inquizitive chapter 2 research methods answers

Test: chapter 2 inquizitive research methods

34 multiple choice questions.

Term The following are the three criteria for proving causation. Of these criteria, which can a correlational study satisfy? Choose matching definition Benefitting those who partake in the study Internal The variables are related in some way. third-variable problem Don't know? 1 of 34

Term Ice cream sales are positively correlated with shark attacks. This correlation may be confusing to explain until you realize that increases in temperature are responsible for this correlation. What is this an example of? Choose matching definition directionality problem confounding variable extraneous variable problem third-variable problem Don't know? 2 of 34

Term Which of the following factors are an Institutional Review Board tasked with considering? Choose matching definition Two variables must be associated with each other There must be temporal priority of the independent variable Alternative explanationships for the relationship must be limited or controlled for drafts of the consent forms composition of the participant pool whether the results will be of interest to anyone a method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview the researcher manipulates one of the variables and tries to determine how the manipulation influences other variables Don't know? 3 of 34

Term true or false: A correlation coefficient expresses both the effect size and the direction of the relationship between two variables. Choose matching definition True False Don't know? 4 of 34

Term true or false: Depending on what type of calculation was made, effect size can be represented by different values. Choose matching definition True False Don't know? 5 of 34

Term true or false:Standard deviation is the measure of effect size Choose matching definition True False Don't know? 6 of 34

Term true or false: A negative correlation has a weaker effect size than a positive Choose matching definition True False Don't know? 7 of 34

Term These three factors must be true to estabish causation. Choose matching definition Two variables must be associated with each other There must be temporal priority of the independent variable Alternative explanationships for the relationship must be limited or controlled for the researcher manipulates one of the variables and tries to determine how the manipulation influences other variables The variables are related in some way. drafts of the consent forms composition of the participant pool whether the results will be of interest to anyone Don't know? 8 of 34

Definition the degree of confidence that the relationship being tested is trustworthy and not being influenced by other factors Choose matching term construct validity internal validity reliability inferential statistics Don't know? 9 of 34

Definition extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings Choose matching term construct validity external validity autonomy reliability Don't know? 10 of 34

Definition numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population Choose matching term reliability inferential statistics internal validity validity Don't know? 11 of 34

Term null hypothesis Choose matching definition how repeatable or consistent a study finding can be a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies how accurate or appropriate a claim or conclusion is a statement or idea that can be falsified, or proved wrong Don't know? 12 of 34

Definition a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies Choose matching term inferential statistics meta-analysis reliability correlational study Don't know? 13 of 34

Definition how accurate or appropriate a claim or conclusion is Choose matching term validity reliability construct reliability null hypothesis Don't know? 14 of 34

Definition how repeatable or consistent a study finding can be Choose matching term internal validity reliability construct validity validity Don't know? 15 of 34

Definition how well a variable has been manipulated or measured Choose matching term construct validity reliability external validity construct reliability Don't know? 16 of 34

Term construct reliability Choose matching definition the degree of confidence that the relationship being tested is trustworthy and not being influenced by other factors extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings how well a variable has been manipulated or measured the extent to which evidence shows that a test measures a particular hypothetical construct Don't know? 17 of 34

Definition a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other Choose matching term correlational study expiremental study experiment case study Don't know? 18 of 34

Term expiremental study Choose matching definition numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population the researcher manipulates one of the variables and tries to determine how the manipulation influences other variables the degree of confidence that the relationship being tested is trustworthy and not being influenced by other factors a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other Don't know? 19 of 34

Definition a third variable that influences both the independant and dependant variables Choose matching term confound variable extraneous variable mediator variable control variable Don't know? 20 of 34

Term p-hacking Choose matching definition the degree of confidence that the relationship being tested is trustworthy and not being influenced by other factors a method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview The use of data mining to uncover patterns in data that can be presented as statistically significant, without first devising a specific hypothesis as to the underlying causality. hypothesizing after results are known Don't know? 21 of 34

Term HARKing Choose matching definition exploit people from compromised populations using small sample sizes to achieve potentially significant results hypothesizing after results are known ignore participants' health and wellbeing Don't know? 22 of 34

Term what can prevent p-hacking Choose matching definition open science open materials open data using a larger sample Don't know? 23 of 34

Term what can prevent HARKing Choose matching definition internal informed consent open data preregistration Don't know? 24 of 34

Term true or false: The stronger an effect size is, the more likely it is to be statistically significant. Choose matching definition True False Don't know? 25 of 34

Definition the entire universe of animals or people that could be studied Choose matching term outcome of interest experimental group population of interest setting of interest Don't know? 26 of 34

Definition a subset of the population of interest Choose matching term reliability sample validity control group Don't know? 27 of 34

Term random sampling helps improve _______ validity Choose matching definition intense external overall statistical Don't know? 28 of 34

Term random assignment helps improve _______ validity Choose matching definition construct statistical internal intrinsic Don't know? 29 of 34

Term observational measure Choose matching definition a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other a method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview a method of measuring a variable by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors a method of measuring a variable by recording biological data Don't know? 30 of 34

Term physiological measure Choose matching definition a third variable that influences both the independant and dependant variables a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other a method of measuring a variable by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors a method of measuring a variable by recording biological data Don't know? 31 of 34

Term self-report measure Choose matching definition numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population a method of measuring a variable by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors a method of measuring a variable by recording biological data a method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview Don't know? 32 of 34

Definition benefitting those who partake in the study Choose matching term acquiescence autonomy benefience justice Don't know? 33 of 34

Term autonomy Choose matching definition can the subject willingly consent to the study how repeatable or consistent a study finding can be how accurate or appropriate a claim or conclusion is hypothesizing after results are known Don't know? 34 of 34

Module 2: Research Methods in Social Psychology

Module Overview

In Module 2 we will address the fact that psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. We will do this by examining the steps of the scientific method and describing the five major designs used in psychological research. We will also differentiate between reliability and validity and their importance for measurement. Psychology has very clear ethical standards and procedures for scientific research. We will discuss these but also why they are needed. Finally, psychology as a field, but especially social psychology as a subfield, is faced with a replication crisis and issues with the generalizability of its findings. These will be explained to close out the module.

Module Outline

2.1. The Scientific Method

2.2. research designs used by social psychologists, 2.3. reliability and validity, 2.4. research ethics, 2.5. issues in social psychology.

Module Learning Outcomes

• Clarify what it means for psychology to be scientific by examining the steps of the scientific method and the three cardinal features of science.
• Outline the five main research methods used in psychology and clarify how they are utilized in social psychology.
• Differentiate and explain the concepts of reliability and validity.
• Describe key features of research ethics.
• Clarify the nature of the replication crisis in psychology and the importance of generalizability.

Section Learning Objectives

• Define scientific method.
• Outline and describe the steps of the scientific method, defining all key terms.
• Identify and clarify the importance of the three cardinal features of science.

In Module 1, we learned that psychology was the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. We will spend quite a lot of time on the behavior and mental processes part, but before we proceed, it is prudent to elaborate more on what makes psychology scientific. In fact, it is safe to say that most people not within our discipline or a sister science, would be surprised to learn that psychology utilizes the scientific method at all.

