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How to Write a Scientific Name

Last Updated: April 8, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Bess Ruff, MA . Bess Ruff is a Geography PhD student at Florida State University. She received her MA in Environmental Science and Management from the University of California, Santa Barbara in 2016. She has conducted survey work for marine spatial planning projects in the Caribbean and provided research support as a graduate fellow for the Sustainable Fisheries Group. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 69,746 times.

Scientific names are formal Latin names that are used to classify all organisms, both living and extinct. This formal name differs from the everyday names we use because it provides information about the organism’s genus and species. By writing and using a scientific name properly, you can communicate clearly about a specific organism.

Formatting a Name for Most Organisms

• For example, let’s say you were writing the scientific name of the snake plant, a tropical plant native to West Africa. The genus name would be written Sansevieria or Sansevieria .
• Using the common name of your organism in an online search will yield the proper scientific name.

• The specific epithet of the snake plant would be written trifasciata or trifasciata .

• For example, our snake plant’s full scientific name could be written Sansevieria trifasciata or Sansevieriatrifasciata .

• For example, the scientific name of the Golden Hahnii snake plant, a new cultivar of the snake plant, would be written Sansevieria trifasciata ‘Golden Hahnii.’
• The scientific name of the striped snake plant, a variety of the snake plant, would be written Sansevieria trifasciata var. Laurentii . The Laurentii is capitalized because it is a proper noun (a last name) in honor of the person who discovered the plant.
• Varieties are mutations that occur in nature, while cultivars are man-made mutations. For example, a new variety of a species might occur in a unique natural environment, such as a rainforest. On the other hand, a cultivar might develop in a greenhouse where humans are only breeding certain types of plants.

Using Scientific Names Properly

• You can italicize or underline the name as normal or not, it’s up to you.

• For example, Sansevieria trifasciata would become S. trifasciata on future references.
• Most generic names are abbreviated with a capitalized first letter then a period. Search an online scientific name finder, such as SciName Finder, to confirm the abbreviation of your generic name. Several universities also have online databases to assist with scientific abbreviations.

• So rather than saying, “sansevieria trifasciata” in your talk to a Boy Scout troop, say, “snake plant.”

Expert Q&A

You Might Also Like

• ↑ http://www.sciname.info/ThisSite.asp
• ↑ https://generalhorticulture.tamu.edu/h202/labs/lab3/sciname.html
• ↑ https://oregonstate.edu/dept/ldplants/sci-names.htm
• ↑ http://www.journal.au.edu/au_techno/2001/oct2001/howto.pdf
• ↑ https://researchguides.library.vanderbilt.edu/c.php?g=69346&p=831719
• ↑ https://libanswers.nybg.org/faq/223266

About This Article

To write a scientific name, start by writing the genus name, which you should underline or italicize and capitalize the first letter. Next, write the specific epithet, or the species' name, after the genus name. If your organism has a special variety or cultivar, add those names as well. For example, you would write the scientific name for Golden Hahnii snake plant as Sansevieria trifasciata 'Golden Hahnii.' To learn how to use scientific names properly, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to Write Scientific Names

#scribendiinc

Written by: Daniel Ruten

"The beginning of wisdom is to call things by their proper name." – Confucius

Table of contents

How to write scientific names.

• How to format scientific names 

Understanding the rules for writing a scientific name

Precise terminology is vital in scientific writing. Therefore, the current system of taxonomy ensures that authors use standard scientific terms.

While naming and categorizing plants and animals has been a common human practice for thousands of years, early attempts were not systematic, so they were sometimes a bit flawed. For instance, in Ancient Greece, Plato was renowned at one point for his definition of a man as a "featherless biped." His fellow philosopher Diogenes responded by bringing forth a plucked chicken and proclaiming it to be a man .

The creation of a universal system of scientific names is relatively recent, starting in the eighteenth century with the foundational work of naturalists such as Carl Linnaeus. The modern system of taxonomy ensures that, no matter a person's spoken language, they can be confident that they are referring to the exact same species or taxa as other scientists. This standard framework underpins the entire body of scientific research that seeks to understand the living things in our world and how they relate to each other.

Accordingly, learning and following the rules for writing a scientific name is essential for any scientific work. This post will provide a brief overview of the taxonomic system of living organisms and how to write the scientific name of any plant or animal.

The basics: What is binomial nomenclature?

The system of binomial nomenclature was first developed by Linnaeus and is still used today.

In it, each individual species of organism is given a Latin name consisting of two key elements:

• the genus and
• the species , in that order.

However, it is important to note that a scientific name can also contain a subspecies if additional information is necessary to correctly identify a specific animal.

All scientific names are standardized by international codes .

Example: What is the scientific name of a cat?

For instance, the scientific name of the domestic housecat is Felis catus (note that because scientific names are in Latin, they are always italicized when written, and the first word is always capitalized).

In this case, Felis denotes the genus and catus denotes the species . Together, these two pieces create the scientific name of a domestic cat.

To better understand the significance of these categories and how this furry little carnivore fits into the natural order of things, let’s briefly review the hierarchy of all seven classification levels of the domestic cat.

Classifying the domestic cat: All seven classification levels

While these classifications are useful and interesting, only genus, species, and (if applicable) subspecies are necessary to create a standard binomial scientific name.

Kingdom:   Animalia—this category encompasses all animals.

Phylum:  Chordata (subphylum Vertebrata)—this category includes all animals that have chordates or backbones.

Class:  Mammalia—this category includes all mammals (i.e., animals that have hair, three middle-ear bones, and mammary glands).

Order:  Carnivora—as you can probably guess from the name, this category includes all carnivores.

Family:  Felidae—this category encompasses both wild and domestic cats.

Genus:  Felis —this category encompasses cats that are smaller and/or cannot roar.

Species:  Catus —here, we’ve finally arrived at the particular brand of small cat that has become a friend (or master) of humans. This species includes between 40 and 50 breeds of cats.

Example: What is the scientific name of a dog?

Likewise, the scientific name for the domestic dog is Canis lupus familiaris . In this case, Canis denotes the genus ;  lupus, the species ; and familiaris, the subspecies .

Your friendly neighborhood Pomeranian is considered a subspecies of Canis lupus —the gray wolf!

How to format scientific names in academic writing

Italicization.

Publications and style guides may vary. However, the scientific name of any species of plants or animals should almost always be italicized.

Capitalization

In addition, the genus (the first component of the name) should always be capitalized, while the species and subspecies are kept in lowercase.

Categories above genus

As mentioned, binomial scientific names should always be italicized, but any category above the level of genus is typically written in roman (i.e., non-italicized) text. The exceptions are bacteria, fungi, and viruses; for these taxa, italics are also used at the family level.

Multiple appearances

Additionally, when writing a scientific name multiple times in a text, the genus is often abbreviated to include only the first letter after the first use of the name. For instance, one may write:

" Felis catus belongs to the order Carnivora. This means that F. catus subsists primarily on meat."

The subspecies is always formatted in the same way as the species—lowercase and italicized. If the subspecies name is the same as the species name (e.g., the tiger Panthera tigris tigris ), the species can be abbreviated to the first letter ( Panthera t. tigris ).

Unknown species

If a species is unknown, the abbreviation "sp." is used in place of the species name and is non-italicized. The abbreviation "spp." is similarly used to indicate a group of unknown species. The term "sp. novo" is used to indicate a species that is being described for the first time.

Discoverers' names

Sometimes, the abbreviated or full surname of the person who named the species is included after the scientific name (e.g., " Quercus alba L." or " Quercus alba Linnaeus"). This part of the scientific name is never italicized.

Parting advice: Ensuring consistency

Lastly, make sure that you use and format scientific names consistently throughout your paper, article, or thesis.

When working on a sizable document, making sure that scientific terms are consistently written and formatted throughout can be a labor-intensive and time-consuming task.

That's why it's always helpful to get a second set of eyes on your work before submitting your final draft. You can ask a friend or colleague to look over your work or use a professional editor . With that, you can rest easy in the knowledge that your reader will easily understand and appreciate your work without being put off by any errors or inconsistencies.

Image source: Rawpixel/elements.envato.com

Make Every Word Count with Professional Academic Proofreading

Try our academic proofreading service , or get a free sample, about the author.

Daniel Ruten is an in-house editor at Scribendi. He honed his academic writing and editing skills while attaining a BA and MA in History at the University of Saskatchewan, where he researched institutions and the experiences of mental patients in 18 th -century England. In his spare time, he enjoys producing music, reading books, drinking too much coffee, and wandering around nature.

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How to Write Scientific Names of Plants and Animals

Scientific names, or taxonomic names, are the unique nomenclature used in biology to refer to specific species. The purpose of these names is to standardize species names across regions, languages, and cultures to avoid confusion and ambiguity.

Updated on September 15, 2022

While these Latin names may seem intimidating (they even confuse journal editors), they become easy to use once you understand where they come from and how to use the formatting, notations, and abbreviations associated with them.

What is scientific/binomial nomenclature?

In the 1750s, Carl Linnaeus developed the system of binomial nomenclature (a two-part naming system) that we use today to name and classify living things. Species names consist of two parts: the first part is the generic name (genus name), while the second is the specific epithet (species name).

Species with the same generic name are closely related species grouped into the same genus. The specific epithet by itself is meaningless, almost like an adjective without a noun. Unrelated species can have the same specific epithet, such as Melilotus albus (white sweetclover) and Procnias albus (white bellbird). Albus means white.

Some animals have species names where the specific epithet repeats the genus name, such as Gorilla (Western gorilla). This is called a tautonym. While often used in animal names, tautonyms aren’t allowed in plant, fungi and algae names according to the International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi, and Plants  guidelines .

Some examples of common and scientific animal names:

Some examples of common and scientific plant names:

Rules for writing scientific names of plants and animals

Scientific names are made up of Latin, or latinized, words. The scientific name often describes some aspect of the organism. For example, the blue jay’s scientific name is Cyanocitta cristata, which means chattering, crested blue bird.

Sometimes, species are named after a person (e.g., a black-eyed satyr butterfly, Euptchia attenboroughi, was named after David Attenborough), or the place where it occurs (e.g., the Arabian gazelle is called Gazella arabica).

How to format scientific names

Scientific names are in Latin, so, similar to other words from foreign languages, they’re always written in italics. The generic name is always capitalized, while the species epithet is never capitalized.

If the species name appears in a sentence where the text is already italicized, such as in a heading or figure legend, the species name can be unitalicized to distinguish it from the rest of the text. If written by hand, the name should be underlined.

How to abbreviate scientific names

If a species name is repeated multiple times in a written piece, such as a research paper, it can be abbreviated after the first time the name is written out in full. For example, the mosquito Anopheles stephensi can subsequently be abbreviated as A. stephensi. In the same written piece, you can also refer to another species from the same genus in the same way, such as A. funestus. In some journals, this must be done in both the abstract and main text of the paper.

If there are two genus names in the text that start with the same letter, the genus name can be abbreviated using its first two letters.

For example, if you also mention Aedes vexans mosquitoes in your text, you can abbreviate the two species as An. stephensi and Ae. vexans.

However, as with all abbreviations, these abbreviations should be used sparingly and only if there is no possibility for confusion. Only use an abbreviation if you use the term multiple times in your text. The general guideline is three or more times, but this will depend on the length of your text, so use your own judgement.

Always keep your reader in mind. If there are genera with similar names, rather write them out in full. If you only have one species name in your text that you use repeatedly, abbreviating it is not a problem, but if you mention 10 different species, abbreviations could confuse and frustrate your reader.

When referring to an unknown species in a genus, you can write the generic name followed by the abbreviation “sp.” The plural form is “spp.” The abbreviation “sp. novo” indicates a species that hasn’t been described yet.

For example: “During their bat survey in Guinea, they caught a Myotis sp. in one of their traps. Its distinctive coloring set it apart from other Myotis spp. and they knew it had to be a new species. The discovery of Myotis sp. novo highlights the importance of these surveys.”

How to add the taxonomic authority of a scientific name

Sometimes, the taxonomic authority is added to the scientific name. The taxonomic authority is the surname of the person who first described the species.

In plant names, the taxonomic authority is abbreviated (e.g., Panicum virgatum L., where the L is the abbreviation for Linnaeus). In animals, the surname is written out in full followed by the date when it was first described (e.g., Balaena mysticetus Linnaeus, 1758). A name following in brackets means that the name has been amended subsequent to first descriptions (e.g., Pulchrapolia gracilis (Dyke and Cooper).

How to indicate subgenus, subspecies, form, and variety

Other information that can be added include subgenus, subspecies, forms, and varieties. Subgenus is a classification level below genus, but above species level. If a subgenus is included in the scientific name, it’s placed in parentheses between the generic and specific name, with the first letter capitalized, for example Nereis (Hediste) diversicolor.

A subspecies is a further division of a species into groups of individuals that are distinguishable, but not different enough to be classified as a separate species. In animal names, the subspecies name is written after the species name, in lowercase italics. For example, the Bengal tiger is Panthera tigris and the Sumatran tiger is Panthera tigris sondaica. The Bengal tiger is found in India, while the Sumatran tiger is only found on the island of Sumatra and is much smaller than the Bengal tiger. Despite the differences in their distribution and appearance, they can interbreed, making them subspecies and not different species.

In plant names, the abbreviation subsp. is added between the species and subspecies name. For example, Cornus sericea subsp. sericea.

A variety is a population of individuals with distinct, inheritable differences and are indicated with the abbreviation var., for example Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis refers to the thornless variety of the thorny honeylocust. Form refers to occasional variations in individuals, such as variation in flower color. For example, Cornus florida f. rubra refers to individuals of the flowering dogwood with pink flowers instead of the usual white.

How to write the name of a hybrid

Hybrids are indicated with an “x”. Hybrids that have been named are written with the x between the genus and species name. For example, Solanum x procurrens is the hybrid between S. nigrum and S. physalifolium. If a hybrid hasn’t been named, or if you want to specify the parentage, the same hybrid can be written as S. nigrum x S. physalifolium.

How to write the name of a cultivar

Cultivar names are written inside quotations, capitalized, and not italicized. If the cultivar was bred from a single species, the cultivar name follows the specific epithet; for example Zea mays “Wisconsin 153.” If the cultivar was bred by hybridizing several species, the cultivar name replaces the specific epithet, for example, Rosa “Iceberg” is a cultivar derived from crosses between Rosa chinensis, Rosa multiflora, Rosa gigantea, and several other Rosa spp.

Can two species have the same scientific name?

When two genera from the same kingdom have the same name, this is called a homonym. This is similar to homonyms in grammar, which refers to words with the same spelling but different meanings. While homonyms aren’t allowed in scientific nomenclature, errors sometimes slip through as shown in this  online list of homonyms . For example, Colobus is a genus of beetles and a genus of primates.

When two genus names from different kingdoms have the same name, this is called a hemihomonym. For example, Ficus is a genus of plants and a genus of snails.

Hemihomonyms are allowed since the scientific names of different kingdoms are governed by different regulatory bodies. The  International Code of Nomenclature  (ICN) governs the naming of algae, fungi, and plants, while the  International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature  (ICZN) regulates the naming of animals. A  recent publication highlighted the problem with and extent of this phenomenon and compiled an online list of hemihomonyms .

It can happen that two species from generic hemihomonyms also have the same specific epithet, resulting in identical scientific names. In the previous example of the hemihomonym, Ficus, there’s both a  sea snail  and a fig named Ficus variegata. Another example is Orestias elegans, which is the scientific name of both an  orchid  and a  fish .

Resources for finding scientific nomenclature

The  Integrated Taxonomic Information System  (ITIS) and  The Catalogue of Life  are online data bases where you can find the scientific name of any life form by searching either the common name or the scientific name. They provide the full taxonomic classification, from kingdom to species level, the taxonomic authority, and references to the publications where these species were described.

The  IUCN Redlist  is another trusted source and provides a list of animal, plant, and fungi species with their taxonomic information and conservation status details, including population numbers, distribution, and current threats.

However, species names can change when new taxonomic information becomes available. Keeping track of the taxonomic changes of all organisms is a huge task. While the above-mentioned lists are a good starting point to finding a species name, do some further research to be sure you have the latest accepted scientific name.

A scientific name in a database might have been correct at the time it was last updated, but it could be outdated. For example, the name of the sweet thorn tree was changed to Vachellia karroo as described by  Banfi and Galasso in 2008 . However, in the ITIS database, Acacia karroo is still listed as the correct name, while the IUCN Redlist and The Catalogue of Life have the correct accepted name, with Acacia karroo listed as the synonym.

Region- or taxon-specific resources such as recent, regional field guides or online databases are often better resources. For example, a good reference for bird species would be the  Birdlife International website . The  World Register of Marine Species  (or WORMS) is a database of marine organisms. However, the gold standard would be the most recent taxonomic publications on the species.

If you really want to be sure you’ve got your taxonomy right…

AJE offers editing by experts who know these subjects inside and out. While they polish your English to a level fit for publication, they’ll also fix up your scientific and technical terminology. Check out  AJE Editing services here .

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• Research Guides

BSCI 1510L Literature and Stats Guide: 3.1 Specific details regarding scientific writing

• 1 What is a scientific paper?
• 2 Referencing and accessing papers
• 2.1 Literature Cited
• 2.2 Accessing Scientific Papers
• 2.3 Traversing the web of citations
• 2.4 Keyword Searches
• 3 Style of scientific writing
• 3.1 Specific details regarding scientific writing
• 3.2 Components of a scientific paper
• 4 For further information
• Appendix A: Calculation Final Concentrations
• 1 Formulas in Excel
• 2 Basic operations in Excel
• 3 Measurement and Variation
• 3.1 Describing Quantities and Their Variation
• 3.2 Samples Versus Populations
• 3.3 Calculating Descriptive Statistics using Excel
• 4 Variation and differences
• 5 Differences in Experimental Science
• 5.1 Aside: Commuting to Nashville
• 5.2 P and Detecting Differences in Variable Quantities
• 5.3 Statistical significance
• 5.4 A test for differences of sample means: 95% Confidence Intervals
• 5.5 Error bars in figures
• 5.6 Discussing statistics in your scientific writing
• 6 Scatter plot, trendline, and linear regression
• 7 The t-test of Means
• 8 Paired t-test
• 9 Two-Tailed and One-Tailed Tests
• 10 Variation on t-tests: ANOVA
• 11 Reporting the Results of a Statistical Test
• 12 Summary of statistical tests
• 1 Objectives
• 2 Project timeline
• 3 Background
• 4 Previous work in the BSCI 111 class
• 5 General notes about the project
• 6 About the paper
• 7 References

3.1.1 Scientific names

In scientific writing (and in science in general), common names are rarely used.  The Latin binomial (i.e. "scientific name") is used instead.  There are several important rules regarding the use of scientific names.  Failure to follow these rules in your writing flags you immediately as an amateur scientist, so make it a practice to follow them.

1. Scientific names are always italicized.  When hand-writing text, you can underline them instead, but there is no excuse not to italicize when using a word processor.  Example: use Bos taurus , not Bos taurus.

2. The genus is always capitalized.

3. The species is never capitalized, even when it refers to the name of a place or person.  Be careful because word processors will often "auto-correct" a species name and incorrectly capitalize it or change the spelling.  Example: Juniperus virginiana , not Juniperus Virginia .

4. In its first use within a particular document, the genus is always written in full.  In subsequent uses, the genus can be abbreviated using the first initial and a period.  In the case where two species from different genera have the same abbreviation for their genus, prevent confusion by writing out the full genus.  Example: on first use, write Escherichia coli and reserve E. coli for subsequent references. 

5. A species name is never used without a genus or genus abbreviation.  Example: write Tribolium confusum or T. confusum but never just confusum .  It is OK to use the genus by itself if you mean to refer to multiple species within the genus.  Example: "There are many species of Drosophila that are affected by exposure to alcohol."

6. If you must use a common name, first define it in terms of the scientific name.  For example, " Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee)".

In this course, incorrect formatting of scientific names may result in a point deduction.

The word "data" is plural.  Say "the data were …" not "the data was …".

3.1.3 Citing References in the Text

Each time a scientific paper makes reference to the work of others, it is expected that the paper's authors cite that work.  The exact method of citation varies depending on the journal.  In most biomedical journals and in very high-impact journals such as Science and Nature, citations are made through endnote reference numbers that are placed in the text as superscripts, or within parentheses or square brackets.  Although this format is more compact within the text, it is somewhat less convenient because it requires renumbering during the editing phase and requires the reader to go to the endnote to know anything about the citation.  We will use the more traditional method which is to cite the author or author's names, followed by the publication year.

3.1.3.1 General citation/reference patterns

Here is an example of a citation from the methods section of a paper:

            The following culture media were used for this method (Tsuzuki 1991): …

Sometimes a page, figure, or table number is also given if a specific part of the paper is being referenced rather than the paper in general, or if the work is a book rather than an article.  If there are two authors, their names are both listed.  If there are three or more authors, the name of the first author is listed, followed by "et al."

If the author's name is already being used in the text, the citation simply lists the date in parentheses, e.g.

            Dan and Hontela (2011) reported that triclosan was detected in breast milk, urine and plasma …

Each citation in the text of the article must be accompanied by a corresponding reference in the references section at the end of the paper (Section 2.1).  They are listed in alphabetical order by last name of the first author, then by publication year if more than one paper by that author is cited.  Here are the listings that would be added to the reference section for the example citations above:

Dan, A. B. and A. Hontela. 2011. Triclosan: environmental exposure, toxicity and mechanisms of action. Journal of Applied Toxicology 31:285-311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jat.1660

Tsuzuki, M. 1991. Manual on Sterilization and Disinfection, Ishiyaku Publishers, Tokyo, 177–181.

3.1.3.2 Additional citation examples from Steingraber et al. (1985)

1. Both the name and date can go inside parentheses if the name is not actually part of your sentence. Not all journals include the comma between author and year. For example:

Enzymes are inhibited by cyanide (Grubb 1977).

Because enzymes are inhibited by cyanide (Grubb 1977), I expect to find....

Notice that the parenthesis is placed at the end of the sentence of clause containing the reference and that punctuation FOLLOWS the citation.

2. Another way to cite a study is to make the last name of the researcher the subject or object of the sentence or clause and follow it immediately with the date of the study in parentheses:

Grubb (1977) found that cyanide inhibits enzymes.

Because Grubb (1977) found that cyanide inhibits enzymes....

These data support the conclusions of Grubb (1977).

3. If you wish to emphasize the date of the cited study, you can omit the parentheses:

As early as 1977, Grubb observed the inhibitory effect of cyanide on enzyme action.

This strategy is often effective for presenting an historical perspective of the problem (i.e., useful in Introduction).

4. It is INCORRECT to separate the date of publication from the author’s name:

Incorrect: Grubb found that cyanide inhibits enzyme action (1977).

5. If you wish to cite more than one study per reference, i.e., if more than one author has reached the same conclusion or worked on the same problem independently, you may list them together in the same parentheses and separate their names by semicolons:

Cyanide has been found to inhibit enzyme action (Grubb 1977, Smith 1980, Taylor 1983).

By convention, these citations are listed in chronological order.

6. In the case of more than three authors, you may use et al. (from "et alii", Latin for "and others"; although et al. is a Latin term it is in such common use that it is not italicized) after the first author’s name:

Cyanide has been found to inhibit enzyme action (Jones et al., 1985).

3.1.4 Grammar for scientific reports

Lab manuals are often written as imperatives (also known as directives), a grammatical mood where the author gives directions to an implied audience. For example, your lab manual may say:

“Pipette 15 mL of sterile solution and vortex to mix.”

However, this form should not be used in a research paper’s methods section, which should avoid the use of first person or the directive.

In narrative writing, such as the kind used in fiction, active voice is often preferred because it is more illustrative. However, in scientific writing (particularly in a methods section) passive voice has traditionally been employed because it emphasizes the actions of the procedure over the person who completed the task. The “I” or “we” who is incubating the cultures should be irrelevant to the action performed.

In active voice, the subject of a sentence performs the action described by the verb.

Example: We incubated bacteria cultures at 30°C.

In passive voice, the subject is the recipient of the action of the verb.

Example: Bacterial cultures were incubated at 30°C.

While some scientific journals have begun to allow the use of active voice, it is challenging to do so while also maintaining a scientific style and minimizing the use of first person. Until you have reached a mastery of scientific writing sufficient to know when this is appropriate, the best rule of thumb is to avoid first person and active voice all together in methods.  If the journal that you are writing for has a policy on active vs. passive voice, you should follow it.  Usually such policies are described in an "Instructions for authors" page on the journal's website.

3.1.5 Notes on formatting specific to this class

The best way to get a feel for the general patterns in formatting of journal articles is to examine recent papers in well-established scientific journals.  The exact format of a paper depends on the guidelines established by the publishing journal.  All journals publish "Instructions to Authors" which are available on the journal's website.  In this class, we will use the format of Ecology, a publication of the Ecological Society of America.  The format of Ecology is fairly typical for non-biomedical journals.  The primary difference is in the method of citation as discussed in Section 3.1.3 .  In this class we will use the author (year) form of citation primarily because it makes revising the paper easier since footnotes do not need to be renumbered with each edit. 

The form of a submitted paper is often different than its appearance when published in the journal.  For example, the article may be required to be submitted double-spaced with all of the figures and tables at the end, whereas in the published article it will probably be single-spaced with two columns per page and figures interspersed throughout the article at appropriate places.  For the paper you will write in this class, please follow these guidelines:

1. Pages should be numbered.

2. It is not necessary to have a running head at the top of the page.

3. Text may be single-spaced unless your TA specifically requests double-spacing.

4. Although it is common practice in journals to place text in two columns per page, that is neither necessary nor recommended in this assignment.

3.1.6 Discussing statistics and results of statistical tests

Please refer to Section 5.6 of the Excel Reference and Statistics Guide for information on appropriately discussing statistics in your paper.

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How to Write Scientific Names in Journal Manuscripts – Plant and Animal Species (Part 1 of 2)

The format for writing scientific names of animals and plants is standardized and globally accepted. “Scientific nomenclature” refers to several names according to a particular field of study. This article is the first in a two-part series on  scientific nomenclature  within specific kingdoms.

Generally, animals and plants are recognized by common and scientific names.

Common name: These are used locally and are likely to vary by region or country. Scientific name: These are unique names used by the scientific community to accurately and universally identify species.

While we help you understand the nuances of writing scientific names in journal manuscripts, you may also opt for an AI-driven writing tool, Trinka. It helps you effortlessly choose the relevant scientific names for academic and technical writing.

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International Codes of Nomenclature

Taxonomists have created numerous “codes” for scientific nomenclature. These codes are universal and are periodically revised by consensus. Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus invented the protocol for naming species in the 1700s. Linnaeus devised the system of “binomial nomenclature,” which uses only two designations – genus and specific epithet as the species name.

In the mid-1800s, scientists agreed on an expanded system of nomenclature. The following codes are used today:

• International Code of Nomenclature for  algae, fungi, and plants .
• International Code of  Zoological Nomenclature .
• International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria  recently changed to  International Code of Nomenclature of  Prokaryotes .
• International Code of Nomenclature for  Cultivated Plants .
• International Code of  Phytosociological Nomenclature .
• International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses – publishes several reports, including  How to Write a Virus Name .

Common names of species can differ by geographic region, but a general protocol helps avoid uncertainty and ensures uniformity.

Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) gives you the flexibility to search taxonomic data of a particular plant (and other organisms) based on its common name, scientific name, or taxonomic serial number.

Known as the “ taxonomic hierarchy ,” the system contains numerous groups of species based on genetic and phylogenic characteristics. The highest level is the “kingdom.” The first kingdom comprised just two types of living organisms—animals and plants. We have seven classifications within the kingdom domain—Bacteria, Archaea, Protozoa, Chromista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia.

Remember that the designations are in Latin. This could be challenging for those who are not familiar with that language, but the terms are consistent worldwide. There is no need to interpret or translate them into another language.

The levels from highest to lowest classification are as follows:

Using this system, the gray wolf, for instance, would be identified as follows:

• Kingdom: Animalia
• Phylum: Chordata
• Class: Mammalia
• Order: Carnivora
• Suborder: Caniformia
• Family: Canidae
• Genus: Canis
• Species:  lupus

Binomial Name

The binomial name consists of a genus name and specific epithet. The scientific  names of species are italicized . The genus name is always capitalized and is written first; the specific epithet follows the genus name and is not capitalized. No exceptions.

The above instance shows that the classifications go from general (Animalia) to specific ( C. lupus ). A species, by definition, is the combination of  both the genus and specific epithet , not just the epithet. For instance, we can use the term  gray wolf , but we cannot use just  Canis  or  lupus  to describe this animal.  Canis lupus  is a species.

The rules for scientific nomenclature vary with the organism. In the case of botanical nomenclature, generally, both the genus and the species names have to be italicized. For protozoans, the genus name, when used in the singular form, should always be in italics. e.g.,  Leishmania donovani . However, when used in the plural form, you need not italicize the genus name. e.g., Leishmania are responsible for causing the disease leishmaniasis.

Animal Kingdom

When writing, we use both the scientific and the common name on the first mention. We then choose which to use throughout and make it consistent.

• Gray wolf ( Canis lupus )  is native to North America and Eurasia.

In subsequent references, we can use either the common or scientific name. If we use the scientific name, we only need to use the first letter of the genus followed by a period and the specific epithet. For instance:

• In North America, the  gray wolf  was all but hunted to extinction.
• In North America,  C. lupus  was all but hunted to extinction.

It is also common to refer to several species under one genus when you want to point out similar characteristics within a genus. For instance:

• All species of  Canis  are known to be moderate to large and have large skulls.

You could also write this information as follows:

• Canis  spp.  are known to be moderate to large and have large skulls.

In this case, “spp.” is an abbreviation for “several species” (“sp” is the designation for one species) in the genus. Either of the above is acceptable. If you are focusing on a few species in particular, you would refer to the species name of each one.

You might also see a scientific name followed by an initial or abbreviation. This would denote the person who discovered or named the species. For instance, in  Amaranthus retroflexus  L., the L (not italicized) refers to the original name given by Linnaeus.

There are a few exceptions to some of these rules. First, the entire genus name must be spelled out if it begins a sentence, even if a subsequent reference:

• Canis lupus  was all but hunted to extinction in North America.

Second, when more than one species has the same genus initial but come from different genera, the genera names are spelled out to avoid ambiguity:

• Both the gray wolf ( Canis lupus ) and the beaver ( Castor canadensis ) are native to North America.

In this case, it is best to use the common name after the first mention, but both formats are correct.

Titles and Headers

In titles, it is preferred to write the full scientific name of animals in uppercase letters. For instance:

• A Study of the History of  CANIS LUPUS  in North America

In an italicized header, the species name can be written in a non-italic style. For instance:

• Canis lupus   is   all but extinct in North America

Plant Kingdom

Plant names also follow binomial nomenclature (similar to animal names).

• Royal grevillea  (Grevillea victoriae)  is found in New South Wales and Victoria.

In the plant kingdom, classification after species is subspecies (subsp.) and variety (var.). For instance, there are three subspecies of  Grevillea victoriae.

•   Grevillea victoriae  subsp.  victoriae
• Grevillea victoriae  subsp.  nivalis 
• Grevillea victoriae  subsp.  brindabella

When the species of a plant is unknown, a plant can be referred to as  Grevillea  sp.

Furthermore, when we collectively want to refer a few or all species, we use  Grevillea  spp.

Similar to animal names, it is common to see a specific epithet that refers to a geographic area or the person who discovered it. For instance,  Grevillea victoriae  F.Muell. Though these are proper nouns, they are still written in lowercase font. Note that some word processors might attempt to capitalize these references.

This is something to check when proofreading your text .

Cultivar names are dictated by International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants.

When writing, the cultivar name is added after genus or specific epithet and is put in single quotes without italicization. For instance,   

•   Grevillea  ‘Robyn Gordon’       
•  Grevillea rosmarinifolia  ‘Rosy Posy’

Consistency

One of the fundamental rules of scientific writing is consistency. Notwithstanding your choice of a scientific or common name, you must uphold consistency. Always check the author guidelines when preparing manuscripts. Formats for citations and references, headings, and section placement can vary. Be assured that the format for writing scientific names is globally consistent regardless of the intended journal. The rules presented above will be useful.

In the  final article  of this two-part series, we will discuss tips on writing bacterial species in names in the journal manuscript.

You see that the common name of the species you are studying has several variations depending on the geographic area. Which do you use and why? What other challenges do you face when using scientific nomenclature? Please share your thoughts with us in the comments section below.

Besides, if you are looking for an AI-driven writing tool to enhance your writing, then check out Trinka, the world’s first language enhancement tool that is custom-built for academic and technical writing. It has several exclusive features to make your manuscript ready for the global audience.

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How to Write Scientific Names of Bacterial Species in Journal Manuscripts (Part 2)

Research can be hard enough without worrying about how to use microbial nomenclature or scientific names of bacteria accurately. Writing bacteria names in a research article can be a big challenge for scientists, as the guidelines change to reflect new discoveries. Moreover, Latin names may be confusing.  In the first article of this series, we discussed effective tips on writing scientific names of plants and animals. This article will give you an overview of the biggest issues researchers encounter in using microbial nomenclature and some tips to keep you on track.

How are Bacteria Named?

The International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes (ICSP) has created guidelines that explain the proper nomenclature or naming system for bacteria. This system is known as the Bacteriological Code. A bacterium has a binomial name that consists of two parts: the genus name, which indicates which genus it belongs to and the species epithet.

Related: Go on a reading marathon and learn the important aspects of academic writing. Check out this section now!

When referring to a bacterium in a paper, the writer should underline or italicize the names in the text. After writing the complete name of a microorganism in the first mention, the genus name can be shortened to just the capital letter.

• For example, Moraxella bovis can be written M. bovis.

The ICSP recommends spelling out the entire name of any bacteria again in the summary of your publication.

When discussing unnamed species, the abbreviation “sp.” is used to refer to a single unnamed species.  Whereas “spp.” written after a genus refers to more than one unnamed species.

• For example, Moraxella sp. would be used to discuss one unnamed species of Moraxella.

Bacteria are often divided into subspecies, which are indicated by subdivisions such as biovar, chemoform, chemovar, cultivar, morphovar, pathovar, serovar, and state.

These subdivisions should be written in plain text preceding an additional italicized or underlined name. For example, “Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar viciae” would be correctly written as Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar viciae.

Common Issues in the Use of Microbial Nomenclature

However, there are some common issues that researchers encounter when using microbial nomenclature. The first, as you might have guessed, is that different types of bacteria might appear to be the same when their names are abbreviated.

M. bovis could indicate Moraxella bovis, Mycoplasma bovis, or Mycobacterium bovis.

In this case, the author should simply take care to either avoid using abbreviations if they might be confused, or be sure to clearly state which bacterium is being discussed.

Other issues that researchers encounter with microbial nomenclature are more complex. While the Bacteriological Code is often interpreted as the “official” list of valid names for bacteria, the Code only provides guidelines on how bacteria should be named. This allows for disagreement, discovery, and evolution in scientific research. For example, one group of researchers might classify a bacterium to genus A. Similarly, another group of researchers might conduct different research and conclude that the same bacterium belongs to genus B. Continuing with our previous example of the bovis species, one bacterium might be referred to as A bovis in one article and B bovis in another.

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How to write a good research paper title

“Unread science is lost science .”

Credit: Mykyta Dolmatov/Getty

“Unread science is lost science.”

28 July 2020

Mykyta Dolmatov/Getty

With the influx of publications brought on by the pandemic, it’s become more challenging than ever for researchers to attract attention to their work.

Understanding which elements of a title will attract readers – or turn them away – has been proven to increase a paper’s citations and Altmetric score .

“In the era of information overload, most students and researchers do not have time to browse the entire text of a paper,” says Patrick Pu , a librarian at the National University of Singapore.

“The title of a paper, together with its abstract, become very important to capture and sustain the attention of readers.”

1. A good title avoids technical language

Since the primary audience of a paper is likely to be researchers working in the same field, using technical language in the title seems to make sense.

But this alienates the wider lay audience, which can bring valuable attention to your work . It can also alienate inexperienced researchers, or those who have recently entered the field.

“A good title does not use unnecessary jargon,” says Elisa De Ranieri , editor-in-chief at the Nature Communications journal (published by Springer Nature, which also publishes Nature Index.) “It communicates the main results in the study in a way that is clear and accessible, ideally to non-specialists or researchers new to the field.”

How-to: When crafting a title, says De Ranieri, write down the main result of the manuscript in a short paragraph. Shorten the text to make it more concise, while still remaining descriptive. Repeat this process until you have a title of fewer than 15 words.

2. A good title is easily searchable

Most readers today are accessing e-journals, which are indexed in scholarly databases such as Scopus and Google Scholar.

“Although these databases usually index the full text of papers, retrieval weightage for ‘Title’ is usually higher than other fields, such as ‘Results’,” Pu explains.

At the National University of Singapore, Pu and his colleagues run information literacy programmes for editors and authors. They give advice for publishing best practice, such as how to identify the most commonly used keywords in literature searches in a given field.

“A professor once told us how he discovered that industry experts were using a different term or keyword to describe his research area,” says Pu.

“He had written a seminal paper that did not include this ‘industry keyword’. He believes his paper, which was highly cited by academics, would have a higher citation count if he had included this keyword in the title. As librarians, we try to highlight this example to our students so that they will consider all possible keywords to use in their searches and paper titles.”

How-to: Authors should speak to an academic librarian at their institution to gain an understanding of keyword and search trends in their field of research. This should inform how the paper title is written.

3. A good title is substantiated by data

Authors should be cautious to not make any claims in the title that can’t be backed up by evidence.

“For instance, if you make a discovery with potential therapeutic relevance, the title should specify whether it was tested or studied in animals or humans/human samples,” says Irene Jarchum , senior editor at the journal Nature Biotechnology (also published by Springer Nature, which publishes the Nature Index.)

Jarchum adds that titles can be contentious because different authors have different views on the use of specific words, such as acronyms, or more fundamentally, what the main message of the title should be.

Some authors may over-interpret the significance of their preliminary findings, and want to reflect this in the title.

How-to: If you know your paper will be contentious within the scientific community, have the data ready to defend your decisions .

4. A good title sparks curiosity

A one-liner that sparks a reader’s interest can be very effective.

“A title has to pique the interest of the person searching for literature in a split-second – enough that they click on the title to read the abstract. Unread science is lost science,” says Christine Mayer , editor-in-chief of the journal Advanced Therapeutics .

Paper titles such as, "White and wonderful? Microplastics prevail in snow from the Alps to the Arctic" ( 2019 Science ), and “Kids these days: Why the youth of today seem lacking” ( 2019 Science Advances ) are good examples of this principle. Both papers have high Altmetric Attention scores, indicating that they have been widely read and discussed online.

How-to: Take note of the characteristics of paper titles that spark your own interest. Keep a record of these and apply the same principles to your own paper titles.

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Writing a scientific paper.

• Writing a lab report

What is a "good" title?

"title checklist" from: how to write a good scientific paper. chris a. mack. spie. 2018., other hints for writing a title.

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The title will be read by many people. Only a few will read the entire paper, therefore all words in the title should be chosen with care. Too short a title is not helpful to the potential reader. However too long a title can sometimes be even less meaningful. Remember a title is not an abstract. Also a title is not a sentence.

Goals: • Fewest possible words that describe the contents of the paper. • Avoid waste words like "Studies on", or "Investigations on" • Use specific terms rather than general • Watch your word order and syntax • Avoid abbreviations and jargon

 The title should be clear and informative, and should reflect the aim and approach of the work.

 The title should be as specific as possible while still describing the full range of the work. Does the title, seen in isolation, give a full yet concise and specific indication of the work reported?

 Do not mention results or conclusions in the title.

 Avoid: overly clever or punny titles that will not fare well with search engines or international audiences; titles that are too short to be descriptive or too long to be read; jargon, acronyms, or trademarked terms. 

• Whenever possible, use a declarative rather than a neutral title
• Don't end your title with a question mark?
• Begin with the keywords
• Use verbs instead of abstract nouns
• Avoid abbrev. in the title

From: How to Write and Illustrate a Scientific Paper (2008)

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How to Order and Format Author Names in Scientific Papers

As the world becomes more interconnected, the production of knowledge increasingly relies on collaboration. Scientific papers, the primary medium through which researchers communicate their findings, often feature multiple authors. However, authorship isn't merely a reflection of those who contributed to a study but often denotes prestige, recognition, and responsibility. In academic papers, the order of authors is not arbitrary. It can symbolize the level of contribution and the role played by each author in the research process. Deciding on the author order can sometimes be a complex and sensitive issue, making it crucial to understand the different roles and conventions of authorship in scientific research. This article will explore the various types of authors found in scientific papers, guide you on how to correctly order and format author names, and offer insights to help you navigate this critical aspect of academic publishing.

The first author

The first author listed in a scientific paper is typically the person who has made the most substantial intellectual contribution to the work. This role is often filled by a junior researcher such as a Ph.D. student or postdoctoral fellow, who has been intimately involved in almost every aspect of the project.

The first author usually plays a pivotal role in designing and implementing the research, including the formation of hypotheses, experimental design, data collection, data analysis, and interpretation of the findings. They also commonly take the lead in manuscript preparation, writing substantial portions of the paper, including the often-challenging task of turning raw data into a compelling narrative.

In academia, first authorship is a significant achievement, a clear demonstration of a researcher's capabilities and dedication. It indicates that the researcher possesses the skills and tenacity to carry a project from inception to completion. This position can dramatically impact a researcher's career trajectory, playing a critical role in evaluations for promotions, grants, and future academic positions.

However, being the first author is not just about prestige or professional advancement. It carries a weight of responsibility. The first author is generally expected to ensure the integrity and accuracy of the data presented in the paper. They are often the person who responds to reviewers' comments during the peer-review process and makes necessary revisions to the manuscript.

Also, as the first author, it is typically their duty to address any questions or critiques that may arise post-publication, often having to defend the work publicly, even years after publication.

Thus, first authorship is a role that offers significant rewards but also requires a strong commitment to uphold the principles of scientific integrity and transparency. While it's a coveted position that can be a steppingstone to career progression, the associated responsibilities and expectations mean that it should not be undertaken lightly.

The middle authors

The middle authors listed on a scientific paper occupy an essential, albeit sometimes ambiguous, role in the research project. They are typically those who have made significant contributions to the project, but not to the extent of the first author. This group often includes a mix of junior and senior researchers who have provided key input, assistance, or resources to the project.

The roles of middle authors can be quite diverse. Some might be involved in specific aspects of data collection or analysis. Others may bring specialized knowledge or technical skills essential to the project, providing expertise in a particular methodology, statistical analysis, or experimental technique. There might also be middle authors who have contributed vital resources to the project, such as unique reagents or access to a particular patient population.

In some fields, the order of middle authors reflects the degree of their contribution. The closer a middle author is to the first position, the greater their involvement, with the second author often having made the next largest contribution after the first author. This order may be negotiated among the authors, requiring clear communication and consensus.

However, in other disciplines, particularly those where large collaborative projects are common, the order of middle authors may not necessarily reflect their level of contribution. In such cases, authors might be listed alphabetically, or by some other agreed-upon convention. Therefore, it's crucial to be aware of the norms in your specific field when deciding the order of middle authors.

Being a middle author in a scientific paper carries less prestige and responsibility than being a first or last author, but it is by no means a minor role. Middle authors play a crucial part in the scientific endeavor, contributing essential expertise and resources. They are integral members of the research team whose collective efforts underpin the progress and achievements of the project. Without their diverse contributions, the scope and impact of scientific research would be significantly diminished.

The last author

In the listing of authors on a scientific paper, the final position carries a unique significance. It is typically occupied by the senior researcher, often the head of the laboratory or the principal investigator who has supervised the project. While they might not be involved in the day-to-day aspects of the work, they provide overarching guidance, mentorship, and often the resources necessary for the project's fruition.

The last author's role is multidimensional, often balancing the responsibilities of project management, funding acquisition, and mentorship. They guide the research's direction, help troubleshoot problems, and provide intellectual input to the project's design and interpretation of results. Additionally, they usually play a key role in the drafting and revision of the manuscript, providing critical feedback and shaping the narrative.

In academia, the last author position is a symbol of leadership and scientific maturity. It indicates that the researcher has progressed from being a hands-on contributor to someone who can guide a team, secure funding, and deliver significant research projects. Being the last author can have substantial implications for a researcher's career, signaling their ability to oversee successful projects and mentor the next generation of scientists.

However, along with prestige comes significant responsibility. The last author is often seen as the guarantor of the work. They are held accountable for the overall integrity of the study, and in cases where errors or issues arise, they are expected to take the lead in addressing them.

The convention of the last author as the senior researcher is common in many scientific disciplines, especially in the life and biomedical sciences. However, it's important to note that this is not a universal standard. In some fields, authors may be listed purely in the order of contribution or alphabetically. Therefore, an understanding of the specific norms and expectations of your scientific field is essential when considering author order.

In sum, the position of the last author, much like that of the first author, holds both honor and responsibility, reflecting a leadership role that goes beyond mere intellectual contribution to include mentorship, management, and accountability.

Formatting author names

When it comes to scientific publishing, details matter, and one such detail is the correct formatting of author names. While it may seem like a minor concern compared to the intellectual challenges of research, the proper formatting of author names is crucial for several reasons. It ensures correct attribution of work, facilitates accurate citation, and helps avoid confusion among researchers in the same field. This section will delve deeper into the conventions for formatting author names, offering guidance to ensure clarity and consistency in your scientific papers.

Typically, each author's full first name, middle initial(s), and last name are listed. It's crucial that the author's name is presented consistently across all their publications to ensure their work is correctly attributed and easily discoverable.

Here is a basic example following a common convention:

• Standard convention: John D. Smith

However, conventions can vary depending on cultural naming practices. In many Western cultures, the first name is the given name, followed by the middle initial(s), and then the family name. On the other hand, in many East Asian cultures, the family name is listed first.

Here is an example following this convention:

• Asian convention: Wang Xiao Long

When there are multiple authors, their names are separated by commas. The word "and" usually precedes the final author's name.

Here's how this would look:

• John D. Smith, Jane A. Doe, and Richard K. Jones

However, author name formatting can differ among journals. Some may require initials instead of full first names, or they might have specific guidelines for handling hyphenated surnames or surnames with particles (e.g., "de," "van," "bin"). Therefore, it's always important to check the specific submission guidelines of the journal to which you're submitting your paper.

Moreover, the formatting should respect each author's preferred presentation of their name, especially if it deviates from conventional Western naming patterns. As the scientific community becomes increasingly diverse and global, it's essential to ensure that each author's identity is accurately represented.

In conclusion, the proper formatting of author names is a vital detail in scientific publishing, ensuring correct attribution and respect for each author's identity. It may seem a minor point in the grand scheme of a research project, but getting it right is an essential part of good academic practice.

The concept of authorship in scientific papers goes well beyond just listing the names of those involved in a research project. It carries critical implications for recognition, responsibility, and career progression, reflecting a complex nexus of contribution, collaboration, and intellectual leadership. Understanding the different roles, correctly ordering the authors, and appropriately formatting the names are essential elements of academic practice that ensure the rightful attribution of credit and uphold the integrity of scientific research.

Navigating the terrain of authorship involves managing both objective and subjective elements, spanning from the universally acknowledged conventions to the nuances particular to different scientific disciplines. Whether it's acknowledging the pivotal role of the first author who carried the project from the ground up, recognizing the valuable contributions of middle authors who provided key expertise, or highlighting the mentorship and leadership role of the last author, each position is an integral piece in the mosaic of scientific authorship.

Furthermore, beyond the order of authors, the meticulous task of correctly formatting the author names should not be underestimated. This practice is an exercise in precision, respect for individual identity, and acknowledgement of cultural diversity, reflecting the global and inclusive nature of contemporary scientific research.

As scientific exploration continues to move forward as a collective endeavor, clear and equitable authorship practices will remain crucial. These practices serve not only to ensure that credit is assigned where it's due but also to foster an environment of respect and transparency. Therefore, each member of the scientific community, from fledgling researchers to seasoned scientists, would do well to master the art and science of authorship in academic publishing. After all, it is through this collective recognition and collaboration that we continue to expand the frontiers of knowledge.

Header image by Jon Tyson .

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Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

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Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How to Make a Research Paper Title with Examples

What is a research paper title and why does it matter?

A research paper title summarizes the aim and purpose of your research study. Making a title for your research is one of the most important decisions when writing an article to publish in journals. The research title is the first thing that journal editors and reviewers see when they look at your paper and the only piece of information that fellow researchers will see in a database or search engine query. Good titles that are concise and contain all the relevant terms have been shown to increase citation counts and Altmetric scores .

Therefore, when you title research work, make sure it captures all of the relevant aspects of your study, including the specific topic and problem being investigated. It also should present these elements in a way that is accessible and will captivate readers. Follow these steps to learn how to make a good research title for your work.

How to Make a Research Paper Title in 5 Steps

You might wonder how you are supposed to pick a title from all the content that your manuscript contains—how are you supposed to choose? What will make your research paper title come up in search engines and what will make the people in your field read it? 

In a nutshell, your research title should accurately capture what you have done, it should sound interesting to the people who work on the same or a similar topic, and it should contain the important title keywords that other researchers use when looking for literature in databases. To make the title writing process as simple as possible, we have broken it down into 5 simple steps.

Step 1: Answer some key questions about your research paper

What does your paper seek to answer and what does it accomplish? Try to answer these questions as briefly as possible. You can create these questions by going through each section of your paper and finding the MOST relevant information to make a research title.

Step 2: Identify research study keywords

Now that you have answers to your research questions, find the most important parts of these responses and make these your study keywords. Note that you should only choose the most important terms for your keywords–journals usually request anywhere from 3 to 8 keywords maximum.

Step 3: Research title writing: use these keywords

“We employed a case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years to assess how waiting list volume affects the outcomes of liver transplantation in patients; results indicate a positive correlation between increased waiting list volume and negative prognosis after the transplant procedure.”

The sentence above is clearly much too long for a research paper title. This is why you will trim and polish your title in the next two steps.

Step 4: Create a working research paper title

To create a working title, remove elements that make it a complete “sentence” but keep everything that is important to what the study is about. Delete all unnecessary and redundant words that are not central to the study or that researchers would most likely not use in a database search.

“ We employed a case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years to assess how the waiting list volume affects the outcome of liver transplantation in patients ; results indicate a positive correlation between increased waiting list volume and a negative prognosis after transplant procedure ”

Now shift some words around for proper syntax and rephrase it a bit to shorten the length and make it leaner and more natural. What you are left with is:

“A case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years assessing the impact of waiting list volume on outcome of transplantation and showing a positive correlation between increased waiting list volume and a negative prognosis” (Word Count: 38)

This text is getting closer to what we want in a research title, which is just the most important information. But note that the word count for this working title is still 38 words, whereas the average length of published journal article titles is 16 words or fewer. Therefore, we should eliminate some words and phrases that are not essential to this title.

Step 5: Remove any nonessential words and phrases from your title

Because the number of patients studied and the exact outcome are not the most essential parts of this paper, remove these elements first:

 “A case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years assessing the impact of waiting list volume on outcomes of transplantation and showing a positive correlation between increased waiting list volume and a negative prognosis” (Word Count: 19)

In addition, the methods used in a study are not usually the most searched-for keywords in databases and represent additional details that you may want to remove to make your title leaner. So what is left is:

“Assessing the impact of waiting list volume on outcome and prognosis in liver transplantation patients” (Word Count: 15)

In this final version of the title, one can immediately recognize the subject and what objectives the study aims to achieve. Note that the most important terms appear at the beginning and end of the title: “Assessing,” which is the main action of the study, is placed at the beginning; and “liver transplantation patients,” the specific subject of the study, is placed at the end.

This will aid significantly in your research paper title being found in search engines and database queries, which means that a lot more researchers will be able to locate your article once it is published. In fact, a 2014 review of more than 150,000 papers submitted to the UK’s Research Excellence Framework (REF) database found the style of a paper’s title impacted the number of citations it would typically receive. In most disciplines, articles with shorter, more concise titles yielded more citations.

Adding a Research Paper Subtitle

If your title might require a subtitle to provide more immediate details about your methodology or sample, you can do this by adding this information after a colon:

“ : a case study of US adult patients ages 20-25”

If we abide strictly by our word count rule this may not be necessary or recommended. But every journal has its own standard formatting and style guidelines for research paper titles, so it is a good idea to be aware of the specific journal author instructions , not just when you write the manuscript but also to decide how to create a good title for it.

Research Paper Title Examples

The title examples in the following table illustrate how a title can be interesting but incomplete, complete by uninteresting, complete and interesting but too informal in tone, or some other combination of these. A good research paper title should meet all the requirements in the four columns below.

Tips on Formulating a Good Research Paper Title

In addition to the steps given above, there are a few other important things you want to keep in mind when it comes to how to write a research paper title, regarding formatting, word count, and content:

• Write the title after you’ve written your paper and abstract
• Include all of the essential terms in your paper
• Keep it short and to the point (~16 words or fewer)
• Avoid unnecessary jargon and abbreviations
• Use keywords that capture the content of your paper
• Never include a period at the end—your title is NOT a sentence

Research Paper Writing Resources

We hope this article has been helpful in teaching you how to craft your research paper title. But you might still want to dig deeper into different journal title formats and categories that might be more suitable for specific article types or need help with writing a cover letter for your manuscript submission.

In addition to getting English proofreading services , including paper editing services , before submission to journals, be sure to visit our academic resources papers. Here you can find dozens of articles on manuscript writing, from drafting an outline to finding a target journal to submit to.

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