Developing a Thesis Statement: The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison
• Writing an Abstract: The Writing Center, George Mason University
• Formatting Additional Pages: University of Missouri Graduate School
• Reference List vs. Bibliography: OWLL, Massey University
• How to Write Your Dissertation: Goldsmiths University for The Guardian
• Tips on Grammar, Punctuation and Style: Kim Cooper, for the Writing Center at Harvard University
• Acknowledgments, Thesis and Dissertation: Research Guides at Sam Houston State University
• Thesis Formatting, Writing up your Research: Subject Guides at University of Canterbury
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Geoff Pearson

Popular accounts of ‘football hooliganism’ have identified the phenomenon as being harmful and damaging for both the sport of football and the interests of spectators who attend matches. As a result, it has been generally assumed that ‘non-hooligan’ supporters disapprove of their hooligan counterparts and their activities. However, this one-sided account does not recognize the views of a significant proportion of match-going fans who consistently express positive attitudes towards the ‘hooligans’ who follow their team. Based on a series of ethnographic studies of football fans from 1995 to 2010, this article casts light on the positive role that hooligans are perceived to perform by many fans who attend home and away matches with their club. The research demonstrated that hooligans were believed to play vital roles in distraction, protection and reputation for many non-hooligan fans and even when fans did express disapproval of ‘hooligan’ activity, this was often for practical rather than moral reasons. Furthermore, fans who express positive attitudes to hooliganism – or ‘hoolifans’ – have to be acknowledged and understood if the problem of football crowd disorder is to be controlled.

Soccer & Society

Steve Frosdick

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Football disorder has been prevalent in England since the sport was professionalised in the late nineteenth century. The phenomenon continues to occur in modern society, and has produced consequences of varying degrees of severity. As well as having been widely reported in the media, football hooliganism has also been examined extensively by academics since the 1960s. However, not all existing work is applicable to modern supporter subcultures. The English professional football industry has undergone significant developments in relation to political, financial, architectural, organisational and cultural factors in the past decade. This has had a considerable impact on the violent element of supporter groups. Much of what we know about football disorder however may now be based upon redundant theories and arguments which predate these alterations. Such work is also heavily reliant on data that draws from the opinions of hooligans themselves. The perspectives of non-violent football fans have consistently been overlooked in this context, and yet such supporters share many of the same experiences and identifications as hooligans. This paper explores fan attitudes on the phenomenon, specifically regarding the causes of modern hooliganism. Supporters offered opinions in focus groups and interviews in relation to personal factors, club affiliation, community, social and class explanations, as well as organisational and match-related aspects. It is argued in this paper that hooliganism is a diverse phenomenon that is not mono-causal. Involvement in football violence can be explained in relation to a number of factors, relating to interaction, identity, legitimacy and power. Football violence is also thought to reflect expressions of strong emotional ties to a football team, which may help to reinforce a supporter’s sense of identity.

Michael salter

Dilara Hekimci

In this article a sociological diagnosis of football hooliganism as a world phenomenon is given. The author uses mainly English (newspaper) data about football violence (in and outside Britain) as an empirical base to explore how hooliganism can be theorised and understood. These data can usefully serve as a rough indication of the worldwide incidence of football hooliganism in the twentieth century. The author favours the figurational/process-sociological approach to football hooliganism which is historical and developmental. It also involves an exploration of the meanings of hooligan behaviour via an analysis of verbatim statements by the hooligans themselves, locates the football hooligans in the overall social structure, especially the class system, and examines the dynamics of the relationship between them and groups in the wider society. It is important, nevertheless, to stress that it is unlikely that the phenomenon of football hooliganism will be found always and everywhere to stem from identical social roots. As a basis for further, cross-national research, it is reasonable to hypothesise that the problem is fuelled and contoured by, among other things, what one might call the major fault-lines’ of particular countries. Effective policies are urgently needed if the great social invention of football is to be protected from the serious threat posed by a combination of hooligan fans, complacent politicians and money-grabbing owners, managers and players.

murat çiftkaya

Football hooliganism has been prevalent in British and European football throughout its existence as a professional sport (White, 1982; Rookwood and Buckley, 2007). The phenomenon has resulted in numerous consequences to varying degrees of severity. The 1985 Heysel stadium disaster, in which thirty-nine fans were killed, serves as one of the most significant tragedies in this regard involving English hooligans (Young, 1986). One issue that has helped shape the characteristics of football disorder is the approach adopted by police in attempting to combat the phenomenon. This paper focuses on fan and police perspectives regarding how the problem has been responded to in this context. Interviews were conducted with three experienced supporters from three different Premiership clubs, as well as the football intelligence officer (FIO) at each of these clubs. In response to questions, fans argued that policing in the UK is different to that experienced in European football, with the largely covert and intelligence-led approach in the former considered more appropriate than the more aggressive overt style of the latter. Supporters also claimed that although the police are often disliked, they are perceived to be an important part of the match experience, and can prove useful agents of social control, protection and information. The FIO respondents contended that the developments in legislation have been vital in helping the police control football hooliganism. These participants also perceive British police forces to have succeeded in developing a consistent, standardised and effective model of managing hooliganism. The paper concludes by highlighting the requirement for further work on the prevention of hooliganism in Britain, relating particularly to the issue of self-policing.

