online learning vs physical learning essay

Online Classes Vs. Traditional Classes Essay

Online vs. in-person classes essay – introduction, online and traditional classes differences, works cited.

The article compares and contrasts online classes and traditional classes. Among the advantages of online classes are flexibility and convenience, while in-person classes offer a more structured learning environment. The author highlights that online lessons can be more cost-effective, although they lack support provided by live interactions. Overall, the online vs. traditional classes essay is very relevant today, and the choice depends on the individual student’s needs and preferences.

Modern technology has infiltrated the education sector and as a result, many college students now prefer taking online classes, as opposed to attending the traditional regular classes. This is because online classes are convenient for such students, and more so for those who have to both work and attend classes.

As such, online learning gives them the flexibility that they needed. In addition, online learning also gives an opportunity to students and professionals who would not have otherwise gone back to school to get the necessary qualifications. However, students who have enrolled for online learning do not benefit from the one-on-one interaction with their peers and teachers. The essay shall endeavor to examine the differences between online classes and the traditional classes, with a preference for the later.

Online classes mainly take place through the internet. As such, online classes lack the regular student teacher interaction that is common with traditional learning. On the other hand, learning in traditional classes involves direct interaction between the student and the instructors (Donovan, Mader and Shinsky 286).

This is beneficial to both the leaner and the instructors because both can be bale to establish a bond. In addition, student attending the traditional classroom often have to adhere to strict guidelines that have been established by the learning institution. As such, students have to adhere to the established time schedules. On the other hand, students attending online classes can learn at their own time and pace.

One advantage of the traditional classes over online classes is that students who are not disciplined enough may not be able to sail through successfully because there is nobody to push them around. With traditional classes however, there are rules to put them in check. As such, students attending traditional classes are more likely to be committed to their education (Donovan et al 286).

Another advantage of the traditional classes is all the doubts that students might be having regarding a given course content can be cleared by the instructor on the spot, unlike online learning whereby such explanations might not be as coherent as the student would have wished.

With the traditional classes, students are rarely provided with the course materials by their instructors, and they are therefore expected to take their own notes. This is important because they are likely to preserve such note and use them later on in their studies. In contrast, online students are provided with course materials in the form of video or audio texts (Sorenson and Johnson 116).

They can also download such course materials online. Such learning materials can be deleted or lost easily compared with handwritten class notes, and this is a risk. Although the basic requirements for a student attending online classes are comparatively les in comparison to students attending traditional classes, nonetheless, it is important to note that online students are also expected to be internet savvy because all learning takes place online.

This would be a disadvantage for the regular student; only that internet savvy is not a requirement. Students undertaking online learning are likely to be withdrawn because they hardly interact one-on-one with their fellow online students or even their instructors. The only form of interaction is online. As such, it becomes hard for them to develop a special bond with other students and instructors. With traditional learning however, students have the freedom to interact freely and this helps to strengthen their existing bond.

Online learning is convenient and has less basic requirements compared with traditional learning. It also allows learners who would have ordinarily not gone back to school to access an education. However, online students do not benefit from a close interaction with their peers and instructors as do their regular counterparts. Also, regular students can engage their instructors more easily and relatively faster in case they want to have certain sections of the course explained, unlike online students.

Donovan, Judy, Mader, Cynthia and Shinsky, John. Constructive student feedback: Online vs. traditional course evaluations. Journal of Interactive Online Learning , 5.3(2006): 284-292.

Sorenson, Lynn, and Johnson, Trav. Online Student Ratings of Instructions . San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2003. Print.

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Physical Learning vs. Online Learning: Which One is Better?

When it comes to learning, there’s a big difference in how people best absorb the knowledge that’s presented to them. Precisely for this reason, online learning, or digital learning, or e-learning as it is also called, is superior to traditional physical learning.

In this blog post, we look at the most prominent advantages of digital learning and why you should choose digital learning over physical learning.

Digital learning is knoweledge where and when it suits you

Have you ever sat in a physical learning environment on a late Monday afternoon? If you have, you probably know how it gets harder and harder to absorb knowledge as time goes on. If you instead move your course online, you can wave tired course participants goodbye. Contrary to the physical learning environment, participants can better maintain concentration online and achieve the desired benefit.

One of the biggest advantages of digital learning is that new knowledge can be accessed when your course participants are ready. Another big advantage is that they can access learning where it best suits them. Do they, for example, learn best on their couch with a cup of coffee in hand? No problem. Are they most ready to absorb knowledge on a Wednesday evening after the children are put to bed? Check! All this and much more is possible with digital learning .

Digital learning is not lost

Do you or your company use physical learning for, for example, onboarding processes, upskilling, or knowledge sharing? If yes, there’s a good change your learning processes aren’t up-to-date anymore.

New knowledge constantly emerges and to stay current, responsible learning and development managers need to optimize their learning processes. But if you’re using physical learning, this is easier said than done. Additionally, you risk loosing all knowledge and learning paths if your learning and development employee leaves the company.

If you instead rely on digital learning courses for your internal and external knowledge sharing processes, you’re guaranteed easy replication of your learning – regardless of whether employees come or go. You also avoid having to spend unnecessary (and expensive) hours in a physical learning environment. And at the same time, you ensure consistent digital learning every time a new employee is onboarded or needs upskilling.

Include interactive digital learning

Now, you’re maybe thinking that digital learning is just about short videos. If that’s correct, we can assure you that digital learning is so much more. While physical learning typically includes traditional blackboard teaching combined with independent learning, the possibilities of digital learning are almost endless.

With digital learning, you choose the best way to convey your knowledge – be it through audio, video, writing, or a combination. In addition, interactive elements such as quiz questions, chat functions and the like can also be used to create an inspiring learning module that maintains users’ interest and optimizes learning.

Transport and geography aren’t obstacle s

Are you currently in the process of developing a new physical course? If you are, you need to consider where it should take place so as many people as possible will benefit from it. It’s one of the necessities of physical learning.

No matter how exciting your course is, it can, however, be difficult to entice people to transport themselves great distances to participate. Your number of possible participants will therefore always be limited by the geographic location of the course.

If you instead create a digital learning course, your participants don’t have to worry about commuting or accommodation in order to participate. Suddenly every one become potential course participants, and it’s possible for you to receive many more registrations.

Optimize your learning process with valuable data

If you’ve ever created a course or learning path before, along the way you’ve probably realized what works and what doesn’t work.

But what if you could systemize these insights and use them to optimize the learning experience for your course participants? And what if this would make your participants want to come back time after time? That’s possible with digital learning.

One of the biggest advantages of digital learning vs. physical learning is the opportunity to quickly, easily, and automatically collect valuable data that you can use to optimize your course. With digital learning, you can, for example, get data on which of your courses are the most popular. But you can also collect data on time consumption, logins, and the user’s trial history.

All this data you can use to optimize your business and stay one step ahead of your competitors.

How do you get started with digital learning?

Are you ready to try digital learning?

We understand. When you use digital learning, you get all the benefits that we have mentioned above – and many more. And it’s easy to get started. We’ve even created a guide on how to get started with your own online academy .

Do you want to make your learning digital for the joy and benefit of your customers? Then book a free demo with us below.

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Secure your free demo today, wait, we have more blog posts, gamification in online learning: how to engage your course participants, how to go from your first online course to a full-fledged online academy, 5 steps to creating successful online learning, what is an lms and when can you use it, functional impairment and e-learning: a social responsibility .

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How Effective Is Online Learning? What the Research Does and Doesn’t Tell Us

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Editor’s Note: This is part of a series on the practical takeaways from research.

The times have dictated school closings and the rapid expansion of online education. Can online lessons replace in-school time?

Clearly online time cannot provide many of the informal social interactions students have at school, but how will online courses do in terms of moving student learning forward? Research to date gives us some clues and also points us to what we could be doing to support students who are most likely to struggle in the online setting.

The use of virtual courses among K-12 students has grown rapidly in recent years. Florida, for example, requires all high school students to take at least one online course. Online learning can take a number of different forms. Often people think of Massive Open Online Courses, or MOOCs, where thousands of students watch a video online and fill out questionnaires or take exams based on those lectures.

In the online setting, students may have more distractions and less oversight, which can reduce their motivation.

Most online courses, however, particularly those serving K-12 students, have a format much more similar to in-person courses. The teacher helps to run virtual discussion among the students, assigns homework, and follows up with individual students. Sometimes these courses are synchronous (teachers and students all meet at the same time) and sometimes they are asynchronous (non-concurrent). In both cases, the teacher is supposed to provide opportunities for students to engage thoughtfully with subject matter, and students, in most cases, are required to interact with each other virtually.

Coronavirus and Schools

Online courses provide opportunities for students. Students in a school that doesn’t offer statistics classes may be able to learn statistics with virtual lessons. If students fail algebra, they may be able to catch up during evenings or summer using online classes, and not disrupt their math trajectory at school. So, almost certainly, online classes sometimes benefit students.

In comparisons of online and in-person classes, however, online classes aren’t as effective as in-person classes for most students. Only a little research has assessed the effects of online lessons for elementary and high school students, and even less has used the “gold standard” method of comparing the results for students assigned randomly to online or in-person courses. Jessica Heppen and colleagues at the American Institutes for Research and the University of Chicago Consortium on School Research randomly assigned students who had failed second semester Algebra I to either face-to-face or online credit recovery courses over the summer. Students’ credit-recovery success rates and algebra test scores were lower in the online setting. Students assigned to the online option also rated their class as more difficult than did their peers assigned to the face-to-face option.

Most of the research on online courses for K-12 students has used large-scale administrative data, looking at otherwise similar students in the two settings. One of these studies, by June Ahn of New York University and Andrew McEachin of the RAND Corp., examined Ohio charter schools; I did another with colleagues looking at Florida public school coursework. Both studies found evidence that online coursetaking was less effective.

About this series

This essay is the fifth in a series that aims to put the pieces of research together so that education decisionmakers can evaluate which policies and practices to implement.

The conveners of this project—Susanna Loeb, the director of Brown University’s Annenberg Institute for School Reform, and Harvard education professor Heather Hill—have received grant support from the Annenberg Institute for this series.

To suggest other topics for this series or join in the conversation, use #EdResearchtoPractice on Twitter.

Read the full series here .

It is not surprising that in-person courses are, on average, more effective. Being in person with teachers and other students creates social pressures and benefits that can help motivate students to engage. Some students do as well in online courses as in in-person courses, some may actually do better, but, on average, students do worse in the online setting, and this is particularly true for students with weaker academic backgrounds.

Students who struggle in in-person classes are likely to struggle even more online. While the research on virtual schools in K-12 education doesn’t address these differences directly, a study of college students that I worked on with Stanford colleagues found very little difference in learning for high-performing students in the online and in-person settings. On the other hand, lower performing students performed meaningfully worse in online courses than in in-person courses.

But just because students who struggle in in-person classes are even more likely to struggle online doesn’t mean that’s inevitable. Online teachers will need to consider the needs of less-engaged students and work to engage them. Online courses might be made to work for these students on average, even if they have not in the past.

Just like in brick-and-mortar classrooms, online courses need a strong curriculum and strong pedagogical practices. Teachers need to understand what students know and what they don’t know, as well as how to help them learn new material. What is different in the online setting is that students may have more distractions and less oversight, which can reduce their motivation. The teacher will need to set norms for engagement—such as requiring students to regularly ask questions and respond to their peers—that are different than the norms in the in-person setting.

Online courses are generally not as effective as in-person classes, but they are certainly better than no classes. A substantial research base developed by Karl Alexander at Johns Hopkins University and many others shows that students, especially students with fewer resources at home, learn less when they are not in school. Right now, virtual courses are allowing students to access lessons and exercises and interact with teachers in ways that would have been impossible if an epidemic had closed schools even a decade or two earlier. So we may be skeptical of online learning, but it is also time to embrace and improve it.

A version of this article appeared in the April 01, 2020 edition of Education Week as How Effective Is Online Learning?

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Argumentative Essay: Online Learning and Educational Access

Conventional learning is evolving with the help of computers and online technology. New ways of learning are now available, and improved access is one of the most important benefits available. People all around the world are experiencing improved mobility as a result of the freedom and potential that online learning provides, and as academic institutions and learning organisations adopt online learning technologies and remote-access learning, formal academic education is becoming increasingly legitimate. This essay argues the contemporary benefits of online learning, and that these benefits significantly outweigh the issues, challenges and disadvantages of online learning.