So what is the scientific method? Simply, the scientific method is a systematic method for gathering knowledge about the world around us. The key word here is that it is systematic meaning there is a set way to use it. What is that way? Well, depending on what source you look at it can include a varying number of steps. For our purposes, the following will be used:

Table 2.1: The Steps of the Scientific Method

Science has at its root three cardinal features that we will see play out time and time again throughout this book, and as mentioned in Module 1. They are:

• Observation – In order to know about the world around us we must be able to see it firsthand. In relation to social psychology, we know our friend and his parents pretty well, and so in our time with them have observed the influence they exert on his life.
• Experimentation – To be able to make causal or cause and effect statements, we must be able to isolate variables. We have to manipulate one variable and see the effect of doing so on another variable. Experimentation is the primary method social psychology uses to test its hypotheses.
• Measurement – How do we know whether or not our friend is truly securely attached to his parents? Well, simply we measure attachment. In order to do that, we could give our friend a short questionnaire asking about his attachment pattern to his parents. For this questionnaire, let’s say we use a 5-point scale for all questions (with 1 meaning the question does not apply to 5 meaning it definitely is true or matters). If there were 10 questions, then our friend would have a score between 10 and 50. The 10 would come from him answering every question with a 1 and the 50 from answering every question with a 5. If you are not aware, there are four main styles of attachment (secure, anxious-ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized-disoriented). We would have 2-3 questions assessing each of the 4 styles meaning that if we had 2 questions for that style, the score would range from 2 to 10. If 3 questions, the range would be 3 to 15. The higher the score, the more likely the person exhibits that style to the parent and our friend should only have a high score on one of the four styles if our scale correctly assesses attachment. We will discuss reliability and validity in Section 2.3.
• List the five main research methods used in psychology.
• Describe observational research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• Describe case study research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• Describe survey research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• Describe correlational research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• Describe experimental research, listing its advantages and disadvantages.
• State the utility and need for multimethod research.

Step 3 called on the scientist to test their hypothesis. Psychology as a discipline uses five main research designs. These include observational research, case studies, surveys, correlational designs, and experiments.

2.2.1. Observational Research

In terms of naturalistic observation , the scientist studies human or animal behavior in its natural environment which could include the home, school, or a forest. The researcher counts, measures, and rates behavior in a systematic way and at times uses multiple judges to ensure accuracy in how the behavior is being measured. This is called inter-rater reliability as you will see in Section 2.3. The advantage of this method is that you witness behavior as it occurs and it is not tainted by the experimenter. The disadvantage is that it could take a long time for the behavior to occur and if the researcher is detected then this may influence the behavior of those being observed. In the case of the latter, the behavior of the observed becomes artificial .

Laboratory observation involves observing people or animals in a laboratory setting. The researcher might want to know more about parent-child interactions and so brings a mother and her child into the lab to engage in preplanned tasks such as playing with toys, eating a meal, or the mother leaving the room for a short period of time. The advantage of this method over the naturalistic method is that the experimenter can use sophisticated equipment and videotape the session to examine it at a later time. The problem is that since the subjects know the experimenter is watching them, their behavior could become artificial from the start.

2.2.1.1. Example of an observational social psychology study. Griffiths (1991) studied the gambling behavior of adolescents by observing the clientele of 33 arcades in the UK. He used participant (when the researcher becomes an active participant in the group they are studying) and non-participant observation methodologies and found that adolescent gambling depended on the time of day and the time of year, and regular players had stereotypical behaviors and conformed to specific rules of etiquette. They played for fun, to win, to socialize, for excitement, and/or to escape.

2.2.2. Case Studies

Psychology can also utilize a detailed description of one person or a small group based on careful observation. This was the approach the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, took to develop his theories. The advantage of this method is that you arrive at a rich description of the behavior being investigated but the disadvantage is that what you are learning may be unrepresentative of the larger population and so lacks generalizability . Again, bear in mind that you are studying one person or a very small group. Can you possibly make conclusions about all people from just one or even five or ten? The other issue is that the case study is subject to the bias of the researcher in terms of what is included in the final write up and what is left out. Despite these limitations, case studies can lead us to novel ideas about the cause of behavior and help us to study unusual conditions that occur too infrequently to study with large sample sizes and in a systematic way. Though our field does make use of the case study methodology, social psychology does not frequently use the design.

2.2.2.1. Example of a case study from clinical psychology. In 1895, the book, Studies on Hysteria , was published by Josef Breuer (1842-1925) and Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), and marked the birth of psychoanalysis, though Freud did not use this actual term until a year later. The book published several case studies, including that of Anna O., born February 27, 1859 in Vienna to Jewish parents Siegmund and Recha Pappenheim, strict Orthodox adherents and considered millionaires at the time. Bertha, known in published case studies as Anna O., was expected to complete the formal education of a girl in the upper middle class which included foreign language, religion, horseback riding, needlepoint, and piano. She felt confined and suffocated in this life and took to a fantasy world she called her “private theater.” Anna also developed hysteria to include symptoms such as memory loss, paralysis, disturbed eye movements, reduced speech, nausea, and mental deterioration. Her symptoms appeared as she cared for her dying father and her mother called on Breuer to diagnose her condition (note that Freud never actually treated her). Hypnosis was used at first and relieved her symptoms. Breuer made daily visits and allowed her to share stories from her private theater which he came to call “talking cure” or “chimney sweeping.” Many of the stories she shared were actually thoughts or events she found troubling and reliving them helped to relieve or eliminate the symptoms. Breuer’s wife, Mathilde, became jealous of her husband’s relationship with the young girl, leading Breuer to terminate treatment in the June of 1882 before Anna had fully recovered. She relapsed and was admitted to Bellevue Sanatorium on July 1, eventually being released in October of the same year. With time, Anna O. did recover from her hysteria and went on to become a prominent member of the Jewish Community, involving herself in social work, volunteering at soup kitchens, and becoming ‘House Mother’ at an orphanage for Jewish girls in 1895. Bertha (Anna O.) became involved in the German Feminist movement, and in 1904 founded the League of Jewish Women. She published many short stories; a play called Women’s Rights , in which she criticized the economic and sexual exploitation of women, and wrote a book in 1900 called The Jewish Problem in Galicia , in which she blamed the poverty of the Jews of Eastern Europe on their lack of education. In 1935 she was diagnosed with a tumor and was summoned by the Gestapo in 1936 to explain anti-Hitler statements she had allegedly made. She died shortly after this interrogation on May 28, 1936. Freud considered the talking cure of Anna O. to be the origin of psychoanalytic therapy and what would come to be called the cathartic method.

To learn more about observational and case study designs, please take a look at our Research Methods in Psychology textbook by visiting:

https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/observational-research/

For more on Anna O., please see:

https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/freuds-patients-serial/201201/bertha-pappenheim-1859-1936

2.2.3. Surveys/Self-Report Data

A survey is a questionnaire consisting of at least one scale with some number of questions which assess a psychological construct of interest such as parenting style, depression, locus of control, attitudes, or sensation seeking behavior. It may be administered by paper and pencil or computer. Surveys allow for the collection of large amounts of data quickly but the actual survey could be tedious for the participant and social desirability , when a participant answers questions dishonestly so that he/she is seen in a more favorable light, could be an issue. For instance, if you are asking high school students about their sexual activity they may not give genuine answers for fear that their parents will find out. Or if you wanted to know about prejudicial attitudes of a group of people, you could use the survey method. You could alternatively gather this information via an interview in a structured or unstructured fashion. Important to survey research is that you have random sampling or when everyone in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. This helps the survey to be representative of the population and in terms of key demographic variables such as gender, age, ethnicity, race, education level, and religious orientation.

To learn more about the survey research design, please take a look at our Research Methods in Psychology textbook by visiting:

https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/7-1-overview-of-survey-research/

2.2.4. Correlational Research

This research method examines the relationship between two variables or two groups of variables. A numerical measure of the strength of this relationship is derived, called the correlation coefficient , and can range from -1.00, a perfect inverse relationship meaning that as one variable goes up the other goes down, to 0 or no relationship at all, to +1.00 or a perfect relationship in which as one variable goes up or down so does the other. In terms of a negative correlation we might say that as a parent becomes more rigid, controlling, and cold, the attachment of the child to the parent goes down. In contrast, as a parent becomes warmer, more loving, and provides structure, the child becomes more attached. The advantage of correlational research is that you can correlate anything. The disadvantage is that you can correlate anything. Variables that really do not have any relationship to one another could be viewed as related. Yes. This is both an advantage and a disadvantage. For instance, we might correlate instances of making peanut butter and jelly sandwiches with someone we are attracted to sitting near us at lunch. Are the two related? Not likely, unless you make a really good PB&J but then the person is probably only interested in you for food and not companionship. The main issue here is that correlation does not allow you to make a causal statement.

To learn more about the correlational research design, please take a look at our Research Methods in Psychology textbook by visiting:

https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/correlational-research/

2.2.5. Example of a Study Using Survey and Correlational Designs

Roccas, Sagiv, Schwartz, and Knafo (2002) examined the relationship of the big five personality traits and values by administering the Schwartz (1992) Values survey, NEO-PI, a positive affect scale, and a single item assessing religiosity to introductory to psychology students at an Israeli university. For Extraversion, it was found that values that define activity, challenge, excitement, and pleasure as desirable goals in life (i.e. stimulation, hedonism, and achievement) were important while valuing self-denial or self-abnegation, expressed in traditional values, was antithetical.

For Openness, values that emphasize intellectual and emotional autonomy, acceptance and cultivation of diversity, and pursuit of novelty and change (i.e. universalism, self-direction, and stimulation) were important while conformity, security, and tradition values were incompatible. Benevolence, tradition, and to a lesser degree conformity, were important for Agreeableness while power and achievement correlated negatively. In terms of Conscientiousness (C), there was a positive correlation with security values as both share the goal of maintaining smooth interpersonal relations and avoiding disruption of social order and there was a negative correlation with stimulation, indicating an avoidance of risk as a motivator of C.

Finally, there was little association of values with the domain of Neuroticism but a closer inspection of the pattern of correlations with the facets of N suggests two components. First, the angry hostility and impulsiveness facets could be called extrapunitive since the negative emotion is directed outward and tends to correlate positively with hedonism and stimulation values and negatively with benevolence, tradition, conformity, and C values. Second, the anxiety, depression, self-consciousness, and vulnerability facets could be called intrapunitive since the negative emotion is directed inward. This component tends to correlate positively with tradition values and negatively with achievement and stimulation values.

2.2.6. Experiments

An experiment is a controlled test of a hypothesis in which a researcher manipulates one variable and measures its effect on another variable. The variable that is manipulated is called the independent variable (IV) and the one that is measured is called the dependent variable (DV) . A common feature of experiments is to have a control group that does not receive the treatment or is not manipulated and an experimental group that does receive the treatment or manipulation. If the experiment includes random assignment participants have an equal chance of being placed in the control or experimental group. The control group allows the researcher to make a comparison to the experimental group, making a causal statement possible, and stronger.

2.2.6.1. Example of an experiment.    Allison and Messick (1990) led subjects to believe they were the first of six group members to take points from a common resource pool and that they could take as many points as desired which could later be exchanged for cash. Three variables were experimentally manipulated. First, subjects in the low payoff condition were led to believe the pool was only 18 or 21 points in size whereas those in the high payoff condition were told the pool consisted of either 24 or 27 points. Second, the pools were divisible (18 and 24) or nondivisible (21 or 27). Third, half of the subjects were placed in the fate control condition and told that if the requests from the six group members exceeded the pool size, then no one could keep any points, while the other half were in the no fate control condition and told there would be no penalties for overconsumption of the pool.  Finally, data for a fourth variable, social values, was collected via questionnaire four weeks prior to participation. In all, the study employed a 2 (fate control) x 2 (payoff size) x 2 (divisibility) x 2 (social values) between-subjects factorial design.

Results showed that subjects took the least number of points from the resource pool when the resource was divisible, the payoffs were low, and there was no fate control. On the other hand, subjects took the most points when the resource was nondivisible, the payoffs were high, and subjects were noncooperative. To further demonstrate this point, Allison and Messick (1990) counted the number of inducements to which participants were exposed. This number ranged from 0 to 4 inducements. Subjects took between one-fifth and one-fourth when there were one or two inducements, took about one-third when there were three inducements, and about half of the pool when all four were present. They state that an equal division rule was used when there were no temptations to violate equality but as the number of temptations increased, subjects became progressively more likely to overconsume the pool. The authors conclude that the presence of competing cues/factors tends to invite the use of self-serving rules to include “First-come, first-served” and “People who get to go first take more.”

To learn more about the experimental research design, please take a look at our Research Methods in Psychology textbook by visiting:

https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/experiment-basics/

2.2.7. Multi-Method Research

As you have seen above, no single method alone is perfect. All have their strengths and limitations. As such, for the psychologist to provide the clearest picture of what is affecting behavior or mental processes, several of these approaches are typically employed at different stages of the research process. This is called multi-method research.

2.2.8. Archival Research

Another technique used by psychologists is called archival research or when the researcher analyzes data that has already been collected and for another purpose. For instance, a researcher may request data from high schools about a student’s GPA and their SAT and/or ACT score(s) and then obtain their four-year GPA from the university they attended. This can be used to make a prediction about success in college and which measure – GPA or standardized test score – is the better predictor.

2.2.9. Meta-Analysis

Meta-analysis is a statistical procedure that allows a researcher to combine data from more than one study. For example, Shariff et al. (2015) published an article on religious priming and prosociality in Personality and Social Psychology Review . The authors used effect-size analyses, p- curve analyses, and adjustments for publication bias (no worries, you don’t have to understand any of that), to evaluate the robustness of four types of religious priming, how religion affects prosocial behavior, and whether religious-priming effects generalize to those who are loosely or not religious at all. Results were presented across 93 studies and 11,653 participants and showed that religious priming has robust effects in relation to a variety of outcome measures, prosocial behavior included. It did not affect non-religious people though.

2.2.10. Communicating Results

In scientific research, it is common practice to communicate the findings of our investigation. By reporting what we found in our study other researchers can critique our methodology and address our limitations. Publishing allows psychology to grow its knowledge base about human behavior. We can also see where gaps still exist. We move it into the public domain so others can read and comment on it. Scientists can also replicate what we did and possibly extend our work if it is published.

There are several ways to communicate our findings. We can do so at conferences in the form of posters or oral presentations, through newsletters from APA itself or one of its many divisions or other organizations, or through research journals and specifically scientific research articles. Published journal articles represent a form of communication between scientists and in them, the researchers describe how their work relates to previous research, how it replicates and/or extends this work, and what their work might mean theoretically.

Research articles begin with an abstract or a 150-250 word summary of the entire article. The purpose is to describe the experiment and allows the reader to make a decision about whether he or she wants to read it further. The abstract provides a statement of purpose, overview of the methods, main results, and a brief statement of the conclusion. Keywords are also given that allow for students and other researchers alike to find the article when doing a search.

The abstract is followed by four major sections as described:

• Introduction – The first section is designed to provide a summary of the current literature as it relates to your topic. It helps the reader to see how you arrived at your hypothesis and the design of your study. Essentially, it gives the logic behind the decisions you made. You also state the purpose and share your predictions or hypothesis.
• Method – Since replication is a required element of science, we must have a way to share information on our design and sample with readers. This is the essence of the method section and covers three major aspects of your study – your participants, materials or apparatus, and procedure. The reader needs to know who was in your study so that limitations related to generalizability of your findings can be identified and investigated in the future. You will also state your operational definition, describe any groups you used, random sampling or assignment procedures, information about how a scale was scored, etc. Think of the Method section as a cookbook. The participants are your ingredients, the materials or apparatus are whatever tools you will need, and the procedure is the instructions for how to bake the cake.
• Results – In this section you state the outcome of your experiment and whether they were statistically significant or not. You can also present tables and figures.
• Discussion – In this section you start by restating the main findings and hypothesis of the study. Next, you offer an interpretation of the findings and what their significance might be. Finally, you state strengths and limitations of the study which will allow you to propose future directions.

Whether you are writing a research paper for a class or preparing an article for publication, or reading a research article, the structure and function of a research article is the same. Understanding this will help you when reading social psychological articles.

• Clarify why reliability and validity are important.
• Define reliability and list and describe forms it takes.
• Define validity and list and describe forms it takes.

Recall that measurement involves the assignment of scores to an individual which are used to represent aspects of the individual such as how conscientious they are or their level of depression. Whether or not the scores actually represent the individual is what is in question. Cuttler (2017) says in her book Research Methods in Psychology, “Psychologists do not simply  assume  that their measures work. Instead, they collect data to demonstrate  that they work. If their research does not demonstrate that a measure works, they stop using it.” So how do they demonstrate that a measure works? This is where reliability and validity come in.

2.3.1. Reliability

First, reliability describes how consistent a measure is. It can be measured in terms of test-retest reliability , or how reliable the measure is across time, internal consistency , or the “consistency of people’s responses across the items on multiple-item measures,” (Cuttler, 2017), and finally inter-rater reliability , or how consistent different observers are when making judgments. In terms of inter-rater reliability, Cuttler (2017) writes, “Inter-rater reliability would also have been measured in Bandura’s Bobo doll study. In this case, the observers’ ratings of how many acts of aggression a particular child committed while playing with the Bobo doll should have been highly positively correlated.”

2.3.2. Validity

A measure is considered to be valid if its scores represent the variable it is said to measure. For instance, if a scale says it measures depression, and it does, then we can say it is valid. Validity can take many forms. First, face validity is “the extent to which a measurement method appears “on its face” to measure the construct of interest” (Cuttler, 2017). A scale purported to measure values should have questions about values such as benevolence, conformity, and self-direction, and not questions about depression or attitudes toward toilet paper.

Content validity is to what degree a measure covers the construct of interest. Cuttler (2017) says, “… consider that attitudes are usually defined as involving thoughts, feelings, and actions toward something. By this conceptual definition, a person has a positive attitude toward exercise to the extent that he or she thinks positive thoughts about exercising, feels good about exercising, and actually exercises.”

Oftentimes, we expect a person’s scores on one measure to be correlated with scores on another measure that we expect it to be related to, called criterion validity . For instance, consider parenting style and attachment. We would expect that if a person indicates on one scale that their father was authoritarian (or dictatorial) then attachment would be low or insecure. In contrast, if the mother was authoritative (or democratic) we would expect the child to show a secure attachment style.

As researchers we expect that our results will generalize from our sample to the larger population. This was the issue with case studies as the sample is too small to make conclusions about everyone. If our results do generalize from the circumstances under which our study was conducted to similar situations, then we can say our study has external validity . External validity is also affected by how real the research is. Two types of realism are possible. First, mundane realism occurs when the research setting closely resembles the real world setting. Experimental realism is the degree to which the experimental procedures that are used feel real to the participant. It does not matter if they really mirror real life but that they only appear real to the participant. If so, his or her behavior will be more natural and less artificial.

In contrast, a study is said to have good internal validity when we can confidently say that the effect on the dependent variable (the one that is measured) was due solely to our manipulation or the independent variable. A confound occurs when a factor other than the independent variable leads to changes in the dependent variable.

To learn more about reliability and validity, please visit: https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/reliability-and-validity-of-measurement/

• Exemplify instances of ethical misconduct in research.
• List and describe principles of research ethics.

Throughout this module so far, we have seen that it is important for researchers to understand the methods they are using. Equally important, they must understand and appreciate ethical standards in research. The American Psychological Association identifies high standards of ethics and conduct as one of its four main guiding principles or missions. To read about the other three, please visit https://www.apa.org/about/index.aspx . So why are ethical standards needed and what do they look like?

2.4.1. Milgram’s Study on Learning…or Not

Possibly, the one social psychologist students know about the most is Stanley Milgram, if not by name, then by his study on obedience using shock (Milgram, 1974). Essentially, two individuals came to each experimental session but only one of these two individuals was a participant. The other was what is called a confederate and is part of the study without the participant knowing. The confederate was asked to pick heads or tails and then a coin was flipped. As you might expect, the confederate always won and chose to be the learner . The “experimenter,” who was also a confederate, took him into one room where he was hooked up to wires and electrodes. This was done while the “teacher,” the actual participant, watched and added to the realism of what was being done. The teacher was then taken into an adjacent room where he was seated in front of a shock generator. The teacher was told it was his task to read a series of word pairs to the learner. Upon completion of reading the list, he would ask the learner one of the two words and it was the learner’s task to state what the other word in the pair was. If the learner incorrectly paired any of the words, he would be shocked. The shock generator started at 30 volts and increased in 15-volt increments up to 450 volts. The switches were labeled with terms such as “Slight shock,” “Moderate shock,” “Danger: Severe Shock,” and the final two switches were ominously labeled “XXX.”

As the experiment progressed, the teacher would hear the learner scream, holler, plead to be released, complain about a heart condition, or say nothing at all. When the learner stopped replying, the teacher would turn to the experimenter and ask what to do, to which the experimenter indicated for him to treat nonresponses as incorrect and shock the learner. Most participants asked the experimenter whether they should continue at various points in the experiment. The experimenter issued a series of commands to include, “Please continue,” “It is absolutely essential that you continue,” and “You have no other choice, you must go on.”

Any guesses as to what happened? What percent of the participants would you hypothesize actually shocked the learner to death? Milgram found that 65 percent of participants/teachers shocked the learner to the XXX switches which would have killed him. Why? They were told to do so. How do you think the participant felt when they realized that they could kill someone simply because they were told to do so?

Source: Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York, NY: Harper Perennial.

2.4.2. GO TO JAIL:  Go Directly to Jail. Do Not Pass Go. Do Not Collect $200

Early in the morning on Sunday, August 14, 1971, a Palo Alto, CA police car began arresting college students for committing armed robbery and burglary. Each suspect was arrested at his home, charged, read his Miranda rights, searched, handcuffed, and placed in the back of the police car as neighbors watched. At the station, the suspect was booked, read his rights again, and identified. He was then placed in a cell. How were these individuals chosen? Of course, they did not really commit the crimes they were charged with. The suspects had answered a newspaper ad requesting volunteers for a study of the psychological effects of prison life.

After screening individuals who applied to partake in the study, a final group of 24 were selected. These individuals did not have any psychological problems, criminal record, history of drug use, or mental disorder. They were paid $15 for their participation. The participants were divided into two groups through a flip of a coin. One half became the prison guards and the other half the prisoners. The prison was constructed by boarding up each end of a corridor in the basement of Stanford University’s Psychology building. This space was called “The Yard” and was the only place where the prisoners were permitted to walk, exercise, and eat. Prison cells were created by removing doors from some of the labs and replacing them with specially made doors with steel bars and cell numbers. A small closet was used for solitary confinement and was called “The Hole.” There were no clocks or windows in the prison and an intercom was used to make announcements to all prisoners. The suspects who were arrested were transported to “Stanford County Jail” to be processed. It was there they were greeted by the warden and told what the seriousness of their crime was. They were stripped searched and deloused, and the process was made to be intentionally degrading and humiliating. They were given uniforms with a prison ID number on it. This number became the only way they were referred to during their time. A heavy chain was placed on each prisoner’s right ankle which served the purpose of reminding them of how oppressive their environment was.

The guards were given no training and could do what they felt was necessary to maintain order and command the respect of the prisoners. They made their own set of rules and were supervised by the warden, who was played by another student at Stanford. Guards were dressed in identical uniforms, carried a whistle, held a billy club, and wore special mirror sun-glasses so no one could see their eyes or read their emotions. Three guards were assigned to each of the three hour shifts and supervised the nine prisoners. At 2:30 am they would wake the prisoners to take counts. This provided an opportunity to exert control and to get a feel for their role. Similarly, prisoners had to figure out how they were to act and at first, tried to maintain their independence. As you might expect, this led to confrontations between the prisoners and the guards resulting in the guards physically punishing the prisoners with push-ups.

The first day was relatively quiet, but on the second day, a rebellion broke out in which prisoners removed their caps, ripped off their numbers, and put their beds against their cell doors creating a barricade. The guards responded by obtaining a fire extinguisher and shooting a stream of the cold carbon dioxide solution at the prisoners. The cells were then broken into, the prisoners stripped, beds removed, ringleaders put into solitary confinement, and a program of harassment and intimidation of the remaining inmates began. Since 9 guards could not be on duty at all times to maintain order, a special “privilege cell” was established and the three prisoners least involved in the rebellion were allowed to stay in it. They were given their beds and uniforms back, could brush their teeth and take a bath, and were allowed to eat special food in the presence of the other six prisoners. This broke the solidarity among the prisoners.

Less than 36 hours after the study began a prisoner began showing signs of uncontrollable crying, acute emotional disturbance, rage, and disorganized thinking. Though his emotional problems were initially seen as an attempt to gain release which resulted in his being returned to the prison and used as an informant, the symptoms worsened and he had to be released from the study. Then there was the rumor of a mass escape by the prisoners which the guards worked to foil. When it was revealed that the prisoners were never actually going to attempt the prison break, the guards became very frustrated and made the prisoners engage in menial work, pushups, jumping jacks, and anything else humiliating that they could think of.

A Catholic priest was invited to evaluate how realistic the prison was. Each prisoner was interviewed individually and most introduced himself to the priest by his prison number and not his name. He offered to help them obtain a lawyer and some accepted. One prisoner was feeling ill (#819) and did not meet with the priest right away. When he did, he broke down and began to cry. He was quickly taken to another room and all prison garments taken off. While this occurred, the guards lined up the other prisoners and broke them out into a chant of “Prisoner #819 is a bad prisoner. Because of what Prisoner #819 did, my cell is a mess. Mr. Correctional Officer.” This further upset the prisoner and he was encouraged to leave, though he refused each time. He finally did agree to leave after the researcher (i.e. Zimbardo) told him what he was undergoing was just a research study and not really prison. The next day parole hearings were held and prisoners who felt they deserved to be paroled were interviewed one at a time. Most, when asked if they would give up the money they were making for their participation so they could leave, said yes.

In all, the study lasted just six days. Zimbardo noted that three types of guards emerged—tough but fair who followed the prison rules; “good guys” who never punished the prisoners and did them little favors; and finally those who were hostile, inventive in their employment of punishment, and who truly enjoyed the power they had. As for the prisoners, they coped with the events in the prison in different ways. Some fought back, others broke down emotionally, one developed a rash over his entire body, and some tried to be good prisoners and do all that the guards asked of them. No matter what strategy they used early on, by the end of the study they all were disintegrated as a group, and as individuals. The guards commanded blind obedience from all of the prisoners.

When asked later why he ended the study, Zimbardo cited two reasons. First, it became apparent that the guards were escalating their abuse of the prisoners in the middle of the night when they thought no one was watching. Second, Christina Maslach, a recent Stanford Ph.D. was asked to conduct interviews with the guards and prisoners and saw the prisoners being marched to the toilet with bags on their heads and legs chained together. She was outraged and questioned the study’s morality.

Source: http://www.prisonexp.org/

If you would like to learn more about the moral foundations of ethical research, please visit: https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/moral-foundations-of-ethical-research/

2.4.3. Ethical Guidelines

Due to these studies, and others, the American Psychological Association (APA) established guiding principles for conducting psychological research. The principles can be broken down in terms of when they should occur during the process of a person participating in the study.

2.4.3.1. Before participating. First, researchers must obtain informed consent or when the person agrees to participate because they are told what will happen to them. They are given information about any risks they face, or potential harm that could come to them, whether physical or psychological. They are also told about confidentiality or the person’s right not to be identified. Since most research is conducted with students taking introductory psychology courses, they have to be given the right to do something other than a research study to likely earn required credits for the class. This is called an alternative activity and could take the form of reading and summarizing a research article. The amount of time taken to do this should not exceed the amount of time the student would be expected to participate in a study.

2.4.3.2. While participating. Participants are afforded the ability to withdraw or the person’s right to exit the study if any discomfort is experienced.

2.4.3.3. After participating . Once their participation is over, participants should be debriefed or when the true purpose of the study is revealed and they are told where to go if they need assistance and how to reach the researcher if they have questions. So can researchers deceive participants, or intentionally withhold the true purpose of the study from them? According to the APA, a minimal amount of deception is allowed.

Human research must be approved by an Institutional Review Board or IRB. It is the IRB that will determine whether the researcher is providing enough information for the participant to give consent that is truly informed, if debriefing is adequate, and if any deception is allowed or not.

If you would like to learn more about how to use ethics in your research, please read: https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/putting-ethics-into-practice/

• Describe the replication crisis in psychology.
• Describe the issue with generalizability faced by social psychologists.

2.5.1. The Replication Crisis in Social Psychology

Today, the field of psychology faces what is called a replication crisis. Simply, published findings in psychology are not replicable, one of the hallmarks of science. Swiatkowski and Dompnier (2017) addressed this issue but with a focus on social psychology. They note that the field faces a confidence crisis due to events such as Diederick Staple intentionally fabricating data over a dozen years which lead to the retraction of over 50 published papers. They cite a study by John et al. (2012) in which 56% of 2,155 respondents admitted to collecting more data after discovering that the initial statistical test was not significant and 46% selectively reported studies that “worked” in a paper to be published. They also note that Nuijten et al. (2015) collected a sample of over 30,000 articles from the top 8 psychology journals and found that 1 in 8 possibly had an inconsistent p value that could have affected the conclusion the researchers drew.

So, how extensive is the issue? The Psychology Reproducibility Project was started to determine to what degree psychological effects from the literature could be replicated. One hundred published studies were attempted to be replicated by independent research teams and from different subfields in psychology. Only 39% of the findings were considered to be successfully replicated. For social psychology the results were worse. Only 25% were replicated.

Why might a study not replicate? Swiatkowski and Dompnier (2017) cite a few reasons. First, they believe that statistical power, or making the decision to not reject the null hypothesis (H0 – hypothesis stating that there is no effect or your hypothesis was not correct) when it is actually false, is an issue in social psychology. Many studies are underpowered as shown by small effect sizes observed in the field, which inflates the rate of false-positive findings and leads to unreplicable findings.

Second, they say that some researchers use “unjustifiable flexibility in data analysis, such as working with several undisclosed dependent variables, collecting more observations after initial hypothesis testing, stopping data collection earlier than planned because of a statistically significant predicted finding, controlling for gender effects a posterior, dropping experimental conditions, and so on” (pg. 114). Some also do undisclosed multiple testing without making adjustments, called p-hacking, or dropping observations to achieve a significance level, called cherry picking . Such practices could explain the high prevalence of false positives in social psychological research.

Third, some current publication standards may promote bad research practices in a few ways. Statistical significance has been set at p = 0.05 as the sine qua non condition for publication. According to Swiattkowski and Dompnier (2017) this leads to dichotomous thinking in terms of the “strict existence and non-existence of an effect” (pg. 115). Also, positive, statistically significant results are more likely to be published than negative, statistically, non-significant results which can be hard to interpret. This bias leads to a structural incentive to seek out positive results. Finally, the authors point out that current editorial standards show a preference for novelty or accepting studies which report new and original psychological effects. This reduces the importance of replications which lack prestige and inspire little interest among researchers. It should also be pointed out that there is a mentality of ‘Publish or perish’ at universities for full time faculty. Those who are prolific and publish often are rewarded with promotions, pay raises, tenure, or prestigious professorships. Also, studies that present highly novel and cool findings are showcased by the media.

The authors state, “In the long run, the lack of a viable falsification procedure seriously undermines the quality of scientific knowledge psychology produces. Without a way to build a cumulative net of well-tested theories and to abandon those that are false, social psychology risks ending up with a confused mixture of both instead”(pg. 117).

For more on this issue, check out the following articles

• 2016 Article in the Atlantic – https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/03/psychologys-replication-crisis-cant-be-wished-away/472272/
• 2018 Article in The Atlantic – https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/11/psychologys-replication-crisis-real/576223/
• 2018 Article in the Washington Post – https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/08/27/researchers-replicate-just-13-of-21-social-science-experiments-published-in-top-journals/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.2a05aff2d7de
• 2018 Article from Science News – https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/science-public/replication-crisis-psychology-science-studies-statistics

2.5.2. Generalizability

Earlier we discussed how researchers want to generalize their findings from the sample to the population, or from a small, representative group to everyone. The problem that plagues social psychology is who makes up our samples. Many social psychological studies are conducted with college students working for course credit (Sears, 1986). They represent what is called a convenience sample . Can we generalize from college students to the larger group?

Module Recap

In Module 1 we stated that psychology studied behavior and mental processes using the strict standards of science. In Module 2 we showed you how that is done via adoption of the scientific method and use of the research designs of observation, case study, surveys, correlation, and experiments. To make sure our measurement of a variable is sound, we need to have measures that are reliable and valid. And to give our research legitimacy we have to use clear ethical standards for research to include gaining informed consent from participants, telling them of the risks, giving them the right to withdraw, debriefing them, and using nothing more than minimal deception. Despite all this, psychology faces a crisis in which many studies are not replicating and findings from some social psychological research are not generalizable to the population.

This concludes Part I of the book. In Part II we will discuss how we think about ourselves and others. First, we will tackle the self and then move to the perception of others. Part II will conclude with a discussion of attitudes.

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Chapter 2 Research Methods

10th - 12th grade, social studies.

12 questions

Introducing new   Paper mode

No student devices needed.   Know more

In what type of study does a researcher study an individual subject in depth?

Naturalistic observation

Laboratory observation

What does it mean if two variables have a positive correlation?

As one variable increases, so does the other

As one variable increases, the other decreases

The correlation between the two variables is 0

The correlation between the two variables is greater than 1.0

Which of the following is a research method that allows a researcher to get information about a large number of subjects relatively inexpensively and easily?

• 4. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt This research method is a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other Correlational Experiments Case Study Survey Observational
• 5. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt Which ethical principle requires that at the end of the study participants be told about the true purpose of the research? Institutional Review Board Approval Informed Consent Confidentiality Debriefing
• 6. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt What must a researcher do to fulfill the ethical principle of informed consent? Keep information about participants confidential Allow participants to choose whether to take part Provide participants with a pre-experimental explanation of the study Protect participants from potential harm
• 7. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt This is a method of research where an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). Experiments Case Study Survey Observational Correlational
• 8. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt The disadvantage of this method of descriptive research is that the data is limited to only answering the question(s) asked. These limitations lead to biases, ambiguous conclusions, and low participation rates among research populations. Survey Observational Correlational Experiments Case Study
• 9. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt A frequency distribution is a way to present data visually in a table depicts a correlation between two variables using a histiogram is the same thing as a scattergram typically lists the frequency of each score on the horizontal axix
• 10. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt You psychology professor wants to describe the average score on your first psychology test.  Which measure of central tendency is your professor most likely to use?  mean median mode  harmonic mean

When scores are "bunched up"in the center of a distribution, the

mean will be relatively low

standard deviation will be relatively low

correlation coefficiaent will be a negative number

standard deviation will be relatively high

• 12. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt The symmetric, bell shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many human characteristics are dispersed in the population is known as scatter plot normal distribution frequency polygon histogram

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InQuizitive Adaptive Assessment for Research Methods in Psychology

“InQuizitive is the coolest program of its type I’ve seen. It’s fun, it’s not monotonous, and it’s helpful—all qualities that will increase student use, understanding, and retention.” —Brad Pinter, Penn State Altoona

“InQuizitive is a very helpful tool to ensure that students are mastering the concepts and their applications. And it’s a great way of gamifying the learning process.” —Éva Szeli, Arizona State University

To set up InQuizitive for your next Research Methods course, fill out this form and we’ll get in touch with you.

Informed by research: Developed by a cognitive psychologist, InQuizitive is based on research-backed psychological principles, including retrieval practice, active learning, quizzing to learn, and metacognitive monitoring.

Motivating and engaging: A variety of interactive question types and game-like elements engage students and drive them back into the text when they need to review.

Data driven: A robust activity report makes it easy to identify challenging concepts and intervene with at-risk students.

Easily assignable: The convenience of LMS integration saves you time by allowing InQuizitive scores to report directly to your LMS gradebook.*

Try InQuizitive for yourself

Reinforce essential concepts, build key skills, and deepen understanding in your research methods students by assigning inquizitive, strengthens students’ knowledge of the most challenging topics—from basics like dependent versus independent variables to more sophisticated ideas like the new statistics, teaches students to become responsible consumers of research with questions focused on evaluating research referenced in popular media, sharpens essential data literacy and critical thinking skills with questions focused on interpreting graphs, charts, and tables, moves beyond basic recall to deeper understanding by asking students to apply their knowledge to new contexts, makes key concepts memorable and meaningful with active, hands-on interactives embedded into questions and feedback, makes interactive learning easier to assign than ever—now offered as individual chapter activities and expanded to include more than double the questions.

*LMS integration with InQuizitive is provided by a Norton Specialist for qualified adoptions.

inquizitive chapter 2 research methodology answers

Sociology 101

Research Methods ¶

This lesson focuses on the research methods used by sociologists to study the social world.

Learning Objectives ¶

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

Differentiate between the major kinds of research methods.

Understand why different topics are better suited to different research approaches

Evaluate a specific research methods.

Deadlines ¶

Be sure to hand these in before the deadline

InQuizitive Chapter Set 2 (Thursday at 9:30am)

Study Design application (Sunday at 10:00pm)

Circle of Books reflection (Sunday at 10:00pm)

‘ Research Methods ’, Chapter 2 in Real World

Class Lecture Recorded 2/2. Slides

Research Methods

Discuss (Thursday during class): ¶

Circle of books ¶.

For over 35 years, the gay porn shop, Circus of Books, served as the epicenter for LGBT life and culture in Los Angeles. Unbeknownst to many in the community it served, the store was cultivated and cared for by its owners, Karen and Barry Mason; a straight couple with three children. CIRCUS OF BOOKS is an intimate portrait of the Masons and their journey to become one of the biggest distributors of hardcore gay porn in the United States. Their story unfolds through the lens of their daughter, filmmaker and artist, Rachel Mason. rt

We will use the documentary film Circus of Books as an opportunity to explore how fundamentals of sociology. We will watch it together during class.

Be sure to have the movie ready to go at the start of class.

Login to the course Slack by 9:30am and say hi to your group!

Questions ¶

If you have any questions at all about what you are supposed to do on this lesson, please remember I am here to help. Reach out any time so I can support your success.

Post it in the Slack #questions channel!

Signup for virtual office hours !

Email me or your TA.

Lesson Keywords ¶

quantitative research

qualitative research

scientific method

literature review

operational definition

correlation and causation

intervening variable

spurious correlation

ethnography

participant observation

reflexivity

closed and open-ended questions

replicability

representativeness

content analysis

independent variable

dependent variable

social network analysis

objectivity

Hawthorne effect

research ethics

The least you need to know ¶

Overview of research methods

W. W. NORTON & COMPANY

InQuizitive Adaptive Assessment for Research Methods in Psychology

“InQuizitive is the coolest program of its type I’ve seen. It’s fun, it’s not monotonous, and it’s helpful—all qualities that will increase student use, understanding, and retention.” —Brad Pinter, Penn State Altoona

“InQuizitive is a very helpful tool to ensure that students are mastering the concepts and their applications. And it’s a great way of gamifying the learning process.” —Éva Szeli, Arizona State University

To set up InQuizitive for your next Research Methods course, fill out this form and we’ll get in touch with you.

Informed by research: Developed by a cognitive psychologist, InQuizitive is based on research-backed psychological principles, including retrieval practice, active learning, quizzing to learn, and metacognitive monitoring.

Motivating and engaging: A variety of interactive question types and game-like elements engage students and drive them back into the text when they need to review.

Data driven: A robust activity report makes it easy to identify challenging concepts and intervene with at-risk students.

Easily assignable: The convenience of LMS integration saves you time by allowing InQuizitive scores to report directly to your LMS gradebook.*

Try InQuizitive for yourself

Reinforce essential concepts, build key skills, and deepen understanding in your research methods students by assigning inquizitive, strengthens students’ knowledge of the most challenging topics—from basics like dependent versus independent variables to more sophisticated ideas like the new statistics, teaches students to become responsible consumers of research with questions focused on evaluating research referenced in popular media, sharpens essential data literacy and critical thinking skills with questions focused on interpreting graphs, charts, and tables, moves beyond basic recall to deeper understanding by asking students to apply their knowledge to new contexts, makes key concepts memorable and meaningful with active, hands-on interactives embedded into questions and feedback, makes interactive learning easier to assign than ever—now offered as individual chapter activities and expanded to include more than double the questions.

*LMS integration with InQuizitive is provided by a Norton Specialist for qualified adoptions.

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Have an account?

Chapter 2 Research Methods

10th - 12th grade, social studies.

12 questions

Introducing new   Paper mode

No student devices needed.   Know more

In what type of study does a researcher study an individual subject in depth?

Naturalistic observation

Laboratory observation

What does it mean if two variables have a positive correlation?

As one variable increases, so does the other

As one variable increases, the other decreases

The correlation between the two variables is 0

The correlation between the two variables is greater than 1.0

Which of the following is a research method that allows a researcher to get information about a large number of subjects relatively inexpensively and easily?

• 4. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt This research method is a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other Correlational Experiments Case Study Survey Observational
• 5. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt Which ethical principle requires that at the end of the study participants be told about the true purpose of the research? Institutional Review Board Approval Informed Consent Confidentiality Debriefing
• 6. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt What must a researcher do to fulfill the ethical principle of informed consent? Keep information about participants confidential Allow participants to choose whether to take part Provide participants with a pre-experimental explanation of the study Protect participants from potential harm
• 7. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt This is a method of research where an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). Experiments Case Study Survey Observational Correlational
• 8. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt The disadvantage of this method of descriptive research is that the data is limited to only answering the question(s) asked. These limitations lead to biases, ambiguous conclusions, and low participation rates among research populations. Survey Observational Correlational Experiments Case Study
• 9. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt A frequency distribution is a way to present data visually in a table depicts a correlation between two variables using a histiogram is the same thing as a scattergram typically lists the frequency of each score on the horizontal axix
• 10. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt You psychology professor wants to describe the average score on your first psychology test.  Which measure of central tendency is your professor most likely to use?  mean median mode  harmonic mean

When scores are "bunched up"in the center of a distribution, the

mean will be relatively low

standard deviation will be relatively low

correlation coefficiaent will be a negative number

standard deviation will be relatively high

• 12. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt The symmetric, bell shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many human characteristics are dispersed in the population is known as scatter plot normal distribution frequency polygon histogram

Explore all questions with a free account

Continue with email

Continue with phone

Snapsolve any problem by taking a picture. Try it in the Numerade app?

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CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

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The purpose of this study is to evaluate the acceptability of the proposed instructional material, the learning assessment tool in Physics 1 (Mechanics), and to investigate its effect in teaching the subject. The design of this study is a combination of descriptive and experimental designs. A total of thirty three (33) experts and instructors in Physics from selected local colleges and universities in Metro Manila evaluated the proposed instructional material and learning assessment tool. In order to determine the effect of the proposed instructional material and learning assessment tool in Physics 1 (Mechanics) a one group pretest-posttest was employed and a total of 50 freshmen Industrial Engineering students of the Quezon City Polytechnic University (QCPU) served as the experimental group. Lessons in Physics 1 (Mechanics) were presented according to the outcomes based learning approach and the proposed instructional material and learning assessment tool were utilized. An instructional material and learning assessment tool were developed based from the results of validity, reliability, and item analysis of the achievement test in Physics 1 (Mechanics). The acceptability of the proposed instructional material and assessment of learning tool as assessed by the experts and faculty in Physics respondents revealed the following findings: As to Objective. It revealed that the objectives found in the proposed instructional material and learning assessment tool in Physics were highly acceptable as a result by its mean of 4.16. As to Content. The content of the proposed instructional material and learning assessment tool in Physics was highly acceptable having a mean of 4.42 as assessed by the experts and faculty in Physics. As to Usefulness. The study revealed that the usefulness of the proposed instructional material and learning assessment tool in Physics subject was highly acceptable with a mean of 4.45 as assessed by the experts and faculty in the field. As for Clarity. Both expert and faculty agreed that when it comes to clarity, the proposed instructional material and learning assessment tool in Physics were highly acceptable with a mean of 4.43. As to Presentation. The mean response of the expert and faculty in Physics was 4.44 and indicates that the presentation of the lessons in the proposed instructional material and assessment of learning tool was highly acceptable. As to Evaluation. The study found out that the evaluation of the proposed instructional material in a form of concept cartoon was highly accepted by the experts and faculty in Physics as supported by a mean of 4.49. As to Language and Style. Experts and faculty members in the field of Physics assessed the language and style of the proposed instructional-material and assessment of learning tool as very highly acceptable having a mean of 4.46. The study revealed that there is a statistically significant difference in the performance in the post-test of students who were taught with the use of the proposed instructional material and assessment of learning tool as compared to those who did not, p(98)=8.9174, p<.05. When the result of pre-test and post-test of each group was compared, statistically significant difference was found, p(49)=12.9769, p<.05 (control group) and p(49)=22.9071, p<.05 (experimental group). This implies that the proposed instructional material and assessment of learning tool in Physics 1 (Mechanics) greatly affect the performance of students in the class; the result also signifies that students were able to learn the lesson easily if it was presented by means of picture diagrams. The study claims and reaffirms that the findings of other researches that concept cartoon when used as formative assessment can improve the performance and achievement of students in difficult subjects like Physics.

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International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology (IJERT)

IJERT Journal

https://www.ijert.org/difference-of-pretest-and-post-test-in-philippine-history-of-cas-freshmen-students https://www.ijert.org/research/difference-of-pretest-and-post-test-in-philippine-history-of-cas-freshmen-students-IJERTV5IS040470.pdf This research centers on the difference of pretest and post test in Philippine history of CAS freshmen students. Specifically, it determines the appropriate instructional materials suited to the student's level to maximize learning have to be provided. The study utilized the descriptive method of research. Pretest and Post test were made and it was found out that film viewing in teaching History of the respondents were assessed effective and that the overall mean scores of the students in the pretest and posttest had increased. Results of the study show that the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the mean scores of the respondent was rejected.

International Journal of Emergency Medicine

Shaik Farid Abdull Wahab , Tuan Hairulnizam Tuan Kamauzaman , Ida Zaini

nomie valencia

Science Insights

Insights Publisher , E. Agatep

The study assessed the level of internet addiction exists among students of AMA Computer Colleges in Region III, Philippines and identified internet addiction management practices as strategies to address the problem, to lessen if not to eliminate, to prevent or cure level of internet addiction that exists. The descriptive analysis method of research was utilized. A total of one thousand five hundred fifteen student-respondents and one hundred fifty-eight administrator-respondents participated in the study. The researcher found out that there is a severe addiction level described as Often. There is a severe dependence on the internet as reflected in the internet addiction mean test scores of the student-respondents. There is a significant relationship between the level of internet addiction and the perceived level of implementation of the internet addiction management practices. There is a significant relationship between the internet addiction test scores and the perceived level of implementation of the internet addiction management practices. Overall findings conclude that there was a significant very strong negative relationship between the level of internet addiction and in-ternet addiction test scores of student-respondents and the perceived level of implementation of internet addiction management practices of administrator-respondents; hence, the negative relationship indicates that as the intensity of the perceived level of implementation increases, the level of internet addiction and internet addiction test scores among student-respondents decreases. This study is expected to provide a worthy contribution to the institution and to international literature on internet addiction; the result can be used in providing solution, actions and remedies to lessen if not to eliminate addiction in Internet usage.■

Maricel Mendoza Fider

finding answers to my querry about how the learners of today in the secondary best describe

ResearchGate.net

DR. DAVID C . BUENO

The course aims to give an understanding of some topical and contemporary issues in educational administration and how such issues have influenced the educational system. You are required to do and submit literature reviews or syntheses (IMRaD format) on the various current issues, trends or problems affecting the educational system in the Philippines.

Jong Azores

This study is aimed at assessing the data gathered from the survey of 102 musicians about their status and condition in working at the bars and restaurants in the city of Olongapo and the Subic Bay Freeport Zone and at identifying their collective aspirations. Based on its findings, the challenge to develop the adjacent localities of Olongapo City and Subic Bay Freeport Zone as a music tourism destination was identified.

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Chapter 2 Inquisitive. Place in order the steps in designing and executing an experiment. Click the card to flip 👆. identify variables. randomly select a sample. randomly assign participants to levels of the independent variable. expose participants to the independent variable levels. measure dependent variables.

Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Which represents the selection of a hypothesis and alternative hypothesis? a. theory b. interest c. idea, What is a common goal of qualitative and quantitative research? a. to determine which of all possible social arrangements work bet b. to determine the casual relationships between social elements c. to find out what people's ...

SOCI 101 InQuisitive Ch. 2. Common goal of qualitative and quantitative research. Click the card to flip 👆. - to determine the causal relationships between social elements. - done partly by documenting statistical correlation and partly by eliminating alternative explanations through observation. Click the card to flip 👆.

Chapter 2 Research Methodology > InQuizitive - Chapter 2: Research Methodology tch the terms with their definitions. Drag each item on the left to its matching item on the right. the measured variable the manipulated variable + operational definition control group the quantifiable description of a variable dependent variable independent variable the people who receive some level of the ...

Question: Chapter 2 Research Methodology InQuiritive. Chapter 2: Research Methodology Fill in the blanks to complete the passage about one aspect of the experimental method of research. Drag word (s) below to fill in the blank (s) in the passage. In experimental research, it is important to provide precise definitions of both dependent and ...

VIDEO ANSWER: They were asking researchers to describe the actions that would be taken to measure or control each variable. Measure, let me scroll down. I agree. Perfect measure slash Control variables. Let's go through the options and find the

Snapsolve any problem by taking a picture. Try it in the Numerade app? inquizitive chapter 2 research methods answers. Section Summary; Introduction; 1.1 What Is Sociology? 1.2 Th

Research Methods ¶ This lesson focuses on the research methods used by sociologists to study the social world. ... InQuizitive Chapter Set 2 (Thursday at 9:30am) Study Design application (Sunday at 10:00pm) Circle of Books reflection (Sunday at 10:00pm) Read¶ 'Research Methods', Chapter 2 in Real World.

A change in the participant's response that is due to the actions, biases or expectationsof the researcher, instead of the effects of the IV. Data that was collected by someone else other than the original user for their ownpurpose. Study Flashcards On Psychology chapter 2- research methods at Cram.com. Quickly memorize the terms, phrases and ...

A systematic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena (observable things) to answer questions about what happens, when it happens, what causes it, and why: involves a dynamic interaction between theories, hypotheses, and research. Click the card to flip 👆. 1 / 46.

Social Sciences; Psychology; Psychology questions and answers; INQUIZITIVEChapter 2: Research Methodology2.2. What Types of Studies Are Used in Psychological Research?Match each term to its definition.Drag each item on the left to its matching item on the right.the measured variablethe group that does not receive the treatment of interest and that is used for comparison purposesthe group ...

1.) