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Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal

ISSN : 0951-3574

Article publication date: 1 October 2002

Corporate annual reports are viewed through the lens of researchers of these documents. The aims are to obtain insight into how researchers view annual reports; to ascertain how the different ways of seeing the annual report relate to each other; and to draw out the gaps in this diverse research in a continuing attempt to understand its role and purpose. Selective examination of a decade of corporate annual report research (1990‐2000) reveals how researchers have sought to find visibility and meaning. Few studies address the document as a whole, in terms of the integration of the messages between the various parts of the report. Explanation of the changing structure and content of annual reports remains divided, largely because of the differing perspectives of researchers. They have revealed diversity in the ways of seeing the annual report and a tension in understanding its overall purpose and role.

• Company reports
• Corporate image
• Accountability

Stanton, P. and Stanton, J. (2002), "Corporate annual reports: research perspectives used", Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal , Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 478-500. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513570210440568

Copyright © 2002, MCB UP Limited

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How to Quickly & Effectively Read an Annual Report

• 04 Jun 2020

Intelligent investing requires analyzing a vast amount of information about a company to determine its financial health. Armed with this information, an investor can better understand how much risk might be involved with backing a company based on how well it’s performed historically, in recent quarters, and toward its financial targets.

Exactly where this information comes from depends on the specific company that’s being invested in, but typically requires several financial statements, including a balance sheet, cash flow statement, and income statement.

In addition to these documents, most investors look forward to reviewing a company’s annual report—a collection of financial information and analysis that can prove invaluable in evaluating the health of a company.

If you’re not an investor, but an employee working within a corporation, the annual report can impart valuable information pertinent to your career. Understanding how your company is performing and the impact your actions have had on its business objectives can help you advocate for a promotion or other form of career advancement .

If you’re unfamiliar with what goes into an annual report, there’s some good news: You don’t need to be a financial expert to get value out of the document or understand the messaging in it.

Here’s an overview of the different information you’ll find in an annual report and how you can put it to use.

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What Is an Annual Report?

An annual report is a publication that a public corporation is required by law to publish annually. It describes the company’s operations and financial conditions so that current and potential shareholders can make informed decisions about investing in it.

The annual report is often split into two sections, or halves.

The first section typically includes a narrative of the company’s performance over the previous year, as well as forward-looking statements: Letters to shareholders from the chief executive officer, chief financial officer, and other key figures, as well as graphics, photos, and charts.

The second section strips the narrative out of the picture and presents a variety of financial documents and statements.

Unlike other pieces of financial data—and because they include editorial and storytelling—annual reports are typically professionally designed and used as marketing collateral. Annual reports are sent to shareholders every year before an annual shareholder meeting and election of the board of directors, and often accessible to the public via the company’s website.

Annual Report vs. 10-K Report

Annual reports aren’t the only documents public companies are required to publish yearly. The US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) requires public firms also to produce a 10-K report , which informs investors of a business’s financial status before they buy or sell shares.

While there’s similar data in both an annual and 10-K report, the two documents are separate.

10-K reports are organized per SEC guidelines and include full descriptions of a company’s fiscal activity, corporate agreements, risks, opportunities, current operations, executive compensation, and market activity. You can also find detailed discussions of operations for the year, as well as a full analysis of the industry and marketplace.

Because of this, 10-K reports are longer and denser than annual reports, and have strict filing requirements—they must be filed with the SEC between 60 to 90 days after the end of a company’s fiscal year.

If you need to review a 10-K report, you can find it on the SEC website .

What Information Is Contained In An Annual Report?

An annual report typically consists of:

• Letters to shareholders: These documents provide a broad overview of the company’s activities and performance over the course of the year, as well as a reflection on its general business environment. An annual report usually includes a shareholder letter from the CEO or president, and may also contain letters from other key figures, such as the CFO.
• Management’s discussion and analysis (MD&A): This is a detailed analysis of the company’s performance, as conducted by its executives.
• Audited financial statements: These are financial documents that detail the company’s financial performance. Commonly included statements include balance sheets, cash flow statements, income statements, and equity statements.
• A summary of financial data: This refers to any notes or discussions that are pertinent to the financial statements listed above.
• Auditor’s report: This report describes whether the company has complied with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) in preparing its financial statements.
• Accounting policies: This is an overview of the policies the company’s leadership team relied upon in preparing the annual report and financial statements.

What to Look for in an Annual Report

While all the information found in an annual report can be useful to potential investors, the financial statements are particularly valuable, as they provide data that isn’t obscured by any sort of narrative or opinion. Three of the most important financial statements you should evaluate are the balance sheet, cash flow statement, and income statement.

The balance sheet shows a company’s assets, liabilities, and owners’ equity accounts as of a specific date, illustrating its financial position and health.

The income statement shows a company’s revenue and expense accounts for a set period, allowing you to gauge its financial performance. Using trial balances from any two points in time, a business can create an income statement that tells the financial story of the activities for that period.

Cash flow statements provide a detailed picture of what happened to a business’s cash during an accounting period. A cash flow statement shows the different areas in which a company used or received cash, and reconciles the beginning and ending cash balances. Cash flows are important for valuing a business and managing liquidity, and essential to understanding where actual cash is being generated and used. The statement of cash flows gives more detail about the sources of cash inflows and the uses of cash outflows.

These three documents can help you understand the financial health and status of a company, and they’re all included in the annual report. When you read the annual report—including the editorial information—you can gain a better understanding of the business as a whole.

An annual report can help you learn more details about what type of company you work for and how it operates, including:

• Whether it’s able to pay debts as they come due
• Its profits and/or losses year over year
• If and how it’s grown over time
• What it requires to maintain or expand its business
• Operational expenses compared to generated revenues

All of these insights can help you excel in your role, be privy to conversations surrounding the future of the company, and develop into an effective leader .

Critical Information for Investors and Employees Alike

Being able to analyze annual reports can help you gain a clearer picture of where a company sits within its industry and the broader economy, illuminating opportunities and threats.

The best part about learning to read and understand financial information is that you don’t need to be a certified accountant to do so. Start by analyzing financial documents over a set period. Then, when the annual and 10-K reports are published, you can review and understand what leadership is saying about the operational and financial health of your company.

If you’re an investor, knowing how to read an annual report can give you more information from which to base your decision on whether to invest in a company. If you’re an employee within an organization, learning how to read and apply the information contained in an annual report is an essential financial accounting skill that can help you understand your company’s goals and capabilities and, ultimately, further your career.

Do you want to take your career to the next level? Explore Financial Accounting and our other online finance and accounting courses , which can teach you the key financial topics you need to understand business performance and potential. Download our free course flowchart to determine which best aligns with your goals.

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What Is an Annual Report?

Understanding annual reports, special considerations, mutual fund annual reports, the bottom line.

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Annual Report Explained: How to Read and Write Them

Adam Hayes, Ph.D., CFA, is a financial writer with 15+ years Wall Street experience as a derivatives trader. Besides his extensive derivative trading expertise, Adam is an expert in economics and behavioral finance. Adam received his master's in economics from The New School for Social Research and his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in sociology. He is a CFA charterholder as well as holding FINRA Series 7, 55 & 63 licenses. He currently researches and teaches economic sociology and the social studies of finance at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem.

An annual report is a document that public corporations must provide annually to shareholders that describes their operations and financial conditions. The front part of the report often contains an impressive combination of graphics, photos, and an accompanying narrative, all of which chronicle the company's activities over the past year and may also make forecasts about the future of the company. The back part of the report contains detailed financial and operational information.

Key Takeaways

• An annual report is a corporate document disseminated to shareholders that spells out the company's financial condition and operations over the previous year.
• It was not until legislation was enacted after the stock market crash of 1929 that the annual report became a regular component of corporate financial reporting.
• Registered mutual funds must also distribute a full annual report to their shareholders each year.

Investopedia / Jake Shi

Annual reports became a regulatory requirement for public companies following the stock market crash of 1929 when lawmakers mandated standardized corporate financial reporting. The intent of the required annual report is to provide public disclosure of a company's operating and financial activities over the past year. The report is typically issued to shareholders and other stakeholders who use it to evaluate the firm's financial performance and to make investment decisions.

Typically, an annual report will contain the following sections:

• General corporate information
• Operating and financial highlights
• Letter to the shareholders from the CEO
• Narrative text, graphics, and photos
• Management's discussion and analysis (MD&A)
• Financial statements, including the balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement
• Notes to the financial statements
• Auditor's report
• Summary of financial data
• Accounting policies

Current and prospective investors, employees, creditors, analysts, and any other interested party will analyze a company using its annual report.

In the U.S., a more detailed version of the annual report is referred to as Form 10-K  and is submitted to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Companies may submit their annual reports electronically through the SEC's EDGAR database . Reporting companies must send annual reports to their shareholders when they hold annual meetings to elect directors. Under the proxy rules, reporting companies are required to post their proxy materials, including their annual reports, on their company websites.

The annual report contains key information on a company's financial position that can be used to measure:

• A company's ability to pay its debts as they come due
• Whether a company made a profit or loss in its previous fiscal year
• A company's growth over a number of years
• How much of earnings are retained by a company to grow its operations
• The proportion of operational expenses to revenue generated

The annual report also determines whether the information conforms to the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). This confirmation will be highlighted as an " unqualified opinion " in the auditor's report section.

Fundamental analysts also attempt to understand a company's future direction by analyzing the details provided in its annual report.

In the case of mutual funds, the annual report is a required document that is made available to a fund's shareholders on a fiscal-year basis. It discloses certain aspects of a mutual fund's operations and financial condition. In contrast to corporate annual reports, mutual fund annual reports are best described as "plain vanilla" in terms of their presentation.

A mutual fund annual report, along with a fund's prospectus and statement of additional information, is a source of multi-year fund data and performance, which is made available to fund shareholders as well as to prospective fund investors. Unfortunately, most of the information is quantitative rather than qualitative, which addresses the mandatory accounting disclosures required of mutual funds.

All mutual funds that are registered with the SEC are required to send a full report to all shareholders every year. The report shows how well the fund fared over the fiscal year. Information that can be found in the annual report includes:

• Table, chart, or graph of holdings by category (e.g., type of security, industry sector, geographic region, credit quality, or maturity)
• Audited financial statements, including a complete or summary (top 50) list of holdings
• Condensed financial statements
• Table showing the fund’s returns for one-, five- and 10-year periods
• Management’s discussion of fund performance
• Management information about directors and officers, such as name, age, and tenure
• Remuneration or compensation paid to directors, officers, and others

How Do You Write an Annual Report?

An annual report has a few sections and steps that must convey a certain amount of information, much of which is legally required for public companies. Most public companies hire auditing companies to write their annual reports. An annual report begins with a letter to the shareholders, then a brief description of the business and industry. Following that, the report should include the audited financial statements: balance sheet, income statement, and statement of cash flows. The last part will typically be notes to the financial statements, explaining certain facts and figures.

Is an Annual Report the Same As a 10-K Filing?

In general, an annual report is similar to the 10-K filing in that both report on the company's performance for the year. Both are considered to be the last financial filing of the year and summarize how the company did for that period. Annual reports are much more visually friendly. They are designed well and contain images and graphics. The 10-K filing only reports numbers and other qualitative information without any design elements or additional flair.

What Is a 10-Q Filing?

A 10-Q filing is a form that is filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) that reports the quarterly earnings of a company. Most public companies have to file a 10-Q with the SEC to report their financial position for the quarter.

Public companies must produce annual reports to show their current financial conditions and operations. Annual reports can be used to examine a company's financial position and, possibly, understand what direction it will move in the future. These reports function differently for mutual funds; in this case, they are made available each fiscal year and are typically simpler.

U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. " Speech By SEC Commissioner: Remarks Before the Securities Traders Association ."

U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. " Annual Report ."

U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. " How to Read a 10-K/10-Q ."

U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. " Final Rule: Shareholder Reports and Quarterly Portfolio Disclosure of Registered Management Investment Companies ."

U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. " Mutual Funds - The Next 75 Years ."

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11 annual report design examples and how to design your own (with template)

But the report isn't just fun and creative—it also tells a story. It says, "Not only are we confident in our performance and our brilliant communication, but we also care deeply about our customers and the world at large." How does it do this? Through bold, colorful statistics about employee benefits and the company's social justice efforts.

The primary purpose of an annual report is to analyze your organization's performance over the year, but it's also an opportunity to share your brand's identity with stakeholders, whether those be customers or investors. After looking through dozens of reports, I unpack my favorites below, as well as how to live up to their caliber.

11 captivating annual report examples

The following organizations have proven that annual reports aren't just a bunch of numbers to nod and smile at.

1. 2022 Everlane Impact Report

For sustainable fashion retailer Everlane, it's just as important to communicate ethical goals and accomplishments as it is to report on financial success.

From a design perspective, natural tones dominate the report, echoing the brand's commitment to eco-friendliness. No hot pinks or neon turquoises in sight—just forest greens, deep-sea blues, earthy browns, and other natural tones. Overall, the report successfully models how to use design to communicate brand image.

If your brand is committed to an ethical cause, be transparent about how you're tracking toward that cause.

Keep your color scheme consistent with your brand image.

2. The Trevor Project's 2020 Annual Report

The report uses large headers, bullet points, highlights, and strategic bolding to present how they're working to innovate, educate, and advocate for young members of the LGBTQ+ community.

Not all data evokes sunshine and butterflies, and The Trevor Project's report uses a clean, streamlined design to keep the focus on what matters most to them.

Keep copy light and succinct wherever possible.

Call attention to your most important points through bolding, headers, and bullet points.

3. Mailchimp's 2020 Annual Report

The report highlights the company's success statistics, philanthropic efforts, fun facts, and some customer case studies, creating unique, colorful worlds for each of these sections.

Mailchimp is known for innovative communication solutions, and their annual report design is no exception. Overall, the company reminds us that business and fun don't have to live in totally separate realms.

Implement interactivity to keep your readers engaged.

If doing so aligns with your brand image, creatively convey data using color and animation.

4. USAA's 2021 Annual Report to Members

The report's Business Snapshot page is inspiring and professional, using large text and bolding to communicate some of the organization's must-know stats from the year. Even if you didn't read the text on the page, the color scheme alone makes it clear that USAA is a military-serving institution.

The report also includes a timeline walking through how the organization has grown over a century—a feature that, for obvious reasons, makes an impact. Not too many brands can boast a hundred years of serving their customer base.

The report's imagery evokes an emotional reaction, depicting tender moments between servicemembers in uniform and their families. All in all, the report's endearing photography, bold typography, and use of colors associated with the military (like deep navy blue) effectively communicate USAA's mission.

If your organization has a long history, use that to your advantage with timelines.

5. adidas Annual Report 2020

The user's entire browser transitions with every scroll, each view summarizing a key takeaway and offering a link to additional details. This keeps things simple for the user while still making all important information easily accessible.

a didas is known worldwide for its influence in the athletic footwear and clothing industry, and its report's bold use of red and black, as well as its moving imagery, echo this reputation.

If relevant, include photography of your audience or market.

Get creative with UX both in your report's landing page interface and in any supplemental tools you share.

6. Google Diversity Annual Report 2022

You may think that Google, being one of the most successful tech giants in the world, doesn't have much growing to do. But their report's tone suggests they do—and they're working to improve every day.

Much like adidas, Google summarizes its most important efforts and wins while offering a link to a more extensive PDF report. Through and through, the report is clean and easy to digest.

In a unique take on the letter from leadership, Google's report embeds a video in which Chief Diversity Officer Melonie Parker discusses the company's progress in hiring and creating products with diversity in mind.

Overall, the report's clean, clear, and data-driven design speaks to the company's mastery of technological expertise and human communication alike.

Keep your voice and tone consistent with your brand image while aiming to sound human and approachable.

Use creative content formats (like videos) to communicate with your audience.

7. Conservation International's 2021 Annual Report

The report's cover reads: "Not a moment to lose," followed by the deadlines the world has to get its act together. In a brilliant continuation of this theme, the report shows page numbers in a digital stopwatch format, as if each page represents a second in the countdown toward climate disaster.

Anxiety inducing? Yes. Effective? 100%.

The report also incorporates breathtaking photography of nature and wildlife, showcasing what the organization aims to protect.

Design a cover that grabs your readers' attention from the start.

Evoke an emotional response using real-life photography.

8. World Bank's 2023 Annual Report

The report leans heavily on storytelling photography that humanizes the brand and the ideas within the report. It does an excellent job presenting its achievements as well as its mission to support countries in times of crisis, help develop their infrastructure, and improve the quality of education and health care worldwide. The cover and the first few pages tell a story that I didn't expect from a government entity. I expected pages oversaturated with charts, a heavy focus on revenue, and very little relatability. Instead, they managed to change my perspective on the organization almost immediately.

When bureaucracy is the name of the game, design and engaging content usually take a backseat. This is a mold that World Bank manages to defy and reshape.

Use your report as an opportunity to debunk any common misconceptions about your brand.

Speak to your achievements as simply and directly as possible.

9. Habitat for Humanity's 2022 Annual Report

Habitat for Humanity also goes the extra mile with its delivery, providing both a downloadable file and a dynamic webpage that highlights key points from the full report. This gives busy stakeholders access to an overview that they can quickly digest.

Get creative with your report delivery method. Highlight the most important points from the report through interactive or dynamic webpages.

Prioritize real stories and examples, as they create a personal connection with the reader, making your brand more approachable.

10. Salesforce's 2022 Annual Report

I was particularly impressed with its clever use of margins—instead of filling up the void with colors and shapes that may or may not stimulate the reader, Salesforce filled the space with achievements and stats instead. These little nuggets of information are eye-catching, effectively summarize important contents, and keep the reader engaged.

Keep the report's style and color scheme consistent with your branding and public image.

Make use of otherwise empty space on the page to deliver key information in digestible pieces.

11. Subaru's 2022 Integrated Report

Sure, it's packed to the brim with information, but its presentation, utilizing charts, graphs, and creative roadmaps, keeps stakeholders engaged.

Be flexible in how you communicate information—it doesn't have to be a wall of text.

Annual report template

It's one thing to be impressed by an annual report—it's another thing to create one. I had my designers put together an annual report template that you can use as a foundation to build your own.

How to design an annual report

If you want to impress your audience with your annual report, you can't cut corners. Here are some tips on how to live up to the above examples.

1. Include all relevant sections

Before worrying about your report's look and feel, confirm it contains the following sections:

Letter from the CEO or other leaders: This is leadership's opportunity to briefly tell stakeholders your organization's story and summarize some key wins, as well as what's to come moving forward.

Table of contents: Annual reports tend to be 30+ pages long, but nobody has time to read an entire report from cover to cover. Make things easier for your readers by including navigation like a menu or a table of contents.

Organizational overview: Hopefully, you spent more than five minutes developing your organization's mission statement. Now's your time to share some highlights about who you are and what you do with your stakeholders.

Financial summary: Every annual report should include the organization's financial statements, breaking down your profits or losses over the year for stakeholders and potential investors.

2. Captivate with the cover or landing page

Your report's cover should tell a visual story that grabs the reader's attention and sets the tone for the rest of the report.

While many of the above reports execute this well, I'd argue Conservation International's cover edges out the others. It ropes readers in with nothing short of a stark warning, then proceeds to lay out what they're doing to protect the Earth (and what still needs to be done).

3. Include data visualizations

Even educated professionals and subject matter experts prefer organized, color-coded charts and graphs to numerical data that reaches the nth row of an Excel spreadsheet. This holds especially true for potential investors who may know very little about your industry.

Of course, it's important to implement data visualizations in moderation and to add context to the ones you include, keeping your report readable and accessible to everyone.

4. Implement interactivity

Have you ever listened to a tour guide talk about an exhibit for 20 minutes without asking the audience any questions? I almost have, but I fell asleep after 15.

When something encourages action, it's more likely to hold a user's attention. Mailchimp's report integrates a moving character, pop-ups, clickable elements, and mini-games to keep the user scrolling and engaged.

5. Bring attention to what's important

An annual report's format and structure should call attention to its key points. Your goal shouldn't be to fill every bit of white space with text. Add a summary page before each section highlighting what's to come. Use large fonts, color, and bolding to call attention to your organization's most impressive stats.

6. Surprise your readers

While stylistic consistency is important, don't be afraid to mix up your formatting frequently throughout your report. A sudden color shift, a fresh new data visualization, or a cover page with a lot of empty space can keep readers engaged and wondering what's to come. Nobody likes a boring report—surprising elements can add some excitement while still telling your brand's story.

Corporation vs. non-profit annual report design

Your annual report design should look different if you're a non-profit than if you're a corporation. Non-profits are heavily mission-focused and should aim to fundraise with their annual report design, perhaps using emotional imagery and inspiring goals. Corporations, on the other hand, should center their reports around their progress toward profit goals and should command the attention of investors.

Regardless of what type of organization you are, remember to leverage your strengths in your report. Do you have a long history like USAA does? A timeline of your progress over the years could be a powerful visual. Do you operate in several countries? Consider adding a map that illustrates your expansiveness.

Streamline reporting with automation

Annual reports pose an opportunity to get creative with how you communicate your brand's identity, but they also serve an important purpose: impressing your audience. As you get started, remember to strike a balance between creativity, content, and clarity.

Related reading:

This article was originally published in September 2022 and has since been updated with contributions from Hachem Ramki. The most recent update was in October 2023.  

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Luke Strauss

Based in sunny San Diego, Luke is a digital marketer with 3+ years of experience developing and executing content strategy for eCommerce startups and SaaS enterprises alike—Airtable, Zoom, and yes, Zapier—to name a few. When he isn’t diving into a keyword research rabbit hole, you can find him at a music festival, thrifting, or spending time with his friends and family.

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Annual reports on hypertension research 2020

• Masaki Mogi 1 ,
• Yukihito Higashi 2 , 3 ,
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• Atsushi Tanaka 6 ,
• Koichi Node 6 ,
• Yoichi Nozato 7 ,
• Koichi Yamamoto 7 ,
• Ken Sugimoto 8 ,
• Hirotaka Shibata 9 ,
• Satoshi Hoshide 10 ,
• Hitoshi Nishizawa 11 &
• Kazuomi Kario 10  

Hypertension Research volume  45 ,  pages 15–31 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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In 2020, 199 papers were published in Hypertension Research. Many excellent papers have contributed to progress in research on hypertension. Here, our editorial members have summarized eleven topics from published work and discussed current topics in depth. We hope you enjoy our special feature, Annual Reports on Hypertension Research.

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Update on Hypertension Research in 2021

2023 update and perspectives

Epidemiology of hypertension in Japan: beyond the new 2019 Japanese guidelines

Hot topics on vascular function in hypertension, 2020.

(See Supplementary Information  1 )

Several methods for assessment of vascular function including endothelial function, vascular smooth muscle function, arterial stiffness, and biochemical markers have been used in patients with hypertension (Fig.  1 ) [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. These methods have been established as markers for the grade of atherosclerosis, markers for efficacy of interventions, tools for evaluating mechanisms of atherosclerosis, and predictors of cardiovascular outcomes in cardiovascular disease (CVD) including hypertension (Fig.  1 ) [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ].

Methods for assessment of vascular function (top) and clinical efficacy of assessment of vascular function (bottom). FMD indicates flow-mediated vasodilation, ezFMD enclosed-zone FMD, RHI reactive hyperemia index, NID nitroglycerine-induced vasodilation, baPWV brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity, cfPWV carotid-femoral PWV, CAVI cardio-ankle vascular index, AI augmentation index, TBI toe brachial pressure index, ABI ankle-brachial pressure index, IMT intima media thickness

There were many reports on “vascular function and hypertension” in Hypertension Research in 2020 alone. Liu et al. [ 13 ] demonstrated a significant association of higher brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (baPWV) as an index of arterial stiffness with a higher frequency of the presence of carotid plaque in patients with hypertension, particularly in relatively young patients. Maruhashi et al. [ 14 ] showed that measurement of baPWV is a predictor of cardiovascular events in hypertensive patients with coronary artery disease with controlled blood pressure (BP) of <130/80 mmHg, suggesting that a BP target of <130/80 mmHg is appropriate for the treatment of hypertensive patients with coronary artery disease. Tomiyama et al. ( Supplementary Information 1–1 ) showed that the SAGE score calculated from age, office systolic BP, fasting blood glucose, and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) is useful for predicting baPWV in patients with hypertension. In addition, elevation of BP contributes, at least in part, to microvascular dysfunction ( Supplementary Information 1–2 ). The association between quality of sleep and vascular function in patients with hypertension remains unclear. Hu et al. ( Supplementary Information 1–3 ) reported that poor sleep quality was associated with higher arterial stiffness measured by baPWV in patients with hypertension. It has also been reported that measurement of carotid-femoral PWV reveals different hypertension phenotypes including white-coat hypertension, resistant hypertension and nonresistant hypertension ( Supplementary Information 1–4 ). Interestingly, it has been shown that high BP-induced alteration of shear stress reduces antithrombotic effects through a decrease in nitric oxide bioavailability in human conduit arteries, leading to an increase in risk of arterial thrombosis [ 15 ].

In fields other than hypertension, Fukumoto et al. ( Supplementary Information 1–5 ) showed that smoking cessation improved flow-mediated vasodilation as an index of macrovascular endothelial function but not reactive hyperemic index as an index of microvascular endothelial function, suggesting that attention should be paid to the effects of smoking on endothelial function in vessels of different sizes. Maruhashi et al. [ 16 ] confirmed that vascular function, including endothelial function, vascular smooth muscle function and arterial stiffness, is continuously impaired throughout life with aging. Harada et al. ( Supplementary Information 1–6 ) showed that vascular dysfunction plays a critical role in the decrease in skeletal muscle mass, leading to cardiovascular events. Also, microcirculatory dysfunction assessed by digital capillary density and high normal ankle-brachial pressure index independently contributes to advancement of chronic kidney disease stages (Supplementary Information 1–7 , 1–8 ). The advanced glycation end products (AGEs)/soluble receptor for AGEs pathway is associated with arterial stiffness in the general population ( Supplementary Information 1–9 ).

Next year and also in the next decade, we would like to pay attention to publications concerning “vascular function and hypertension” in Hypertension Research. Accumulation of data on vascular function in hypertension would enable more specific conclusions concerning the roles of vascular function in the pathophysiology, maintenance, and development of hypertension to be drawn.

Preeclampsia update

(See Supplementary Information  2 )

No effective treatment that attenuates the progression of preeclampsia (PE) has been established. New trials and cohort studies have provided insights into the development of preventive care and diagnostic and prognostic tools, and reports regarding these issues have also been published in Hypertension Research.

Pathogenesis

The two-stage paradigm of poor early placental development followed by systemic endothelial dysfunction and severe maternal organ injury is an effective model to frame the pathogenesis of PE (Fig.  2 ) [ 17 ]. Vangrieken et al. ( Supplementary Information 2–1 ) investigated the effect of placental hypoxic-conditioned medium on intraluminal-induced contraction and endothelial barrier integrity in chorionic arteries, and have demonstrated a link between factors secreted by placental cells in response to hypoxia and vascular abnormalities.

Topics on preeclampsia, 2020. PE preeclampsia, BP blood pressure, sFlt-1 soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1, sENG soluble endoglin, PRES posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome, AKI acute kidney injury, CsA cyclosporin A, CKD chronic kidney disease

Preventive care

The strongest risk factors for PE are history of PE and chronic hypertension. Li et al. showed associations between high preconception BP level and an increase in risk of gestational hypertension and PE, indicating the importance of preconception BP control. Some risk factors are amendable to pre-pregnancy modifications [ 18 ]. Li et al. ( Supplementary Information 2–2 ) demonstrated that different subclasses of saturated fatty acids show diverse effects on the risk of pregnancy-induced hypertension, and suggested that dietary saturated fatty acids may be a novel means by which to decrease BP during pregnancy.

Diagnostic and prognostic tools

To make an early prediction of PE before diagnosis, Yue et al. ( Supplementary Information 2–3 ) developed a nomogram that incorporates BMI, BP, uterine artery ultrasound parameters, and serological indicators for the early prediction of PE in pregnant Chinese women. Also, recently, the Fetal Medicine Foundation proposed a Bayes theorem-based model to predict preterm PE. Goto et al. investigated the diagnostic accuracy of the model and showed that the model is feasible in the Japanese population [ 19 ].

Once diagnosed, PE is often a progressive condition and maternal organ function deteriorates with time. Chen et al. ( Supplementary Information 2–4 ) have reported that crocin alleviates inflammatory and oxidative stress in placental tissues, thereby protecting against gestational hypertension (Fig.  2 ). Li et al. ( Supplementary Information 2–5 ) explored the efficacy of troxerutin and found that it reduces BP and the expression of vasodilation converting enzyme, angiotensin, urinary protein, and pro-inflammatory cytokines while increasing the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines (Fig.  2 ).

Magnesium sulfate reduces the risk of an eclamptic seizure, but its mechanism of action is poorly understood. Li et al. ( Supplementary Information 2–6 ) have shown that prophylactic magnesium sulfate decreases BP and attenuates the postpartum effects of PE. Huang et al. ( Supplementary Information 2–7 ) have shown that the maternal hyperinflammatory response in PE lowers the eclampsia-like seizure threshold [ 20 ] and found that administration of a well-known immunosuppressive agent, cyclosporin A (CsA), effectively attenuated PE manifestation, and eclampsia-like seizure severity and improved subsequent pregnancy outcomes in a rat model (Fig.  2 ).

Long-term outcomes

PE confers an increased risk of major chronic diseases in later life including many cardiovascular complications [ 21 ], diabetes [ 22 ], chronic kidney disease [ 23 ], and also dementia [ 24 ]. Wagata et al. have shown that the association between hypertensive disorders in pregnancy (HDP) and later hypertension was stronger in younger women, implying that continuous follow-up after the postpartum period is important for women with a history of HDP for early detection of hypertension in later life [ 25 ].

The 2019 Maternal Mortality update from the WHO report indicated a major contribution of PE and eclampsia to worldwide maternal deaths. Much work is needed to decrease its morbidity and mortality, and this may be reported in Hypertension Research in the future.

Treatment of hypertensive patients during COVID-19 pandemic

(See Supplementary Information  3 )

During 2020, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been the most defining global health crisis worldwide. Many reports related to this international public health emergency have been published in Hypertension Research. Presidents of the Japanese Society of Hypertension (JSH) have written communications about proposals for future hypertension treatment, conscious of the “new normal” during and after COVID-19. Shibata and JSH members also strived together to summarize and discuss the effects and severity of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and the effects of antihypertensive drugs, especially in relation to blockade of the renin–angiotensin system (RAS) [ 26 ]. The most downloaded article in 2020 was a short communication by Li et al. ( Supplementary information 3–1 ), demonstrating the association between COVID-19 and RAS inhibitors. On March 4, the date on which the communication was accepted, there was concern that ACE2, which is considered to be upregulated by RAS inhibitors, could promote the proliferation of COVID-19 and enhance its capability for infection. Kai et al. ( Supplementary Information 3–2 ) promptly reviewed the interactions between coronaviruses and ACE2, angiotensin II, and RAS inhibitors. This review was the second most downloaded article in 2020. Furuhashi et al. ( Supplementary Information 3–3 ) also commented on this topic around the same time. To address this question, Matsuzawa et al. clearly demonstrated that RAS inhibitors could be beneficial for the prevention of confusion in COVID-19 patients with hypertension [ 27 ]. Following assessment of the clinical studies, speculation about the safety of RAS inhibitors has diminished [ 28 , 29 ] (Fig.  3 ).

Topics on COVID-19

The next hot topic is the effect of hypertension and BP control on COVID-19 severity. Huang et al. ( Supplmentary Information 3–4 ) showed that COVID-19 patients with hypertension were more likely to have severe pneumonia and excessive inflammatory reactions compared with patients without hypertension. Ran et al. ( Supplmentary Information 3–5 ) also showed that BP control is independently associated with mortality and intensive care unit (ICU) admission. Hypertension has been identified as the most common comorbidity in COVID-19 patients and has shown an association with worse outcomes, possibly due to more advanced atherosclerosis and target organ damage, in a recent report [ 30 ]. More attention should be paid to avoiding SARS-CoV-2 infection in hypertensive patients in order to prevent severe COVID-19 disease (Fig.  3 ).

Finally, the COVID-19 pandemic has changed lifestyle factors and behaviors such as physical activity, dietary pattern, alcohol consumption and mental conditions, resulting in an increase in metabolic syndrome with body weight gain. These communicable disease-induced noncommunicable diseases [ 31 , 32 , 33 ] have been focused on in hypertension management during and after the COVID-19 pandemic and may be reported in Hypertension Research in the future (Fig.  3 ).

Treatment of CKD patients and therapeutic usefulness of SGLT2 inhibitors

(See Supplementary Information  4 )

The Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) 2021 Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of BP in Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) [ 34 ] represents an update to the KDIGO 2012 guidelines. The updated guidelines include a chapter dedicated to standardized office BP (OBP) measurement for most patients with CKD, who do not undergo dialysis. With regard to recommendations for standardized OBP measurements, based on previous and new evidence, particularly the results of the Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial (SPRINT) [ 35 ], these guidelines propose a systolic BP target of <120 mmHg. Renin–angiotensin system inhibitors (RASis) are recommended as first-line medication for patients with high BP and CKD accompanied by proteinuria. Although these guidelines include advice regarding salt reduction, reduction of salt intake is difficult in real-world practice. Yoshimura et al. [ 36 ] reported that excessive alcohol consumption enhanced the effect of salt intake on albuminuria. The benefit of salt restriction in reducing albuminuria is greater in patients who successfully limit alcohol consumption. Data regarding the addition of mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRA) to RASis are unavailable in the headlines of the updated guidelines. However, finerenone (a selective MRA) was shown to significantly reduce the risk of CKD progression and cardiovascular events in patients with CKD with concomitant type 2 diabetes. [ 37 ] Wang et al. ( Supplementary Information 4–1 ) reported that an appropriate dose of spironolactone may improve endothelial function, as reflected by a lower prevalence of microalbuminuria in patients with primary aldosteronism, which suggests that in addition to their beneficial effects on the endothelium, MRAs may reinforce the cardio-renal protective effects of RASis. Zamami et al. ( Supplementary Information 4–2 ) proposed the application of the ankle-brachial index (ABI) as a useful tool for evaluation of CKD severity. ABI was positively correlated with biopsy-proven severity of renal small artery intimal thickening in patients with CKD, which indicates that an elevated ABI may predict renal small artery remodeling and a low eGFR. Based on quantitative nailfold video capillaroscopy assessment, Schoina et al. ( Supplementary Information 4–3 ) reported that capillary density progressively decreased with advancing CKD stage. The authors observed structural alterations in the microvasculature in parallel to arteriosclerosis in large and medium-sized arteries in patients with CKD, which supports the usefulness of capillary density as a predictor of CKD severity and the risk of cardiovascular events.

Independent of diabetes, sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) have gained much attention in the field of nephrology in recent times. Although SGLT2is were originally introduced as antidiabetic agents, several studies have shown that these drugs improved cardiovascular and renal prognosis in patients with CKD [ 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 ]. The mechanisms underlying SGLT2i activity include selective inhibition of SGLT2 expressed in the S1 segment of the proximal tubule, promotion of hypotensive activity, and improvement of glucose metabolism. SGLT2is also increase the quantity of sodium chloride delivered to the macula densa of the distal tubule and correct glomerular hyperfiltration by promoting contraction of the afferent arteriole via the tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism, which serves as a major contributor to the renoprotective effects of SGLT2is (Fig.  4 ) [ 45 ]. Furthermore, SGLT2is reduce adverse left ventricular remodeling and improve systolic function by switching cardiac metabolism from glucose consumption toward utilization of more energy-producing ketone bodies, free fatty acids, and branched-chain amino acids, which results in improved myocardial energetics and efficiency [ 46 , 47 ]. SGLT2i-induced sympathetic nerve inhibition was shown to be a critical contributor to the cardio-renal protective effects associated with SGLT2is in some nondiabetic animal models [ 48 , 49 ]. Compared with RASi monotherapy, combination therapy using SGLT2is and RASis was effective and well tolerated in patients with diabetes and could improve renal outcomes. However, this therapeutic approach was associated with an increased risk of hypoglycemia [ 50 ]. Kitamura et al. [ 51 ] reported that pre-treatment administration of metformin diminished the SGLT2i-induced reduction in eGFR, and addition of RASi therapy restored this response. This study highlights that SGLT2i-induced renal microvascular action may be mediated predominantly by post-glomerular vasodilatation as opposed to pre-glomerular vasoconstriction, which has been considered the primary underlying mechanism. Finally, the initial decrease in eGFR during the early stages of SGLT2i therapy was a concern expressed by several nephrologists, and Kohagura et al. ( Supplementary Information 4–4 ) showed that eGFR measured during the chronic phase after luseogliflozin administration remained stable regardless of the severity of the initial acute changes.

Mechanisms by which SGLT2 inhibitors might improve cardiac and renal function

Obesity/diabetes

(See Supplementary Information  5 )

Under the COVID-19 catastrophe, many people are likely forced to face various health problems caused by disordered eating habits and physical inactivity, leading to overweight/obesity, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome. At the same time, the baseline obesity/overweight and impaired metabolic conditions are also associated with adverse outcomes in patients infected with COVID-19 [ 52 , 53 , 54 ]. There is now a renewed need to focus on the clinical management of obesity/overweight and its association with hypertension (Fig.  5 ). Thu et al. ( Supplementary Information 5–1 ) demonstrated a strong association between the burden of visceral adipose tissue and systolic BP, independent of serum levels of inflammatory markers, in midlife Singaporean women. Intriguingly, among Japanese women, a history of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy was significantly associated with later development of hypertension even in younger generations, and overweight/obesity unfavorably enhanced that association [ 25 ]. Thus, it is obvious that overweight/obesity incrementally increases the level of BP and accelerates the risk of hypertension; this fact no longer needs a reference. To adjust or maintain an individual’s ideal body weight, it also goes without saying that comprehensive lifestyle modification, including exercise and diet, is essential. Regarding exercise-training, Clark et al. sought to determine an optimal practical program for reducing BP in men with overweight/obesity. They found that a series of high-intensity interval training was more effective for central and peripheral BP-lowering than was moderate-intensity continuous training, and those effects were more pronounced in overweight/obese subjects with higher baseline BP [ 55 ]. On the other hand, a higher frequency of alcohol consumption, which is also a current socio-physical problem, was associated with higher incidence of hypertension in nonobese men, but not women and overweight/obese men [ 56 ]. Importantly, although the relationship between alcohol intake and the development of hypertension and cardiovascular events is not necessarily a simple one [ 57 , 58 , 59 ], it is best not to drink, or for habitual drinkers to try to stay sober regardless of overweight/obesity and sex.

Topics on obesity/diabetes

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) and hypertension synergistically increase the risk of cardiovascular events and mortality. Imai et al. investigated the impact of hypertension stratified by diabetes status on the lifetime risk of cardiovascular death using a Japanese cohort of the EPOCH-JAPAN study. They found that hypertension and diabetes were associated with a markedly increased lifetime risk in a synergistic manner even at an earlier index age [ 60 ], suggesting the importance of social awareness and prevention of these factors from the younger generation. Thus, constant BP measurement/monitoring and comprehensive clinical management of relevant risk factors, including hypertension, are of importance especially in patients with T2D. Ushigome et al. examined the predictive impact of BP values measured at home on the first onset of major adverse cardiovascular events in Japanese patients with T2D with no previous history of CVD (KAMOGAWA-HBP study). They reported that a rise in morning systolic BP by 10 mmHg was independently associated with an increased risk of development of cardiovascular events (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 1.14, 95% confidence interval 1.01 to 1.28), and HR in patients with morning systolic BP ≥ 135 mmHg was numerically larger than that in those with morning systolic BP < 125 mmHg [ 61 ]. However, it has long been controversial whether lower BP is associated with better outcomes in patients with T2D, although BP-lowering of 10 mmHg was associated with apparent clinical benefits in patients with T2D and baseline BP ≥ 140 mmHg [ 62 ]. On the basis of previous meta-analyses and the expected benefit on the risk of stroke in the Japanese population [ 63 , 64 , 65 ], the current JSH guidelines recommend a BP of less than 130/80 mmHg as a treatment target for OBP in patients with T2D complicated with hypertension [ 66 ]. Generally, in patients with hypertension complicated with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), careful attention should be paid to the decrease in organ perfusion associated with BP-lowering. Kai et al. examined whether lower BP levels independently contributed to the incidence of cardiovascular events in patients with T2D who underwent coronary revascularization (CREDO-Kyoto cohort-1 registry). They demonstrated that clinically-allowable levels of low BP were not associated with an increased risk of ASCVD and mortality [ 67 ], supporting the current clinical practice of BP-lowering in patients with T2D recommended by the JSH 2019 guidelines [ 66 ].

Finally, we would like to briefly introduce some exciting progress in exploratory and basic research in the area of “Obesity/Diabetes”. Gelžinský et al. investigated how to better depict the burden of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) related to arterial stiffness. They revealed that skin AGEs quantified by a noninvasive autofluorescence device and its ratio to the circulating concentration of soluble receptor for AGEs were strongly and independently associated with increased arterial stiffness assessed as aortic pulse wave velocity [ 68 ], suggesting that this simple method is clinically useful to assess “vascular age” and/or “vascular failure” [ 69 ]. Hirao et al. examined the effect of pharmacological blockade of vacuolar type H + -ATPase (V-ATPase) in a rat model of T2D. They newly found that blockade of V-ATPase by bafilomycin inhibited renal ammoniagenesis and gluconeogenesis and improved pancreatic insulin secretion and its sensitivity [ 70 ], shedding light on the pathophysiological role of V-ATPase as a novel therapeutic target in T2D. Heart failure is a common complication in patients with T2D, and this pathological condition requires novel therapeutic approaches beyond glucose-lowering therapy [ 71 ]. Wang et al. focused on the role of translocase of mitochondrial outer membrane 70 (Tom70) in the pathogenesis of diabetic cardiomyopathy. They first revealed that genetic rescue of Tom70 expression protected against mitochondrial dysfunction and improved the cardiac phenotype of diabetic cardiomyopathy in db/db mice [ 72 ], indicating that Tom70 may become an emerging therapeutic target specifically for diabetic cardiomyopathy.

Hypertension management

(See Supplementary Information  6 )

Given the importance of intensive BP treatment implicated in recent clinical trials including SPRINT [ 73 ], it is increasingly important to clarify how hypertensive patients need to be managed in clinical practice. In this context, recent studies have focused on the appropriate use and interpretation of home BP (HBP) [ 74 ] including self-measured BP (SMBP) and ambulatory BP (ABP), which enables us to detect a high-risk population and reduce cardiovascular risk [ 75 , 76 , 77 ]. We reviewed studies related to HBP and hypertension management that were published on hypertension research in 2020. The subjects of these studies can be categorized into “evaluation of BP values”, “assessment of cardiovascular risk”, and “treatment of hypertension” (Fig.  6 ).

Advantages of home BP monitoring

Regarding the evaluation of BP values, Kubozono et al. ( Supplementary Information 6–1 ) demonstrated that HBP was significantly correlated with room temperature. Asayama et al. ( Supplementary Information 6–2 ) revealed the current status of HBP and home pulse rate in relation to sex, age, and antihypertensive treatment status in the Japanese general population. Kadowaki et al. demonstrated that OBP measured with a sufficient rest time (st-OBP) was comparable to HBP at the population level [ 78 ]. Interestingly, smokers and obese men taking antihypertensive drugs had higher HBP than st-OBP, indicating that their BP levels are at risk of being underestimated. Gkaliagkousi et al. reported a novel method to detect masked hypertension in individuals with normal OBP using a combination of conventional brachial BP and aortic BP (central BP) measured in the office [ 79 ]. Sheng et al. shed light on the pathophysiology of BP and pulse variability in relation to the autonomic nervous system, and demonstrated that individuals with masked hypertension showed variability in BP and heart rate, and baroreflex sensitivity similar to that in those with sustained hypertension [ 80 ].

Regarding the assessment of cardiovascular risk, Ushigome et al. ( Supplementary Information 6–3 ) demonstrated that elevated morning BP is a future risk for cardiovascular events in a Japanese retrospective cohort study of type 2 diabetic patients. Manousopoulos et al. ( Supplementary Information 6–4 ) showed that ABP variability was positively associated with LVMI in CKD patients. Ramoshaba et al. ( Supplementary Information 6–5 ) demonstrated that masked hypertension was associated with retinal arteriolar narrowing in young healthy adults.

Regarding the treatment of hypertension, HBP monitoring has a beneficial effect on adherence and hypertension education. Zhang et al. reported that HBP measurement improved adherence and OBP control in a randomized controlled trial in Chinese subjects with stage 2 and 3 hypertension [ 81 ].

Vallée et al. ( Supplementary Information 6–6 ) reported factors that improved adherence to antihypertensive treatment in a cross-sectional study in the French general population including elderly individuals. Nishimura et al. ( Supplementary Information 6–7 ) revealed that although adherence was relatively high compared with that in Western countries, younger age, female sex, antihypertensive drug class, comorbid conditions, and types of medical institutions were associated with relatively low adherence. Nishigaki et al. ( Supplementary Information 6–8 ) and Yoshida et al. ( Supplementary Information 6–9 ) examined the gaps in perspectives on hypertension management between patients and physicians in the same panel-based, cross-sectional, observational study in Japan, and proposed a solution to the hypertension paradox. Nishigaki et al. demonstrated that perception of the amount of education provided by physicians on hypertension management was lower in patients than in physicians. Yoshida et al. demonstrated that, compared with specialist physicians, nonspecialists were less likely to provide adequate guidance on lifestyle modifications.

These reports support the importance of adequate HBP monitoring to improve hypertension management and reduce the risk of cardiovascular events and mortality.

Hypertension and frailty

(See Supplementary Information  7 )

The relationship between frailty and hypertension has been studied. Guidelines for the treatment of hypertension in various countries show that older hypertensive patients with frailty, especially impaired physical function and/or activities of daily living (ADL), should be individually evaluated for the target BP and the initiation of antihypertensive medication [ 66 , 82 ].

In Japan, the relationship between hypertension and frailty has been investigated mainly using cohort or cross-sectional studies. Here, we introduce three papers published in Hypertension Research in 2020 and discuss the relationship between frailty and BP or cardiovascular risk.

In the SONIC study, an ongoing prospective cohort conducted since 2010, the relationship between systolic BP and physical frailty or cognitive function was examined in groups aged 70 ± 1, 80 ± 1, and 90 ± 1 years ( Supplementary Information 7–1 ). Lower systolic BP was associated with a higher frequency of physical frailty in the 80-year-old group, but not in the 70- and 90-year-old groups, in subjects on antihypertensive medication; however, no association was found in the groups without antihypertensive medication. Besides, higher systolic BP was associated with lower cognitive function in the 70-year-old group, and lower systolic BP was associated with lower cognitive function in the 90-year-old group in subjects on antihypertensive treatment; however, no association was found in the 80-year-old group on antihypertensive treatment or all the groups without antihypertensive medication. In another report, greater variability of systolic BP was an independent risk factor associated with frailty status [ 83 ]. These results suggest the need to consider the pros and cons of antihypertensive treatment individually to prevent frailty and other geriatric syndromes in older adults.

In a cross-sectional study of the association between cardiovascular risk profile and frailty in the Nambu Cohort Study (mean age 78 years), 37% of cases of frailty were diagnosed using the Kihon Checklist score ( Supplementary Information 7–2 ). For every 10 mmHg increase in systolic BP, the risk of frailty decreased significantly by 17%. Moreover, the total number of cardiovascular risk profiles within the optimal range (systolic BP < 140/90 mmHg, LDL-cholesterol < 100 mg/dL and BMI < 25 kg/m 2 ) was significantly associated with the risk of frailty. These results suggest that a favorable cardiovascular risk profile, called “reverse metabolic syndrome”, might be a risk for frailty.

Sarcopenia is an essential component of frailty, and chronic diseases, including CVD, are a common cause of sarcopenia. However, there has been little clinical evidence on the mechanism of sarcopenia in patients with CVD. A retrospective cross-sectional study in the Kyushu area (mean age 72 years) showed an association among skeletal muscle mass reduction, endothelial function, and markers of advanced vascular damage in older patients with CVD ( Supplementary Information 7–3 ). Of cases of sarcopenia, 25.5% were diagnosed using the Asian Working Group for Sarcopenia criteria. Greater progression of arterial stiffness, shown by a higher arterial velocity pulse index (AVI), and more severe tissue damage, shown by a narrower bioelectrical phase angle (PA), were found in subjects with sarcopenia. Both AVI and PA, as well as gender, age, and presence of hypertension, were independently correlated with skeletal muscle index. These results suggest that advanced vascular damage, called “vascular aging”, may contribute to the development of sarcopenia, possibly through skeletal muscle tissue damage in patients with CVD.

The risk of development of CVD, such as elevated systolic BP or BP variability, high LDL-cholesterol, and obesity, should be controlled within the optimal range in non-older or robust older adults; however, in frail older adults, a favorable cardiovascular risk profile may act as an adverse prognostic factor, and in addition, advanced vascular damage is thought to be associated with sarcopenia. Therefore, especially in older patients with a long duration of hypertension or CVD, it is important to keep in mind that strict control of risk factors may lead to a poor prognosis through the progression of frailty. Therefore, it is strongly recommended to consider whether to prioritize antihypertensive treatment or frailty intervention based on the evaluation of frailty status (Fig.  7 ) [ 84 ].

Proposed management process for hypertension in frail older adults. Cited from ref. [ 84 ]

New chemiluminescent enzyme immunoassays for aldosterone measurement and nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists in the diagnosis and management of primary aldosteronism

(See Supplementary Information  8 )

During 2020–2021, large numbers of papers regarding primary aldosteronism have been published in Hypertension Research and other journals. It is recommended that the diagnosis of primary aldosteronism (PA) is performed in a step-wise manner; screening, confirmatory testing and subtype testing. The biggest topic in Japan is the discontinuation of the previous radioimmunoassay for aldosterone measurement in March 2021, and the launch of alternative new chemiluminescent enzyme immunoassays (CLEIA) for aldosterone measurement. Nishikawa et al. [ 85 ], Ozeki et al. [ 86 ], and Teruyama et al. [ 87 ] demonstrated that the new CLEIA-plasma aldosterone concentration (PAC) is almost equal to the value obtained by LC–MS/MS; however, the CLEIA-PAC value was shown to be lower than the old RIA-PAC value. Therefore, these changes markedly affect PA diagnosis. The PA clinical practice guidelines 2021 will soon be published by the Japan Endocrine Society. When saline infusion test (SIT) is performed for confirmatory testing, Yamashita et al. ( Supplementary Information 8–1 ) showed that shortened SIT (1 L saline loading over 2 h) may be as useful as the standard SIT (2 L saline loading over 4 h) with a cutoff value of 66 pg/mL. In adrenal vein sampling, use of cosyntropin stimulation is controversial; however, Yatabe et al. ( Supplementary Information 8–2 ) showed that it improved the judgment of successful adrenal vein catheterization and outcome prediction. Nishimoto et al. [ 88 ] showed that immunohistochemical staining for aldosterone synthase revealed diverse PA pathology, and hypokalemia (<2.82 mEq/L) may independently predict a small PA lesion. PA is a clinically important disease because it is associated with a high prevalence of cardiovascular complications, such as abdominal aortic calcification, skin microvascular dysfunction, and microalbuminuria, as shown by Tuersun et al. ( Supplementary Information 8–3 ), Concistre et al. ( Supplementary Information 8–4 ), and Wang et al. ( Supplementary Information 8–5 ), respectively.

The next hot topic is the development of novel nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) antagonists, esaxerenone and finerenone. Both MR antagonists showed high affinity as well as high selectivity for MR. Esaxerenone was approved in Japan in January 2019 for the treatment of hypertension. Ito et al. [ 89 ] showed that esaxerenone had sufficient antihypertensive effects and was well tolerated in hypertensive patients with moderate kidney dysfunction (eGFR 30-60 mL/min/1.73 m 2 ), as both monotherapy and add-on therapy to a RAS inhibitor. Satoh et al. [ 90 ] showed that esaxerenone is also a potent MR antagonist with favorable efficacy and safety profile in patients with hypertension and PA. Using a T2D mouse model, KK-Ay, Arai et al. [ 91 ] showed that esaxerenone plus olmesartan treatment ameliorated diabetic nephropathy without affecting systolic BP. Similarly, Ito et al. [ 92 ] showed that adding esaxerenone to existing RAS inhibitor therapy increased the likelihood of albuminuria returning to a normal level, suggesting renoprotective effects of esaxerenone in diabetic kidney disease, but careful monitoring of serum K level is needed. Bakris et al. [ 93 ] showed that administration of another nonsteroidal MR antagonist, finerenone, in patients with CKD and T2D resulted in lower risk of CKD progression and cardiovascular events than with placebo (FIDELIO-DKD). Sarafidis et al. [ 94 ] summarized mounting evidence from large outcome trials suggesting that sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors and MR antagonists can, apart from nephroprotection, offer significant cardioprotection in patients with CKD (Fig.  8 ).

Role of MR antagonists in primary aldosteronism and CKD with and without diabetes. Esaxerenone and finerenone have been developed as novel nonsteroidal MR antagonists. It is crucial to select an appropriate MR antagonist (steroidal or nonsteroidal) according to the disease state. Recent clinical trials showed that the combination of a renin–angiotensin system (RAS) inhibitor and a sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitor with an MR antagonist may have benefit for renoprotection as well as cardiovascular protection. Each ref. number indicates the reference paper cited in the text

The last topic is the biology of MR activation in hypertension. Yokota et al. [ 95 ] showed a repressive role of CASZ1b in regulating MR-mediated transcriptional activity, as well as acting as a hypertension-associated protein. Wu et al. ( Supplementary Information 8–6 ) showed that sodium butyrate, one of the end products of complex carbohydrates generated by the gut microbiota, ameliorated deoxycorticosterone acetate/salt-induced hypertension, and renal damage by inhibiting the MR/SGK1 pathway.

Risk of blood pressure variability in diverse conditions

(See Supplementary Information  9 )

A large number of previous studies have shown that increased blood pressure variability (BPV) is associated with risk of target organ damage and worse cardiovascular outcome in the general, hypertensive and high-risk populations, independent of average BP level [ 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 ]. Generally, BPV has been classified into very short-term, short-term, mid-term and long-term BPV according to the measurement period. In 2020, Hypertension Research published a paper about BPV in diverse conditions (Fig.  9 ). In the first study, in acute ischemic stroke patients, high BP variability measured in the supine position every 4 h during the first 24 h of admission was associated with an unfavorable outcome within 30 days after onset ( Supplementary Information 9–1 ). Alexandrou et al. compared short-term BPV assessed by ABP monitoring (ABPM) in peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients with hemodialysis (HD) patients ( Supplementary Information 9–2 ). The results showed that there was no significant difference in short-term BPV between PD and HD patients.

Topics on blood pressure variability. BPV blood pressure variability, CKD chronic kidney disease, HT hypertension

Manousopoulos et al. reported that short-term BPV assessed by ABPM, but not mid-term BPV assessed by HBP monitoring (day-to-day home BPV), was associated with left ventricular mass index in CKD patients defined by eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73 m 2 [ 107 ]. This result showed a discrepancy with a previous study [ 108 ]. The reason may be due to differences in the populations. The prevalence of diabetes was 53.3% and 9% in the present and previous study, respectively. For example, we previously reported that increased day-to-day home BPV was associated with reduced eGFR in individuals with diabetes, but not in those without [ 109 ]. Although increased day-to-day home BPV was associated with the risk of cardiovascular events independent of average home BP level [ 96 ], further study is needed to determine whether the clinical impact of day-to-day home BPV is different in high-risk populations such as individuals with diabetes or CKD or both.

Liu et al. reported that in pregnancy, increased long-term BPV assessed by OBP measured from 20 weeks of gestation onwards was associated with poor birth outcomes [ 110 ]. On the other hand, the association between the maternal HBP trajectory and lower infant birth weight showed a J-curve relationship [ 111 ]. Thus, even in pregnancy, management using office and out-of-office BP measurement is important.

Another topic is whether masked and white-coat hypertension, which are caused by BP variability between office and out-office BP measurements, have different pathological mechanisms, from the viewpoint of BPV, from sustained hypertension. Sheng et al. reported that masked, but not white-coat hypertension, showed a similar pattern of change in BP and heart rate variability and baroreceptor sensitivity assessed with a Finometer device to those in sustained hypertension [ 80 ]. This result confirms the previous study results that masked hypertension exerted a risk of poor cardiovascular outcome similarly to sustained hypertension [ 112 ]. Although beat-to-beat BP measurement is needed to estimate BPV accurately and reliably, there is no validated and simplified device that is available to use in clinical settings. In the future, the development of BP monitoring is expected in this field [ 113 , 114 ].

(See Supplementary Information  10 )

Serum uric acid level is regulated by renal excretion, extrarenal excretion in the gut and de novo synthesis in the liver. These are affected by the genetic predisposition for uric acid transporters (kidney and gut) and also by environmental factors. Hyperuricemia is the cause of gout and is also closely associated with the development of hypertension (Fig.  10 ) [ 115 , 116 ]. The mechanism by which uric acid is involved in hypertension is assumed to be endothelial dysfunction related to the crystal pathway (extracellular uric acid) and crystal-independent pathway (intracellular uric acid) [ 116 ].

Association of hyperuricemia with hypertension, gout, chronic kidney disease (CKD) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Hyperuricemia is known to be the etiological mechanism of gout. In recent papers in Hypertension Research, elevated serum uric acid level was reported to be a risk factor for subsequent development of hypertension. Furthermore, elevated serum uric acid level has been reported to be associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD), and also potentially with cardiovascular disease (CVD). Each ref. number indicates the reference paper cited in the text

Recently, a cross-sectional study in Japanese subjects ( n  = 236,22) who underwent heath checkups demonstrated a J-shaped association between serum uric acid level and the prevalence of BP abnormalities ( Supplementary Information 10–1 ). It was also reported in Hypertension Research that hyperuricemia was a risk for developing hypertension independently of alcohol consumption (Saku study) ( Supplementary Information 10–2 ), and that elevated serum uric acid level in subjects aged 12–13 years was associated with elevated BP in young adults (Fig.  10 ) ( Supplementary Information 10–3 ). Some SNPs have been reported to be involved in the increase in serum uric acid by thiazide-like diuretics ( Supplementary Information 10–4 ). Taking these findings together, including those in previous papers, it is well established that elevated serum uric acid level is one of the risk factors for the subsequent development of hypertension. On the other hand, elevated plasma activity of xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) was reported to be associated with hypertension independently of uric acid level ( Supplementary Information 10–5 ). Since patients with hyperuricemia comprise an etiologically heterogeneous population, there may be differences in its complications such as hypertension, depending on the subpopulation.

In Hypertension Research 2020, papers on the association of uric acid with CKD and CVD from cohort studies in the Japanese general population such as BOREAS-CKD2, CIRCS, and the Hisayama Study were published (Fig.  10 ) [ 117 , 118 , 119 ]. Elevated serum uric acid level was associated with a decline in renal function [ 117 ], was an independent predictor of total strokes in women [ 118 ], and was a risk for cardiovascular mortality [ 119 ]. The causality between serum uric acid and stroke was taken up as a topic in Hypertension Research ( Supplementary Information 10–6 ). Besides, serum uric acid level was high in adult patients with congenital heart disease showing high brachial-ankle pause wave velocity (baPWV) ( Supplementary Information 10–7 ). Basic studies are needed to elucidate the mechanism(s) of uric acid not only in hypertension but also in atherosclerosis. Accumulated evidence from epidemiological studies suggests that hyperuricemia is also a risk factor for CKD and CVD. However, the clinical significance of intervention for serum uric acid in CKD and CVD remains controversial. Further progress in clinical research is expected in the near future.

Progress in translational research: basic research

(See Supplementary Information  11 )

Basic research plays important roles in the progress of translational research (Fig.  11 ). First, in the heart, Peterson et al. demonstrated the enhancing effects of caspase recruitment domain family member 9 (Card9) on cardiac fibrosis and hypertrophy using a transverse aortic constriction model [ 120 ]. The authors previously reported a protective effect against ischemia and reperfusion injury through attenuation of acute inflammatory responses in mice without the Card9 gene [ 121 ], indicating Card9 to be a potential target in CVD [ 122 ]. On the other hand, another Card family member, Card6, is reported to be a novel cardioprotective factor via negative regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling [ 123 ]. “Cards” act as different master cards in cardiac disease.

Topics in basic research. Each ref. number indicates the reference paper cited in the text

In the kidney, Natarajan et al. reported the effects of acute hypoxia on renal epithelial cells, with enhanced mitochondrial function [ 124 ]. Young spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) show increased renal expression of key proteins for mitochondrial biogenesis and hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)−1α compared to normotensive Wistar Kyoto rats. Increased mitochondrial metabolism could be a causal contributor to hypertension in SHR [ 125 ]. On the other hand, HIF-1α activation improves mitochondrial function in early CKD and has a beneficial effect on renal function, with lowered mitochondrial oxygen consumption [ 126 ]. Thus, the roles of HIF-1α have been focused on in both hypertension and CKD. Moreover, Kouyoumdzian et al. reported the effects of angiotensin II on the renal dopaminergic system [ 127 ]. They presented a clear schematic representation of this mechanism, showing the association between dopamine D1-like receptor (D1R) and angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT1R), focusing on the counteraction of the effects of dopamine and angiotensin II on sodium excretion. On the other hand, a role of the D1R and angiotensin type 2 receptor (AT2R) interaction in maintaining sodium ion transport has been reported [ 126 ]. Interestingly, AT2R stimulation was regulated by angiotensin III. There are marked interactions between dopamine receptors and angiotensin receptors. Morisawa et al. demonstrated the beneficial effects of renal denervation on salt-sensitive hypertension by reducing its effects on catabolism and cardiovascular energy expenditure [ 128 ]. Hypertension increases glucose utilization in cardiac muscle prior to the development of structural changes [ 129 ]. Renal denervation is expected to have not only BP-lowering effects but also BP-independent cardioprotective effects, with attenuation of the salt-derived catabolic state.

In the brain, Savic et al. ( Supplementary Information 11–1 ) showed possible roles of vasopressin, with an increase in gene expression of vasopressin and V1b receptor in the hypothalamic paraventricular nuclei in borderline hypertensive rats. Moreover, Cao et al. ( Supplementary Information 11–2 ) demonstrated that microinjection of urotensin II, a polypeptide molecule with neurohormone-like activity, into the rostral ventrolateral medulla increases sympathetic vasomotor tone. Such vasoactive peptides have also been highlighted in hypertension research to elucidate the central regulation of BP.

Jackson et al. ( Supplementary Information 11–3 ) demonstrated that neural suppression of miRNA-181a in the kidney increases renin expression, resulting in exacerbation of hypertension in BPH/2J mice. Moreover, Zhang et al. ( Supplementary Information 11–4 ) showed that an increased circulating level of miR-122 could be a potential risk factor for endothelial dysfunction in young hypertensive mice. MicroRNAs have been highlighted as future clinical biomarkers and therapeutic tools in hypertension.

Finally, Steppan et al. reported mouse strain-dependent differences in key vascular stiffness indices among inbred mouse strains such as C57BL/6J, 129S, and BL6/129S [ 130 ]. These baseline data may contribute to future animal studies in hypertension research. Moreover, much promising basic research has been reported in Hypertension Research. See Supplementary Information .

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Deparment of Pharmacology, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Tohon, Ehime, Japan

• Masaki Mogi

Department of Cardiovascular Regeneration and Medicine, Research Institute for Radiation Biology and Medicine, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Hiroshima, Japan

Yukihito Higashi

Divivsion of Regeneration and Medicine, Medical Center for Translational and Clinical Research, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima, Hiroshima, Japan

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Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, Shimotsuke, Tochigi, Japan

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Home » Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Table of Contents

Research Report

Definition:

Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of the research to the intended audience, which could be other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public.

Components of Research Report

Components of Research Report are as follows:

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the research report and provides a brief overview of the research question or problem being investigated. It should include a clear statement of the purpose of the study and its significance or relevance to the field of research. It may also provide background information or a literature review to help contextualize the research.

Literature Review

The literature review provides a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing research and scholarship relevant to the research question or problem. It should identify the gaps, inconsistencies, and contradictions in the literature and show how the current study addresses these issues. The literature review also establishes the theoretical framework or conceptual model that guides the research.

Methodology

The methodology section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used to collect and analyze data. It should include information on the sample or participants, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques. The methodology should be clear and detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and objective manner. It should provide a detailed description of the data and statistics used to answer the research question or test the hypothesis. Tables, graphs, and figures may be included to help visualize the data and illustrate the key findings.

The discussion section interprets the results of the study and explains their significance or relevance to the research question or problem. It should also compare the current findings with those of previous studies and identify the implications for future research or practice. The discussion should be based on the results presented in the previous section and should avoid speculation or unfounded conclusions.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the study and restates the main argument or thesis presented in the introduction. It should also provide a brief overview of the contributions of the study to the field of research and the implications for practice or policy.

The references section lists all the sources cited in the research report, following a specific citation style, such as APA or MLA.

The appendices section includes any additional material, such as data tables, figures, or instruments used in the study, that could not be included in the main text due to space limitations.

Types of Research Report

Types of Research Report are as follows:

Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also be written by researchers or scholars in other fields.

Research Paper

Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a document that presents the results of a research study or investigation. Research papers can be written in a variety of fields, including science, social science, humanities, and business. They typically follow a standard format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.

Technical Report

A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a specific technical or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are often used in engineering, science, and other technical fields to document research and development work.

Progress Report

A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research project or program over a specific period of time. Progress reports are typically used to communicate the status of a project to stakeholders, funders, or project managers.

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan, providing an analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated with the project. Feasibility reports are often used in business, engineering, and other fields to determine the viability of a project before it is undertaken.

Field Report

A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which is research conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports are often used in anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural sciences.

Experimental Report

An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment, including the hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental reports are often used in biology, chemistry, and other sciences to communicate the results of laboratory experiments.

Case Study Report

A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or situation, often used in psychology, social work, and other fields to document and understand complex cases or phenomena.

Literature Review Report

A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research on a specific topic, providing an overview of the current state of knowledge on the subject. Literature review reports are often used in social sciences, education, and other fields to identify gaps in the literature and guide future research.

Research Report Example

Following is a Research Report Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance among High School Students

This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students. The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The findings indicate that there is a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students. The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers, as they highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities.

Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of the lives of high school students. With the widespread use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, students can connect with friends, share photos and videos, and engage in discussions on a range of topics. While social media offers many benefits, concerns have been raised about its impact on academic performance. Many studies have found a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance among high school students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012).

Given the growing importance of social media in the lives of high school students, it is important to investigate its impact on academic performance. This study aims to address this gap by examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students.

Methodology:

The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The questionnaire was developed based on previous studies and was designed to measure the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as academic performance.

The participants were selected using a convenience sampling technique, and the survey questionnaire was distributed in the classroom during regular school hours. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis.

The findings indicate that the majority of high school students use social media platforms on a daily basis, with Facebook being the most popular platform. The results also show a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students.

Discussion:

The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. The negative correlation between social media use and academic performance suggests that strategies should be put in place to help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. For example, educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the negative impact of social media on academic performance among high school students. The findings highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. Further research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms by which social media use affects academic performance and to develop effective strategies for addressing this issue.

Limitations:

One limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Future studies should use random sampling techniques to increase the representativeness of the sample. Another limitation is the use of self-reported measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias. Future studies could use objective measures of social media use and academic performance, such as tracking software and school records.

Implications:

The findings of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. Educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. For example, teachers could use social media platforms to share relevant educational resources and facilitate online discussions. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. They could also engage in open communication with their children to understand their social media use and its impact on their academic performance. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students. For example, schools could implement social media policies that restrict access during class time and encourage responsible use.

References:

• Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237-1245.
• Paul, J. A., Baker, H. M., & Cochran, J. D. (2012). Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 8(1), 1-19.
• Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 652-657.
• Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.

Note*: Above mention, Example is just a sample for the students’ guide. Do not directly copy and paste as your College or University assignment. Kindly do some research and Write your own.

Applications of Research Report

Research reports have many applications, including:

• Communicating research findings: The primary application of a research report is to communicate the results of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public. The report serves as a way to share new knowledge, insights, and discoveries with others in the field.
• Informing policy and practice : Research reports can inform policy and practice by providing evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers. For example, a research report on the effectiveness of a new drug could inform regulatory agencies in their decision-making process.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research in a particular area. Other researchers may use the findings and methodology of a report to develop new research questions or to build on existing research.
• Evaluating programs and interventions : Research reports can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and interventions in achieving their intended outcomes. For example, a research report on a new educational program could provide evidence of its impact on student performance.
• Demonstrating impact : Research reports can be used to demonstrate the impact of research funding or to evaluate the success of research projects. By presenting the findings and outcomes of a study, research reports can show the value of research to funders and stakeholders.
• Enhancing professional development : Research reports can be used to enhance professional development by providing a source of information and learning for researchers and practitioners in a particular field. For example, a research report on a new teaching methodology could provide insights and ideas for educators to incorporate into their own practice.

How to write Research Report

Here are some steps you can follow to write a research report:

• Identify the research question: The first step in writing a research report is to identify your research question. This will help you focus your research and organize your findings.
• Conduct research : Once you have identified your research question, you will need to conduct research to gather relevant data and information. This can involve conducting experiments, reviewing literature, or analyzing data.
• Organize your findings: Once you have gathered all of your data, you will need to organize your findings in a way that is clear and understandable. This can involve creating tables, graphs, or charts to illustrate your results.
• Write the report: Once you have organized your findings, you can begin writing the report. Start with an introduction that provides background information and explains the purpose of your research. Next, provide a detailed description of your research methods and findings. Finally, summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your findings.
• Proofread and edit: After you have written your report, be sure to proofread and edit it carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and make sure that your report is well-organized and easy to read.
• Include a reference list: Be sure to include a list of references that you used in your research. This will give credit to your sources and allow readers to further explore the topic if they choose.
• Format your report: Finally, format your report according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or organization. This may include formatting requirements for headings, margins, fonts, and spacing.

Purpose of Research Report

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a specific audience, such as peers in the same field, stakeholders, or the general public. The report provides a detailed description of the research methods, findings, and conclusions.

Some common purposes of a research report include:

• Sharing knowledge: A research report allows researchers to share their findings and knowledge with others in their field. This helps to advance the field and improve the understanding of a particular topic.
• Identifying trends: A research report can identify trends and patterns in data, which can help guide future research and inform decision-making.
• Addressing problems: A research report can provide insights into problems or issues and suggest solutions or recommendations for addressing them.
• Evaluating programs or interventions : A research report can evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions, which can inform decision-making about whether to continue, modify, or discontinue them.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies.

When to Write Research Report

A research report should be written after completing the research study. This includes collecting data, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Once the research is complete, the report should be written in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

In academic settings, research reports are often required as part of coursework or as part of a thesis or dissertation. In this case, the report should be written according to the guidelines provided by the instructor or institution.

In other settings, such as in industry or government, research reports may be required to inform decision-making or to comply with regulatory requirements. In these cases, the report should be written as soon as possible after the research is completed in order to inform decision-making in a timely manner.

Overall, the timing of when to write a research report depends on the purpose of the research, the expectations of the audience, and any regulatory requirements that need to be met. However, it is important to complete the report in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

Characteristics of Research Report

There are several characteristics of a research report that distinguish it from other types of writing. These characteristics include:

• Objective: A research report should be written in an objective and unbiased manner. It should present the facts and findings of the research study without any personal opinions or biases.
• Systematic: A research report should be written in a systematic manner. It should follow a clear and logical structure, and the information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
• Detailed: A research report should be detailed and comprehensive. It should provide a thorough description of the research methods, results, and conclusions.
• Accurate : A research report should be accurate and based on sound research methods. The findings and conclusions should be supported by data and evidence.
• Organized: A research report should be well-organized. It should include headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate the report and understand the main points.
• Clear and concise: A research report should be written in clear and concise language. The information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand, and unnecessary jargon should be avoided.
• Citations and references: A research report should include citations and references to support the findings and conclusions. This helps to give credit to other researchers and to provide readers with the opportunity to further explore the topic.

Advantages of Research Report

Research reports have several advantages, including:

• Communicating research findings: Research reports allow researchers to communicate their findings to a wider audience, including other researchers, stakeholders, and the general public. This helps to disseminate knowledge and advance the understanding of a particular topic.
• Providing evidence for decision-making : Research reports can provide evidence to inform decision-making, such as in the case of policy-making, program planning, or product development. The findings and conclusions can help guide decisions and improve outcomes.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research on a particular topic. Other researchers can build on the findings and conclusions of the report, which can lead to further discoveries and advancements in the field.
• Demonstrating expertise: Research reports can demonstrate the expertise of the researchers and their ability to conduct rigorous and high-quality research. This can be important for securing funding, promotions, and other professional opportunities.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies. Producing a high-quality research report can help ensure compliance with these requirements.

Limitations of Research Report

Despite their advantages, research reports also have some limitations, including:

• Time-consuming: Conducting research and writing a report can be a time-consuming process, particularly for large-scale studies. This can limit the frequency and speed of producing research reports.
• Expensive: Conducting research and producing a report can be expensive, particularly for studies that require specialized equipment, personnel, or data. This can limit the scope and feasibility of some research studies.
• Limited generalizability: Research studies often focus on a specific population or context, which can limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or contexts.
• Potential bias : Researchers may have biases or conflicts of interest that can influence the findings and conclusions of the research study. Additionally, participants may also have biases or may not be representative of the larger population, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Accessibility: Research reports may be written in technical or academic language, which can limit their accessibility to a wider audience. Additionally, some research may be behind paywalls or require specialized access, which can limit the ability of others to read and use the findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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9 Great Annual Report Examples (And Why They're Great)

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After using Anedot:

Table of contents, 1. focus on the family, 2. navy seal foundation, 3. charity water, 4. samaritan's purse, 5. wounded warrior project, 6. midwest food bank, 7. feeding america, 8. compassion international, 9. ducks unlimited.

Every year, your nonprofit has the opportunity to inform, celebrate, and motivate your community of supporters with a great annual report.

Sadly, many nonprofits struggle to produce an annual report that communicates the hard work and impact of the past year.

Below are 9 annual report examples that will inspire and guide you to your best annual report ever.

9 Annual Report Examples

View Annual Report

Why this nonprofit annual report is great:

They clearly communicate their mission.

They communicate impact with detailed numbers.

They are transparent with their budgeting and resourcing.

They use social proof (testimonials of impact).

They use high quality people-centered images throughout.

They include partnerships (logos).

They recognize their top supporters.

They keep the report brief (Approx. 5-10 minute read time).

They use limited copy per page (very readable).

They use the power of storytelling to draw in the reader.

→ Learn about the best software for nonprofits in 2021

They end with a motivating call to action.

→ Learn how to collect cash donations at a food bank !

They celebrate their volunteers.

They include partnership (logos).

They include partnerships.

They recognize their top volunteers.

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Show notes:

How to attract a new corporate partner in less than 30 days.

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FY23 Research Annual Report

The University of Michigan reported a record $1.86 billion in research expenditures during fiscal year 2023, fueling innovations to address critical challenges ranging from artificial intelligence and global infectious disease to microelectronics and social justice.

News Release

Research by the Numbers

Federal Agency Reports

Michigan research at a glance, fiscal year 2023.

A new future of work: The race to deploy AI and raise skills in Europe and beyond

At a glance.

Amid tightening labor markets and a slowdown in productivity growth, Europe and the United States face shifts in labor demand, spurred by AI and automation. Our updated modeling of the future of work finds that demand for workers in STEM-related, healthcare, and other high-skill professions would rise, while demand for occupations such as office workers, production workers, and customer service representatives would decline. By 2030, in a midpoint adoption scenario, up to 30 percent of current hours worked could be automated, accelerated by generative AI (gen AI). Efforts to achieve net-zero emissions, an aging workforce, and growth in e-commerce, as well as infrastructure and technology spending and overall economic growth, could also shift employment demand.

By 2030, Europe could require up to 12 million occupational transitions, double the prepandemic pace. In the United States, required transitions could reach almost 12 million, in line with the prepandemic norm. Both regions navigated even higher levels of labor market shifts at the height of the COVID-19 period, suggesting that they can handle this scale of future job transitions. The pace of occupational change is broadly similar among countries in Europe, although the specific mix reflects their economic variations.

Businesses will need a major skills upgrade. Demand for technological and social and emotional skills could rise as demand for physical and manual and higher cognitive skills stabilizes. Surveyed executives in Europe and the United States expressed a need not only for advanced IT and data analytics but also for critical thinking, creativity, and teaching and training—skills they report as currently being in short supply. Companies plan to focus on retraining workers, more than hiring or subcontracting, to meet skill needs.

Workers with lower wages face challenges of redeployment as demand reweights toward occupations with higher wages in both Europe and the United States. Occupations with lower wages are likely to see reductions in demand, and workers will need to acquire new skills to transition to better-paying work. If that doesn’t happen, there is a risk of a more polarized labor market, with more higher-wage jobs than workers and too many workers for existing lower-wage jobs.

Choices made today could revive productivity growth while creating better societal outcomes. Embracing the path of accelerated technology adoption with proactive worker redeployment could help Europe achieve an annual productivity growth rate of up to 3 percent through 2030. However, slow adoption would limit that to 0.3 percent, closer to today’s level of productivity growth in Western Europe. Slow worker redeployment would leave millions unable to participate productively in the future of work.

Demand will change for a range of occupations through 2030, including growth in STEM- and healthcare-related occupations, among others

This report focuses on labor markets in nine major economies in the European Union along with the United Kingdom, in comparison with the United States. Technology, including most recently the rise of gen AI, along with other factors, will spur changes in the pattern of labor demand through 2030. Our study, which uses an updated version of the McKinsey Global Institute future of work model, seeks to quantify the occupational transitions that will be required and the changing nature of demand for different types of jobs and skills.

Our methodology

We used methodology consistent with other McKinsey Global Institute reports on the future of work to model trends of job changes at the level of occupations, activities, and skills. For this report, we focused our analysis on the 2022–30 period.

Our model estimates net changes in employment demand by sector and occupation; we also estimate occupational transitions, or the net number of workers that need to change in each type of occupation, based on which occupations face declining demand by 2030 relative to current employment in 2022. We included ten countries in Europe: nine EU members—the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Spain, and Sweden—and the United Kingdom. For the United States, we build on estimates published in our 2023 report Generative AI and the future of work in America.

We included multiple drivers in our modeling: automation potential, net-zero transition, e-commerce growth, remote work adoption, increases in income, aging populations, technology investments, and infrastructure investments.

Two scenarios are used to bookend the work-automation model: “late” and “early.” For Europe, we modeled a “faster” scenario and a “slower” one. For the faster scenario, we use the midpoint—the arithmetical average between our late and early scenarios. For the slower scenario, we use a “mid late” trajectory, an arithmetical average between a late adoption scenario and the midpoint scenario. For the United States, we use the midpoint scenario, based on our earlier research.

We also estimate the productivity effects of automation, using GDP per full-time-equivalent (FTE) employee as the measure of productivity. We assumed that workers displaced by automation rejoin the workforce at 2022 productivity levels, net of automation, and in line with the expected 2030 occupational mix.

Amid tightening labor markets and a slowdown in productivity growth, Europe and the United States face shifts in labor demand, spurred not only by AI and automation but also by other trends, including efforts to achieve net-zero emissions, an aging population, infrastructure spending, technology investments, and growth in e-commerce, among others (see sidebar, “Our methodology”).

Our analysis finds that demand for occupations such as health professionals and other STEM-related professionals would grow by 17 to 30 percent between 2022 and 2030, (Exhibit 1).

By contrast, demand for workers in food services, production work, customer services, sales, and office support—all of which declined over the 2012–22 period—would continue to decline until 2030. These jobs involve a high share of repetitive tasks, data collection, and elementary data processing—all activities that automated systems can handle efficiently.

Up to 30 percent of hours worked could be automated by 2030, boosted by gen AI, leading to millions of required occupational transitions

By 2030, our analysis finds that about 27 percent of current hours worked in Europe and 30 percent of hours worked in the United States could be automated, accelerated by gen AI. Our model suggests that roughly 20 percent of hours worked could still be automated even without gen AI, implying a significant acceleration.

These trends will play out in labor markets in the form of workers needing to change occupations. By 2030, under the faster adoption scenario we modeled, Europe could require up to 12.0 million occupational transitions, affecting 6.5 percent of current employment. That is double the prepandemic pace (Exhibit 2). Under a slower scenario we modeled for Europe, the number of occupational transitions needed would amount to 8.5 million, affecting 4.6 percent of current employment. In the United States, required transitions could reach almost 12.0 million, affecting 7.5 percent of current employment. Unlike Europe, this magnitude of transitions is broadly in line with the prepandemic norm.

Both regions navigated even higher levels of labor market shifts at the height of the COVID-19 period. While these were abrupt and painful to many, given the forced nature of the shifts, the experience suggests that both regions have the ability to handle this scale of future job transitions.

Businesses will need a major skills upgrade

The occupational transitions noted above herald substantial shifts in workforce skills in a future in which automation and AI are integrated into the workplace (Exhibit 3). Workers use multiple skills to perform a given task, but for the purposes of our quantification, we identified the predominant skill used.

Demand for technological skills could see substantial growth in Europe and in the United States (increases of 25 percent and 29 percent, respectively, in hours worked by 2030 compared to 2022) under our midpoint scenario of automation adoption (which is the faster scenario for Europe).

Demand for social and emotional skills could rise by 11 percent in Europe and by 14 percent in the United States. Underlying this increase is higher demand for roles requiring interpersonal empathy and leadership skills. These skills are crucial in healthcare and managerial roles in an evolving economy that demands greater adaptability and flexibility.

Conversely, demand for work in which basic cognitive skills predominate is expected to decline by 14 percent. Basic cognitive skills are required primarily in office support or customer service roles, which are highly susceptible to being automated by AI. Among work characterized by these basic cognitive skills experiencing significant drops in demand are basic data processing and literacy, numeracy, and communication.

Demand for work in which higher cognitive skills predominate could also decline slightly, according to our analysis. While creativity is expected to remain highly sought after, with a potential increase of 12 percent by 2030, work activities characterized by other advanced cognitive skills such as advanced literacy and writing, along with quantitative and statistical skills, could decline by 19 percent.

Demand for physical and manual skills, on the other hand, could remain roughly level with the present. These skills remain the largest share of workforce skills, representing about 30 percent of total hours worked in 2022. Growth in demand for these skills between 2022 and 2030 could come from the build-out of infrastructure and higher investment in low-emissions sectors, while declines would be in line with continued automation in production work.

Business executives report skills shortages today and expect them to worsen

A survey we conducted of C-suite executives in five countries shows that companies are already grappling with skills challenges, including a skills mismatch, particularly in technological, higher cognitive, and social and emotional skills: about one-third of the more than 1,100 respondents report a shortfall in these critical areas. At the same time, a notable number of executives say they have enough employees with basic cognitive skills and, to a lesser extent, physical and manual skills.

Within technological skills, companies in our survey reported that their most significant shortages are in advanced IT skills and programming, advanced data analysis, and mathematical skills. Among higher cognitive skills, significant shortfalls are seen in critical thinking and problem structuring and in complex information processing. About 40 percent of the executives surveyed pointed to a shortage of workers with these skills, which are needed for working alongside new technologies (Exhibit 4).

Companies see retraining as key to acquiring needed skills and adapting to the new work landscape

Surveyed executives expect significant changes to their workforce skill levels and worry about not finding the right skills by 2030. More than one in four survey respondents said that failing to capture the needed skills could directly harm financial performance and indirectly impede their efforts to leverage the value from AI.

To acquire the skills they need, companies have three main options: retraining, hiring, and contracting workers. Our survey suggests that executives are looking at all three options, with retraining the most widely reported tactic planned to address the skills mismatch: on average, out of companies that mentioned retraining as one of their tactics to address skills mismatch, executives said they would retrain 32 percent of their workforce. The scale of retraining needs varies in degree. For example, respondents in the automotive industry expect 36 percent of their workforce to be retrained, compared with 28 percent in the financial services industry. Out of those who have mentioned hiring or contracting as their tactics to address the skills mismatch, executives surveyed said they would hire an average of 23 percent of their workforce and contract an average of 18 percent.

Occupational transitions will affect high-, medium-, and low-wage workers differently

All ten European countries we examined for this report may see increasing demand for top-earning occupations. By contrast, workers in the two lowest-wage-bracket occupations could be three to five times more likely to have to change occupations compared to the top wage earners, our analysis finds. The disparity is much higher in the United States, where workers in the two lowest-wage-bracket occupations are up to 14 times more likely to face occupational shifts than the highest earners. In Europe, the middle-wage population could be twice as affected by occupational transitions as the same population in United States, representing 7.3 percent of the working population who might face occupational transitions.

Enhancing human capital at the same time as deploying the technology rapidly could boost annual productivity growth

About quantumblack, ai by mckinsey.

QuantumBlack, McKinsey’s AI arm, helps companies transform using the power of technology, technical expertise, and industry experts. With thousands of practitioners at QuantumBlack (data engineers, data scientists, product managers, designers, and software engineers) and McKinsey (industry and domain experts), we are working to solve the world’s most important AI challenges. QuantumBlack Labs is our center of technology development and client innovation, which has been driving cutting-edge advancements and developments in AI through locations across the globe.

Organizations and policy makers have choices to make; the way they approach AI and automation, along with human capital augmentation, will affect economic and societal outcomes.

We have attempted to quantify at a high level the potential effects of different stances to AI deployment on productivity in Europe. Our analysis considers two dimensions. The first is the adoption rate of AI and automation technologies. We consider the faster scenario and the late scenario for technology adoption. Faster adoption would unlock greater productivity growth potential but also, potentially, more short-term labor disruption than the late scenario.

The second dimension we consider is the level of automated worker time that is redeployed into the economy. This represents the ability to redeploy the time gained by automation and productivity gains (for example, new tasks and job creation). This could vary depending on the success of worker training programs and strategies to match demand and supply in labor markets.

We based our analysis on two potential scenarios: either all displaced workers would be able to fully rejoin the economy at a similar productivity level as in 2022 or only some 80 percent of the automated workers’ time will be redeployed into the economy.

Exhibit 5 illustrates the various outcomes in terms of annual productivity growth rate. The top-right quadrant illustrates the highest economy-wide productivity, with an annual productivity growth rate of up to 3.1 percent. It requires fast adoption of technologies as well as full redeployment of displaced workers. The top-left quadrant also demonstrates technology adoption on a fast trajectory and shows a relatively high productivity growth rate (up to 2.5 percent). However, about 6.0 percent of total hours worked (equivalent to 10.2 million people not working) would not be redeployed in the economy. Finally, the two bottom quadrants depict the failure to adopt AI and automation, leading to limited productivity gains and translating into limited labor market disruptions.

Four priorities for companies

The adoption of automation technologies will be decisive in protecting businesses’ competitive advantage in an automation and AI era. To ensure successful deployment at a company level, business leaders can embrace four priorities.

Understand the potential. Leaders need to understand the potential of these technologies, notably including how AI and gen AI can augment and automate work. This includes estimating both the total capacity that these technologies could free up and their impact on role composition and skills requirements. Understanding this allows business leaders to frame their end-to-end strategy and adoption goals with regard to these technologies.

Plan a strategic workforce shift. Once they understand the potential of automation technologies, leaders need to plan the company’s shift toward readiness for the automation and AI era. This requires sizing the workforce and skill needs, based on strategically identified use cases, to assess the potential future talent gap. From this analysis will flow details about the extent of recruitment of new talent, upskilling, or reskilling of the current workforce that is needed, as well as where to redeploy freed capacity to more value-added tasks.

Prioritize people development. To ensure that the right talent is on hand to sustain the company strategy during all transformation phases, leaders could consider strengthening their capabilities to identify, attract, and recruit future AI and gen AI leaders in a tight market. They will also likely need to accelerate the building of AI and gen AI capabilities in the workforce. Nontechnical talent will also need training to adapt to the changing skills environment. Finally, leaders could deploy an HR strategy and operating model to fit the post–gen AI workforce.

Pursue the executive-education journey on automation technologies. Leaders also need to undertake their own education journey on automation technologies to maximize their contributions to their companies during the coming transformation. This includes empowering senior managers to explore automation technologies implications and subsequently role model to others, as well as bringing all company leaders together to create a dedicated road map to drive business and employee value.

AI and the toolbox of advanced new technologies are evolving at a breathtaking pace. For companies and policy makers, these technologies are highly compelling because they promise a range of benefits, including higher productivity, which could lift growth and prosperity. Yet, as this report has sought to illustrate, making full use of the advantages on offer will also require paying attention to the critical element of human capital. In the best-case scenario, workers’ skills will develop and adapt to new technological challenges. Achieving this goal in our new technological age will be highly challenging—but the benefits will be great.

Eric Hazan is a McKinsey senior partner based in Paris; Anu Madgavkar and Michael Chui are McKinsey Global Institute partners based in New Jersey and San Francisco, respectively; Sven Smit is chair of the McKinsey Global Institute and a McKinsey senior partner based in Amsterdam; Dana Maor is a McKinsey senior partner based in Tel Aviv; Gurneet Singh Dandona is an associate partner and a senior expert based in New York; and Roland Huyghues-Despointes is a consultant based in Paris.

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GenCost: cost of building Australia’s future electricity needs

Each year, CSIRO and the Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO) collaborate with industry stakeholders to update GenCost. This leading economic report estimates the cost of building new electricity generation, storage, and hydrogen production in Australia out to 2050.

GenCost 2023-24 report released

The latest release was shaped by an unprecedented level of industry participation.

What’s new?

• Renewables (solar and wind + firming) remains the lowest cost new build electricity technology.
• Large-scale nuclear technology costs included for the first time.
• Future wind costs revised upwards.
• An extensive FAQ section addressing common questions from current and past consultations.

What is GenCost?

GenCost is a leading economic report for business leaders and decision-makers planning reliable and affordable energy solutions to achieve net zero emissions by 2050.

Published annually in collaboration with the Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO), GenCost offers accurate, policy and technology-neutral cost estimates for new electricity generation, storage, and hydrogen technologies, through to 2050.

GenCost is highly collaborative and transparent, leveraging the expertise of energy industry stakeholders and involving extensive consultation to ensure accuracy prior to publication.

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GenCost 2023-24 report

Explore key insights from the latest report.

GenCost projects the cost of electricity generation and storage for a wide range of technologies up to the year 2050.  

Renewables remain lowest cost

The report highlights wind power’s slower recovery from global inflationary pressures, resulting in upward revisions for both onshore and offshore wind costs over the next decade.

Despite this, updated analysis reaffirms that renewables, including associated storage and transmission costs, remain the lowest cost, new build technology out to 2050.

This competitive position reflects a decade of cost reductions in wind, solar photovoltaics (PV) and batteries before the pandemic. This is in contrast with costs of mature competitors which have remained flat.

Large-scale nuclear costs introduced

The inclusion of large-scale nuclear costs this year was prompted by increased stakeholder interest in nuclear technology following the updated cost estimates for SMRs in the 2023-24 consultation draft.

Applying overseas costs to large-scale nuclear projects in Australia is complex due to the lack of a domestic nuclear industry and significant global differences in labor costs, workforce expertise, governance, and standards. The GenCost 2023-24 report team estimated large-scale nuclear costs using South Korea’s successful nuclear program. They adjusted for differences in Australian and South Korean deployment costs by comparing the cost ratio of new coal generation in each country. GenCost found nuclear power to be more expensive than renewables and estimated a development timeline of at least 15 years, including construction. This reflects the absence of a local development pipeline, additional legal, safety and security requirements, and stakeholder evidence. Achieving the reported nuclear costs depends on Australia committing to a continuous building program like South Korea’s. Initial units are likely to incur higher costs, and a first-of-a-kind premium of up to 100 per cent is possible, although not included in the cost estimates for nuclear or other new electricity technologies in the report.

Explore answers to commonly asked questions about GenCost.

• 2023-24 GenCost report
• 2023-24 GenCost media release
• 2023-24 GenCost infographics
• 2023-24 GenCost report (text version)
• GenCost project data and previous reports

Our in-depth explainers take a closer look at Australia’s evolving electricity sector. What are the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead in Australia's energy transition?

Understanding the cost of Australia's energy transition

Understanding the costs of new-build electricity generation technologies is essential if we are to evolve Australia’s energy system to limit emissions.

The question of nuclear in Australia’s energy sector

In Australia's transition to net zero emissions, the electricity sector has a major role to play. But does nuclear power have a place in our future grid?

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