Steve Redhead

Belügyi Szemle

Erna Uricska

The study illustrates the complexity of the issue of football hooliganism, and highlights the innovative solutions for the treatment of it. The background of football hooliganism by presenting domestic and foreign examples, the types of supporters and spectators, and the role of private security and sports policing are observed. In the decades following the regime change, the police lost their monopoly, and private security and civil policing became more prominent in Hungary. Nowadays, the personnel of private security and civil policing are involved in the process of risk assessment of sports events, escorting and transporting groups of supporters, detaining supporters after sports events. It is important to mention sports policing, a specific part of sports administration. This narrow field can be clearly defined as specialised policing, with a set of laws regulating everything related to sports policing, complemented by the regulations of the sports federations, which also serve as guidelines for the maintenance of sports law enforcement records and the security provided at sports events. Football hooliganism is a social and sport security problem that has been present in our world for centuries, and is something that we will probably have to deal with as long as football exists. Football hooligans are a closed community, a subculture with a specific set of rules and a deep knowledge of their functioning is essential to maintain the safety of our sport events. Nowadays, the emphasis is more on understanding the processes, communication and cooperation, as well as openness to innovative solutions.

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THE DEFINING MOMENT – ANALYZING THE EXPERIENCE OF A FOOTBALL RECRUIT’S DECISION TO COMMIT TO UNC CHAPEL HILL

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• Affiliation: College of Arts and Sciences, Department of Exercise and Sport Science
• This study sought to understand the moment of commitment within Power 5 football recruiting. The study provides the reader with an emotive story of the factors leading up to this moment and how the recruit reached the moment of commitment at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill. Previous research has been conducted on college choice factors, but there lies a gap in the literature regarding the qualitative measure of the moment of commitment experience. The resulting exploratory research paper utilized a narrative approach to explain the individualized stories of 2023 football recruits that committed to the University of North Carolina within a year of their commitment.
• Sports management
• https://doi.org/10.17615/6nf6-2x91
• Masters Thesis
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• Weight, Erianne
• Patterson, Tony
• Master of Arts
• University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Graduate School

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Looking Back at Michigan State Football's History and National Titles

Jack lintner | may 21, 2024.

• Michigan State Spartans

Michigan State football has been around since the 1800s, but it wasn't until the 1950s and '60s that it really hit its stride.

Biggie Munn, with his innovative coaching strategies, led the team to their first national championship in 1952, with a perfect 9-0 record. From there, the Spartans never looked back.

Munn's successor, Duffy Daugherty, continued the winning tradition, clinching three more national titles during his tenure -- 1955, 1965 and 1966. Those were the golden years when Michigan State was the king of the field.

Those championship years were fueled by hard work, dedication and a roster full of talented players who gave it their all on the field.

Munn and Daugherty knew how to recruit top players and turn them into winners. Even though Michigan State football has not hoisted the trophy since then, its passionate fanbase cheers it on every season, keeping the spirit of those glory days alive.

It wasn't just about the wins and losses; it was also about the impact these coaches had on the game. Munn and Daugherty were more than just coaches; they were mentors who shaped the lives of their players both on and off the field. Their legacies live on in the hearts of Spartan fans everywhere, who still fondly remember the glory days of Michigan State football.

Today, Michigan State football may not be dominating the headlines like it did in the '50s and '60s, but the spirit of those championship years lives on. The team continues to compete at a high level, fueled by the memories of past glory and the hope of future success. As long as there are Spartan fans cheering them on, Michigan State football will always be a force to be reckoned with on the gridiron.

New Spartans coach Jonathan Smith has a lot of weight on his shoulders to rebuild a franchise that had a lot of success many years ago. There have been successful years in more recent memory that resulted in Big Ten titles and New Year's Six Bowl wins, but the Spartans are looking to work towards making it to the big game again.

Don’t forget to follow the official Spartan Nation Page on Facebook Spartan Nation  WHEN YOU CLICK RIGHT HERE , and be a part of our vibrant community group Go Green Go White as well  WHEN YOU CLICK RIGHT HERE .

JACK LINTNER

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Notre Dame Football Head Coach 3rd Season Progress Reports: Lou Holtz

A look back at the data from Lou Holtz’s 3rd season as head coach of Notre Dame football.

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Gerry Faust helped to flatten the 3 rd season report card curve for Notre Dame football head coaches after Dan Devine posted an A+ National Championship. But now Lou Holtz is next up on the docket. Spoiler: Curve busted.

The 1988 season was Lou Holtz’s third year as head of the Irish football program. At this stage, he was 27% through this 11-season career in South Bend. Of the three coaches we’ve reviewed so far, Holtz had the strongest 3 rd season (from a strictly quant perspective).

The team tallied up twelve wins and finished the 1983 season undefeated. Their biggest victory came via a +45-point rout of Purdue. A close runner up was the +43 win over Rice. Notre Dame’s closes games that season were a +1 win over the Miami Hurricanes and a +2 win over the Michigan Wolverines .

Holtz’s third season was capped off by a National Championship title which came by way of a 34-21 Fiesta Bowl victory over West Virginia. It’s hard to ask for better 3 rd year evaluation results from a coach. Doing this analysis has really provided me with two important things:

• A ton more context on just how strong Notre Dame’s run during that period
• Better data cuts to use in arguments with ND skeptics. And yes, 95% of those are initiated by me.

Cheers and Go Irish!!

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Andy Robertson exclusive: Scotland aiming to create history at Euro 2024

Scotland captain Andy Robertson on the team's Euro 2024 aims: "We are trying to create a small part of history and we've managed to do that with the two tournaments… but to be able to qualify from the group would be a massive step and it would excel us even further."

Thursday 23 May 2024 20:45, UK

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Andy Robertson says Scotland are aiming to be "the team that creates history" at Euro 2024 by getting past the group stage of a major tournament for the first time.

Scotland, who have qualified for a second consecutive European Championships, open the tournament against hosts Germany in Munich on Friday June 14, with Hungary and Switzerland also in Group A alongside Steve Clarke's side.

After a disappointing group stage in Euro 2020 where their only point came from a 0-0 draw against England, Robertson believes reaching the knockout stages in Germany would be a massive step forward for Scotland.

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"Our aim is to be the team that creates history," the Liverpool defender said. "We have to aim to get out the group, that has to be our aim.

"We look at the group, it's a tough group, it's a competitive group. But we believe that we can give any team a game and if we do that and we manage to get out of the group, then we're the first Scotland team to ever do that."

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Scotland's 28-player provisional squad

• Goalkeepers: Zander Clark (Hearts), Craig Gordon (Hearts), Angus Gunn (Norwich), Liam Kelly (Motherwell)
• Defenders: Liam Cooper (Leeds United), Grant Hanley (Norwich), Jack Hendry (Al-Ettifaq), Ross McCrorie (Bristol City), Scott McKenna (Copenhagen), Ryan Porteous (Watford), Anthony Ralston (Celtic), Andy Robertson (Liverpool), John Souttar (Rangers), Greg Taylor (Celtic), Kieran Tierney (Real Sociedad)
• Midfielders: Stuart Armstrong (Southampton), Ryan Christie (Bournemouth), Billy Gilmour (Brighton), Ryan Jack (Rangers), Kenny McLean (Norwich), John McGinn (Aston Villa), Callum McGregor (Celtic), Scott McTominay (Manchester United)
• Forwards: Che Adams (Southampton), Ben Doak (Liverpool), Lyndon Dykes (Queens Park Rangers), James Forrest (Celtic), Lawrence Shankland (Hearts)

He added: "We've been trying to create our own history, we've been trying to create our own story within a nation that have had a lot of good teams in the past, a lot of legends of the game.

"We are trying to create a small part of history and we've managed to do that by qualifying for the two tournaments, but to be able to qualify from the group would be a massive step and it would excel us even further and give us even more belief than we've already got."

Euro 2024 fixtures

Scotland fixtures

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• Euro 2024 fixtures, schedule, venues: All you need to know
• Scotland's Euro 2024 fixtures and route
• Euro 2024 kits revealed

'Euro 2020 a learning curve for Scotland'

Euro 2020, which was played in the summer of 2021 due to the Covid-19 pandemic, was Scotland's first appearance at a major tournament in 23 years.

Scotland opened the tournament with a 2-0 defeat against Czech Republic at Hampden Park before the goalless draw with England at Wembley before a 3-1 defeat to Croatia sealed their exit.

Despite the disappointing exit, Robertson believes he and his teammates have learned plenty of lessons from that campaign.

"Obviously, the qualification was unbelievable but different because it was behind closed doors," he said. "The excitement then started to build, and we knew there was going to be fans back in some capacity, but the world was still in quite a weird, strange place… so it was different but it was one that we looked forward to.

"The way it was finally over for Scotland to be back at a major tournament - it was still strange as we still only had 10,000 fans in Hampden which felt like 50,000 because we'd played a full season without anyone in the stadiums. But ultimately it was one of disappointment when we got there.

"Obviously, we had the good result at Wembley which put us in a position where we could have qualified in the last game but ultimately Croatia were too good for us on the day. But the Czech Republic game, the opening game, was tough to take because we played really well, created big chances and we didn't quite take them and we got caught on the counter-attack - and that was us getting welcomed into how major tournaments work.

"It was a learning curve and a lot of us, a lot of the squad, are similar and hopefully we've learned a lesson from that."

In an exclusive interview, Steve Clarke discusses Euro 2024, his four-year plan for Scotland and more ahead of this summer's tournament.

Robertson bullish about Euro 2024 opener

In three weeks, Robertson will be leading Scotland out at Bayern Munich's Allianz Arena to take on the hosts Germany in the Euro 2024 opener for what is sure to be a huge occasion.

It's nothing new for the 30-year-old, who has featured in huge matches for Liverpool in recent years, but he admits that it will be difficult to treat the Euro 2024 opener as just another game.

When asked what will be going through his mind after he has led Scotland out in Munich and the national anthem starts playing, he said: "I think the easy answer is to try and treat it like a normal game, but I don't think that's possible.

"I think it is a special occasion, of course it is - you're opening the tournament and I think once the national anthem plays, there will be a lot of Tartan Army in there - but also all of us will be singing it loud and proud.

"The national anthem in any game we play is a moment of reflection, I always try and do that. I always try and look at where I've come from, the people who have helped me on the way, I think that will be no different. But there will be a feeling around it, it will be a special game, of course it will be.

"There will be that feeling in your stomach and that excitement, and we don't want to take that away from all of us. You can thrive on that and it's important we use it to our advantage and not against us.

"We're ultimately there for a result, of course there's going to be a lot going on, the opening ceremony and things like that, but ultimately we're there to get off to a good start in the tournament and that's what we'll be fully focused on when that game comes."

Sky Sports' Kris Boyd assesses Scotland head coach Steve Clarke's provisional 28-player squad for Euro 2024...

Robertson to join Souness in exclusive club

This will be Robertson's second major tournament, and the second as Scotland's captain.

Up until now, only Graeme Souness has captained the Scots in two tournaments, and Robertson insists it will be a "special feeling" to join Souness in that exclusive club.

When hearing about the comparison with Souness, Robertson said: "I didn't know that. I know Scotland qualified for tournaments, but we haven't done so in a long time, but the fact that he's the only one who's been captain twice… well, if I can join him on that then that's a pretty special feeling and that's what we're excited to do.

"We're just delighted to be at another tournament and most of the squad that were at the last one are going to be at this one.

"The fact we can represent our country at another tournament is massive and every time I put on the captain's armband, it's the same honour and it's the same pride.

"After the tournament and when I'm on my holidays, I'll have that moment of reflection and I'll be able to look back on it with a real sense of pride."

Key dates ahead for Scotland

Monday June 3: Euro 2024 warm-up, Gibraltar vs Scotland at Estadio Algarve, Portugal; kick-off 5pm

Friday June 7: Euro 2024 warm-up, Scotland vs Finland at Hampden Park, Glasgow; kick-off 7.45pm

Friday June 7: Final 26-player squad submitted to UEFA by 11pm

Saturday June 8: Final 26-player squad announced

Sunday June 9: Scotland squad fly to base camp in the Bavarian resort of Garmisch-Partenkirchen

Scotland's Euro 2024 schedule

Scotland have history kicking off tournaments, having been drawn to face Brazil in the opener at World Cup 1998, a game they narrowly lost 2-1 to a second-half Tom Boyd own goal.

This time around the venue is the Munich Football Arena [Allianz Arena] where Steve Clarke's side kick-off the opening match of Euro 2024 against hosts Germany on June 14 .

Scotland also face games against perennial qualifiers Switzerland in Cologne on June 19 , with Hungary - who reached the knockouts in 2016 - awaiting in Stuttgart on June 23 .

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Zac Robinson: Shared history with Kirk Cousins is a comfort

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Kirk Cousins has never played for Zac Robinson before, but the Falcons offensive coordinator believes their partnership will be helped by the quarterback’s experience with other coaches.

Cousins spent the last couple of years playing in an offense designed by Vikings head coach Kevin O’Connell and O’Connell came to Minnesota after a couple of years as the offensive coordinator for the Rams. Robinson was on the same staff and he said this week that it is a “comfort” to have that shared background because of how much Cousins is able to recall from past offenses.

“He can recall things from when he had Klint Kubiak as his offensive coordinator ,” Robinson said, via the team’s website. “Then, obviously, recently with O’Connell. He can kind of take some of those things that he’s had with Kevin the last couple years and apply it to what we’re doing here. There’s still some new stuff, so he’s still learning a few new things, but you see right away how well he sees defenses.”

The Falcons have been held back in recent seasons by subpar quarterback play. That led them to make the move to Cousins and the hope is that the similar history will allow him to hit the ground running this fall.