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Meaning of homework in English

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• The kids are busy with their homework.
• My science teacher always sets a lot of homework.
• "Have you got any homework tonight ?" "No."
• I got A minus for my English homework.
• For homework I want you to write an essay on endangered species .
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Homework | business english, examples of homework, translations of homework.

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to discover why something does not work effectively and help to improve it

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[ hohm -wurk ]

• schoolwork assigned to be done outside the classroom ( distinguished from classwork ).
• a single assignment of such schoolwork: Homeworks are due at the beginning of class.
• paid work done at home , as piecework.

to do one's homework for the next committee meeting.

/ ˈhəʊmˌwɜːk /

• school work done out of lessons, esp at home
• any preparatory study
• work done at home for pay

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Word history and origins.

Origin of homework 1

Idioms and Phrases

Example sentences.

Now, they log on to Zoom from their bedrooms, surrounded by unfinished homework assignments and tattered stuffed animals, waiting to be assigned calls, texts and emails by the trained therapists who oversee the program.

Yow started her homework and saw Frese had gone 35-22 with two winning seasons at Ball State, which hadn’t had a winning record in its previous nine seasons.

Do some homework before investing in a diamond, and that lifelong commitment.

Another poster included an image of their losses over what appeared to be online math homework.

As we countdown to Inauguration Day, I've been doing my homework—and looking to the past for inspiration.

“I can help my children with their homework and sometimes we text in English at my job,” Santos says.

Scheunemann, meanwhile, had no idea who Spencer was, and did some homework.

She jumped at the chance to watch RT, or jumped at the chance to skip calculus homework.

And we encourage parent-student “contracts,” for class attendance, homework submission and even extra-curriculum activities.

Adicéam did his homework, spending 50 days collecting pieces, many with unexpected stories behind them.

Much of this homework is done by a very bad light and the boy's eyes suffer much.

For homework we have prepared alphabets where the letters are printed in type-writing order.

His parents were always getting angry with him for losing his clothes, or his toys, or his homework.

Only at the time when he was going to Beauregard School, with his homework.

And once a week or twice a week she was sending her homework or something to him.

Related Words

• arrangement
• construction
• establishment
• preparedness
• qualification

Definitions and idiom definitions from Dictionary.com Unabridged, based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2023

Idioms from The American Heritage® Idioms Dictionary copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company.

Does homework really work?

by: Leslie Crawford | Updated: December 12, 2023

Print article

You know the drill. It’s 10:15 p.m., and the cardboard-and-toothpick Golden Gate Bridge is collapsing. The pages of polynomials have been abandoned. The paper on the Battle of Waterloo seems to have frozen in time with Napoleon lingering eternally over his breakfast at Le Caillou. Then come the tears and tantrums — while we parents wonder, Does the gain merit all this pain? Is this just too much homework?

However the drama unfolds night after night, year after year, most parents hold on to the hope that homework (after soccer games, dinner, flute practice, and, oh yes, that childhood pastime of yore known as playing) advances their children academically.

But what does homework really do for kids? Is the forest’s worth of book reports and math and spelling sheets the average American student completes in their 12 years of primary schooling making a difference? Or is it just busywork?

Homework haterz

Whether or not homework helps, or even hurts, depends on who you ask. If you ask my 12-year-old son, Sam, he’ll say, “Homework doesn’t help anything. It makes kids stressed-out and tired and makes them hate school more.”

Nothing more than common kid bellyaching?

Maybe, but in the fractious field of homework studies, it’s worth noting that Sam’s sentiments nicely synopsize one side of the ivory tower debate. Books like The End of Homework , The Homework Myth , and The Case Against Homework the film Race to Nowhere , and the anguished parent essay “ My Daughter’s Homework is Killing Me ” make the case that homework, by taking away precious family time and putting kids under unneeded pressure, is an ineffective way to help children become better learners and thinkers.

One Canadian couple took their homework apostasy all the way to the Supreme Court of Canada. After arguing that there was no evidence that it improved academic performance, they won a ruling that exempted their two children from all homework.

So what’s the real relationship between homework and academic achievement?

How much is too much?

To answer this question, researchers have been doing their homework on homework, conducting and examining hundreds of studies. Chris Drew Ph.D., founder and editor at The Helpful Professor recently compiled multiple statistics revealing the folly of today’s after-school busy work. Does any of the data he listed below ring true for you?

• 45 percent of parents think homework is too easy for their child, primarily because it is geared to the lowest standard under the Common Core State Standards .

• 74 percent of students say homework is a source of stress , defined as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss, and stomach problems.

• Students in high-performing high schools spend an average of 3.1 hours a night on homework , even though 1 to 2 hours is the optimal duration, according to a peer-reviewed study .

Not included in the list above is the fact many kids have to abandon activities they love — like sports and clubs — because homework deprives them of the needed time to enjoy themselves with other pursuits.

Conversely, The Helpful Professor does list a few pros of homework, noting it teaches discipline and time management, and helps parents know what’s being taught in the class.

The oft-bandied rule on homework quantity — 10 minutes a night per grade (starting from between 10 to 20 minutes in first grade) — is listed on the National Education Association’s website and the National Parent Teacher Association’s website , but few schools follow this rule.

Do you think your child is doing excessive homework? Harris Cooper Ph.D., author of a meta-study on homework , recommends talking with the teacher. “Often there is a miscommunication about the goals of homework assignments,” he says. “What appears to be problematic for kids, why they are doing an assignment, can be cleared up with a conversation.” Also, Cooper suggests taking a careful look at how your child is doing the assignments. It may seem like they’re taking two hours, but maybe your child is wandering off frequently to get a snack or getting distracted.

Less is often more

If your child is dutifully doing their work but still burning the midnight oil, it’s worth intervening to make sure your child gets enough sleep. A 2012 study of 535 high school students found that proper sleep may be far more essential to brain and body development.

For elementary school-age children, Cooper’s research at Duke University shows there is no measurable academic advantage to homework. For middle-schoolers, Cooper found there is a direct correlation between homework and achievement if assignments last between one to two hours per night. After two hours, however, achievement doesn’t improve. For high schoolers, Cooper’s research suggests that two hours per night is optimal. If teens have more than two hours of homework a night, their academic success flatlines. But less is not better. The average high school student doing homework outperformed 69 percent of the students in a class with no homework.

Many schools are starting to act on this research. A Florida superintendent abolished homework in her 42,000 student district, replacing it with 20 minutes of nightly reading. She attributed her decision to “ solid research about what works best in improving academic achievement in students .”

More family time

A 2020 survey by Crayola Experience reports 82 percent of children complain they don’t have enough quality time with their parents. Homework deserves much of the blame. “Kids should have a chance to just be kids and do things they enjoy, particularly after spending six hours a day in school,” says Alfie Kohn, author of The Homework Myth . “It’s absurd to insist that children must be engaged in constructive activities right up until their heads hit the pillow.”

By far, the best replacement for homework — for both parents and children — is bonding, relaxing time together.

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Definition of homework noun from the Oxford Advanced American Dictionary

• acquire/get/lack experience/training/(an) education
• receive/provide somebody with training
• develop/design/plan a curriculum/course/program/syllabus
• give/go to/attend a class/lesson/lecture/seminar
• hold/run/conduct a class/seminar/workshop
• moderate/lead/facilitate a discussion
• sign up for/take a course/classes/lessons
• go to/start preschool/kindergarten/nursery school
• be in the first, second, etc. grade (at school)
• study/take/drop history/chemistry/German, etc.
• finish/drop out of/quit school
• graduate from high school/college
• be the victim/target of bullying/teasing
• skip/cut/ ( informal ) ditch class/school
• cheat on an exam/a test
• get/be given a detention (for doing something)
• be expelled from/be suspended from school
• do your homework/a project on something
• work on/write/do/submit an essay/a dissertation/a thesis/an assignment/a paper
• finish/complete your dissertation/thesis/studies
• hand in/turn in your homework/essay/assignment/paper
• study/prepare/review/ ( informal ) cram for a test/an exam
• take/ ( formal ) sit for a test/an exam
• grade homework/a test
• do well on/ ( informal ) ace a test/an exam
• pass/fail/ ( informal ) flunk a test/an exam/a class/a course/a subject
• apply to/get into/go to/start college
• leave/graduate from college (with a degree in computer science)/law school
• study for/work towards a law degree/a degree in physics
• major/minor in biology/philosophy
• earn/receive/be awarded/get/have/hold a master's degree/a bachelor's degree/a Ph.D. in economics

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The Oxford Learner’s Thesaurus explains the difference between groups of similar words. Try it for free as part of the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary app

homework in American English

Homework in british english, examples of 'homework' in a sentence homework, related word partners homework, trends of homework.

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Related terms of homework

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• school homework
• homework exercise
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Purpose, Public Attitudes toward Homework, The Positive and Negative Effects of Homework, Extensiveness of Homework

Homework is defined as tasks assigned to students by school teachers that are intended to be carried out during nonschool hours. This definition excludes in-school guided study (although homework is often worked on during school), home-study courses, and extracurricular activities such as sports teams and clubs.

The most common purpose of homework is to have students practice material already presented in class so as to reinforce learning and facilitate mastery of specific skills. Preparation assignments introduce the material that will be presented in future lessons. These assignments aim to help students obtain the maximum benefit when the new material is covered in class. Extension homework involves the transfer of previously learned skills to new situations. For example, students might learn in class about factors that led to the French Revolution and then be asked as homework to apply them to the American Revolution. Finally, integration homework requires the student to apply separately learned skills to produce a single product, such as book reports, science projects, or creative writing.

Homework also can serve purposes that do not relate directly to instruction. Homework can be used to (1) establish communication between parents and children; (2) fulfill directives from school administrators; (3) punish students; and (4) inform parents about what is going on in school. Most homework assignments have elements of several different purposes.

Public Attitudes toward Homework

Homework has been a part of student's lives since the beginning of formal schooling in the United States. However, the practice has been alternately accepted and rejected by educators and parents.

When the twentieth century began, the mind was viewed as a muscle that could be strengthened through mental exercise. Since this exercise could be done at home, homework was viewed favorably. During the 1940s, the emphasis in education shifted from drill to problem solving. Homework fell out of favor because it was closely associated with the repetition of material. The launch of the satellite Sputnik by the Soviet Union in the mid-1950s reversed this thinking. The American public worried that education lacked rigor and left children unprepared for complex technologies. Homework, it was believed, could accelerate knowledge acquisition.

The late 1960s witnessed yet another reversal. Educators and parents became concerned that homework was crowding out social experience, outdoor recreation, and creative activities. In the 1980s, homework once again leapt back into favor when A Nation at Risk (1983), the report by the National Commission on Excellence in Education, cited homework as a defense against the rising tide of mediocrity in American education. The push for more homework continued into the 1990s, fueled by increasingly rigorous state-mandated academic standards. As the century ended, a backlash against homework set in, led by parents concerned about too much stress on their children.

The Positive and Negative Effects of Homework

The most direct positive effect of homework is that it can improve retention and understanding. More indirectly, homework can improve students' study skills and attitudes toward school, and teach students that learning can take place anywhere, not just in school buildings. The nonacademic benefits of homework include fostering independence and responsibility. Finally, homework can involve parents in the school process, enhancing their appreciation of education, and allowing them to express positive attitudes toward the value of school success.

Conversely, educators and parents worry that students will grow bored if they are required to spend too much time on academic material. Homework can deny access to leisure time and community activities that also teach important life skills. Parent involvement in homework can turn into parent interference. For example, parents can confuse children if the instructional techniques they use differ from those used by teachers. Homework can actually lead to the acquisition of undesirable character traits if it promotes cheating, either through the copying of assignments or help with homework that goes beyond tutoring. Finally, homework could accentuate existing social inequities. Children from disadvantaged homes may have more difficulty completing assignments than their middle-class counterparts.

Extensiveness of Homework

In contrast to the shifts in public attitudes, surveys suggest that the amount of time students spend on homework has been relatively stable. Data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress suggests that in both 1984 and 1994, about one-third of nine-year-olds and one-quarter of thirteen-and seventeen-year-olds reported being assigned no homework at all, with an additional 5 percent to 10 percent admitting they did not do homework that was assigned. About one-half of nine-year-olds, one-third of thirteen-year-olds, and one-quarter of seventeen-year-olds said they did less than an hour of homework each night. In 1994 about 12 percent of nine-year-olds, 28 percent of thirteen-year-olds, and 26 percent of seventeen-year-olds said they did one to two hours of homework each night. These percentages were all within one point of the 1984 survey results.

A national survey of parents conducted by the polling agency Public Agenda, in October, 2000, revealed that 64 percent of parents felt their child was getting "about the right amount" of homework, 25 percent felt their child was getting "too little" homework, and only 10 percent felt "too much homework" was being assigned.

International comparisons often suggest that U.S. students spend less time on homework than students in other industrialized nations. However, direct comparisons across countries are difficult to interpret because of different definitions of homework and differences in the length of the school day and year.

Appropriate Amounts of Homework

Experts agree that the amount and type of homework should depend on the developmental level of the student. The National PTA and the National Education Association suggest that homework for children in grades K–2 is most effective when it does not exceed ten to twenty minutes each day. In grades three through six, children can benefit from thirty to sixty minutes daily. Junior high and high school students can benefit from more time on homework and the amount might vary from night to night. These recommendations are consistent with the conclusions reached by studies into the effectiveness of homework.

Research on Homework's Overall Effectiveness

Three types of studies have been used to examine the relationship between homework and academic achievement. One type compares students who receive homework with students who receive none. Generally, these studies reveal homework to be a positive influence on achievement. However, they also reveal a relationship between homework and achievement for high school students that is about twice as strong as for junior high students. The relationship at the elementary school level is only one-quarter that of the high school level.

Another type of study compares homework to in-class supervised study. Overall, the positive relationship is about half as strong as in the first type of study. These studies again reveal a strong grade-level effect. When homework and in-class study were compared in elementary schools, in-class study proved superior.

The third type of study correlates the amount of homework students say they complete with their achievement test scores. Again, these surveys show the relationship is influenced by the grade level of students. For students in primary grades, the correlation between time spent on homework and achievement is near zero. For students in middle and junior high school, the correlation suggests a positive but weak relationship. For high school students, the correlation suggests a moderate relationship between achievement and time spend on homework.

Research on Effective Homework Assignments

The subject matter shows no consistent relationship to the value of homework. It appears that shorter and more frequent assignments may be more effective than longer but fewer assignments. Assignments that involve review and preparation are more effective than homework that focuses only on material covered in class on the day of the assignments. It can be beneficial to involve parents in homework when young children are experiencing problems in school. Older students and students doing well in school have more to gain from homework when it promotes independent learning.

Homework can be an effective instructional device. However, the relationship between homework and achievement is influenced greatly by the students' developmental level. Expectations for home work's effects, especially in the short term and in earlier grades, must be modest. Further, homework can have both positive and negative effects. Educators and parents should not be concerned with which list of homework effects is correct. Rather, homework policies and practices should give individual schools and teachers flexibility to take into account the unique needs and circumstances of their students so as to maximize positive effects and minimize negative ones.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C AMPBELL , J AY R. ; R EESE , C LYDE M. ; O'S ULLIVAN, C HRISTINE; and D OSSEY , J OHN A. 1996. NAEP 1994 Trends in Academic Progress. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

C OOPER , H ARRIS. 2001. The Battle Over Homework: Common Ground for Administrators, Teachers, and Parents, 2nd edition. Newbury Park, CA: Corwin Press.

C OOPER , H ARRIS, and V ALENTINE , J. C., eds. 2001. "Homework: A Special Issue." Educational Psychologist 36 (3).

INTERNET RESOURCES

H ENDERSON , M. 1996. "Helping Your Student Get the Most Out of Homework." Chicago: National PTA and the National Education Association. < www.pta.org/Programs/edulibr/homework. htm >.

P UBLIC A GENDA. 2000. "Survey Finds Little Sign of Backlash Against Academic Standards or Standardized Tests." < www.publicagenda.org/aboutpa/aboutpa3ee.htm >

H ARRIS C OOPER

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What’s the Purpose of Homework?

Finding the right balance between school and home..

Posted November 4, 2014 | Reviewed by Jessica Schrader

Remember the days of sitting in class waiting eagerly for the bell to ring before the teacher said that dreaded word, “homework”? Sighs, rolling eyes, and grunts quickly filled the quiet classroom at the mention of that word. Well, not much has changed today except for the fact that many teachers post assignments electronically. I have yet to see a student jump for joy when the word homework is mentioned, nor have I seen students eager to get home to do their homework (maybe finish it, but not to do it). This brings up the question, “What’s the purpose of homework?”

Research shows mixed results when it comes to homework. Some research has shown that students aren’t doing any more homework than their parents did at their age. In a study, school-aged children and parents completed surveys about how much homework youth have. The results showed that the typical elementary student has 30-45 minutes of homework each night. The average high-school student has about 60 minutes per night. Interestingly, these numbers have remained consistent since 1984!

As an educator, I would like to see a replication of this study. Today's teens are taking college-level courses as early as the ninth and tenth grade. With the push of programs such as Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate, and Dual Enrollment, it is amazing that teens are not completely burnt out. No wonder 8% of teen's age 13-18 years meet the criteria for an anxiety disorder. Too many teens are spending a lot of time on schoolwork outside of the classroom. Ask today's teen what has him/her so stressed and you'll find that about 80% of them will say school.

There are those who argue that homework does serve a purpose . For example, it helps to prepare students for national and statewide exams and tests. It helps to reinforce what’s being taught in the classroom. It enables parents to actively engage in their child’s education . Plus, it helps teach fundamental skills such as time management , organization, task completion, as well as responsibility. What’s more important is students get to demonstrate mastery of material without the assistance of a teacher.

How much homework should your child do each night? Organizations such as the National Parent Teacher Association support giving students about 10 minutes of homework each night, per grade level, starting in first grade. So a middle school student would have a full day in school and then an additional 60 minutes of homework after school. Is that too much? Are these guidelines being followed? I would recommend speaking with high-achieving teens and let them share how much of their time is consumed with homework. Many will tell you that they spend hours upon hours each night studying for tests, and preparing for papers and projects, etc.

According to Stanford University , more than a couple of hours of homework a night may be counterproductive. Researchers looked at students in high achieving communities, defined as a median household income exceeding $90,000, and 93% of the students attended post-secondary institutions. Students in these areas spent an average of three-plus hours on homework every night. So imagine a teen spending an entire day at school, going to work or extracurricular activities, then going home to do three or more hours of homework each night; only to get up the next day to do it all again.

Researchers have found that students who spend too much time on homework experience more levels of stress and physical health problems. Too much homework has also been shown to have a negative impact on students’ social lives. This is no surprise to the parents who rarely see their child because he/she is too busy working on homework, or to the parent who gets up at 12:30 A.M. to check to see if their child has made it to bed yet. Overall, high school students shouldn’t be spending over two hours on homework each night.

According to the Stanford study , too much homework leads to:

•Stress: 56% of the students surveyed considered homework a primary source of stress. Less than 1% of the students said homework was not a stressor.

•Poor health: Many students reported sleep deprivation, headaches, stomach problems, weight loss, and exhaustion.

•Less time for a social life : Students reported that spending too much time on homework led to pulling out of enjoyable activities, quitting extracurricular activities, and not spending much time with family and friends.

OK, I know not all students spend a lot of time doing homework. According to a survey by the U.S. Dept. of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics , the majority of youth spend an average of seven hours of homework outside of school each week. So while that doesn't seem like an unreasonable amount, what about the student who spends three-plus hours per night? Where is the happy medium?

There are definitely pros and cons to doing homework. I think the bigger question that educators need to address is “what’s the purpose of the assignment?” Is it merely a way to show parents and administration what's going on in the class? Is it a means to help keep the grades up? Is the homework being graded for accuracy or completion? If so, then what if the assignment is wrong? Have the necessary skills been taught so the student can master the material on his or her own? I read an article once that stated teachers underestimate the amount of homework they assign by 50%. If that's accurate then there is definitely cause for concern.

In summary, there seems to be no clear answer on the homework debate. I started the blog with a question “What’s the purpose of homework?” I’ll end with the same question. If a teacher who is assigning the homework can’t provide a clear rationale behind this question, then maybe the homework shouldn’t be assigned.

I welcome you to weigh in with your thoughts. Do you think students have too much homework? If you are a teen reading this, how much homework do you have on an average night?

Raychelle Cassada Lohman n , M.S., LPC, is the author of The Anger Workbook for Teens .

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What’s the point of homework?

Deputy Dean, School of Education, Western Sydney University

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Katina Zammit does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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Homework hasn’t changed much in the past few decades. Most children are still sent home with about an hour’s worth of homework each day, mostly practising what they were taught in class.

If we look internationally, homework is assigned in every country that participated in the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) in 2012.

Across the participating countries, 15-year-old students reported spending almost five hours per week doing homework in 2012. Australian students spent six hours per week on average on homework. Students in Singapore spent seven hours on homework, and in Shanghai, China they did homework for about 14 hours per week on average.

Read more: Aussie students are a year behind students 10 years ago in science, maths and reading

Shanghai and Singapore routinely score higher than Australia in the PISA maths, science and reading tests. But homework could just be one of the factors leading to higher results. In Finland, which also scores higher than Australia, students spent less than three hours on homework per week.

So, what’s the purpose of homework and what does the evidence say about whether it fulfils its purpose?

Why do teachers set homework?

Each school in Australia has its own homework policy developed in consultation with teachers and parents or caregivers, under the guiding principles of state or regional education departments.

For instance, according to the New South Wales homework policy “… tasks should be assigned by teachers with a specific, explicit learning purpose”.

Homework in NSW should also be “purposeful and designed to meet specific learning goals”, and “built on knowledge, skills and understanding developed in class”. But there is limited, if any, guidance on how often homework should be set.

Research based on teacher interviews shows they set homework for a range of reasons. These include to:

establish and improve communication between parents and children about learning

help children be more responsible, confident and disciplined

practise or review material from class

determine children’s understanding of the lesson and/or skills

introduce new material to be presented in class

provide students with opportunities to apply and integrate skills to new situations or interest areas

get students to use their own skills to create work.

So, does homework achieve what teachers intend it to?

Do we know if it ‘works’?

Studies on homework are frequently quite general, and don’t consider specific types of homework tasks. So it isn’t easy to measure how effective homework could be, or to compare studies.

But there are several things we can say.

First, it’s better if every student gets the kind of homework task that benefits them personally, such as one that helps them answer questions they had, or understand a problem they couldn’t quite grasp in class. This promotes students’ confidence and control of their own learning.

Read more: Learning from home is testing students' online search skills. Here are 3 ways to improve them

Giving students repetitive tasks may not have much value . For instance, calculating the answer to 120 similar algorithms, such as adding two different numbers 120 times may make the student think maths is irrelevant and boring. In this case, children are not being encouraged to find solutions but simply applying a formula they learnt in school.

In primary schools, homework that aims to improve children’s confidence and learning discipline can be beneficial. For example, children can be asked to practise giving a presentation on a topic of their interest. This could help build their competence in speaking in front of a class.

Homework can also highlight equity issues. It can be particularly burdensome for socioeconomically disadvantaged students who may not have a space, the resources or as much time due to family and work commitments. Their parents may also not feel capable of supporting them or have their own work commitments.

According to the PISA studies mentioned earlier, socioeconomically disadvantaged 15 year olds spend nearly three hours less on homework each week than their advantaged peers.

Read more: 'I was astonished at how quickly they made gains': online tutoring helps struggling students catch up

What kind of homework is best?

Homework can be engaging and contribute to learning if it is more than just a sheet of maths or list of spelling words not linked to class learning. From summarising various studies’ findings, “good” homework should be:

personalised to each child rather than the same for all students in the class. This is more likely to make a difference to a child’s learning and performance

achievable, so the child can complete it independently, building skills in managing their time and behaviour

aligned to the learning in the classroom.

If you aren’t happy with the homework your child is given then approach the school. If your child is having difficulty with doing the homework, the teacher needs to know. It shouldn’t be burdensome for you or your children.

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The role of homework

Homework seems to be an accepted part of teachers’ and students’ routines, but there is little mention of it in ELT literature.

The role of homework is hardly mentioned in the majority of general ELT texts or training courses, suggesting that there is little question as to its value even if the resulting workload is time-consuming. However, there is clearly room for discussion of homework policies and practices particularly now that technology has made so many more resources available to learners outside the classroom.

Reasons for homework

• Attitudes to homework
• Effective homework
• Types of homework
• Homework is expected by students, teachers, parents and institutions.
• Homework reinforces and helps learners to retain information taught in the classroom as well as increasing their general understanding of the language.
• Homework develops study habits and independent learning. It also encourages learners to acquire resources such as dictionaries and grammar reference books. Research shows that homework also benefits factual knowledge, self-discipline, attitudes to learning and problem-solving skills.
• Homework offers opportunities for extensive activities in the receptive skills which there may not be time for in the classroom. It may also be an integral part of ongoing learning such as project work and the use of a graded reader.
• Homework provides continuity between lessons. It may be used to consolidate classwork, but also for preparation for the next lesson.
• Homework may be used to shift repetitive, mechanical, time-consuming tasks out of the classroom.
• Homework bridges the gap between school and home. Students, teachers and parents can monitor progress. The institution can involve parents in the learning process.
• Homework can be a useful assessment tool, as part of continual or portfolio assessment.

Attitudes to homework Teachers tend to have mixed feelings about homework. While recognising the advantages, they observe negative attitudes and poor performance from students. Marking and giving useful feedback on homework can take up a large proportion of a teacher’s time, often after school hours.

• Students themselves complain that the homework they are given is boring or pointless, referring to homework tasks that consist of studying for tests, doing workbook exercises, finishing incomplete classwork, memorising lists of vocabulary and writing compositions. Where this is actually the case, the negative effects of homework can be observed, typified by loss of interest and a view of homework as a form of punishment.
• Other negative effects of poorly managed homework include lack of necessary leisure time and an increased differential between high and low achievers. These problems are often the cause of avoidance techniques such as completing homework tasks in class, collaborating and copying or simply not doing the required tasks. In turn, conflict may arise between learners, teachers, parents and the institution.

Effective homework In order for homework to be effective, certain principles should be observed.

• Students should see the usefulness of homework. Teachers should explain the purpose both of homework in general and of individual tasks.
• Tasks should be relevant, interesting and varied.
• Good classroom practice also applies to homework. Tasks should be manageable but achievable.
• Different tasks may be assigned to different ability groups. Individual learning styles should be taken into account.
• Homework should be manageable in terms of time as well as level of difficulty. Teachers should remember that students are often given homework in other subjects and that there is a need for coordination to avoid overload. A homework diary, kept by the learner but checked by teachers and parents is a useful tool in this respect.
• Homework is rarely co-ordinated within the curriculum as a whole, but should at least be incorporated into an overall scheme of work and be considered in lesson planning.
• Homework tends to focus on a written product. There is no reason why this should be the case, other than that there is visible evidence that the task has been done.
• Learner involvement and motivation may be increased by encouraging students to contribute ideas for homework and possibly design their own tasks. The teacher also needs to know how much time the students have, what facilities they have at home, and what their preferences are. A simple questionnaire will provide this data.
• While homework should consolidate classwork, it should not replicate it. Home is the outside world and tasks which are nearer to real-life use of language are appropriate.
• If homework is set, it must be assessed in some way, and feedback given. While marking by the teacher is sometimes necessary, peer and self-assessment can encourage learner independence as well as reducing the teacher’s workload. Motivating students to do homework is an ongoing process, and encouragement may be given by commenting and asking questions either verbally or in written form in order to demonstrate interest on the teacher’s part, particularly in the case of self-study and project work.

Types of homework There are a number of categories of useful and practicable homework tasks.

• Workbook-based tasks Most published course materials include a workbook or practice book, mainly including consolidation exercises, short reading texts and an answer key. Most workbooks claim to be suitable for both class and self-study use, but are better used at home in order to achieve a separation of what is done in class and at home. Mechanical practice is thus shifted out of class hours, while this kind of exercise is particularly suited to peer- or self-checking and correction.
• Preparation tasks Rarely do teachers ask learners to read through the next unit of a coursebook, though there are advantages in involving students in the lesson plan and having them know what is coming. More motivating, however, is asking students to find and bring materials such as photographs and pictures, magazine articles and realia which are relevant to the next topic, particularly where personalisation or relevance to the local context requires adaptation of course materials.
• Extensive tasks Much can be gained from the use of graded readers, which now often have accompanying audio material, radio and TV broadcasts, podcasts and songs. Sometimes tasks need to be set as guidance, but learners also need to be encouraged to read, listen and watch for pleasure. What is important is that learners share their experiences in class. Extensive reading and listening may be accompanied by dictionary work and a thematic or personalised vocabulary notebook, whereby learners can collect language which they feel is useful.
• Guided discovery tasks Whereas classroom teaching often involves eliciting language patterns and rules from learners, there is also the option of asking learners to notice language and make deductions for themselves at home. This leads to the sharing of knowledge and even peer teaching in the classroom.
• Real-world tasks These involve seeing, hearing and putting language to use in realistic contexts. Reading magazines, watching TV, going to the cinema and listening to songs are obvious examples, offering the option of writing summaries and reviews as follow-up activities. Technology facilitates chat and friendship networks, while even in monolingual environments, walking down a shopping street noticing shop and brand names will reveal a lot of language. As with extensive tasks, it is important for learners to share their experiences, and perhaps to collect them in a formal or informal portfolio.
• Project work It is a good idea to have a class or individual projects running over a period of time. Projects may be based on topics from a coursebook, the locality, interests and hobbies or selected individually. Project work needs to be guided in terms of where to find resources and monitored regularly, the outcome being a substantial piece of work at the end of a course or term of which the learner can claim ownership.

Conclusion Finally, a word about the Internet. The Web appears to offer a wealth of opportunity for self-study. Certainly reference resources make project work easier and more enjoyable, but cutting and pasting can also be seen as an easy option, requiring little originality or understanding. Conferring over homework tasks by email can be positive or negative, though chatting with an English-speaking friend is to be encouraged, as is searching for visual materials. Both teachers and learners are guilty of trawling the Net for practice exercises, some of which are untried, untested and dubious in terms of quality. Learners need guidance, and a starting point is to provide a short list of reliable sites such as the British Council's  LearnEnglish  and the BBC's Learning English  which provide a huge variety of exercises and activities as well as links to other reliable sources. Further reading Cooper, H. Synthesis of Research on Homework . Educational Leadership 47/3, 1989 North, S. and Pillay, H. Homework: re-examining the routin e. ELT Journal 56/2, April 2002 Painter, L. Homework . English Teaching Professional, Issue 10, 1999 Painter, L. Homework . OUP Resource Books for Teachers, 2003

First published in October 2007

Mr. Steve Darn I liked your…

Mr. Steve Darn I liked your method of the role of the homework . Well, I am one of those laggard people. Unfortunately, when it comes to homework, I definitely do it. Because, a student or pupil who understands new topics, of course, does his homework to know how much he understands the new topic. I also completely agree with all of Steve Darn's points above. However, sometimes teachers give a lot of riff-raff homework, just like homework is a human obligation. This is a plus. But in my opinion, first of all, it is necessary to divide the time properly, and then to do many tasks at home. Only then will you become an "excellent student" in the eyes of the teacher. Although we live in the age of technology, there are still some people who do not know how to send homework via email. Some foreign teachers ask to send tasks by email. Constant email updates require time and, in rare cases, a fee. My above points have been the cause of constant discussions.

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Definition of homework

Examples of homework in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'homework.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1662, in the meaning defined at sense 1

Dictionary Entries Near homework

Cite this entry.

“Homework.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/homework. Accessed 16 May. 2024.

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The psychological benefits of finishing your homework on time

H omework has long been a staple of the educational experience, often viewed as a tool for reinforcing learning and assessing student understanding. Despite its educational importance, many students struggle with timely completion, facing obstacles such as procrastination, distraction, and a lack of motivation. These challenges can make homework seem like a daunting task. However, the benefits of completing homework on time extend beyond academic achievement. This article aims to explore the psychological benefits associated with timely homework completion, revealing how this practice can enhance mental well-being and foster personal growth.

Enhanced time management skills

One of the key psychological benefits of completing homework on time is the development of robust time management skills. When students regularly meet homework deadlines, they learn to prioritize tasks and manage their time more effectively. This skill is crucial not only in academic settings but also in personal and professional life. Mastering time management can lead to a sense of control over one’s life, which significantly reduces feelings of stress and overwhelm. It’s common to hear students ask, “ Can you write my paper for me ?” as deadlines approach. However, those who have honed their time management skills are more likely to tackle assignments independently and with confidence, knowing they have planned adequately to meet their obligations.

Reduced stress and anxiety

The act of finishing homework on time can significantly alleviate stress and anxiety. Procrastination often leads to a buildup of tasks, which can become overwhelming as deadlines draw near. This not only increases anxiety but also triggers a cycle of stress and poor performance. By completing assignments on time, students can avoid the panic associated with last-minute rushes. The psychological relief that comes from knowing that all tasks are completed and nothing is hanging over one’s head is profound. Regularly experiencing this relief helps students maintain a calmer, more composed mindset, which is conducive to both academic success and general well-being.

Improved self-esteem

Timely completion of homework also plays a critical role in enhancing self-esteem. When students finish their work on time, they receive positive feedback and grades, which reinforces their self-image and confidence in their abilities. This process is vital for building self-efficacy, the belief in one’s capability to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments. Achieving daily homework goals provides a continuous stream of small successes, each boosting the student’s self-esteem. Over time, this pattern fosters a more positive self-concept and encourages students to embrace more significant challenges, knowing they have the skills and discipline to succeed.

Better sleep patterns

Regular completion of homework by set deadlines can also lead to improved sleep patterns. When students avoid cramming their studies into late-night hours, they can maintain a healthier sleep schedule. This is crucial because adequate sleep is essential for brain function, emotional regulation, and overall mental health. A consistent sleep pattern prevents sleep deprivation’s cognitive impairments, such as reduced attention, slower processing, and memory issues. Students who manage their homework efficiently tend to go to bed at a reasonable hour, leading to better psychological and physical health outcomes.

Increased academic performance

There is a direct correlation between timely homework completion and academic performance. Students who consistently complete their homework on time often achieve higher grades and gain a deeper understanding of the material. This practice allows for regular study and revision, which enhances learning retention and prepares students for complex topics and exams. Psychologically, the regular accomplishment of set tasks, like homework, enhances mental agility and academic stamina, which is essential for long-term educational success.

Long-term academic and career benefits

Developing good habits in homework completion can yield significant long-term benefits in both academic and professional contexts. Academically, students who are diligent and consistent with their homework are more likely to pursue higher education and succeed in their chosen fields. Professionally, these habits translate into traits valued in the workplace, such as reliability, punctuality, and thoroughness. The psychological advantage of being perceived as dependable and hardworking cannot be overstated, as it opens doors to opportunities and fosters professional growth and stability.

The psychological benefits of completing homework on time are profound and multifaceted. From enhanced time management and reduced stress to improved self-esteem and better sleep patterns, the advantages extend well beyond the classroom. As students cultivate these habits, they not only boost their academic performance but also prepare themselves for future challenges in their academic and professional lives. It’s important for students to recognize these benefits and seek resources that reinforce good study habits, whether through educational tools, supportive peer groups, or essay writing service reviews when necessary. Ultimately, developing the discipline to complete homework on time is an investment in one’s mental health and future success.

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Workload and Mental Well-Being of Homeworkers

In a non-pandemic setting, this study in homeworkers helps to identify the mechanisms by which employees' workload affects their mental well-being. The results show that work-family conflict, sleeping problems, and work engagement are key variables that make the effects of workload involved in reducing the homeworkers' well-being.

Based on the Conservation of Resources theory, this cross-sectional study investigates the relationship between workload experienced by employees when working at home and their mental well-being. Work-family conflict, sleeping problems, and work engagement are proposed as mediators.

A sample of 11,501 homeworkers was drawn from the sixth wave of the European Working Condition Survey data set.

Unlike the expected, the higher the workload, the higher the mental well-being of employees. However, as expected, high workload was correlated with lower well-being when indirect effects through work-family conflict, sleep problems, and work engagement were considered. Similarly, the total effect of workload on mental well-being was negative.

Conclusions

The study suggests that organizations should pay more attention to the amount of workload experienced by their homeworkers because it may be harmful to their health and well-being.

The percentage of employees working at home has risen over recent decades. 1 This way of working is called homeworking or, sometimes with slight conceptual differences, home-based teleworking. For reasons related to the COVID-19 emergency, it has been exponentially adopted in many organizations.

Scientific literature has identified several advantages of homeworking, such as homeworkers’ greater autonomy, increased job satisfaction and flexibility to deal with work-family demands, and limited traveling and time and cost savings for both organizations and workers. 2 However, in addition to benefits, literature identified social isolation, technostress, or workaholism as potential drawbacks of homework. 3 – 7 These contrasting results about homework lead to no consensus as to whether homeworking is good or bad for homeworkers. 2 , 3 , 8 , 9

A particular concern about homework is employees’ mental well-being. Recent research suggests that working from home may affect mental well-being because this work arrangement increases work/family conflicts and employees’ feelings of loneliness. 10 , 11 Furthermore, recent studies found that working from home leads to working at higher speed, meeting tight deadlines, greater work intensification, and overworking, which affect employees’ mental well-being. 12 – 14 Accordingly, in this study, we explore if workload is related to homeworkers’ mental well-being.

Research investigating how workload influences the well-being of employees is still scarce and scant 15 , 16 ; even more limited is the literature on the effects of workload on the mental well-being of homeworkers. 11 , 12 , 17 However, recent studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic observed that home workers’ workload negatively influenced their well-being by increasing their work-family conflict. 11

We investigated the relationship between homeworkers’ workload and well-being for three reasons. First, we believe it is essential to explore the relationship between workload and well-being because work conditions for homework are different from work conditions experienced at the office. For instance, homeworkers may experience more intrusions from family domains during homeworking. 18 A high workload may affect homeworkers differently than office workers and employees working remotely in other locations than the home. Second, considering the increase in homeworkers during the COVID-19 pandemic and that organizations were not prepared to implement homeworking for many or most of their workforce, 19 it is crucial to explore how workload is related to homeworkers’ well-being, to assist organizations in allocating reasonable workload to homeworkers. Third, the inconsistencies about the benefits of homeworking suggest that understanding how to enhance homeworkers’ well-being considering their workload may be a valuable research avenue.

We examined the relationship between homeworkers’ workload and their well-being by investigating multiple mediators that may influence this relationship. Thus, we based our argument on the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory 20 to explain how homeworkers’ workload may significantly influence their well-being by focusing on three potential mediating variables: work-family conflict, sleeping problems, and work engagement.

Workload and Mental Well-being

Workload is the intensity or the extent of work assigned to an employee in a specific time frame. 21 Based on this definition, homeworkers’ workload can be explained as the intensity or amount of job tasks accomplished within a specific time frame during homeworking.

The COR model posits that individuals endeavor to acquire, keep, foster, and guard things that they value (such as health, well-being, and family, but also objects, such as cars or tools for work, or energy resources, such as money or knowledge) and that well-being is at risk when people perceive the threat or the actual loss of one resource. 20 , 22 According to this theory, when employees perceive or experience an increased workload, they have to use resources (eg, time and energy) to cope with it. This may result in the depletion and loss of those same resources that could have been devoted to personal commitments and social connections. This awareness causes homeworkers to experience stress, negatively affecting their mental well-being. 22

Different studies reported that workload negatively affects employees’ mental well-being, supporting the assertion made by the COR theory. For example, in a traditional work context, Aalto et al 23 conducted a study on more than 1000 physicians and found that workload was negatively associated with physicians’ mental well-being. Angioha et al 24 observed that workload significantly and negatively affected the mental well-being of 650 government workers. Other studies supported the assertion that employees’ workload negatively affects their mental well-being. 25 – 27 We argue that the same process is also valid for homeworkers since previous studies 12 – 14 found that homeworkers are exposed to higher work intensification, work at high speed to meet tight deadlines, and overwork during a limited remote work time. Therefore, based on COR theory and the review of literature, we posit that:

• H1 : Workload experienced by homeworkers is negatively related to their mental well-being.

Workload, Work-Family Conflict, and Mental Well-being

Work-family conflict is a topic widely explored in organizational literature because of its impact on individual and organizational outcomes. 28 It expresses the role conflict occurring because of incompatible demands between work and family domains. 29 Prior research has shown that the work-family conflict experienced by employees is significantly predicted by workload, 30 a result in line with the COR theory. In fact, the COR theory posits that people strive to obtain and conserve essential resources for social bonds such as family and friends. 20 , 22 Therefore, increased workload implies that individuals have to decrease the time and energy devoted to family members and family needs to meet the increased workload. Spending more time working because of a higher workload may often leave homeworkers emotionally exhausted, physically drained, and unable to have time and energy for family activities. 31 Faced with increased time and energy devoted to work rather than family, homeworkers may struggle to meet family needs, leading to work-family conflict.

In turn, work-family conflict may negatively affect employees’ work engagement. 28 , 32 A high work-family conflict requires resources to manage it, leaving workers with fewer resources to invest and diminishing employees’ work engagement. Obrenovic et al 33 explained that work-family conflict diminishes employees’ mental resources, affecting work engagement. Other studies indicated that work-family conflict experienced by workers negatively and significantly affects their work engagement. 32 , 34 In light of these empirical findings, we extend these results to homeworkers and, therefore, expect that their work-family conflict may negatively affect their work engagement.

The second corollary of the COR theory provides key cues to understand better the relationship between workload, work-family conflict, and well-being. This corollary emphasizes the spiral nature of resource loss and suggests that the initial loss of resources threatens the conservation of the remaining resources. 22 Hobfoll et al 22 explain that “because resource loss is more powerful than resource gain, and because stress occurs when resources are lost, individuals and organizations have fewer resources to offset resource loss at each iteration of the stress spiral. This creates resource loss spirals whereby losses gain in both impact and momentum” (p 107). Therefore, the initial loss of time and energy resources because of a higher workload threats the possibility to use the remaining resources, such as those related to relationships with family members. The actual loss of resources due to higher workload and the perceived threat of losing another resource, in this case, the family support resulting in work-family conflict, may gain both impact and momentum and further threaten other resources (eg, health and well-being), generating a spillover effect or what Hobfoll calls “spiral loss.” Building on the spiral loss of resources of the COR theory, we expect that the workload experienced by homeworkers is positively related to employees’ work-family conflicts, which in turn is negatively related to mental well-being. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

• H2a : Workload experienced by homeworkers is positively related to work-family conflict.
• H2b : Homeworkers’ work-family conflict is negatively related to work engagement.
• H2c : Homeworkers’ work-family conflict is negatively related to mental well-being.
• H2d : The negative relationship between workload experienced by homeworkers and mental well-being is mediated by work-family conflict.

Workload, Sleeping Problems, and Mental Well-being

According to the empirical study by Aalto et al, 23 an increase in workload may negatively affect employees’ quality of sleep, leading to sleeping problems. Similar results also emerged from the research by Huyghebaert et al, 15 who found that increased workload might lead to impaired sleep quality and consequent emotional exhaustion. A meta-analysis of 79 studies conducted by Nixon et al 35 found that employees reporting higher workload reported sleeping problems due to the stress and exhaustion accompanying high workload. Based on this literature, we propose extending these findings to homeworkers by posing that their workload is significantly and positively related to their sleeping problems.

Sleeping problems are related to decreased work engagement. 36 According to Barber et al, 36 this occurs because a good sleep quality helps replenish and enhance self-regulatory resources after being exhausted or drained. On the contrary, sleeping problems may hinder a person from restocking self-regulatory resources depleted throughout the day. Accordingly, COR theory's desperation principle argues that people enter into a defensive mode to conserve remaining resources when previous ones have been stretched and drained. 22 This implies that employees would be less inclined to invest more resources into the tasks they have to accomplish when their self-regulatory resources have not been fully replenished due to sleeping problems. 37 Hence, it is possible to expect that homeworkers’ sleeping problems may harm their work engagement.

Prior studies found a relationship between sleeping problems and employees’ mental well-being. 38 , 39 The rationale of this result is that sleep is crucial in the optimum physiological and human psychological functioning, 36 and individuals who experience sleeping problems have poorer mental well-being than individuals not having such problems. 40 In fact, sleeping problems influence people's moods and emotions, leading to anxiety and depression. 40 , 41 This scenario is fully compatible with the spiral loss of resources in the COR theory. Hence, we expect that sleeping problems experienced by homeworkers because of increased workloads would have a significant adverse effect on their mental well-being. In particular, we believe that homeworkers’ workload may result in sleeping problems, which, in turn, decrease mental well-being. Thus, we posit that

• H3a : Workload experienced by homeworkers is positively related to sleeping problems.
• H3b : Sleeping problems experienced by homeworkers are negatively related to work engagement.
• H3c : Sleeping problems experienced by homeworkers are negatively related to mental well-being.
• H3d : Homeworkers’ workload has a negative indirect effect on well-being via the mediation of sleeping problems.

Workload, Work Engagement, and Mental Well-Being

Work engagement is defined as “a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption” 42 (p 74). Empirical findings show that workload decreases employees’ work engagement. 43 – 45 At the same time, the desperation principle of COR theory states that people get into a state of defensive mode to preserve resources when previous resources have been stretched and drained. 22 According to this rationale, workers would be less inclined to invest more resources into their work tasks when they feel too exhausted or physically drained due to the high workload. Hence, even homeworkers who experience the loss of resources such as time and energy due to increased workload may not be able to invest more time and energy into their work tasks, thereby negatively affecting their work engagement. Therefore, we propose that homeworkers’ workload negatively affects work engagement.

Regarding the effects of work engagement on the mental well-being of employees, Radic et al 46 suggested that more studies should examine this relationship. However, the existing research on work engagement and mental well-being found, in general, a positive relationship between these two constructs. 47 – 49 Yang et al 50 argue that work engagement is among the most significant drivers of job performance and the effort employees put into their work, thus increasing mental well-being. Therefore, work engagement should, in turn, contribute to self-development, leading to increased mental well-being. This expectation is in line with COR theory and, in particular, its second and third corollaries about resource loss cycles and gains spirals. Considering work engagement as a motivational resource, from which to obtain energy and dedication to important activities for individuals, 42 in the gain spiral, an increase in work engagement should lead to an increase in personal well-being, and likewise, a loss of engagement should worsen employees’ well-being. Based on the reviewed literature, we suggest that homeworkers’ workload is negatively related to work engagement, which, in turn, is positively related to mental well-being. Hence, we propose the following hypotheses:

• H4a : Workload experienced by homeworkers is negatively related to work engagement.
• H4b : Homeworkers’ work engagement is positively related to mental well-being.
• H4c : There is a negative indirect effect of homeworkers’ workload on mental well-being via work engagement.

Finally, considering the mediation effect of work engagement between workload and mental well-being, the direct effect of workload on work-family conflict (H2a) and sleeping problems (H3a), and also the direct effect of work-family conflict (H2b) and sleeping problems (H3b) on work engagement, we posit two sequential mediation effects:

• H4d : There is a negative indirect effect of homeworkers’ workload on mental well-being via work-family conflict and work engagement.

Research model for the study.

METHODOLOGY

Data sources.

The present study used data from the European Working Condition Survey (EWCS) conducted every 5 years, since 1990, by the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. 51 The EWCS is a large-scale survey that provides cross-sectional data using random samples of workers in European countries, focusing on their work-life balance, working conditions, health, employment conditions, working environments, and well-being. 52 The Eurofound is a European Union body established by the European Council to offer better information and expert counsel on workers’ living conditions, changes in industrial relations and management among European countries, and contribute to the design and improvement of working and living conditions of workers in Europe. 52 Researchers have highly recognized the quality of the EWCS data set. 53 , 54

We used data of the sixth wave of EWCS collected in 2015, the most recently available data set as of the writing of this contribution. 51 The sampling procedure used for the survey was a multistage and stratified random sampling where each country was stratified into strata based on the geographical region and the level of urbanization. For our study, we extracted from the data set only respondents who reported having worked at home, answering to the following item: “How often have you worked in each location during the last 12 months—Your own home?” Participants that selected “never” were excluded from the study, whereas participants who selected “less often” to “daily” were included in the study. As a result, we obtained a sample of 11,501 homeworkers from 35 different countries.

The scales of the Eurofound survey used in this study are reported below. For all the scales, we reversed the data so that the higher the score, the higher the presence of the variable.

Workload: Two items, on a Likert scale from 1 (never) to 7 (all of the time), were used to measure homeworkers’ workload. The two items are as follows: “Does your job involve working to tight deadlines?” and “Does your job involve working at very high speed?”

Work-family conflict: Work-family conflict was measured using three items on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (never) to 5 (always). The items are as follows: “How often have you… 1) kept worrying about work when you were not working? 2) felt too tired after work to do some of the household jobs which need to be done? and 3) found that your job prevented you from giving the time you wanted to your family?”

Sleeping problems: Sleeping problems were measured using three items on a Likert scale of 5 points (from 1 = never to 5 = daily). Items required to indicate how often, in the last 12 months, respondents experienced sleep-related problems (“difficulty falling asleep,” “waking up repeatedly during the sleep,” or “waking up with a feeling of exhaustion and fatigue”).

Work engagement: A three-item version of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale 55 measured employees’ work engagement. A 5-point Likert scale was used, from 1 (never) to 5 (always). The items are “At my work, I feel full of energy,” “I am enthusiastic about my job,” and “Time flies when I am working.”

Mental well-being: Mental well-being was measured using the Well-Being Index developed by the World Health Organization in 1998, popularly known as the WHO (5) well-being index. The scale consists of five items on a Likert scale of 6 points, from 1 (at no time) to 6 (all of the time). Samples of items are “Been feeling over the last 2 weeks—I have felt cheerful and in good spirits” and “Been feeling over the last 2 weeks—My daily life has been filled with things that interest me.”

Control variables: The frequency of homework has multiple effects on homeworkers’ well-being. 56 , 57 Therefore, we created a dichotomous variable distinguishing the respondents working at home less frequently (grouping together those who responded “several times a month” and “less often,” coded as 1, N low = 5821) or more frequently (grouping together those who responded “several times a week” and “daily,” coded as 2, N high = 5860). Afterward, we tested the direct influence of this variable on the dependent variables of the model.

Data Analysis

Before the other analyses, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was run to check whether each item of the research instrument saturated in the factor theoretically related to it and to carry out a Harman single factor test to check for common method bias. 58 The EFA was conducted using the maximum likelihood and the Oblimin rotation.

To assess the measurement model and the structural validity of the measures, we ran two confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs), one grouping items in their expected factor and one grouping all the items in a single factor. To assess convergent and divergent validity and the reliability of the scales, we computed, respectively, the average variance extracted (AVE), the maximum shared variance (MSV), and composite reliability (CR). Cronbach alpha was computed for each variable in the study. Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables were then calculated.

Finally, the hypothesized model was investigated using structural equation modeling (SEM). We used the maximum likelihood in the SEM environment to estimate model parameters. We used Fornell and Larcker's 59 and Hair et al's 60 indications to evaluate models’ fit and to use appropriate cutoffs. Following Hair et al, 60 we favored measures such as Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) (cutoff, <0.08) and the incremental measures of Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI) (cutoff, >0.90) over measures such as the χ 2 , unreliable in this case because of its high sensitivity to sample size, for evaluating the models’ goodness of fit. We used SPSS 27 and Mplus 8 to perform all analyses.

Sample Characteristics

The extraction, from the entire EWCS data set, of the employees engaged in partial or total work-from-home activities resulted in the consideration of 11,501 workers. Participants were, on average, 45.5 years old (SD, 12.9); 48% were female, and 52% were male. Employees working in the private sector were 65.5%, whereas 22.9% reported working in the public sector. The average work hours in a week, intended as the sum of work in the office and at home, was 38.3 (SD, 14.9). Three tenth of the participants (29.1%) worked daily from home; about one fifth of them (20.2%) answered having worked from home several times a week, and the remaining respondents (50.6%) worked from home less frequently. Table ​ Table1 1 summarizes the sociodemographic characteristics of the participants.

Demographic Characteristics of the Research Participants (N = 11,501)

Exploratory Factor Analysis, CFAs, Validity, and Reliability of the Scales

The EFA showed no problems with the measurement instruments: the extracted five factors explained 67.05% of the variance, and each one was composed of the expected items with good factor loadings (minimum factor loading, 0.53). Harman single factor test, which forced the extraction of a single factor, demonstrated the absence of common method bias because the extracted single factor explained only 29.37% of the variance. After these preliminary analyses, we continued with the data analysis. Although we decided to test our research model using structural equations, following Hair et al, 60 we assessed the measurement model through CFAs. In particular, to exclude the absence of a common latent factor and assess the independence of the five measures, we conducted two CFAs, comparing a one-factor model grouping all the study items with a five-factor model in which each item saturated in its expected factor. The results showed that the one-factor model had a very poor fit ( χ 2 = 25,401.97; df = 104; P < 0.001; CFI = 0.56; TLI = 0.50; RMSEA = 0.15; Standardized Root Mean Squared Residual (SRMR) = 0.11). On the other hand, the fit of the five-factor model ( χ 2 = 2831.54; df = 94; P < 0.001; CFI = 0.95; TLI = 0.94; RMSEA = 0.05; SRMR = 0.04) was satisfying, implying structural validity of the model measures. For this model, all items reported saturation values in their factor higher than 0.50.

The minimum AVE score for the five scales was 0.46. Each value was greater than the corresponding MSV score (the highest MSV was 0.35). Furthermore, the square root of each AVE value was higher than the correlations between each considered variable and the other latent constructs, indicating discriminant validity. 59 All the CR values were over the 0.70 cutoff 60 and in the range 0.72 to 0.83, suggesting good reliability of the measures. Finally, according to Fornell and Larcker, 59 although AVE values were slightly lower than the 0.50 cutoff for three of the five study variables (AVE WFC = 0.46, AVE WENG = 0.49, and AVE W-BEING = 0.49), since CR was in every case higher than 0.60 (and 0.70), the convergent validity of the constructs has been considered adequate.

Cronbach Alphas, Descriptive Statistics, and Correlations Among Variables

Cronbach alphas for the five scales of the model showed values all above the threshold of 0.70, confirming excellent reliability of the model scales again. Together with means, standard deviations, and correlations, such values are reported in Table ​ Table2 2 .

Means, Standard Deviation, and Pearson Correlations Among the Study Variables

N = 11,501.

* P < 0.01.

** P < 0.01.

The average workload reported by homeworkers tended toward high values (mean, 3.56; SD, 1.74), suggesting that homeworkers reported working with moderately tight deadlines and at a high pace. Homeworkers reported having experienced limited level of work-family conflict (mean, 2.60; SD, 0.90) and limited sleeping problems (mean, 2.18; SD, 1.00). On the other side, homeworkers were in many cases engaged with their work (mean, 4.00; SD, 0.67) and in a condition of mental well-being (mean, 4.59; SD, 0.96).

Focusing on the correlations, Table ​ Table2 2 shows that workload was positively correlated with work-family conflict ( r = 0.37, P < 0.001) and sleeping problems ( r = 0.17, P < 0.001), but negatively correlated with mental well-being ( r = −0.03, P = 0.003). Work-family conflict was positively correlated with sleeping problems ( r = 0.35, P < 0.001) and negatively correlated with mental well-being ( r = −0.28, P < 0.001). Sleeping problems had a significant negative association with work engagement ( r = −0.24, P < 0.001) and mental well-being ( r = −0.40, P < 0.001), whereas work engagement had a positive correlation with mental well-being ( r = 0.44, P < 0.001).

Model Testing

The hypothesized model was tested using SEM. In this model, the control variable of the frequency of homeworking was tested on the mediational variables of work-family conflict and work engagement, since no significant correlations were instead obtained between this control variable and, respectively, sleeping problems and mental well-being.

The model as a whole, with the errors of the variables work-family conflict and sleeping problems correlated to improve the closeness of the model to the reality described by data, reported an adequate fit ( χ 2 = 3022.73; df = 107; P < 0.001; CFI = 0.95; TLI = 0.94; RMSEA = 0.05; SRMR = 0.04). In addition, all the measured items reported saturation values greater than 0.50 in their latent factors, confirming the CFA results and the good validity of the measures. Figure ​ Figure2 2 depicts the model results.

Model standardized results. All the relationships are significant for at least P < 0.01.

According to the model results, the relationship between homeworkers’ workload and mental well-being was small but positive ( β = 0.04, P = 0.001; confidence interval [CI], 0.02 to 0.06). Thus, H1 was not verified, since the hypothesized relationship is significant but, contrary to expectations, positive.

Workload significantly and positively influenced work-family conflict ( β = 0.50, P < 0.001; CI, 0.49 to 0.52; hypotheses H2a supported). In turn, work-family conflict negatively affected work engagement ( β = −0.15; P < 0.001; CI, −0.18 to −0.13) and mental well-being ( β = −0.13, P < 0.001; CI, −0.16 to −0.11). Thus, H2b and H2c were fully supported. Even H2d was supported, and Table ​ Table3 3 shows the indirect effect of homeworkers’ workload on mental well-being via work-family conflict ( β = −0.07; P < 0.001; CI, −0.08 to −0.05).

Indirect Effects of Workload on Mental Well-Being Through the Mediators (H2d, H3d, H4c, H4d, and H4e)

MWB, mental well-being; SP, sleeping problems; WE, work engagement; WFC, work-family conflict; WLD, workload.

* P < 0.001.

Regarding the hypotheses about sleeping problems, H3a was supported because homeworkers’ workload was positively related to sleeping problems ( β = 0.23; P < 0.001; CI, 0.21 to 0.25). Sleeping problems was negatively related to work engagement ( β = −0.30; P < 0.001; CI, −0.32 to −0.28) and mental well-being ( β = −0.28; P < 0.001; CI, −0.30 to −0.26), supporting also H3b and H3c. Furthermore, the indirect effect of homeworkers’ workload on mental well-being via sleeping problems was also significant ( β = −0.06; P < 0.001; CI, −0.07 to −0.06), supporting hypothesis H3d (Table ​ (Table3 3 ).

Finally, an unexpected result was observed between homeworkers’ workload and work engagement. Workload was positively, rather than negatively, related to work engagement ( β = 0.09, P < 0.001; CI, 0.07 to 0.11). Hence, hypothesis H4a was not supported, although the relationship is significant and opposite to the hypothesis. However, as expected, homeworkers’ work engagement significantly and positively affected mental well-being ( β = 0.47, P < 0.001; CI, 0.45 to 0.49), supporting hypothesis H4b. Homeworkers’ workload showed also an indirect effect on mental well-being via work engagement ( β = 0.04; P < 0.001; CI, 0.03 to 0.05) (Table ​ (Table3), 3 ), supporting hypothesis H4c.

Indirect effects were then observed even in the two serial mediations. The mediations between workload and mental well-being via work-family conflict and work engagement ( β = −0.04; P < 0.001; CI, −0.04 to −0.03), and also that one via sleeping problems and work engagement ( β = −0.03; P < 0.001; CI, −0.04 to −0.03) were significant, thus supporting H4d and H4e.

Finally, the total indirect effect of workload on mental well-being, through the multiple mediators, as shown in Table ​ Table3, 3 , was negative and significant ( β = −0.16; P < 0.001; CI, −0.17 to −0.14). Hence, the negative indirect effects of workload on mental well-being are higher than the positive direct effect of these two variables; as a result, the total effect of the relationship between workload and mental well-being, calculated as the sum of direct and indirect effects, is therefore negative ( β = −0.12; P < 0.001; CI, −0.14 to −0.10).

Lastly, the control variable of frequency of homeworking revealed significant relationships with the tested variables. Positive, although small, effects were found between frequency of homeworking and, respectively, work-family conflict ( β = 0.06 P < 0.001; CI, 0.05 to 0.08) and work engagement ( β = 0.06 P < 0.001; CI, 0.04 to 0.07).

This study used the COR theory as theoretical background to investigate the relationship between homeworkers’ workload and mental well-being and the mediating effect of work-family conflict, sleeping problems, and work engagement. In light of this approach, we expected that employees’ workload at home was positively related to work-family conflict and sleeping problems and negatively related to work engagement. Furthermore, we expected that work engagement was, in turn, negatively related to work-family conflict and sleeping problems and positively related to mental well-being.

Most of our study hypotheses were supported. Homeworkers’ workload positively affected work-family conflict, sleeping problems, and, surprisingly, work engagement and had a total negative effect on mental well-being.

The positive effect of the workload on work-family conflicts and sleeping problems was also observed in previous studies reporting the positive effect of workload on work-family conflict 30 and sleeping problems 15 , 23 , 61 in employees working at official sites of their organization. Our result extends findings observed in the official workplace to the field of homework and confirms the applicability of COR theory to homeworking. Investing time and energy resources to cope with an increased workload may result in the depletion of energy resources needed to balance work and family life and have a good quality of sleep, consequently affecting mental well-being resulting from the stress experienced from the loss of resources.

However, study findings also reveal an unexpected result by reporting a positive relationship between workload on work engagement. This unexpected finding, although small ( β = 0.09; P < 0.001; CI, 0.07 to 0.11), is contrary to the one found by Ladyshewsky and Taplin, 62 who reported that workload negatively affects work engagement. Although this result was unexpected, other studies support the evidence reported in this research, suggesting that workload may not always be harmful but, in some cases, may have a positive effect on work engagement. 43 – 45 , 63 In other words, the workload may not always have a detrimental effect on work engagement. Instead, the relationship between these two variables could be curvilinear in the homeworking context, as already observed in the usual workplace. 45

Considering that workload was positively related to work-family conflict, sleeping problems, and, at the same time, also positively related to work engagement, our findings support previous studies that identified workload both as a hindrance and a challenge stressor 44 , 63 that increases employees’ work engagement to completing their challenging work, while also impacting work-family conflict and sleeping problems that diminish employees’ energy. 43

Focusing on the relationship between workload and well-being, we point out that, although the direct relationship was small but positive ( β = 0.04; P = 0.001; CI, 0.01 to 05), the total effect of workload on mental well-being, as mentioned above, was instead significant and negative ( β = −0.12; P < 0.001; CI, −0.14 to −0.10), thus suggesting that the three mediators in our model contribute to establishing that too much workload is negative for homeworkers. Therefore, this suggests that intervening in those factors (work-family conflict, work engagement, and sleeping problems) could reduce the negative effect of the workload on homeworkers’ well-being.

The importance of those three mediators is also confirmed by the simple direct relationships they have with mental well-being. This study shows that work-family conflict is negatively related to work engagement and mental well-being, thus supporting prior studies on work engagement 28 , 32 , 34 and employees’ well-being 33 , 64 and extending those findings to homeworkers. Although other studies used different theoretical approaches, our results are also coherent with the spiral loss of resources of the COR theory. Sleeping problems experienced by homeworkers had a significant adverse effect on work engagement and well-being, consistently with previous studies conducted in other contexts. 36 – 39 Based on the COR theory’s desperation principle, homeworkers may be less inclined to invest more resources into their work task (work engagement) when their self-regulatory resources have not been fully replenished due to sleeping problems. 37 The loss of this resource, in turn, may explain the loss of the other resource, which is well-being. Thus, our study sheds light on the potential mechanism that the resource loss of time and energy due to high workload compromises sleep quality, leading to the loss of other resources such as well-being.

Finally, despite the frequency of homeworking was marginally related to work-family conflict and work engagement, this variable was not related to mental well-being * . However, we believe that this latter result is also an interesting research finding because it suggests that workers’ mental well-being is not related to the mere frequency of homeworking, but to characteristics of the task and the context in which homeworking is carried out. Nevertheless, we believe these results should be read with caution and also interpreted considering other studies that suggest a curvilinear relationship between frequency of homeworking and some worker satisfaction outcomes. 56 , 57

THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

In this study, we contributed to the literature on the relationship between workload and well-being in the context of homework by simultaneously exploring the mediational variables of work-family conflict, sleeping problems, and work engagement.

From a theoretical point of view, since research on the effect of workload on homeworkers’ well-being is limited, 15 , 16 we believe our findings, framed in the COR theory, 22 contribute to homeworking literature by showing that homeworkers’ workload has, on the whole, a negative impact on mental well-being and that workload contributes to increased work-family conflict, sleeping problems, and also work engagement that, in turn, affect mental well-being. This result is coherent with the resource caravans’ principle of the COR theory, which suggests that resources, or threats of resources, do not exist individually but travel in packs. 22 Thus, workload threatens mental well-being because it affects, at least, other two aspects that can become potential stressors, such as sleep and family relations.

Our results also show that workload is positively related to work engagement and positively related to mental well-being. Considering the second principle of the COR theory, which states that individuals invest resources to protect against resource loss, it seems that employees dedicate time, energy, and mental resources to work (in other words, become more engaged in their work) to compensate the adverse effects of the workload. Hobfoll et al 22 suggest that individuals, over time, learn how to adapt to stressors and how to use their resources effectively. Thus, a possible explanation of this result is that employees know that workload negatively impacts individual and family resources and, to mitigate such effects, they increase their work engagement to manage their work tasks, complete them quickly and effectively, and dedicate the remaining time to family duties or free time.

On the other side, our study also confirms that workload as a challenging or a hindrance stressor. 43 – 45 According to our results, the workload is related to both negative (increased work-family conflict and sleeping problems) and positive outcomes (work engagement), which confirms a complex relationship between workload and employees’ well-being that depends on the mediators included in the studies. Our findings suggest that workload is not only a threatening stressor but also a resource that enhances, through work engagement, employees’ mental well-being. Montani et al 45 observed that the relationships between workload and work engagement may be curvilinear. Thus, future studies should investigate under which conditions the positive sides of homework workload are observed and how positive and negative effects of workload coexist.

From a practical point of view, this research provides some insights that may help organizations and managers coordinate employees’ work. High amounts of workload are associated with work-family conflict and sleep problems, and these threaten the mental well-being of their employees, potentially affecting their effectiveness at work. On the other hand, we guess that a moderate extent of workload, compared with too low or too high, might enhance employees’ engagement with their work, leading them to feel better and, potentially, work better. Therefore, organizations should pay attention to employees’ workload and identify and avoid to assign tasks, with a too high or low workload to favor employees’ well-being and maximize their efforts.

Our study points out that offering homeworking alone may not be enough. Organizations implementing homeworking should also implement strategies to contain work-family conflict (eg, by considering employees’ childcare needs) and sleeping problems (eg, by promoting proper sleep-wake rhythms, including working on the proper use and correct timing of homework), as well as interventions aimed at fostering work engagement. Such organizational interventions seem promising directions to ensure that workload does not affect the mental well-being of homeworkers.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

This study has different limitations. In particular, it used a cross-sectional research design, which limits the causal inferences between study variables. In addition, the cross-sectional mediational analysis may show mediational effects that exaggerate indirect effects among study variables that are different from effects observed using longitudinal studies or multiwave design. 65 To lessen this limitation, we used a large sample size to diminish biases in regression estimates because of measurement errors. 66 Furthermore, we point out that the study design does not exclude the possibility of reverse mediations between the investigated variables. For these reasons, future research may use a longitudinal design approach to more appropriately support the evidence found here.

Furthermore, another major limitation of the study is that data were collected before the COVID-19 pandemic. Although there are no rational reasons to think about changes in the tested relationships, future studies should verify if, in a postpandemic scenario, the conclusions drawn may still be applicable. Finally, we point out that this study used self-reported measures. Thus, they may lead to exaggeration or understatement on the part of the participants opening up to the tendency of common method bias, which may compromise the study's validity. Therefore, future studies using multirater measures should address this issue.

The present study sheds light on the underlying mechanisms of workload affecting employees’ mental well-being. Findings suggest that the workload experienced by homeworkers is related to work-family conflict, sleeping problems, and work engagement, which, in turn, affect mental well-being. This study contributes to the literature by providing new evidence on the relationship between workload and well-being, offering insights for academic research and organizational interventions on the complex relationship between workload and well-being in homeworkers. We conclude that organizations just offering homeworking without considering needs and duties when working at home are not enough to improve the well-being of homeworkers. Further work on appropriate home working conditions (eg, workload) may represent a good step forward to achieve the purpose of homeworking and improve homeworkers’ well-being. Hence, the present study offered significant knowledge and empirical evidence to help organizational policymakers and managers on the need to pay critical attention to employees’ workload during homeworking.

* Note: Although not included in our hypotheses, following the suggestion of a reviewer, we tested “frequency of homeworking” using a multigroup approach to highlight potential differences in the model in low- or high-frequency homeworking conditions. The results of this multigroup analysis are not included in this article because they confirmed that all relationships in the research model were significant and, in the same direction, in the low- and high-frequency homeworking conditions. These results are anyway available upon request to the corresponding author.

Funding Sources: No funding was provided for the conduct of this research. The publication costs of this open-access article were covered by the authors' university membership in the CARE-CRUI national contract with the publisher Wolters Kluwer for Lippincott Williams & Wilkins journals.

Conflict of Interest: Nothing to declare.

Ethical Considerations & Disclosure: This research fully respects the Declaration of Helsinki. All ethical guidelines were followed.

Homework Dream Meaning: Discover What it Really Means

Have you ever woken up in the middle of the night in a panic, having just dreamt about unfinished homework? Or perhaps you’ve had a recurring dream where you’re back in school and struggling to complete an assignment? These dreams may seem insignificant, but they could have deeper meanings that are worth exploring.

Table of Contents

Understanding the Significance of Homework Dreams

Just like other dreams, homework dreams can be interpreted in different ways, but they often have a connection to your current emotional and mental state. Dreams about homework can signify a fear of failure or a desire for greater achievement. They may also reveal your need for knowledge and intellectual growth.

Additionally, homework dreams can also represent a sense of responsibility and obligation. If you are feeling overwhelmed with your workload or struggling to meet deadlines, your subconscious mind may manifest these concerns in the form of a homework dream. It is important to pay attention to these dreams and reflect on any underlying issues that may be causing them.

The Symbolism of Homework in Dreams

Homework can be seen as a metaphor for unfinished business in your waking life. It can represent a project that you’ve been putting off, a goal that you’ve been struggling to achieve, or a problem that you’ve been unable to solve. In this context, dreaming about homework can be a sign that you need to take action to complete these tasks and move past the obstacles in your life.

Additionally, the type of homework you dream about can also hold significance. For example, dreaming about math homework may suggest that you need to focus on logical problem-solving skills, while dreaming about English homework may indicate a need to improve communication or writing abilities. Paying attention to the specific subject matter of your homework dreams can provide further insight into areas of your life that may need attention and improvement.

Different Interpretations of Homework Dreams

The interpretation of homework dreams can vary depending on the specific details of the dream. For example, dreaming of missing a deadline for an assignment could indicate a fear of failure or disappointment. Dreaming of acing a difficult homework assignment may represent a sense of accomplishment and success. These details can give insight into your personal thoughts, feelings, and aspirations.

It is also important to consider the context of the dream. If you are currently experiencing stress or anxiety related to school or work, your homework dreams may be a reflection of those feelings. Alternatively, if you have recently completed a challenging assignment or received positive feedback on your work, your homework dreams may be a manifestation of your confidence and satisfaction.

Common Themes in Homework Dreams and Their Interpretations

Themes that commonly occur in homework dreams include forgetting to do the homework, struggling to complete the work, missing the deadline, and feeling embarrassed or ashamed in front of classmates or a teacher. These themes may be interpreted as feelings of inadequacy, anxiety, or fear of judgment.

Another common theme in homework dreams is being unprepared for a test or exam. This can be interpreted as a fear of failure or a lack of confidence in one’s abilities. Additionally, dreaming about receiving a bad grade or failing a class may indicate a fear of not meeting expectations or disappointing others.

Unpacking the Hidden Messages in Your Homework Dreams

Homework dreams can reveal hidden messages about your life and inner self. Examining the emotions and details in the dream can help you uncover what underlying issues are causing the dream. Reflection can also help you identify areas of your life where you’re feeling stuck or where you need to make changes.

One common interpretation of homework dreams is that they represent unfinished tasks or responsibilities in your waking life. This could be related to work, school, or personal projects. The dream may be urging you to prioritize these tasks and complete them in order to reduce stress and anxiety.

Another possible interpretation is that homework dreams symbolize a desire for self-improvement and personal growth. The dream may be encouraging you to take on new challenges and learn new skills. Alternatively, it may be highlighting areas where you need to focus more attention and effort in order to achieve your goals.

How Homework Dreams Manifest in Different People

Homework dreams can appear differently depending on the person. For some, it may involve a specific subject or teacher, while for others, it may revolve around the method of completion, such as writing or calculations. Understanding the context and personal meaning of the dream can help you find the source of the dream.

Additionally, the frequency and intensity of homework dreams can vary from person to person. Some individuals may experience them frequently, while others may only have them occasionally. The intensity of the dream can also vary, with some individuals having vivid and memorable dreams, while others may have more fleeting and forgettable ones.

Furthermore, homework dreams can also be influenced by external factors such as stress levels, workload, and personal life events. For example, a student who is experiencing a high level of stress due to upcoming exams may have more frequent and intense homework dreams than a student who is not under as much pressure.

Analyzing the Psychological Meaning of Homework Dreams

From a psychological perspective, homework dreams can be viewed as your mind’s way of processing and resolving anxieties and concerns. These dreams can bring attention to issues and emotions that need to be addressed and can provide insight into unresolved conflicts in your life.

Furthermore, the content of the homework in the dream can also provide clues about the specific areas of your life that are causing stress or worry. For example, if you dream about struggling with a math problem, it could indicate a fear of failure or inadequacy in your career or personal life. Alternatively, if you dream about forgetting to do your homework, it could suggest a fear of being unprepared or a lack of organization in your daily routine.

The Spiritual Connotations of Homework Dreams

Homework dreams may also have spiritual connotations. They may represent the lessons and growth that you need to achieve in your present existence. Or they may indicate the need for inner reflection and self-analysis as you work towards enlightenment.

Furthermore, homework dreams can also symbolize the importance of discipline and hard work in achieving spiritual goals. Just as completing homework requires dedication and effort, spiritual growth also requires consistent practice and perseverance.

On the other hand, if you consistently have nightmares about homework, it may be a sign of anxiety or fear related to your spiritual journey. It could be helpful to explore these feelings and seek guidance from a spiritual mentor or therapist.

The Impact of Homework Stress on Your Dream Life

Stress and anxiety related to homework or school can negatively impact your sleep and dream life. If stress and anxiety seem to be the root cause of your homework dreams, consider ways to manage stress and create a healthy work-life balance.

One way to manage stress related to homework is to break down assignments into smaller, more manageable tasks. This can help you feel less overwhelmed and more in control of your workload. Additionally, taking breaks and engaging in stress-reducing activities such as exercise or meditation can also help alleviate homework-related stress.

It’s important to remember that homework and schoolwork should not consume your entire life. Make time for hobbies, socializing, and relaxation to ensure a healthy balance. By prioritizing self-care and stress management, you can improve not only your sleep and dream life, but also your overall well-being.

How to Use Your Homework Dreams to Improve Your Life

Using homework dreams to improve your life can involve reflecting on what you’ve learned from the dream, and taking actionable steps to move forward. For example, if you dream of struggling to complete an assignment, this could inspire you to seek extra help and resources to accomplish your goals.

Another way to use your homework dreams to improve your life is to pay attention to any recurring themes or patterns. If you find yourself constantly dreaming about a particular subject or assignment, it could be a sign that you need to focus more on that area of your studies. Additionally, if you dream about a successful completion of a difficult assignment, this can boost your confidence and motivation to tackle real-life challenges.

Exploring the Connection Between Real-Life Homework and Dreamland

The connection between common situations in real life and the dream world is well established. Unfinished homework or negative experiences with homework can be a trigger for homework dreams. Examining how your waking life experiences and situations affect your dream world can provide interesting insights about yourself.

Research has shown that the stress and anxiety caused by unfinished homework or difficult assignments can lead to an increase in dream activity. This is because the brain is still processing the information and trying to find a solution, even while you sleep. Additionally, dreams about homework can also be a reflection of your subconscious desire to succeed and do well in school or work. By paying attention to these dreams and analyzing their meaning, you can gain a better understanding of your own motivations and goals.

What to Do When You Keep Having Disturbing Homework Dreams

Recurring disturbing homework dreams can cause distress and affect your overall well-being. Speak with a trusted friend, family member, or professional to get a different perspective and find support. Tools such as journaling and relaxation techniques can help manage anxiety and assist in resolving the underlying issues.

It’s also important to evaluate your study habits and workload. Are you taking on too much? Are you procrastinating and causing unnecessary stress? Consider talking to your teacher or academic advisor for guidance on how to better manage your workload and study habits. Additionally, make sure you are taking care of your physical health by getting enough sleep, exercise, and proper nutrition. Taking care of yourself can also help alleviate stress and improve your overall well-being.

Finding Solutions to Problems Unearthed in Your Homework Dreams

Homework dreams can reveal deeper issues or conflicts that you may be facing. By identifying those conflicts through your dreams, you can begin seeking solutions or ways to work through these issues in your waking life.

It is important to pay attention to the details in your homework dreams, as they may hold clues to the root of the problem. For example, if you dream about being unable to complete a math problem, it may indicate a fear of failure or a lack of confidence in your abilities. By acknowledging and addressing these underlying emotions, you can work towards finding a solution and improving your overall well-being.

When to Seek Professional Help for Recurring Homework Nightmares

If your nightmares are affecting your daily life, it may be time to seek professional help. A mental health professional can help you manage anxiety and stress and work through deeper issues that may be causing recurring homework dreams.

Homework dreams can reveal deeper meanings, emotions, and thoughts that can aid in our growth and development. They can also provide an opportunity to reflect and re-evaluate our lives. By understanding the significance of homework dreams and analyzing them with detail, we can use them to improve our waking lives and gain deeper insights into ourselves.

It is important to note that recurring homework nightmares may also be a sign of a learning disability or difficulty. Seeking help from a tutor or academic specialist may be necessary to address any underlying academic challenges that may be contributing to the nightmares.

In addition, practicing good sleep hygiene habits such as establishing a regular sleep schedule, avoiding caffeine and electronics before bedtime, and creating a relaxing bedtime routine can also help reduce the frequency and intensity of homework nightmares.

Aurora Seeress is a renowned clairvoyant and medium who specializes in angel numbers, symbolism, numerology, and crystals. With a deep understanding of the spiritual world, she helps people find meaning and purpose in their lives. Despite skepticism, Aurora remains dedicated to helping people connect with their higher selves and find peace and fulfillment in life.

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Opinion: Struggling to find meaning and happiness at work? Here’s where you may have gone wrong

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Once upon a time, work was work: We endured it so that we could eat. But today too many of us have made the mistake of anointing work as our main source of meaning.

Seventy percent of employees say their jobs define their sense of purpose. Meanwhile, my research shows a scant 12.5% of us are “totally and utterly engaged” at work, echoing years of Gallup data .

In other words, we don’t love work, but we want it to love us back. We’ve heard that if we do what we love, we’ll “never work a day,” but we’re burned out to a crisp and not sure what to do about it. We want more from our work than it can realistically give us.

Opinion: Sitting down all day is killing us. The cure is surprisingly simple — and difficult

Columbia researchers and NPR found that five minutes of movement every half an hour has substantial health benefits but can be a challenge in many jobs.

Nov. 7, 2023

We need to stop putting so much pressure on our jobs to make life worth living. How? By taking control of our off-the-clock hours to craft lives that are wide and deep.

We have more agency and opportunity than ever to create vitality in our discretionary time, but we’re not taking advantage of it. While most of us don’t feel “time-affluent,” the average American spends as much as 2.86 hours of every day watching television and 2.3 hours on social media .

Yet our lives are brief. We get an average of only 4,000 Mondays to live, and we roll out of bed to go to work on 2,340 of them.

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Fortunately, we can come to grips with these facts and change what’s left of our lives for the better.

A branding director I worked with, for example, kept waiting for her work to make her “feel whole.” She finally realized that was like waiting for Santa Claus, took the reins and fashioned her version of a well-rounded life. It included practicing meditation, volunteering at a memory care facility and organizing potluck social suppers. Her job became a mere slice of her whole life.

A disengaged senior executive I worked with took a hard look at her one-dimensional, all-work-and-no-play existence and acknowledged, “I need to get a life, don’t I?” She built one by taking salsa lessons and rekindling her sketching hobby.

We’ve been advised to scorn a “job” and even turn up our noses at a “career,” holding out for a “calling.” But can’t the call come from inside the house rather than the office?

Those who bank on promotions, raises and other workplace rewards to deliver happiness inevitably find themselves on a “ hedonic treadmill ” as each fancy new title loses its luster.

“I finally got the big job I had been pining for,” one executive told me, “and after a month of feeling great, I came home feeling empty inside.” She ultimately came to understand that her ”meaning and sense of mattering” could come from outside her career, started fundraising for her local library and found a wellspring of purpose.

Another launched a podcast for gamers after he started “working to live” instead of “living to work.” He said he felt as if a pressure valve had been opened and he needed fewer affirmations of his value. Living with intention outside work leaves our careers fabulously diminished in perspective.

This isn’t to say we should stay in soul-stabbing jobs that actively harm us. The answer isn’t to settle for unrelenting dysfunction.

But living a truly alive life takes more than a career, including:

Finding flow: Flow is that fabulously engrossing state of mind that occurs when you’re optimally challenged and fully absorbed in an activity. Experienced workers have typically achieved mastery of what they do for a living, so the opportunities to learn and grow at work are fewer than when they were starting out. But flow can be found outside work by, say, picking up glassblowing, learning a new language or earning the next belt in tae kwon do. Bring back the hobby!

Recognizing that life is an inside job: Forty percent of adults identify as “meaningfully bored,” according to my research. We live slumbering existences: work, takeout, Netflix, sleep, repeat. Letting our jobs leave the rest of our lives on autopilot robs us of autonomy, motivation and well-being. We can begin to get away from this by carving out a morsel of time for ourselves to do One Small Thing that makes us feel alive within the next week.

Practicing memento mori: Remembering that we must die and tuning into the finite nature of life helps us see how rare and special it is. Beginning with the “big end” in mind helps us stop taking life for granted. Visualizing one’s deathbed or obituary can be a powerful exercise that serves as a wake-up call. If you died tonight, what might you regret? (Hint: It’s never working too little.)

Do you know how many Mondays you have left? It’s time to do the math. Work can’t and won’t be the exclusive source of our purpose and joy. But we still have time to find both beyond our careers.

Jodi Wellman is a Southern California-based psychologist and executive coach and the author of “ You Only Die Once : How to Make It to the End With No Regrets.”

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The Constant Work to Keep a Family Connected Has a Name

“Kinkeeping” plays a crucial role in a family’s health and well-being, and it’s still predominantly done by women.

By Danielle Friedman

Every December when Erienne Fawcett was growing up, her rural Minnesota home transformed into a showcase of snowy miniature villages, complete with tiny reindeer and carolers.

As a child, the intricate scenes felt like “pure magic.”

It wasn’t until she was an adult that she realized her experience was the result of “hours and hours and hours of work” by her mother — all part of an elaborate effort to make Christmas special.

Eventually, Ms. Fawcett became a women and gender studies teacher at North Dakota State University, where she taught her students that this form of invisible labor, dedicated to family bonding and magic-making, has a name: kinkeeping.

References to kinkeepers began cropping up in sociology literature in the mid-20th century. Researchers defined the role as a family communicator who helped the extended group stay in touch by sharing family news and planning gatherings.

In recent decades, sociology and psychology researchers have expanded the definition to include things like creating or carrying on family traditions, buying gifts for birthdays and holidays, coordinating medical care and performing all sorts of emotional caregiving.

A kinkeeper is someone who cultivates a sense of “family solidarity or connectedness,” said Carolyn Rosenthal, a professor emeritus of sociology at McMaster University in Canada who researched kinkeeping in the 1980s. It’s someone who, in many ways, is the family glue.

One thing that has remained consistent through the years is that most kinkeepers are women: When researchers sought out kinkeepers for a 2017 study , more than 91 percent of the volunteers were women.

Dawn O. Braithwaite, a professor emeritus of communication studies at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln who coauthored the 2017 study and a related one in 1996 , was struck by how little the gender breakdown had changed over the years.

“I thought that maybe men would have kind of picked this up more because of the technological piece,” given the ease with which we can now communicate via text and social media, she said.

Eve Rodsky, a writer, researcher and activist for fair division of labor at home, believes kinkeeping is still mostly done by women because “We still have a huge time disparity in how women and men use their time.” When women set boundaries on their caregiving time, she added, they can experience guilt and shame.

In 2022, one of Ms. Fawcett’s students, Molly Westcott, a college sophomore, created a TikTok video about kinkeeping that quickly racked up millions of views.

In the video, Ms. Westcott lays out an analogy comparing family life to a play: Men are the actors, and women are the production crew, the ushers and everyone else working offstage.

“There’s a lot of effort and time and energy that goes into a play,” she says in the video. “But at the end of the day, when the play is done, people are not clapping for everything that they did not see.”

The observation struck a chord. “It was really exciting that more people got the vocabulary to describe how they were feeling,” Ms. Westcott, now 20, said in an interview with The New York Times.

Ms. Westcott’s video propelled the term “kinkeeping” into the vernacular, inspiring tens of thousands of comments and responses along with podcast episodes and, last month, recognition as Dictionary.com’s “ Word of the Day .”

In many cases, being a kinkeeper is rewarding. “When it’s done from a place of generosity and agency, it can be really empowering,” said Dr. Pooja Lakshmin, a psychiatrist in Austin and the author of “Real Self-Care.” Many kinkeepers genuinely appreciate being the person relatives turn to for emotional support and guidance, or the person responsible for carrying the torch from elder generations.

Kinkeeping fosters a family’s sense of connectedness, identity and well-being, Dr. Rosenthal said. Research also suggests that feeling close and connected to family members supports mental health.

Kinkeepers can also play a crucial role in promoting overall family health, said Caitlin Allen, a social and behavioral scientist at the Medical University of South Carolina who has studied the phenomenon . Kinkeepers even have the potential to save lives by sharing family medical histories and encouraging loved ones to seek out preventative care, she said.

But kinkeeping can be time-consuming — and emotionally heavy.

“When it’s done from a place of resentment or obligation, that’s when you get into trouble,” Dr. Lakshmin said. “Like, is it a real choice?” When kinkeeping feels more like a chore, your mental health — and relationships with family — can start to suffer.

Dr. Braithwaite added that kinkeepers often find themselves “stuck in the middle” of complicated family dynamics or playing the role of “gatekeepers” of important family information — which can come with power, but also stress.

If you are your family’s kinkeeper, a few strategies can help to prevent emotional burnout, the experts said.

A common point of tension is when one family member thinks another is taking on unnecessary work, Ms. Rodsky said. Do the cupcakes really need to be homemade?

Often, however, cupcakes aren’t really about cupcakes — they represent a custom from your childhood that you want to pass on, or they stand for something you didn’t have growing up and want to give your own children. Even seemingly banal tasks can be rich with emotional significance, Ms. Rodsky said.

If you’re not getting the support you need, start by explaining to family members why you do things the way you do. “If we can just step back and spend five minutes on our why ,” she said, “it literally changes everything.”

It’s also important to give yourself grace, said Randi Owsley, a psychotherapist in Boise, Idaho, who co-hosts the Women’s Mental Health podcast and dedicated a series of episodes to kinkeeping. “Self-compassion has a direct impact on reducing stress level,” she said, adding that “in the act of caring for others, we must not forget to care for ourselves.”

If your partner or another member of your family is the kinkeeper, be mindful that this can be “thankless work,” Dr. Braithwaite said.

Simply expressing gratitude for that care — and acknowledging how much work it involves — can help prevent kinkeeper burnout.

And by all means, offer to help: Not only will it take some of the load off a loved one, Ms. Rodsky said, but you will probably benefit, too. Kinkeeping can be a powerful way to nurture your own relationships, and research suggests that relationship quality has an enormous impact on health, happiness and longevity.

“Think about what’s at stake,” she said. “The quality of your relationships is built in these small moments.”

Danielle Friedman is a journalist in New York and the author of “Let’s Get Physical: How Women Discovered Exercise and Reshaped the World.” More about Danielle Friedman

President Biden's new tariffs on goods from China will affect EVs, semiconductors and more

WASHINGTON – President Joe Biden imposed sweeping tariff hikes Tuesday on electric vehicles, semiconductors and other goods imported from China, countering what the White House calls unfair trade practices by China that it says have put U.S. industries at a disadvantage.

The Biden administration has accused China of flooding the global markets with goods at artificially low prices, giving Chinese competitors an unfair advantage against their U.S. counterparts.

"Bottom line: I want fair competition with China, not conflict," Biden said at a White House Rose Garden ceremony before signing a memorandum ordering the tariff hikes.

White House officials say the tariff hikes are designed to create a "level playing field" for U.S. manufacturing in clean energy and microchips − areas the Biden administration have targeted with major government investments to try to catch up with China.

Other goods from China slapped with higher tariffs include solar cells, batteries, battery materials, cranes used at ports, and certain medical supplies, as well as steel and aluminum imported from China.

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More: Biden sets huge new tariffs on electric vehicles, chips and other goods from China

Here's what to know about the tariff increases:

What is a tariff?

A tariff is a tax imposed by one country on goods and services imported from another country, according to Investopedia.

A tariff can have several purposes: to raise revenue in the country that imposes the tariff, to protect domestic industries against competition from abroad, or to leverage political influence in the country that pays the tariff, among others.

Bottom line: A tariff generally makes an imported product less appealing to domestic consumers.

Why is Biden doing this now?

The White House says the tariff increases are designed to protect American industries the administration has targeted with major investments to try to catch up with China. These sectors include manufacturing in clean energy, electric vehicles and microchips.

Biden has staked his economic agenda on reigniting a U.S. manufacturing boom centered on clean energy, but the White House has accused China of flooding the markets with cheaper products that put U.S. industries at a disadvantage.

How large are the tariff hikes?

Biden has levied substantial tariff hikes.

The tariff rate of electric vehicles imported from China will increase from 25% to 100% beginning this year, while tariffs on semiconductors from China will double from 25% to 50% by 2025.

Among other changes, the tariff rate on lithium-ion batteries from China used in electric vehicles will triple from 7.5% to 25%. The tariff on solar cells imported from China will double from 25% to 50%. And steel and aluminum products will triple this year to 25%.

How many electric vehicles does the U.S. import from China?

China is not a major player in the U.S. market for electric vehicles, at least not yet, according to an analysis by the Atlantic Council think tank. China shipped $368 million in electric vehicles to the U.S. in 2023. By contrast, the European Union exported nearly $7.4 billion in EVs to the U.S. last year.

EV imports from China are low largely because the U.S. already charged a relatively steep tariff on Chinese imports, 25%.

Biden accuses China of unfairly flooding the market. What does that mean?

White House officials say China wields unfair trade practices to deluge global markets with exports at artificially low prices.

What are the unfair practices? China subsidizes manufacturers with cheap land and easy credit, the Biden administration says, and affords few rights to workers, who often earn low wages and work long hours. In the automotive industry, components such as steel and electronics are relatively cheap in China, giving Chinese manufacturers another advantage.

Chinese factories are producing more products than its citizens can buy in a slowing economy. That surplus gives China another incentive to export underpriced items.

More: Biden sends message to China ― and working-class voters ― with tariff threat

What will it mean for consumers?

Analysts and automakers warn that a trade battle with China could raise costs for EVs, ultimately hurting consumers and impeding the Biden administration’s climate goals.

Higher tariffs on electric vehicles, solar cells, semiconductors and other items will potentially make those products more costly for American consumers.

To many economists, tariffs amount to an extra tax on consumers because they raise prices. Biden officials counter that they do not expect the new tariffs to significantly raise prices, because they affect a narrow range of items.

Will it worsen inflation?

Biden officials say the new tariffs are “carefully targeted” and unlikely to raise inflation, which has vexed the nation over the past few years.

An analysis by the Economic Policy Institute found no link between Trump-era tariffs, imposed during his presidency, and the subsequent run-up of inflation in 2021 and 2022.

However, economists and politicians have long recognized a connection between tariffs and higher prices. Tariffs effectively add an extra tax on what consumers already pay for imported goods.

Is Biden playing election politics?

White House officials insist the tariff hikes were not done for political reasons, but it's impossible to ignore that the 2024 election is now six months away.

Higher tariffs play into Biden's efforts to court the support of working-class voters in Midwest battleground states including Michigan, the center of the U.S. auto industry.

What does Donald Trump say about it?

Biden is borrowing the trade playbook of former President Donald Trump, the Republican presumptive nominee, who routinely raised tariffs on Chinese goods during his four years in office.

"Where have you been for the last three and a half years? They should have done it a long time ago," Trump said Tuesday of Biden's tariffs.

Yet Biden's moves are significantly more limited in scope than Trump's campaign proposals. While the Biden White House opted for targeted tariffs in certain industries, Trump has proposed a 60% or more tariff on all Chinese imports as well as imports from other countries. Biden has warned Trump's plan would result in higher consumer prices for Americans.

"They've also got to do it on other vehicles, and they have to do it on a lot of other products," Trump said. "Because China's eating our lunch right now."

Will this spark a trade war with China?

Potentially. Last week, as the likelihood of the tariffs was reported by several media outlets, a spokesman for the Chinese Foreign Ministry criticized the move. “China will take all necessary measures to defend its rights and interests," the spokesman said.

Stellantis plans to sell Chinese EVs in other parts of the world

Amsterdam-based Stellantis and Chinese EV startup Leapmotor have teamed up to sell Chinese-made electric vehicles in nine European countries and other parts of the world, starting this September. 

The Tuesday announcement did not include any plans for bringing Chinese EVs into the U.S. market.

“There is no real Chinese competition right now in the U.S. market,” said Stellantis CEO Carlos Tavares, noting that Europe is a different case. “It looks like the U.S. is going for a very strong protectionism whereas for the time being Europe is keeping the market reasonably open with a lower tariff of 10%.”

Whether Stellantis, which owns the Jeep, Ram, Chrysler, Dodge and Fiat brands, would consider bringing Leapmotor EVs to the United States in the future would depend on tariffs, Tavares said, also weighing in on the possibility of entry through Mexico. 

“I understand that, of course, if the Chinese would like to come to the U.S. they would eventually use Mexico as a sourcing base. I don’t know if this is something that would be acceptable for the U.S. administration,” Tavares said.

Slovakian Prime Minister Robert Fico shot in assassination attempt

The populist prime minister of Slovakia, Robert Fico , was "fighting for his life" Wednesday after he was shot multiple times in an "attempted assassination," his party's officials said.

Slovak Defense Minister Robert Kaliňák told reporters that doctors operated into the evening and that Fico's condition was extremely serious.

"We've experienced a very tragic day, which means the prime minister is fighting for his life," Kaliňák said, according to local reports.

Late Wednesday, Deputy Prime Minister Tomas Taraba offered an update to the BBC, saying Fico was "not in a life-threatening situation at this moment."

Interior Minister Matúš Šutaj Eštok earlier reporters that the gunman shot Fico five times. A suspect was arrested, officials said; a motive was not immediately clear.

Šutaj Eštok said an initial investigation found “a clear political motivation.”

Fico’s Facebook page said he was taken to a hospital in Banská Bystrica rather than in the capital, Bratislava, because "it would take too long considering the urgency of the matter."

At a news conference after the attack , President Zuzana Čaputová confirmed an arrest of a suspect and said police would provide further information.

“Until then, let us not pass quick judgments, please,” she said.

A reporter for the Slovak news agency TASR said several shots were fired in the town of Handlova, about 110 miles northeast of Bratislava. Fico was greeting members of the public after a government meeting, it reported.

Čaputová confirmed the attack on Fico, 59, shortly after the news broke.

“Utterly shocked by today’s brutal and reckless attack on #Slovakia ’s Prime Minister Robert Fico, which I condemn in strongest possible terms,” she said in a message on X . “I wish him lot of strength in this critical moment and early recovery. My thoughts are also with his family and close ones,” she added.

Photos on news agencies showed a man appearing to be detained in Handlova. Video captured at the scene and shared on social media showed another man being carried into a car by security staffers in dark suits.

Fico was elected in October as leader of the leftist Smer party, meaning “direction,” standing on a pro-Russian and anti-American populist platform.

He had already served as prime minister twice before he returned to the role last year as part of a power-sharing deal with two other parties. Fico faced criticism this month as thousands of Slovaks rallied against a plan to overhaul public radio and television in the country of 5.4 million, sparking fears of government control and a shift away from pro-Western ties.

Fico has found common cause with Viktor Orbán , the right-wing authoritarian leader of Hungary, Slovakia's neighbor to the south, in ending support for Ukraine's defense against Russia's invasion and criticizing Western support for Kyiv. Slovakia also shares a border with Ukraine.

Both Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and Russian President Vladimir Putin gave public support to Fico.

Putin said in a letter to Čaputová shared by the Kremlin that the "heinous crime cannot be justified," and Zelenskyy post ed on X that "every effort should be made to ensure that violence does not become the norm in any country, form, or sphere."

President Joe Biden also wished Fico a "speedy recovery" and said in a statement that the U.S. Embassy was in contact with the Slovakian government and "ready to assist."

Ursula von der Leyen, president of the European Commission, the executive body of the European Union, also strongly condemned the attempt on Fico's life.

“Such acts of violence have no place in our society and undermine democracy, our most precious common good,” she said in a post on X .

Slovakia is an E.U. member.

Slovakia’s main opposition parties canceled a planned protest against a plan to overhaul public broadcasting that they say would give Fico's government full control of public radio and television, according to The Associated Press.

“We absolutely and strongly condemn violence and today’s shooting of Premier Robert Fico,” Progressive Slovakia leader Michal Šimečka said. “At the same time we call on all politicians to refrain from any expressions and steps which could contribute to further increasing the tension.”

The country’s incoming president, Peter Pellegrini, a close Fico ally, said the incident represented "an unprecedented threat to Slovak democracy."

He added, "If we express different political opinions with guns in the squares and not in polling stations, we endanger everything we have built together in 31 years of Slovak sovereignty."

Patrick Smith is a London-based editor and reporter for NBC News Digital.

Weekend Director of Platforms, NBC

Oprah Winfrey apologizes for being 'major contributor' to shaming diet culture and the 'wagon of fat' moment

• Oprah Winfrey said she regrets her role in promoting unhealthy and unrealistic diets.
• The media mogul hosted a Weight Watchers live special which streamed on YouTube earlier this week.
• During the discussion, Winfrey pointed to her famous "wagon of fat" stunt from her 1988 TV show.

Oprah Winfrey has reflected on her role in perpetuating unsustainable weight-loss methods.

While hosting a Weight Watchers YouTube live special on Thursday (May 9), the 70-year-old media mogul host acknowledged that she had been a "major contributor" to modern diet culture and stated that she is "done with the shaming."

"I wanted to gather all of us together because I believe that we have reached a pivotal moment in the way we talk about and the way we think about our bodies," Winfrey told the in-person and virtual audience.

"I've been a steadfast participant in this diet culture. Through my platforms, through the magazine, through the talk show for 25 years, through online —I've been a major contributor to it.

"I cannot tell you how many weight loss shows and makeovers I have done," she continued, adding that the famous "wagon of fat" moment on her talk show was "one of my biggest regrets."

On an episode of her namesake talk show in 1988, Winfrey wheeled out a red wagon containing 67 pounds of animal fat to show her audience how much weight she had lost after going on a crash diet that saw her replace meals with shakes for four months.

The episode drew 62 million viewers , meaning one in four Americans sat down and watched it.

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"The very next day, I began to gain the weight back," Winfrey said of the stunt.

"That wagon of fat moment was set into motion after years and years of thinking that my struggle with my weight was my fault, and it has taken me even up until last week to process the shame I felt privately as my very public yo-yo diet moments became a national joke."

Now, Winfrey told the audience that she wants to support them in their shift toward self-acceptance and healthier mindsets.

"Whatever your path, let's stop the shaming," she said. "We've been told that unless we meet a certain standard of size, that we didn't deserve to be accepted or even to be loved."

Winfreys' comments come two months after she announced that she would be stepping down from her position at WW International , known as WeightWatchers, after almost a decade on its board of directors. Shares for the company plummeted 25% after the news broke.

At the time, she said in a statement that she would be donating her shares to the National Museum of African American History and Culture and would continue to "advise and collaborate with WeightWatchers and CEO Sima Sistani in elevating the conversation around recognizing obesity as a chronic condition, working to reduce stigma, and advocating for health equity."

Shortly after, the Oscar winner helmed the ABC televised special "Shame, Blame and the Weight Loss Revolution," which saw her discuss the growing popularity of weight loss drugs such as Ozempic, Mounjaro, and Wegovy.

Winfrey revealed last year that she uses weight-loss medications to maintain her weight, declining to say which specific drug she takes.

"The fact that there's a medically approved prescription for managing weight and staying healthier, in my lifetime, feels like relief, like redemption, like a gift, and not something to hide behind and once again be ridiculed for," Winfrey said.

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