Online learning is giving people new choices and newfound flexibility with their personal learning and development. Whereas before, formal academic qualifications could only be gained by participating in a full time course on site, the internet has allowed institutions to expand their reach and offer recognized courses on a contact-partial, or totally virtual, basis. Institutions can do so with relatively few extra resources, and for paid courses this constitutes excellent value, and the student benefits with greater educational access and greater flexibility to learn and get qualified even when there lots of other personal commitments to deal with.

Flexibility is certainly one of the most important benefits, but just as important is educational access. On top of the internet’s widespread presence in developed countries, the internet is becoming increasingly available in newly developed and developing countries. Even without considering the general informational exposure that the internet delivers, online academic courses and learning initiatives are becoming more aware of the needs of people from disadvantaged backgrounds, and this means that people from such backgrounds are in a much better position to learn and progress than they used to be.

The biggest argument that raises doubt over online learning is the quality of online courses in comparison to conventional courses. Are such online courses good enough for employers to take notice? The second biggest argument is the current reality that faces many people from disadvantaged backgrounds, despite the improvements made in this area in recent years – they do not have the level of basic access needed to benefit from online learning. In fact, there are numerous sources of evidence that claim disadvantaged students are not receiving anywhere near the sort of benefits that online learning institutions and promoters are trying to instigate. Currently there are many organisations, campaigns and initiatives that are working to expand access to higher education. With such high participation, it can be argued that it is only a matter of time before the benefits are truly realised, but what about the global online infrastructure?

There is another argument that is very difficult to dispel, and that is the response of different types of students to the online learning paradigm. Evidence shows that there are certain groups of students that benefit from college distance learning much more than other groups. In essence, students must be highly motivated and highly disciplined if they are to learn effectively in their own private environment.

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June 4, 2020

Ask the Expert: Online learning vs. classroom learning

Christine Greenhow , associate professor of educational technology in the College of Education,  2018 Recipient of MSU’s Teacher-Scholar Award,  answers questions about online and classroom learning.  

Q: What are the advantages of online learning, compared to in-person classroom learning?  

A: Online learning can be as good or even better than in-person classroom learning. Research has shown that students in online learning performed better than those receiving face-to-face instruction, but it has to be done right. The best online learning combines elements where students go at their own pace, on their own time, and are set up to think deeply and critically about subject matter  combined with  elements where students go online at the same time and interact with other students, their teacher and content.

Q: What are the disadvantages?

A: Teachers need to distill their key goals and leverage technology features to meet them. Used well — online chat, discussion forums, replayable video lessons, online meetings, etc. offer tremendous opportunities to make students more engaged (and accountable) compared to time-strapped classrooms where students hide and few hands shoot up.

The downside is that this stuff takes work; we know from research that pedagogy matters. Educators can’t just scan the textbook, record the lesson, put them online and expect the same or better learning. 

Q: Are there social, developmental or other pros or cons of virtual education?

A: A challenge we are facing is inadequate access to the technology and social infrastructure needed for virtual education.  In the same way our country invested in our physical infrastructure, such as the interstate highway system, this pandemic has highlighted the need for a similar investment in our technology infrastructure and, beyond that, research suggests the social and instructional supports needed for all students to successfully learn with technology. Students without reliable, fast internet, suitable devices for schoolwork or people around them to help are spotlighted in the shift to virtual education. 

Q: Since online learning is continuing this school year, how do you think K-12 education is impacted?

A: Since online learning — or a hybrid online/in-person model — continues, this new normal may prove better than the old. Having raced to close gaps to virtual teaching and learning in Spring 2020, K-12 education will likely seek to continue the expanded technology infrastructure, flexibility and virtual learning benefits to improve education long-term. For learners unable to attend school in physical classrooms for various reasons, the pandemic-initiated move to virtual learning could be a welcome and permanent improvement.

Q: Are there benefits or drawbacks of online learning that are specific to university settings?

A: Having taught and studied in-person and online courses since 2012, I see benefits of online and hybrid learning specific to university settings. Working professionals, international students and others can get the high-quality education needed for career advancement despite geographic and other constraints. Offering degree programs in two modes, as we do at Michigan State, means that online students can learn alongside on-campus students, bringing a diversity of experiences to classrooms from which everyone benefits. The future of university education is giving learners choices, which todays’ technologies make possible.

By: Christine Greenhow

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Compare and Contrast Essay: Online Classes vs. Traditional Classes

Over the year 2020, virtual learning has become the standard for most schools. It may be convenient, but it isn’t the best way students should be learning. Traditional Classes are easily more effective. Traditional classes are more effective than online classes because they increase attendance, improve test results, and benefit the student’s overall social interactions. During online classes, it's easy to put off work or get distracted while trying to get work done. However, traditional classes, require you to be more responsible and disciplined, ultimately increasing attendance. As online classes become more prevalent, you’ll also see students’ mental health degrade. This is a result of the fewer social interactions, that students would normally find in traditional classes.

During online classes, it’s easy to put off work and stay on task while trying to get work done. However, traditional classes require you to get up every morning and maintain a schedule causing you to have a little bit of self-discipline. Therefore, traditional classes increase attendance and engagement. According to “challengesuccess.org”, it states, “42% report a decrease in engagement in learning.” This percentage alone shows the volume of students that are disconnected from their online schooling. The students aren’t at fault here, whenever you combine your home life with school life, it’s easy to become lazy. This is because students are used to their home as being somewhere you relax. Now when you add work from online classes to the mix, they often push it to the side. As a result of lack of attendance, students also struggle in other categories, such as test results.

Students in online classes often find themselves struggling to stay engaged in the structure, causing their test scores to plummet. However, with limited distractions in the classroom, traditional schooling improves test results. According to “digitalcollections.dordt.edu”, it states “the math scores of the public school's students versus the online students (p < 0.05). This indicates that the public school's students outperformed the online students”, although the traditional schooling barely outperformed the online students, there is still other things that could invalidate online school students scores. According to “Contrasting Traditional In-Class Exams with Frequent Online Testing” it says, “Although there are many reasons why online and in-class exam scores might differ, one of the most troubling explanations would be that these students were more likely to cheat” This shows how even though the test results may appear close, the credibility behind the scores aren’t the same. Students aren’t learning the content; they are just getting grades. Furthermore, if students aren’t learning the content they are provided with, nothing is truly being accomplished.

As online classes become more prevalent, you’ll also see students’ mental health degrade. This is a result of the fewer social interactions, that students would normally find in traditional classes. According to “kentuckycounselingcenter.com”, it says,” The lack of social interaction in online learning leads to feelings of loneliness, lack of motivation, and isolation.” This type of void will leave the student at rock bottom. This will directly cause students to perform poorly when it comes to schoolwork. However, throughout the school year of traditional school, students have ample opportunity to join clubs, make friends or just have a reason to get up and get ready for the day. Activities like these, which may not be available to online students, will prevent traditional students from falling into the rabbit hole of depression. Furthermore, getting out and networking will leave your headspace in a better place, we can all relate after being couped up throughout the pandemic.

When determining the effectiveness between online school and traditional school, traditional school prevails due to the increased engagement among students, more accurate test scores, and overall better mental health for the students. Online students find it rather difficult to stay engaged in their work, however in a classroom setting students will find it easier to stay on task. Online students tests scores have questionable credibility, whether it’s between unfair advantages or if the students are learning the content at all, traditional classes have more accurate test scores. Mental Health is important, due to the lack of social interactions of online school it doesn’t have the same opportunities traditional schools does. With all these gathered statements it's clear to see, traditional classes are more beneficial when it comes to overall performance. However, due to the circumstances of the year 2020, there wasn’t much choice when it came to the type of schooling available.

Works cited

Center, Ky Counseling. "Mental Health Effects of Online Learning." Kentucky Counseling Center. 20 Apr. 2021. Web. 14 Oct. 2021. <https://kentuckycounselingcenter.com/mental-health-effects-of-online-learning/>.

NBC News. "February 2021 - Challenge Success." Web. 13 Oct. 2021. <https://challengesuccess.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/CS-NBC-Study-Kids-Under-Pressure-PUBLISHED.pdf>.

Schultz, Sarah. "Digital Collections @ Dordt." Web. 12 Oct. 2021. <https://digitalcollections.dordt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1087&context=med_theses>.

Still, Mary Lynn. "Contrasting Traditional In-class Exams ... - Researchgate.net." Web. 14 Oct. 2021. <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285904341_Contrasting_Traditional_In-Class_Exams_with_Frequent_Online_Testing>.

Tucker, Shelia. "Distance Education: Better, Worse, or as Good as Traditional Education?" Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration. University of West Georgia Distance and Distributed Education Center. Web. 15 Oct. 2021. <https://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter44/tucker44.html>.

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A Comparison of Student Learning Outcomes: Online Education vs. Traditional Classroom Instruction

Despite the prevalence of online learning today, it is often viewed as a less favorable option when compared to the traditional, in-person educational experience. Criticisms of online learning come from various sectors, like employer groups, college faculty, and the general public, and generally includes a lack of perceived quality as well as rigor. Additionally, some students report feelings of social isolation in online learning (Protopsaltis & Baum, 2019).

In my experience as an online student as well as an online educator, online learning has been just the opposite. I have been teaching in a fully online master’s degree program for the last three years and have found it to be a rich and rewarding experience for students and faculty alike. As an instructor, I have felt more connected to and engaged with my online students when compared to in-person students. I have also found that students are actively engaged with course content and demonstrate evidence of higher-order thinking through their work. Students report high levels of satisfaction with their experiences in online learning as well as the program overall as indicated in their Student Evaluations of Teaching  (SET) at the end of every course. I believe that intelligent course design, in addition to my engagement in professional development related to teaching and learning online, has greatly influenced my experience.

In an article by Wiley Education Services, authors identified the top six challenges facing US institutions of higher education, and include:

• Declining student enrollment
• Financial difficulties
• Fewer high school graduates
• Decreased state funding
• Lower world rankings
• Declining international student enrollments

Of the strategies that institutions are exploring to remedy these issues, online learning is reported to be a key focus for many universities (“Top Challenges Facing US Higher Education”, n.d.).

Babson Survey Research Group, 2016, [PDF file].

Some of the questions I would like to explore in further research include:

• What factors influence engagement and connection in distance education?
• Are the learning outcomes in online education any different than the outcomes achieved in a traditional classroom setting?
• How do course design and instructor training influence these factors?
• In what ways might educational technology tools enhance the overall experience for students and instructors alike?

In this literature review, I have chosen to focus on a comparison of student learning outcomes in online education versus the traditional classroom setting. My hope is that this research will unlock the answers to some of the additional questions posed above and provide additional direction for future research.

Online Learning Defined

According to Mayadas, Miller, and Sener (2015), online courses are defined by all course activity taking place online with no required in-person sessions or on-campus activity. It is important to note, however, that the Babson Survey Research Group, a prominent organization known for their surveys and research in online learning, defines online learning as a course in which 80-100% occurs online. While this distinction was made in an effort to provide consistency in surveys year over year, most institutions continue to define online learning as learning that occurs 100% online.

Blended or hybrid learning is defined by courses that mix face to face meetings, sessions, or activities with online work. The ratio of online to classroom activity is often determined by the label in which the course is given. For example, a blended classroom course would likely include more time spent in the classroom, with the remaining work occurring outside of the classroom with the assistance of technology. On the other hand, a blended online course would contain a greater percentage of work done online, with some required in-person sessions or meetings (Mayadas, Miller, & Sener, 2015).

A classroom course (also referred to as a traditional course) refers to course activity that is anchored to a regular meeting time.

Enrollment Trends in Online Education

There has been an upward trend in the number of postsecondary students enrolled in online courses in the U.S. since 2002. A report by the Babson Survey Research Group showed that in 2016, more than six million students were enrolled in at least one online course. This number accounted for 31.6% of all college students (Seaman, Allen, & Seaman, 2018). Approximately one in three students are enrolled in online courses with no in-person component. Of these students, 47% take classes in a fully online program. The remaining 53% take some, but not all courses online (Protopsaltis & Baum, 2019).

(Seaman et al., 2016, p. 11)

Perceptions of Online Education

In a 2016 report by the Babson Survey Research Group, surveys of faculty between 2002-2015 showed approval ratings regarding the value and legitimacy of online education ranged from 28-34 percent. While numbers have increased and decreased over the thirteen-year time frame, faculty approval was at 29 percent in 2015, just 1 percent higher than the approval ratings noted in 2002 – indicating that perceptions have remained relatively unchanged over the years (Allen, Seaman, Poulin, & Straut, 2016).

(Allen, I.E., Seaman, J., Poulin, R., Taylor Strout, T., 2016, p. 26)

In a separate survey of chief academic officers, perceptions of online learning appeared to align with that of faculty. In this survey, leaders were asked to rate their perceived quality of learning outcomes in online learning when compared to traditional in-person settings. While the percentage of leaders rating online learning as “inferior” or “somewhat inferior” to traditional face-to-face courses dropped from 43 percent to 23 percent between 2003 to 2012, the number rose again to 29 percent in 2015 (Allen, Seaman, Poulin, & Straut, 2016).

Faculty and academic leaders in higher education are not alone when it comes to perceptions of inferiority when compared to traditional classroom instruction. A 2013 Gallop poll assessing public perceptions showed that respondents rated online education as “worse” in five of the seven categories seen in the table below.

(Saad, L., Busteed, B., and Ogisi, M., 2013, October 15)

In general, Americans believed that online education provides both lower quality and less individualized instruction and less rigorous testing and grading when compared to the traditional classroom setting. In addition, respondents also thought that employers would perceive a degree from an online program less positively when compared to a degree obtained through traditional classroom instruction (Saad, Busteed, & Ogisi, 2013).

Student Perceptions of Online Learning

So what do students have to say about online learning? In  Online College Students 2015: Comprehensive Data on Demands and Preferences,  1500 college students who were either enrolled or planning to enroll in a fully online undergraduate, graduate, or certificate program were surveyed. 78 percent of students believed the academic quality of their online learning experience to be better than or equal to their experiences with traditional classroom learning. Furthermore, 30 percent of online students polled said that they would likely not attend classes face to face if their program were not available online (Clienfelter & Aslanian, 2015). The following video describes some of the common reasons why students choose to attend college online.

How Online Learning Affects the Lives of Students ( Pearson North America, 2018, June 25)

In a 2015 study comparing student perceptions of online learning with face to face learning, researchers found that the majority of students surveyed expressed a preference for traditional face to face classes. A content analysis of the findings, however, brought attention to two key ideas: 1) student opinions of online learning may be based on “old typology of distance education” (Tichavsky, et al, 2015, p.6) as opposed to actual experience, and 2) a student’s inclination to choose one form over another is connected to issues of teaching presence and self-regulated learning (Tichavsky et al, 2015).

Student Learning Outcomes

Given the upward trend in student enrollment in online courses in postsecondary schools and the steady ratings of the low perceived value of online learning by stakeholder groups, it should be no surprise that there is a large body of literature comparing student learning outcomes in online classes to the traditional classroom environment.

While a majority of the studies reviewed found no significant difference in learning outcomes when comparing online to traditional courses (Cavanaugh & Jacquemin, 2015; Kemp & Grieve, 2014; Lyke & Frank 2012; Nichols, Shaffer, & Shockey, 2003; Stack, 2015; Summers, Waigandt, & Whittaker, 2005), there were a few outliers. In a 2019 report by Protopsaltis & Baum, authors confirmed that while learning is often found to be similar between the two mediums, students “with weak academic preparation and those from low-income and underrepresented backgrounds consistently underperform in fully-online environments” (Protopsaltis & Baum, 2019, n.p.). An important consideration, however, is that these findings are primarily based on students enrolled in online courses at the community college level – a demographic with a historically high rate of attrition compared to students attending four-year institutions (Ashby, Sadera, & McNary, 2011). Furthermore, students enrolled in online courses have been shown to have a 10 – 20 percent increase in attrition over their peers who are enrolled in traditional classroom instruction (Angelino, Williams, & Natvig, 2007). Therefore, attrition may be a key contributor to the lack of achievement seen in this subgroup of students enrolled in online education.

In contrast, there were a small number of studies that showed that online students tend to outperform those enrolled in traditional classroom instruction. One study, in particular, found a significant difference in test scores for students enrolled in an online, undergraduate business course. The confounding variable, in this case, was age. Researchers found a significant difference in performance in nontraditional age students over their traditional age counterparts. Authors concluded that older students may elect to take online classes for practical reasons related to outside work schedules, and this may, in turn, contribute to the learning that occurs overall (Slover & Mandernach, 2018).

In a meta-analysis and review of online learning spanning the years 1996 to 2008, authors from the US Department of Education found that students who took all or part of their classes online showed better learning outcomes than those students who took the same courses face-to-face. In these cases, it is important to note that there were many differences noted in the online and face-to-face versions, including the amount of time students spent engaged with course content. The authors concluded that the differences in learning outcomes may be attributed to learning design as opposed to the specific mode of delivery (Means, Toyoma, Murphy, Bakia, Jones, 2009).

Limitations and Opportunities

After examining the research comparing student learning outcomes in online education with the traditional classroom setting, there are many limitations that came to light, creating areas of opportunity for additional research. In many of the studies referenced, it is difficult to determine the pedagogical practices used in course design and delivery. Research shows the importance of student-student and student-teacher interaction in online learning, and the positive impact of these variables on student learning (Bernard, Borokhovski, Schmid, Tamim, & Abrami, 2014). Some researchers note that while many studies comparing online and traditional classroom learning exist, the methodologies and design issues make it challenging to explain the results conclusively (Mollenkopf, Vu, Crow, & Black, 2017). For example, some online courses may be structured in a variety of ways, i.e. self-paced, instructor-led and may be classified as synchronous or asynchronous (Moore, Dickson-Deane, Galyan, 2011)

Another gap in the literature is the failure to use a common language across studies to define the learning environment. This issue is explored extensively in a 2011 study by Moore, Dickson-Deane, and Galyan. Here, the authors examine the differences between e-learning, online learning, and distance learning in the literature, and how the terminology is often used interchangeably despite the variances in characteristics that define each. The authors also discuss the variability in the terms “course” versus “program”. This variability in the literature presents a challenge when attempting to compare one study of online learning to another (Moore, Dickson-Deane, & Galyan, 2011).

Finally, much of the literature in higher education focuses on undergraduate-level classes within the United States. Little research is available on outcomes in graduate-level classes as well as general information on student learning outcomes and perceptions of online learning outside of the U.S.

As we look to the future, there are additional questions to explore in the area of online learning. Overall, this research led to questions related to learning design when comparing the two modalities in higher education. Further research is needed to investigate the instructional strategies used to enhance student learning, especially in students with weaker academic preparation or from underrepresented backgrounds. Given the integral role that online learning is expected to play in the future of higher education in the United States, it may be even more critical to move beyond comparisons of online versus face to face. Instead, choosing to focus on sound pedagogical quality with consideration for the mode of delivery as a means for promoting positive learning outcomes.

Allen, I.E., Seaman, J., Poulin, R., & Straut, T. (2016). Online Report Card: Tracking Online Education in the United States [PDF file]. Babson Survey Research Group.   http://onlinelearningsurvey.com/reports/onlinereportcard.pdf

Angelino, L. M., Williams, F. K., & Natvig, D. (2007). Strategies to engage online students and reduce attrition rates.  The Journal of Educators Online , 4(2).

Ashby, J., Sadera, W.A., & McNary, S.W. (2011). Comparing student success between developmental math courses offered online, blended, and face-to-face.  Journal of Interactive Online Learning , 10(3), 128-140.

Bernard, R.M., Borokhovski, E., Schmid, R.F., Tamim, R.M., & Abrami, P.C. (2014). A meta-analysis of blended learning and technology use in higher education: From the general to the applied.  Journal of Computing in Higher Education , 26(1), 87-122.

Cavanaugh, J.K. & Jacquemin, S.J. (2015). A large sample comparison of grade based student learning outcomes in online vs. face-fo-face courses.  Journal of Asynchronous Learning Network,  19(2).

Clinefelter, D. L., & Aslanian, C. B. (2015). Online college students 2015: Comprehensive data on demands and preferences.   https://www.learninghouse.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/OnlineCollegeStudents2015.pdf

Golubovskaya, E.A., Tikhonova, E.V., & Mekeko, N.M. (2019). Measuring learning outcome and students’ satisfaction in ELT (e-learning against conventional learning). Paper presented the ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, 34-38. Doi: 10.1145/3337682.3337704

Kemp, N. & Grieve, R. (2014). Face-to-face or face-to-screen? Undergraduates’ opinions and test performance in classroom vs. online learning.  Frontiers in Psychology , 5. Doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01278

Lyke, J., & Frank, M. (2012). Comparison of student learning outcomes in online and traditional classroom environments in a psychology course. (Cover story).  Journal of Instructional Psychology , 39(3/4), 245-250.

Mayadas, F., Miller, G. & Senner, J.  Definitions of E-Learning Courses and Programs Version 2.0.  Online Learning Consortium.  https://onlinelearningconsortium.org/updated-e-learning-definitions-2/

Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., Bakia, M., & Jones, K. (2010). Evaluation of evidence-based practices in online learning: A meta-analysis and review of online learning studies. US Department of Education.  https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/evidence-based-practices/finalreport.pdf

Mollenkopf, D., Vu, P., Crow, S, & Black, C. (2017). Does online learning deliver? A comparison of student teacher outcomes from candidates in face to face and online program pathways.  Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration.  20(1).

Moore, J.L., Dickson-Deane, C., & Galyan, K. (2011). E-Learning, online learning, and distance learning environments: Are they the same?  The Internet and Higher Education . 14(2), 129-135.

Nichols, J., Shaffer, B., & Shockey, K. (2003). Changing the face of instruction: Is online or in-class more effective?   College & Research Libraries , 64(5), 378–388.  https://doi-org.proxy2.library.illinois.edu/10.5860/crl.64.5.378

Parsons-Pollard, N., Lacks, T.R., & Grant, P.H. (2008). A comparative assessment of student learning outcomes in large online and traditional campus based introduction to criminal justice courses.  Criminal Justice Studies , 2, 225-239.

Pearson North America. (2018, June 25).  How Online Learning Affects the Lives of Students . YouTube.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPDMagf_oAE

Protopsaltis, S., & Baum, S. (2019). Does online education live up to its promise? A look at the evidence and implications for federal policy [PDF file].   http://mason.gmu.edu/~sprotops/OnlineEd.pdf

Saad, L., Busteed, B., & Ogisi, M. (October 15, 2013). In U.S., Online Education Rated Best for Value and Options.  https://news.gallup.com/poll/165425/online-education-rated-best-value-options.aspx

Stack, S. (2015). Learning Outcomes in an Online vs Traditional Course.  International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning , 9(1).

Seaman, J.E., Allen, I.E., & Seaman, J. (2018). Grade Increase: Tracking Distance Education in the United States [PDF file]. Babson Survey Research Group.  http://onlinelearningsurvey.com/reports/gradeincrease.pdf

Slover, E. & Mandernach, J. (2018). Beyond Online versus Face-to-Face Comparisons: The Interaction of Student Age and Mode of Instruction on Academic Achievement.  Journal of Educators Online,  15(1) .  https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1168945.pdf

Summers, J., Waigandt, A., & Whittaker, T. (2005). A Comparison of Student Achievement and Satisfaction in an Online Versus a Traditional Face-to-Face Statistics Class.  Innovative Higher Education , 29(3), 233–250.  https://doi-org.proxy2.library.illinois.edu/10.1007/s10755-005-1938-x

Tichavsky, L.P., Hunt, A., Driscoll, A., & Jicha, K. (2015). “It’s just nice having a real teacher”: Student perceptions of online versus face-to-face instruction.  International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning.  9(2).

Wiley Education Services. (n.d.).  Top challenges facing U.S. higher education.  https://edservices.wiley.com/top-higher-education-challenges/

July 17, 2020

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• v.16(4); 2021 Oct

Comparison of learning effectiveness between physical classroom and online learning for dental education during the COVID-19 pandemic

Julia yu-fong chang.

a Department of Dentistry, National Taiwan University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan

b Graduate Institute of Clinical Dentistry, School of Dentistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan

c Graduate Institute of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan

Ling-Hsia Wang

d Center for the Literature and Art, Hsin Sheng Junior College of Medical Care and Management, Taoyuan, Taiwan

Tzu-Chiang Lin

e Center for the Liberal Arts, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung, Taiwan

Feng-Chou Cheng

f School of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan

g Science Education Center, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan

Chun-Pin Chiang

h Department of Dentistry, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien, Taiwan

Background/purpose

Online learning has been used to continue dental education activities during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). This study aimed to compare the learning effectiveness between physical classroom and online class learning for dental education during the COVID-19 pandemic by the questionnaire survey.

Materials and methods

A questionnaire-based online survey was used to evaluate the learning effectiveness on the dental students who took the compulsory course entitled “oral pathology and diagnosis” in School of Dentistry, National Taiwan University in 2021. Student's t -test and Mann–Whitney U test were used to analyze the difference in learning effectiveness between physical classroom and online class learning for dental education during the COVID-19 pandemic.

In this study, dental students tended to have a viewpoint that the learning effectiveness of online class learning was better than that of physical classroom learning. On the contrary, they tended to have a viewpoint that the convenience and fairness of physical classroom examination was better than that of online examination (all P -values < 0.001).

We conclude that our dental students are ready to take online courses. In terms of blended learning courses, the combination of physical classroom and online courses is the future trend of dental education. At this moment, dental schools must prepare their abilities for the implementation of online courses to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic and the next crisis, as well as for the needs of future dental education.

Introduction

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by a severe acute respiratory disease coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a highly contagious disease that not only has a major impact on health, but also violates global economic and social activities. The way of transmission of this virus is through both direct contact and air droplets. 1 , 2 , 3 This leads to the embarrassing situation of the government adopting a blockade or isolation policy in the end to limit the spread of infection. This policy becomes the best strategy of choice to prevent the COVID-19 pandemic from spreading widely. 4 , 5 Through blockade or isolation, social distance can be maintained and direct human contact or aerosol pollution can be prevented, therefore curbing the pandemic. However, this strategy also has some adverse effects of restricting social activities. 6 , 7

Compared with the world under the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, Taiwan still maintains a normal social life in 2020. For example, the government, schools, and hospitals all operate as usual in 2020. Unfortunately, Taiwan began to have a large number of local infections of COVID-19 at the end of April 2021. Therefore, the Taiwan's government raises the pandemic alert to the third level in May. The Ministry of Education announced that students of all levels stop attending classes in schools from May 19, 2021. Moreover, this situation continued until the end of the semester. In order not to interrupt students' learning, all schools switched to online learning for all courses.

Dental education is mainly composed of three components: lectures and problem-based learning interactions, simulated training courses, and clinical skill training. These three components all require close contact with people, and social distance cannot always be maintained during the process of the dental education. 4 Ensuring the health of dental students is not only by strengthening the infection control protocol in the clinical practice, but also by recommending distance learning through online learning or e-learning to avoid crowding of people and spreading of the COVID-19 pandemic. 7 Although online learning has been used as a supplementary teaching method for distance dental education since 1990, dental education based on its characteristics still has to take face-to-face education in physical classrooms as the mainstream. 8 Since the global outbreak of the novel coronavirus, the social lifestyles have undergone great changes. Many dental schools have been locked down because of the COVID-19 pandemic, and most of the lectures were switched to the online mode to keep on the learning progress for their dental students. 9

The efficiency of the online learning may be affected by many factors, and there were few studies on the comparison of the difference in learning effectiveness between physical classroom and online learning for dental education in the past. However, due to timing coincidence in Taiwan in 2021, dental students who took the “oral pathology and diagnosis” course which was composed of lectures, microscopic interpretation, dental chart writing, and small group discussion in our dental school had the opportunity to experience both physical classroom and online learning in the same semester. Therefore, we also had the opportunity to study the difference in learning effectiveness between physical classroom and online learning for dental education by the participatory observation and questionnaire survey. This study aimed to evaluate the difference in responses of dental students who experienced both physical classroom and online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. We believe that the result of this study is very important to ensure and improve the quality of dental education in the new-style social life during the COVID-19 pandemic period.

Participants

Thirty-seven students who took the compulsory course entitled “oral pathology and diagnosis” in School of Dentistry, National Taiwan University were included in this study.

Teaching process and participatory observation

We adopted a diverse teaching model. There were four components in this oral pathology and diagnosis course, including lectures, microscopic interpretation, dental chart writing, and small group discussion. The interdisciplinary problem-based learning in a small group was the teaching model. The teachers gave lectures about oral pathology and diagnosis, microscopic interpretation training about oral and dental diseases by virtual microscopy, simulated training for dental chart writing in the first three quarters of the semester. Then, based on the knowledge and skills acquired, the students had a small group discussion on the topics about oral and dental diseases in the last quarter of the semester.

Due to timing coincidence, we completed lectures, microscopic interpretation training, and dental chart writing with physical classroom learning, and then completed small group discussion with online learning. In addition, the mid-term examination (including laboratory class of microscopic examination) was held in the physical classroom, and the final examination was held online. Therefore, we experienced both modes of physical classroom and online teaching, learning, and examination in the same semester. We participated in it, observed students’ reactions to different learning and examination modes, and then further designed the questionnaire survey.

Survey tool

After the final examination in June 2021, we invited all dental students who took the course of oral pathology and diagnosis to fill out the questionnaires. All dental students were invited to join in this questionnaire survey at their free will to fill out the questionnaires without the pressure from the investigators.

A semi-structured questionnaire-based online survey (Google form) was used as the survey tool to evaluate the learning effectiveness of physical classroom and online learning and examination by undergraduate dental students who took the course of oral pathology and diagnosis. The questionnaire was designed to obligate the participants to answer all the questions and to make sure that the returned electronic survey forms were all complete. The questions included the gender and investigated questions. These investigated questions included (1) the weekly learning time after class during the period of physical classroom or online class learning, (2) the learning effectiveness and the courage to speak during the physical classroom or online class learning, and (3) the agreement on the various investigated items about the comparison of learning effectiveness between the physical classroom and online class learning as well as examination. In the investigated questions of part (3), the answer was designed to let the participant to raise a score ranging from 1 to 4. If the intensity or response for each question was extremely important, the score was 4. In contrast, if the intensity or response for each question was extremely unimportant, the score was 1. The mean score was 2.5 or more, which meant that on average, answerers agreed that the investigated items were important, and the higher the score, the higher the degree of their agreement. The participants were suggested to fill the score in fresh memory. There were open questions in the final questions of parts (2) and (3) of the questionnaire. The participants could fill any suggestion and/or opinion (including advantage or disadvantage).

In addition, we divided students' examination scores into three categories, which included (1) physical classroom learning and physical classroom examination, (2) physical classroom learning and online examination, and (3) online learning and online examination. By this way, it was used to compare the differences in students’ learning achievements under different learning methods and different examination methods.

Statistical analysis

All data collected were stored in excel files and used for statistical analysis. The differences in the mean scores (the degree of agreement) of various investigated items were compared between physical classroom and online learning by Student's t -test and Mann–Whitney U test. The result was significant if the P -value was less than 0.05.

Demographic data

Thirty-seven students who took the course of oral pathology and diagnosis, including one third grade-year student, 34 fourth grade-year students and 2 fifth grade-year students. Among them, 34 students who filled out the questionnaires were included in this study. Of these 34 students, 22 were males and 12 were females ( Table 1 ). The questionnaire response rate was 91.9% (34/37).

The weekly learning time after class during the period of physical classroom or online class learning.

Observation process

Traditionally, our course of oral pathology and diagnosis has been carried out in the physical classroom with face-to-face education. In the past, a real microscope should be used for microscopic interpretation teaching in a microscopy laboratory. Our current microscopic laboratory class used virtual slides of histological sections. The students could use their own facility, either laptop or iPad, in a general physical classroom. 10 In 2021, before the third level of the pandemic alert, we completed the lectures A for 26 h, microscopic interpretation A for 8 h, and the mid-term examination in the physical classroom. Then, we completed the lectures B for 32 h and microscopic interpretation B for 4 h after the mid-term examination in the physical classroom. Moreover, the dental chart writing was also covered in the courses mentioned above. After the third level of alert, we completed the small group discussion for 16 h and the final examination online. Therefore, we completed 70 h (81%) of courses in the physical classroom and 16 h (19%) of courses online in this semester.

We observed that our dental students all were financially able to afford the relevant computer equipment and had sufficient computer operation capabilities, so they could learn online at home or in the dormitory. There were only some technical problems, such as internet speed or software conflicts, but these could be overcome. The course of small group discussion was conducted live. Many students responded that small group discussion should be conducted in the physical classroom to have better interaction between teachers and students. They also recommended that the courses of lectures and microscopic interpretation were more suitable for online learning, because pre-recorded lectures could be watched repeatedly online, which was helpful for learning. We used an internet block system in terms of a lockdown browser such as Zuvio for an online examination. Although students could accept this test method, there were still differences in the level of computer equipment and operational capabilities among students. At the final examination, one-third of the students failed to upload their answers to the computer system, so we gave these students extra time to complete the examination, which raised questions about the fairness of the examination and the risk of cheating.

We also observed that other operational courses and clerkship courses in our dental school could only be temporarily stopped under this wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to the use of the virtual microscopy, our operational courses in oral pathology and diagnosis, such as microscopic interpretation, became one of the few dental courses that could be completed in this wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Learning attitude of students during the physical classroom or online class learning

According to students’ answers on the questionnaires, regardless of the physical classroom or online class learning, most of their weekly learning time after class was more than 4 h ( Table 1 ). In other words, their learning time after class would not be different due to the different ways of class. Except for the students who thought that the learning effectiveness and the courage to speak during the physical classroom or online class learning were the same, most students thought that the online class learning had better learning effectiveness (15, 44.12%), while the physical classroom learning had more courage to speak (13, 38.24%) ( Table 2 ).

The learning effectiveness and the courage to speak during the physical classroom or online class learning.

The comparisons of learning effectiveness between the physical classroom learning and online class learning as well as between the physical classroom examination and online examination

There were six investigated items for learning methods and two investigated items for examination methods ( Table 3 ). For learning methods, these items included (1) Enable students to use time to study efficiently; (2) The operation method is friendly; (3) The image on the screen is clear; (4) The learning method is convenient; (5) Facilitate students to learn oral pathology and diagnosis; and (6) Stimulate students’ interest in learning. For examination methods, these items included (7) The test method is friendly in operation; and (8) The test method is fair. The agreement for the degree of importance of each item was relatively high, and all the mean scores and the proportion of those who answered as important of each item were 2.6–3.3 and 58%–98%, respectively, except the investigated item (7) for the online examination, in which the mean score and the proportion were 2.24 and 44.12%, respectively ( Table 3 ).

Comparisons of learning effectiveness between the physical classroom learning and online class learning as well as between the physical classroom examination and online examination.

∗ P  < 0.05; ∗∗∗ P  < 0.001.

The differences in the mean scores of investigated items for learning methods and examination methods between the physical classroom and online class. The mean scores of the items (1) to (6) of online class were higher than those of physical classroom. Among them, the mean scores of the items (1), (3) and (4) were significantly higher than those of physical classroom (all P -values < 0.05), indicating that students tend to have a viewpoint that the learning effectiveness of online class learning is better than that of physical classroom learning. On the contrary, the mean scores of the items (7) and (8) of physical classroom were significantly higher than those of online class (all P -values < 0.001), indicating that students tend to have a viewpoint that the convenience and fairness of physical classroom examination is better than those of online examination.

Open question

The free comments from the dental students for the open questions could be summarized as follows. (1) The physical classroom learning had more opportunity to interact with teachers and classmates, and could practice consultation and charting. (2) The online learning was not restricted by geography and saved commuting time. The disadvantage was that the quality of internet connection was not always stable. (3) I felt comfortable to speak and raise questions in a physical class because I was used to having face-to-face communication with the teacher. I was used to asking the teacher questions after class, and the feedback was relatively immediate. (4) I felt comfortable to speak and raise questions in an online class because I could leave a message, and there was no pressure and no need to interrupt the teacher in class. (5) It was recommended that the teaching methods for computed tomography interpretation, actual case discussion, and participation in clinical consultation and diagnosis could stimulate my interest in learning. (6) The physical classroom examination could test the learning effectiveness and was fair. (7) The online examination had problems of equipment and internet speed differences, which might affect fairness.

The test scores of different learning methods and different examination methods

The results of the mid-term and final examinations are shown in Table 4 . The test scores represented students' learning outcomes and their acquired histopathological diagnosis ability. In order to compare whether students’ performance was affected by different learning methods and different examination methods, we used the median scores of lectures A, microscopic interpretation A, and lectures B to divide students into high-score and low-score groups, respectively.

The test scores of different learning methods and different examination methods.

Regarding high-score and low-score groups of lectures A, the performance of high-score group for lectures A was significantly better than that of the low-score group ( P  < 0.001), and the performance of the high-score group for lectures B was also significantly better than that of the low-score group ( P  < 0.05), indicating that the students’ performance in lectures is not different under different test methods.

On the other hand, regarding high-score and low-score groups of microscopic interpretation A, the performance of high-score group for microscopic interpretation A was significantly better than that of the low-score group ( P  < 0.001), but there was no significant difference in the median score of microscopic interpretation B, indicating that online examination may shorten the gap of the students’ performance in microscopic interpretation between high-score and low-score groups.

In addition, regarding high-score and low-score groups of lectures B, the performance of high-score group for lectures B was significantly better than that of the low-score group ( P  < 0.001), but there was no significant difference in the median score of small group discussion, also indicating that online class may shorten the gap of the students’ performance between high-score and low-score groups ( Table 5 ).

Grouping by median score for comparisons of the test scores of different learning methods and different examination methods.

The COVID-19 pandemic has become a major public health threat around the world without boundaries among different countries. 11 , 12 Due to its highly contagious nature, it seriously affects the global economy and human physical and mental health, forcing the world to enter another new-style society. 9 In Taiwan, dental education that has been performed for more than six decades needs a close contact with people in the past time. 13 Before 2020, domestic dental education has still maintained the traditional teaching methods in terms of face-to-face education in the physical classroom. Due to the characteristics of dental education, the risk of cross-infection among teachers and students may be higher. 14 Many countries in the world have adjusted their dental education mode since 2020 to adapt to the requirements of pandemic prevention and to maintain social distance. 9 However, the COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan has begun a large-scale outbreak since April 2021. Therefore, our dental education mode has also changed to online education.

Online learning which has been advocated in dental education since 1990 has become an appropriate method to adapt to the requirements of social distance. 8 The combination of information technology has changed the teaching and learning process. By using online learning, the learning process can be carried out regardless of time and place. 15 , 16 , 17 Therefore, we can maintain the social distance under the learning process during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although the main advantage of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic is to maintain the learning process without violating social distance, it is a high-cost learning mode that depends on equipment, facilities, and technology. 18 The equipment and facilities required for the learning process include the laptops of both teachers and students, the internet system, and the technology to operate these digital devices. All these factors may be affected by the country's socio-economic conditions, the budgets of dental schools, and the financial capacity of dental students, as well as other factors, such as the motivations of both teachers and students. 19 , 20

However, for the high-cost solution of dental education with information technology, it does not seem to be a problem for the current dental schools and dental students in Taiwan. For dental schools, the use of information technology has long been integrated into various dental teaching activities, and dental teachers have already adapted to the operation of the information system. For current dental students, the burden of information equipment costs is not a problem, at most it is the adaptation and technical problems of the operation of information system. In fact, since the implementation of national health insurance in Taiwan in 1995 has enabled dentists to have a good socio-economic status and a high living standard, the domestic departments of dentistry or dental schools have become a popular choice of university departments for high-school graduates. 21 Since then, in addition to the increase in the number of domestic dental students in Taiwan, there have also been qualitative changes of our dental students. Most dental students come from metropolitan areas and families with high socio-economic status, while students from remote areas or disadvantaged families have hardly the opportunity to enter a dental school. 13

Since there are many operational courses in dental education, which are suitable for face-to-face education activities, we have no intention to design the online courses in the past. However, the sudden outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in Taiwan in April 2021 forced us to immediately change the physical classroom course to online course without enough time to prepare. We successfully completed the remaining courses online and held the final examination online to prove that our teachers and students had sufficient computer skills to complete the online class and examination. Moreover, our school and students could also afford the cost of these computer equipment. Therefore, this accidental coincidence gave us the opportunity to observe that the same students experienced both physical classroom learning and online class learning, as well as both physical classroom examination and online examination in the same course. It is worth taking this opportunity to study the role of online learning in dental education to form a new mode of dental education in the new-style social life.

From our observation and students’ responses to the questionnaires, students generally believed that online class learning had a better learning effectiveness, especially in terms of effective usage of time, clear course screens, and convenient learning method. Some students suggested that the lectures and microscopic interpretation courses should only use the online class, and the pre-recorded courses were convenient for students to watch and study repeatedly. In addition, some students dared to express their opinions and ask questions online. However, many students also though that face-to-face interaction was very important in the physical classroom learning, and the practical courses still needed to be conducted in the physical classroom. In addition, most students thought that online examination had operational and fairness issues and prefer physical classroom examination.

From the perspective of teachers, we believe that physical classroom teaching can directly catch the students' responses to know whether they are listening to the lecture or thinking about other things. Online teaching often needs to force students to answer. For students who do not concentrate on the online class, it seems difficult to control the online class. Therefore, we believe that the learning quality of online learning for students who are not willing to learn independently may be worse than that of physical classroom learning. We also used some skills in online class teaching, such as asking students to use mobile phone messages to answer questions, so that we could observe individual students' reactions in the online class. In addition, in online examination, there were some computer operation problems such as inflexible computer time settings, crashes, and slow internet speed, but physical classroom examination could be adjusted according to students’ responses. In addition, online examination needed to rely on the answering speed or case questions to avoid cheating and fairness issues.

Due to the limitations of this study, we could not attribute the difference in test scores of students to learning or examination methods. Because the test questions were essentially different, the difference in test scores was still related to the difference in the test questions. Therefore, we used the median score to classify the groups, and found that the micro A score of the high micro A score group was significantly higher, but their micro B score was not significantly higher, indicating that in online examination, the difference in performance between the high-score group and the low-score group is shortened. In addition, the lectures B score of the high lectures B score group was significantly higher, but their small group discussion score was not significantly higher, indicating that in online learning, the difference in performance between the high-score group and the low-score group is shortened. This result is very interesting, indicating that blended physical classroom and online learning seems to affect students’ learning effectiveness, but this needs more studies to confirm.

Blended physical classroom and online learning is a dual-track learning that uses face-to-face activities and internet technology. It combines the advantages of two learning environments. Through interaction with teachers and students, it extends learning opportunities and enhances learning effectiveness. There is no consistent standard or definition for blended physical classroom and online courses. Generally, it means that more than 30% but not more than 80% of the course content is conducted online. For students who adopt blended learning, the learning effectiveness is improved by 5%–10% compared to that of face-to-face activities. 22 An unexpected coincidence forced us to change 19% of the original course to online teaching. Although this ratio might not meet the standard or definition of blended physical classroom and online course, our students became the first batch of dental students to participate in blended learning. We also found that blended learning might improve students’ learning effectiveness in dental education.

We conclude that our students are ready to take online courses. In terms of blended learning courses, the combination of physical courses and online courses will be the future trend of dental education. However, the practical courses in dental education must still be based on physical courses, especially the internship course which helps students understand the real-world situation in practice. Therefore, at this moment, dental schools must prepare their abilities for the implementation of online courses to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic and the next crisis, as well as for the needs of future dental education. Finally, it is the most important to ensure the quality of education to meet the standard of dental education.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest relevant to this article.

Home — Essay Samples — Education — Online Vs. Traditional Classes — Online School Vs Traditional School

Online School Vs Traditional School

• Categories: Online Vs. Traditional Classes

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Words: 570 |

Updated: 7 December, 2023

Words: 570 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

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Good Hook Examples for “Online vs. Traditional Schools” Essay

• At the Education Crossroads: As students today stand at a critical juncture in their educational journey, they must decide between online schools and traditional brick-and-mortar institutions. These two paths offer distinct learning experiences.
• Face-to-Face vs. Digital Learning: In the realm of education, an ongoing debate centers on the choice between face-to-face and digital learning. Do students thrive more with direct teacher interaction, or can the online landscape provide an equally enriching experience?
• The Diversity Dilemma: Traditional schools function as microcosms of our diverse society, where students learn not just from textbooks but also from one another. What happens when this crucial element is missing in the online school environment?
• Learning at Your Own Pace: Online schools boast the flexibility of self-paced learning, but does this convenience outweigh the social dynamics and cultural diversity found in traditional schools?
• The Self-Motivation Challenge: Studying online may offer freedom and convenience, but it necessitates a unique set of skills: self-motivation and time management. Are these skills the keys to a successful educational journey?

Works Cited

• Alleyne, E. (2013). Face-to-face vs. online learning: Why can’t we have both? Education Dive. Retrieved from https://www.educationdive.com/news/face-to-face-vs-online-learning-why-cant-we-have-both/156820/
• Ryan, R. (2019). Face-to-face vs. online learning — which class is best for your student? The Denver Post. Retrieved from https://www.denverpost.com/2019/01/20/face-to-face-vs-online-learning-which-class-is-best-for-your-student/
• Lawrence, J. (2013, July 5). Traditional school vs. online school: Which is right for you? ECPI University. Retrieved from https://www.ecpi.edu/blog/traditional-school-vs-online-school-which-is-right-for-you
• U.S. Department of Education. (2010). Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in Online Learning: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies. Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/evidence-based-practices/finalreport.pdf
• National Education Association. (n.d.). Online Learning. Retrieved from https://www.nea.org/advocating-for-change/new-from-nea/online-learning
• Florida Virtual School. (n.d.). Benefits of Online Learning. Retrieved from https://www.flvs.net/about/benefits-of-online-learning
• Johnson, C. (2019). Online Learning vs. Traditional Learning: Which Is Better? Learning Liftoff. Retrieved from https://www.learningliftoff.com/online-learning-vs-traditional-learning-which-is-better/
• Jaggars, S. S., & Xu, D. (2010). Online Learning in Community Colleges. Teachers College Press.
• Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2017). Digital Learning Compass: Distance Education Enrollment Report 2017. Babson Survey Group.
• Clark, R. E. (2012). The Problem of Learning: What Should Professional Development Look Like? Journal of Staff Development, 33(4), 46-49.

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Physical vs Virtual Classroom: Which is better

Physical vs Virtual Classroom: Which is better - Easy access to technological tools have allowed people to experience the new ways to communicate with each other. Traditionally, schools have been the place where students and teachers meet with a handful of books. But things have changed now. People have started adopting technological tools that are effective and user friendly. Virtual classrooms also have some disadvantages such as communication gaps or low internet connection. While many people think that virtual classrooms can never take place in a physical classroom. But the reality is when COVID-19 has affected each one of us, the online classes have helped teachers to complete the syllabus which has not been possible in any other way. Here in this article, we have done a comparison between Physical and Virtual classrooms. Reach the complete article to know which is better.

Physical vs Virtual Classroom: Which is better?

To decide which is better, physical or virtual classroom, let’s have a look at the comparison between the two.

Communication There is no secret that communication between teachers and students plays an important role in expecting good results. In order to get good results, students and teachers should have communication.

Comparison between Physical Classroom and Virtual Classroom

Concept Clarity The thumb rule to crack any exam is to have a clarity on the concepts. If a student lacks the understanding of concepts, he or she will lag behind.

Time Management Time is precious. Wasting even a single minute is not recommended. Students are always advised to not to waste time.

Study Material the right study material at the right time is also important. Having access to the study material helps candidates to do self study.

Comfort Level

Flexibility

What’s the conclusion?

Well, both physical and virtual classrooms have their own advantages and disadvantages. It is a child who decided which one is better. The thought process of a student plays an important role in deciding which one is better for him or her. It’s all about how good a student is in extracting knowledge.

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Create a new account here, online classroom vs physical classroom which is better.

Classrooms have a direct effect on our learning and understanding process. Back in the day, classrooms meant only physical classrooms. But, online classrooms have gained immense popularity, especially after the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic. This article will help you understand the difference between online classroom vs. physical classroom. After which, you will be able to distinguish between these two and choose the more suitable one for yourself or your child. 

What is an Online Classroom?

An online classroom is a digital learning experience that allows teachers and students to connect online in real-time. Online classrooms use video conferencing, online whiteboards, and screen sharing to enable teachers to conduct live lectures, virtual office hours, and discussions with students in an interactive setting. Moreover, online classrooms are meant to replicate the experience of physical classrooms, with some added benefits of file sharing, instant feedback, and interaction, and are ideal in distance learning situations.

In addition, an online classroom showcases an online learning system that enables students and teachers to communicate and collaborate. Online classrooms are basically like cloud-based learning solutions and are run digitally. Therefore, they are highly customisable and accessible to all users on several devices. These include smartphones, tablets, laptops, etc.

What is a Physical Classroom?

Physical classrooms create a face-to-face environment for students and teachers. They refer to a classroom set-up where everyone can communicate with each other and engage. A physical classroom has different materials and furniture in them. This includes projection screens, board, teachers, class monitors, etc. Moreover, many of the elements in a physical classroom bring positivity and concentration to students regarding studies. They also help the students to feel less distracted. This is because an academic environment surrounds them.

However, only books, lessons, and various class works don’t have to keep students engaged. Other things like furniture, classroom decorations, teacher’s behaviour, peers- play an essential role in indulging students into the classroom environment. It creates an ambience to make students feel inclined to study and focus more.

Online Classroom vs. Physical Classroom

Since we have now developed a good knowledge of what online classrooms and physical classrooms are, let’s see the critical differences between online classroom vs. physical classroom. First, let’s see the pros and cons of online classrooms.

Online Classroom- Pros & Cons

Online classrooms may be the perfect option for some, but not the correct choice for others. Therefore, it is best to know its pros and cons before deciding for a kid or an adult.

Pros of Online Classroom

There are several pros of online classrooms. However, some of the crucial pros of online classrooms include the following:

Provides a Safe & Comfortable Environment 

Online classrooms allow you to study in the comfort of your own home. It is completely home-based, and you are in charge of your surrounding environment. There will be no classroom bullying, no fighting, etc. Also, there will be less disease transmission from others. Most importantly, from dangerous viruses such as COVID-19. 

Complete Flexibility

Total flexibility is the primary advantage of online classrooms. Students can work on their assignments any time of the day, whenever they feel. Also, they can access all their classes from any location that has good internet service. 

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Cost-Effective

Online classrooms require fewer materials. So, it is cost-effective compared to the usual classrooms. Pupils only need to buy e-books and have a good internet connection to attend classes in an online classroom. They do not need to purchase expensive textbooks. Moreover, most of the materials are provided online by the  teaching  faculty. And, any additional costs, such as transportation, lab costs, are also not required to take online classes. 

Cons of Online Classroom

Among the number of pros of online classrooms, there are some cons too. It depends on different people on what they want to focus more on. Therefore, let us now look at the cons now.

Less Socialisation 

Physical classrooms have several options for students to engage and get involved in many recreational activities. On the other hand, there are fewer options for students in online classrooms. They can’t talk to others, interact in the classroom openly, etc.  Students do all teamwork online, all by themselves. This makes them less social. Therefore, interpersonal skills such as teamwork, leadership, and social skills do not develop in them. 

It also affects their mental growth and makes them socially not ready. On top of that, they miss out on classroom-related extracurricular activities such as class parties, face-to-face presentations, classroom games, etc. 

Motivational Problems

Online classrooms expect the pupils to take authority over most of their work. But, sometimes it gets tricky for them to finish them on time. They have to work in isolation, with no peer or teacher to assist them physically if they get stuck somewhere. Thus, this is a significant disadvantage for students who are not very motivated and very bad at working in isolation instead of in groups. 

Distractions

The list of distractions in an online classroom is vast. In a physical classroom, the environment is only suited for learning and getting to interact with others. But, in an online classroom, pupils are in their homes or any other comfortable place. This means that the primary purpose of that environment is not for learning. They are also not under the supervision of teachers.

For instance, at home, the amount of distractions is endless. There might be music playing in the next room, a serious family discussion in the other room, etc. Thus, the classroom environment is not distraction-free. It diverts the mind of pupils from their studies. This causes them to focus less.

Physical Classroom- Pros & Cons

The physical classroom environment is the most common and the most traditional learning environment. However, it has its own pros and cons list too. Let us have a look at some in this section.

Pros of Physical Classroom

Physical classrooms have numerous advantages. Nothing else can beat learning with a proper physical classroom and face-to-face human interaction. Some of the pros are:

Respect towards one’s own physical and mental health and respect for your classmates/teammates is included in a physical classroom environment. Pupils can use this teaching in other social and working environments. It also encourages pupils to achieve through learning, gain recognition for their efforts and achievements, and raise their future aspirations to succeed. Pupils should be involved in learning in its widest sense, both inside and outside the classroom, to achieve their true potential.

In addition, physical classroom education teaches the students how to talk to others and show respect. They learn this through various classroom activities. For example- group projects, presentations, story sharing, etc.

Interactive Learning 

Physical classrooms involve interacting with different teachers face to face, ask more questions if there is any confusion in a topic. Moreover, it allows students to interact with their peers. This builds up their team working and team-building skills. Students can brainstorm ideas amongst each other as well as get feedback from others. 

The feedbacks can be both good or bad. The bad feedbacks can be treated as constrictive feedbacks, and they can work harder to achieve the desired results. Also, if one is struggling with any lesson or subject, face-to-face tutor help after school hours is available too. Thus, their self-confidence is boosted up through these special classes. 

Discipline is a crucial part of learning. Most people prefer physical classrooms to ensure that students are learning how to behave, learn good manners alongside academic education. Waking up on time, getting ready for school, catching the public transport, acting correctly in class, etc.- these are all part of the disciple that the physical classroom teaches. In addition, discipline teaches students many lessons that can be converted into real-life scenarios when they grow up. 

Self-discipline is one of the essential skills to have – significantly when revising for exams and working full time as an adult. Physical classroom education helps to teach this. Without discipline, all the other skills acquired by an individual go unnoticed. This skill helps to make the different skills and expertise shine brighter.

Moreover, the discipline also teaches individuals proper leadership skills and goal setting to prepare them for their future in work. If an individual is not disciplined, they can never be good leaders or goal setters. Thus, for example, allocating team captains for sports such as volleyball can help pupils learn to work with small groups and assist them in completing a common task (for example, score a goal). 

Cons of Physical Classroom

Amongst all the pros of physical classrooms, there are some cons too. Thus, the most crucial cons are highlighted in this section. Let us have a look at some now.

Physical classrooms have a reasonable cost. Educational institutions charge more money from students if they are to learn in physical classrooms. However, in these challenging economic times, when many schools are getting the axe, and some districts are even laying off teachers, the expense of holding physical classrooms may cause some schools to reconsider whether the class is worth it. The cost and maintenance of classes and equipment, the expense of a gym, maybe money that’s better spent on retaining talented teachers or entire academic programs.

In addition, many schools and administrators base budget choices on the most important programs to students and parents: usually, those academic subjects measured on standardised testing. If the expense increases for a school, it would also directly impact the money it charges from students and their families. Thus, this creates division amongst students too. It builds up a notion that if you are financially more capable, you can afford the best form of education.

With physical classroom learning, students must physically attend the courses to get credit for attendance. Therefore, those who must travel long distances to get to school must allow enough time to arrive on time, particularly when inclement weather is involved.

Especially during the time of this global COVID-19 pandemic, it is also unsafe to travel. Thus, the risk of exposure to harmful viruses is high too. In addition, it would make the students more vulnerable to fall severely ill. Additionally, for students who are physically disabled, coming to school every day can create problems. They would have to always rely on someone else to take them to school. However, if they cannot commute to school sometimes because there is no other to take them, it would make them feel different from others and, therefore, are treated differently.

Less Flexibility

Physical classroom learning means the class schedule is already fixed and is not subject to change. Thus, they will not be able to take up specific jobs too. Some pupils face financial issues at home, and therefore they have to work to support their family and themselves, but a physical classroom education acts as a roadblock. Thus, less flexibility is one of the critical points in the Online classroom vs. Physical Classroom.

Closing Note

Education is essential for all. However, different people have different preferences when it comes to selecting the most suitable mode of education. Online classroom vs. Physical Classroom is an ongoing debate for several people. Sometimes, it gets challenging to pick the appropriate form of the classroom for yourself or a child. This article will help you solve all your dilemmas and educate you regarding online and physical classrooms. 

Here at Coursegate, we have a wide range of courses to select from. Furthermore, all our courses are delivered online with 24/7 support from the team. Therefore, if you feel that online classrooms would be more suitable for you at the end of the debate of online classroom vs physical classroom, look into our well-equipped online courses!

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Original research article, a comparative analysis of student performance in an online vs. face-to-face environmental science course from 2009 to 2016.

• Department of Biology, Fort Valley State University, Fort Valley, GA, United States

A growing number of students are now opting for online classes. They find the traditional classroom modality restrictive, inflexible, and impractical. In this age of technological advancement, schools can now provide effective classroom teaching via the Web. This shift in pedagogical medium is forcing academic institutions to rethink how they want to deliver their course content. The overarching purpose of this research was to determine which teaching method proved more effective over the 8-year period. The scores of 548 students, 401 traditional students and 147 online students, in an environmental science class were used to determine which instructional modality generated better student performance. In addition to the overarching objective, we also examined score variabilities between genders and classifications to determine if teaching modality had a greater impact on specific groups. No significant difference in student performance between online and face-to-face (F2F) learners overall, with respect to gender, or with respect to class rank were found. These data demonstrate the ability to similarly translate environmental science concepts for non-STEM majors in both traditional and online platforms irrespective of gender or class rank. A potential exists for increasing the number of non-STEM majors engaged in citizen science using the flexibility of online learning to teach environmental science core concepts.

Introduction

The advent of online education has made it possible for students with busy lives and limited flexibility to obtain a quality education. As opposed to traditional classroom teaching, Web-based instruction has made it possible to offer classes worldwide through a single Internet connection. Although it boasts several advantages over traditional education, online instruction still has its drawbacks, including limited communal synergies. Still, online education seems to be the path many students are taking to secure a degree.

This study compared the effectiveness of online vs. traditional instruction in an environmental studies class. Using a single indicator, we attempted to see if student performance was effected by instructional medium. This study sought to compare online and F2F teaching on three levels—pure modality, gender, and class rank. Through these comparisons, we investigated whether one teaching modality was significantly more effective than the other. Although there were limitations to the study, this examination was conducted to provide us with additional measures to determine if students performed better in one environment over another ( Mozes-Carmel and Gold, 2009 ).

The methods, procedures, and operationalization tools used in this assessment can be expanded upon in future quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method designs to further analyze this topic. Moreover, the results of this study serve as a backbone for future meta-analytical studies.

Origins of Online Education

Computer-assisted instruction is changing the pedagogical landscape as an increasing number of students are seeking online education. Colleges and universities are now touting the efficiencies of Web-based education and are rapidly implementing online classes to meet student needs worldwide. One study reported “increases in the number of online courses given by universities have been quite dramatic over the last couple of years” ( Lundberg et al., 2008 ). Think tanks are also disseminating statistics on Web-based instruction. “In 2010, the Sloan Consortium found a 17% increase in online students from the years before, beating the 12% increase from the previous year” ( Keramidas, 2012 ).

Contrary to popular belief, online education is not a new phenomenon. The first correspondence and distance learning educational programs were initiated in the mid-1800s by the University of London. This model of educational learning was dependent on the postal service and therefore wasn't seen in American until the later Nineteenth century. It was in 1873 when what is considered the first official correspondence educational program was established in Boston, Massachusetts known as the “Society to Encourage Home Studies.” Since then, non-traditional study has grown into what it is today considered a more viable online instructional modality. Technological advancement indubitably helped improve the speed and accessibility of distance learning courses; now students worldwide could attend classes from the comfort of their own homes.

Qualities of Online and Traditional Face to Face (F2F) Classroom Education

Online and traditional education share many qualities. Students are still required to attend class, learn the material, submit assignments, and complete group projects. While teachers, still have to design curriculums, maximize instructional quality, answer class questions, motivate students to learn, and grade assignments. Despite these basic similarities, there are many differences between the two modalities. Traditionally, classroom instruction is known to be teacher-centered and requires passive learning by the student, while online instruction is often student-centered and requires active learning.

In teacher-centered, or passive learning, the instructor usually controls classroom dynamics. The teacher lectures and comments, while students listen, take notes, and ask questions. In student-centered, or active learning, the students usually determine classroom dynamics as they independently analyze the information, construct questions, and ask the instructor for clarification. In this scenario, the teacher, not the student, is listening, formulating, and responding ( Salcedo, 2010 ).

In education, change comes with questions. Despite all current reports championing online education, researchers are still questioning its efficacy. Research is still being conducted on the effectiveness of computer-assisted teaching. Cost-benefit analysis, student experience, and student performance are now being carefully considered when determining whether online education is a viable substitute for classroom teaching. This decision process will most probably carry into the future as technology improves and as students demand better learning experiences.

Thus far, “literature on the efficacy of online courses is expansive and divided” ( Driscoll et al., 2012 ). Some studies favor traditional classroom instruction, stating “online learners will quit more easily” and “online learning can lack feedback for both students and instructors” ( Atchley et al., 2013 ). Because of these shortcomings, student retention, satisfaction, and performance can be compromised. Like traditional teaching, distance learning also has its apologists who aver online education produces students who perform as well or better than their traditional classroom counterparts ( Westhuis et al., 2006 ).

The advantages and disadvantages of both instructional modalities need to be fully fleshed out and examined to truly determine which medium generates better student performance. Both modalities have been proven to be relatively effective, but, as mentioned earlier, the question to be asked is if one is truly better than the other.

Student Need for Online Education

With technological advancement, learners now want quality programs they can access from anywhere and at any time. Because of these demands, online education has become a viable, alluring option to business professionals, stay-at home-parents, and other similar populations. In addition to flexibility and access, multiple other face value benefits, including program choice and time efficiency, have increased the attractiveness of distance learning ( Wladis et al., 2015 ).

First, prospective students want to be able to receive a quality education without having to sacrifice work time, family time, and travel expense. Instead of having to be at a specific location at a specific time, online educational students have the freedom to communicate with instructors, address classmates, study materials, and complete assignments from any Internet-accessible point ( Richardson and Swan, 2003 ). This type of flexibility grants students much-needed mobility and, in turn, helps make the educational process more enticing. According to Lundberg et al. (2008) “the student may prefer to take an online course or a complete online-based degree program as online courses offer more flexible study hours; for example, a student who has a job could attend the virtual class watching instructional film and streaming videos of lectures after working hours.”

Moreover, more study time can lead to better class performance—more chapters read, better quality papers, and more group project time. Studies on the relationship between study time and performance are limited; however, it is often assumed the online student will use any surplus time to improve grades ( Bigelow, 2009 ). It is crucial to mention the link between flexibility and student performance as grades are the lone performance indicator of this research.

Second, online education also offers more program choices. With traditional classroom study, students are forced to take courses only at universities within feasible driving distance or move. Web-based instruction, on the other hand, grants students electronic access to multiple universities and course offerings ( Salcedo, 2010 ). Therefore, students who were once limited to a few colleges within their immediate area can now access several colleges worldwide from a single convenient location.

Third, with online teaching, students who usually don't participate in class may now voice their opinions and concerns. As they are not in a classroom setting, quieter students may feel more comfortable partaking in class dialogue without being recognized or judged. This, in turn, may increase average class scores ( Driscoll et al., 2012 ).

Benefits of Face-to-Face (F2F) Education via Traditional Classroom Instruction

The other modality, classroom teaching, is a well-established instructional medium in which teaching style and structure have been refined over several centuries. Face-to-face instruction has numerous benefits not found in its online counterpart ( Xu and Jaggars, 2016 ).

First and, perhaps most importantly, classroom instruction is extremely dynamic. Traditional classroom teaching provides real-time face-to-face instruction and sparks innovative questions. It also allows for immediate teacher response and more flexible content delivery. Online instruction dampens the learning process because students must limit their questions to blurbs, then grant the teacher and fellow classmates time to respond ( Salcedo, 2010 ). Over time, however, online teaching will probably improve, enhancing classroom dynamics and bringing students face-to face with their peers/instructors. However, for now, face-to-face instruction provides dynamic learning attributes not found in Web-based teaching ( Kemp and Grieve, 2014 ).

Second, traditional classroom learning is a well-established modality. Some students are opposed to change and view online instruction negatively. These students may be technophobes, more comfortable with sitting in a classroom taking notes than sitting at a computer absorbing data. Other students may value face-to-face interaction, pre and post-class discussions, communal learning, and organic student-teacher bonding ( Roval and Jordan, 2004 ). They may see the Internet as an impediment to learning. If not comfortable with the instructional medium, some students may shun classroom activities; their grades might slip and their educational interest might vanish. Students, however, may eventually adapt to online education. With more universities employing computer-based training, students may be forced to take only Web-based courses. Albeit true, this doesn't eliminate the fact some students prefer classroom intimacy.

Third, face-to-face instruction doesn't rely upon networked systems. In online learning, the student is dependent upon access to an unimpeded Internet connection. If technical problems occur, online students may not be able to communicate, submit assignments, or access study material. This problem, in turn, may frustrate the student, hinder performance, and discourage learning.

Fourth, campus education provides students with both accredited staff and research libraries. Students can rely upon administrators to aid in course selection and provide professorial recommendations. Library technicians can help learners edit their papers, locate valuable study material, and improve study habits. Research libraries may provide materials not accessible by computer. In all, the traditional classroom experience gives students important auxiliary tools to maximize classroom performance.

Fifth, traditional classroom degrees trump online educational degrees in terms of hiring preferences. Many academic and professional organizations do not consider online degrees on par with campus-based degrees ( Columbaro and Monaghan, 2009 ). Often, prospective hiring bodies think Web-based education is a watered-down, simpler means of attaining a degree, often citing poor curriculums, unsupervised exams, and lenient homework assignments as detriments to the learning process.

Finally, research shows online students are more likely to quit class if they do not like the instructor, the format, or the feedback. Because they work independently, relying almost wholly upon self-motivation and self-direction, online learners may be more inclined to withdraw from class if they do not get immediate results.

The classroom setting provides more motivation, encouragement, and direction. Even if a student wanted to quit during the first few weeks of class, he/she may be deterred by the instructor and fellow students. F2F instructors may be able to adjust the structure and teaching style of the class to improve student retention ( Kemp and Grieve, 2014 ). With online teaching, instructors are limited to electronic correspondence and may not pick-up on verbal and non-verbal cues.

Both F2F and online teaching have their pros and cons. More studies comparing the two modalities to achieve specific learning outcomes in participating learner populations are required before well-informed decisions can be made. This study examined the two modalities over eight (8) years on three different levels. Based on the aforementioned information, the following research questions resulted.

RQ1: Are there significant differences in academic performance between online and F2F students enrolled in an environmental science course?

RQ2: Are there gender differences between online and F2F student performance in an environmental science course?

RQ3: Are there significant differences between the performance of online and F2F students in an environmental science course with respect to class rank?

The results of this study are intended to edify teachers, administrators, and policymakers on which medium may work best.

Methodology

Participants.

The study sample consisted of 548 FVSU students who completed the Environmental Science class between 2009 and 2016. The final course grades of the participants served as the primary comparative factor in assessing performance differences between online and F2F instruction. Of the 548 total participants, 147 were online students while 401 were traditional students. This disparity was considered a limitation of the study. Of the 548 total students, 246 were male, while 302 were female. The study also used students from all four class ranks. There were 187 freshmen, 184 sophomores, 76 juniors, and 101 seniors. This was a convenience, non-probability sample so the composition of the study set was left to the discretion of the instructor. No special preferences or weights were given to students based upon gender or rank. Each student was considered a single, discrete entity or statistic.

All sections of the course were taught by a full-time biology professor at FVSU. The professor had over 10 years teaching experience in both classroom and F2F modalities. The professor was considered an outstanding tenured instructor with strong communication and management skills.

The F2F class met twice weekly in an on-campus classroom. Each class lasted 1 h and 15 min. The online class covered the same material as the F2F class, but was done wholly on-line using the Desire to Learn (D2L) e-learning system. Online students were expected to spend as much time studying as their F2F counterparts; however, no tracking measure was implemented to gauge e-learning study time. The professor combined textbook learning, lecture and class discussion, collaborative projects, and assessment tasks to engage students in the learning process.

This study did not differentiate between part-time and full-time students. Therefore, many part-time students may have been included in this study. This study also did not differentiate between students registered primarily at FVSU or at another institution. Therefore, many students included in this study may have used FVSU as an auxiliary institution to complete their environmental science class requirement.

Test Instruments

In this study, student performance was operationalized by final course grades. The final course grade was derived from test, homework, class participation, and research project scores. The four aforementioned assessments were valid and relevant; they were useful in gauging student ability and generating objective performance measurements. The final grades were converted from numerical scores to traditional GPA letters.

Data Collection Procedures

The sample 548 student grades were obtained from FVSU's Office of Institutional Research Planning and Effectiveness (OIRPE). The OIRPE released the grades to the instructor with the expectation the instructor would maintain confidentiality and not disclose said information to third parties. After the data was obtained, the instructor analyzed and processed the data though SPSS software to calculate specific values. These converted values were subsequently used to draw conclusions and validate the hypothesis.

Summary of the Results: The chi-square analysis showed no significant difference in student performance between online and face-to-face (F2F) learners [χ 2 (4, N = 548) = 6.531, p > 0.05]. The independent sample t -test showed no significant difference in student performance between online and F2F learners with respect to gender [ t (145) = 1.42, p = 0.122]. The 2-way ANOVA showed no significant difference in student performance between online and F2F learners with respect to class rank ( Girard et al., 2016 ).

Research question #1 was to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the academic performance of online and F2F students.

Research Question 1

The first research question investigated if there was a difference in student performance between F2F and online learners.

To investigate the first research question, we used a traditional chi-square method to analyze the data. The chi-square analysis is particularly useful for this type of comparison because it allows us to determine if the relationship between teaching modality and performance in our sample set can be extended to the larger population. The chi-square method provides us with a numerical result which can be used to determine if there is a statistically significant difference between the two groups.

Table 1 shows us the mean and SD for modality and for gender. It is a general breakdown of numbers to visually elucidate any differences between scores and deviations. The mean GPA for both modalities is similar with F2F learners scoring a 69.35 and online learners scoring a 68.64. Both groups had fairly similar SDs. A stronger difference can be seen between the GPAs earned by men and women. Men had a 3.23 mean GPA while women had a 2.9 mean GPA. The SDs for both groups were almost identical. Even though the 0.33 numerical difference may look fairly insignificant, it must be noted that a 3.23 is approximately a B+ while a 2.9 is approximately a B. Given a categorical range of only A to F, a plus differential can be considered significant.

Table 1 . Means and standard deviations for 8 semester- “Environmental Science data set.”

The mean grade for men in the environmental online classes ( M = 3.23, N = 246, SD = 1.19) was higher than the mean grade for women in the classes ( M = 2.9, N = 302, SD = 1.20) (see Table 1 ).

First, a chi-square analysis was performed using SPSS to determine if there was a statistically significant difference in grade distribution between online and F2F students. Students enrolled in the F2F class had the highest percentage of A's (63.60%) as compared to online students (36.40%). Table 2 displays grade distribution by course delivery modality. The difference in student performance was statistically significant, χ 2 (4, N = 548) = 6.531, p > 0.05. Table 3 shows the gender difference on student performance between online and F2F students.

Table 2 . Contingency table for student's academic performance ( N = 548).

Table 3 . Gender * performance crosstabulation.

Table 2 shows us the performance measures of online and F2F students by grade category. As can be seen, F2F students generated the highest performance numbers for each grade category. However, this disparity was mostly due to a higher number of F2F students in the study. There were 401 F2F students as opposed to just 147 online students. When viewing grades with respect to modality, there are smaller percentage differences between respective learners ( Tanyel and Griffin, 2014 ). For example, F2F learners earned 28 As (63.60% of total A's earned) while online learners earned 16 As (36.40% of total A's earned). However, when viewing the A grade with respect to total learners in each modality, it can be seen that 28 of the 401 F2F students (6.9%) earned As as compared to 16 of 147 (10.9%) online learners. In this case, online learners scored relatively higher in this grade category. The latter measure (grade total as a percent of modality total) is a better reflection of respective performance levels.

Given a critical value of 7.7 and a d.f. of 4, we were able to generate a chi-squared measure of 6.531. The correlating p -value of 0.163 was greater than our p -value significance level of 0.05. We, therefore, had to accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative hypothesis. There is no statistically significant difference between the two groups in terms of performance scores.

Research Question 2

The second research question was posed to evaluate if there was a difference between online and F2F varied with gender. Does online and F2F student performance vary with respect to gender? Table 3 shows the gender difference on student performance between online and face to face students. We used chi-square test to determine if there were differences in online and F2F student performance with respect to gender. The chi-square test with alpha equal to 0.05 as criterion for significance. The chi-square result shows that there is no statistically significant difference between men and women in terms of performance.

Research Question 3

The third research question tried to determine if there was a difference between online and F2F varied with respect to class rank. Does online and F2F student performance vary with respect to class rank?

Table 4 shows the mean scores and standard deviations of freshman, sophomore, and junior and senior students for both online and F2F student performance. To test the third hypothesis, we used a two-way ANOVA. The ANOVA is a useful appraisal tool for this particular hypothesis as it tests the differences between multiple means. Instead of testing specific differences, the ANOVA generates a much broader picture of average differences. As can be seen in Table 4 , the ANOVA test for this particular hypothesis states there is no significant difference between online and F2F learners with respect to class rank. Therefore, we must accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative hypothesis.

Table 4 . Descriptive analysis of student performance by class rankings gender.

The results of the ANOVA show there is no significant difference in performance between online and F2F students with respect to class rank. Results of ANOVA is presented in Table 5 .

Table 5 . Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for online and F2F of class rankings.

As can be seen in Table 4 , the ANOVA test for this particular hypothesis states there is no significant difference between online and F2F learners with respect to class rank. Therefore, we must accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative hypothesis.

Discussion and Social Implications

The results of the study show there is no significant difference in performance between online and traditional classroom students with respect to modality, gender, or class rank in a science concepts course for non-STEM majors. Although there were sample size issues and study limitations, this assessment shows both online learners and classroom learners perform at the same level. This conclusion indicates teaching modality may not matter as much as other factors. Given the relatively sparse data on pedagogical modality comparison given specific student population characteristics, this study could be considered innovative. In the current literature, we have not found a study of this nature comparing online and F2F non-STEM majors with respect to three separate factors—medium, gender, and class rank—and the ability to learn science concepts and achieve learning outcomes. Previous studies have compared traditional classroom learning vs. F2F learning for other factors (including specific courses, costs, qualitative analysis, etcetera, but rarely regarding outcomes relevant to population characteristics of learning for a specific science concepts course over many years) ( Liu, 2005 ).

In a study evaluating the transformation of a graduate level course for teachers, academic quality of the online course and learning outcomes were evaluated. The study evaluated the ability of course instructors to design the course for online delivery and develop various interactive multimedia models at a cost-savings to the respective university. The online learning platform proved effective in translating information where tested students successfully achieved learning outcomes comparable to students taking the F2F course ( Herman and Banister, 2007 ).

Another study evaluated the similarities and differences in F2F and online learning in a non-STEM course, “Foundations of American Education” and overall course satisfaction by students enrolled in either of the two modalities. F2F and online course satisfaction was qualitatively and quantitative analyzed. However, in analyzing online and F2F course feedback using quantitative feedback, online course satisfaction was less than F2F satisfaction. When qualitative data was used, course satisfaction was similar between modalities ( Werhner, 2010 ). The course satisfaction data and feedback was used to suggest a number of posits for effective online learning in the specific course. The researcher concluded that there was no difference in the learning success of students enrolled in the online vs. F2F course, stating that “in terms of learning, students who apply themselves diligently should be successful in either format” ( Dell et al., 2010 ). The author's conclusion presumes that the “issues surrounding class size are under control and that the instructor has a course load that makes the intensity of the online course workload feasible” where the authors conclude that the workload for online courses is more than for F2F courses ( Stern, 2004 ).

In “A Meta-Analysis of Three Types of Interaction Treatments in Distance Education,” Bernard et al. (2009) conducted a meta-analysis evaluating three types of instructional and/or media conditions designed into distance education (DE) courses known as interaction treatments (ITs)—student–student (SS), student–teacher (ST), or student–content (SC) interactions—to other DE instructional/interaction treatments. The researchers found that a strong association existed between the integration of these ITs into distance education courses and achievement compared with blended or F2F modalities of learning. The authors speculated that this was due to increased cognitive engagement based in these three interaction treatments ( Larson and Sung, 2009 ).

Other studies evaluating students' preferences (but not efficacy) for online vs. F2F learning found that students prefer online learning when it was offered, depending on course topic, and online course technology platform ( Ary and Brune, 2011 ). F2F learning was preferred when courses were offered late morning or early afternoon 2–3 days/week. A significant preference for online learning resulted across all undergraduate course topics (American history and government, humanities, natural sciences, social, and behavioral sciences, diversity, and international dimension) except English composition and oral communication. A preference for analytical and quantitative thought courses was also expressed by students, though not with statistically significant results ( Mann and Henneberry, 2014 ). In this research study, we looked at three hypothesis comparing online and F2F learning. In each case, the null hypothesis was accepted. Therefore, at no level of examination did we find a significant difference between online and F2F learners. This finding is important because it tells us traditional-style teaching with its heavy emphasis on interpersonal classroom dynamics may 1 day be replaced by online instruction. According to Daymont and Blau (2008) online learners, regardless of gender or class rank, learn as much from electronic interaction as they do from personal interaction. Kemp and Grieve (2014) also found that both online and F2F learning for psychology students led to similar academic performance. Given the cost efficiencies and flexibility of online education, Web-based instructional systems may rapidly rise.

A number of studies support the economic benefits of online vs. F2F learning, despite differences in social constructs and educational support provided by governments. In a study by Li and Chen (2012) higher education institutions benefit the most from two of four outputs—research outputs and distance education—with teaching via distance education at both the undergraduate and graduate levels more profitable than F2F teaching at higher education institutions in China. Zhang and Worthington (2017) reported an increasing cost benefit for the use of distance education over F2F instruction as seen at 37 Australian public universities over 9 years from 2003 to 2012. Maloney et al. (2015) and Kemp and Grieve (2014) also found significant savings in higher education when using online learning platforms vs. F2F learning. In the West, the cost efficiency of online learning has been demonstrated by several research studies ( Craig, 2015 ). Studies by Agasisti and Johnes (2015) and Bartley and Golek (2004) both found the cost benefits of online learning significantly greater than that of F2F learning at U.S. institutions.

Knowing there is no significant difference in student performance between the two mediums, institutions of higher education may make the gradual shift away from traditional instruction; they may implement Web-based teaching to capture a larger worldwide audience. If administered correctly, this shift to Web-based teaching could lead to a larger buyer population, more cost efficiencies, and more university revenue.

The social implications of this study should be touted; however, several concerns regarding generalizability need to be taken into account. First, this study focused solely on students from an environmental studies class for non-STEM majors. The ability to effectively prepare students for scientific professions without hands-on experimentation has been contended. As a course that functions to communicate scientific concepts, but does not require a laboratory based component, these results may not translate into similar performance of students in an online STEM course for STEM majors or an online course that has an online laboratory based co-requisite when compared to students taking traditional STEM courses for STEM majors. There are few studies that suggest the landscape may be changing with the ability to effectively train students in STEM core concepts via online learning. Biel and Brame (2016) reported successfully translating the academic success of F2F undergraduate biology courses to online biology courses. However, researchers reported that of the large-scale courses analyzed, two F2F sections outperformed students in online sections, and three found no significant difference. A study by Beale et al. (2014) comparing F2F learning with hybrid learning in an embryology course found no difference in overall student performance. Additionally, the bottom quartile of students showed no differential effect of the delivery method on examination scores. Further, a study from Lorenzo-Alvarez et al. (2019) found that radiology education in an online learning platform resulted in similar academic outcomes as F2F learning. Larger scale research is needed to determine the effectiveness of STEM online learning and outcomes assessments, including workforce development results.

In our research study, it is possible the study participants may have been more knowledgeable about environmental science than about other subjects. Therefore, it should be noted this study focused solely on students taking this one particular class. Given the results, this course presents a unique potential for increasing the number of non-STEM majors engaged in citizen science using the flexibility of online learning to teach environmental science core concepts.

Second, the operationalization measure of “grade” or “score” to determine performance level may be lacking in scope and depth. The grades received in a class may not necessarily show actual ability, especially if the weights were adjusted to heavily favor group tasks and writing projects. Other performance indicators may be better suited to properly access student performance. A single exam containing both multiple choice and essay questions may be a better operationalization indicator of student performance. This type of indicator will provide both a quantitative and qualitative measure of subject matter comprehension.

Third, the nature of the student sample must be further dissected. It is possible the online students in this study may have had more time than their counterparts to learn the material and generate better grades ( Summers et al., 2005 ). The inverse holds true, as well. Because this was a convenience non-probability sampling, the chances of actually getting a fair cross section of the student population were limited. In future studies, greater emphasis must be placed on selecting proper study participants, those who truly reflect proportions, types, and skill levels.

This study was relevant because it addressed an important educational topic; it compared two student groups on multiple levels using a single operationalized performance measure. More studies, however, of this nature need to be conducted before truly positing that online and F2F teaching generate the same results. Future studies need to eliminate spurious causal relationships and increase generalizability. This will maximize the chances of generating a definitive, untainted results. This scientific inquiry and comparison into online and traditional teaching will undoubtedly garner more attention in the coming years.

Our study compared learning via F2F vs. online learning modalities in teaching an environmental science course additionally evaluating factors of gender and class rank. These data demonstrate the ability to similarly translate environmental science concepts for non-STEM majors in both traditional and online platforms irrespective of gender or class rank. The social implications of this finding are important for advancing access to and learning of scientific concepts by the general population, as many institutions of higher education allow an online course to be taken without enrolling in a degree program. Thus, the potential exists for increasing the number of non-STEM majors engaged in citizen science using the flexibility of online learning to teach environmental science core concepts.

Limitations of the Study

The limitations of the study centered around the nature of the sample group, student skills/abilities, and student familiarity with online instruction. First, because this was a convenience, non-probability sample, the independent variables were not adjusted for real-world accuracy. Second, student intelligence and skill level were not taken into consideration when separating out comparison groups. There exists the possibility that the F2F learners in this study may have been more capable than the online students and vice versa. This limitation also applies to gender and class rank differences ( Friday et al., 2006 ). Finally, there may have been ease of familiarity issues between the two sets of learners. Experienced traditional classroom students now taking Web-based courses may be daunted by the technical aspect of the modality. They may not have had the necessary preparation or experience to efficiently e-learn, thus leading to lowered scores ( Helms, 2014 ). In addition to comparing online and F2F instructional efficacy, future research should also analyze blended teaching methods for the effectiveness of courses for non-STEM majors to impart basic STEM concepts and see if the blended style is more effective than any one pure style.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Fort Valley State University Human Subjects Institutional Review Board. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author Contributions

JP provided substantial contributions to the conception of the work, acquisition and analysis of data for the work, and is the corresponding author on this paper who agrees to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. FJ provided substantial contributions to the design of the work, interpretation of the data for the work, and revised it critically for intellectual content.

This research was supported in part by funding from the National Science Foundation, Awards #1649717, 1842510, Ñ900572, and 1939739 to FJ.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the reviewers for their detailed comments and feedback that assisted in the revising of our original manuscript.

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Keywords: face-to-face (F2F), traditional classroom teaching, web-based instructions, information and communication technology (ICT), online learning, desire to learn (D2L), passive learning, active learning

Citation: Paul J and Jefferson F (2019) A Comparative Analysis of Student Performance in an Online vs. Face-to-Face Environmental Science Course From 2009 to 2016. Front. Comput. Sci. 1:7. doi: 10.3389/fcomp.2019.00007

Received: 15 May 2019; Accepted: 15 October 2019; Published: 12 November 2019.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2019 Paul and Jefferson. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Jasmine Paul, paulj@fvsu.edu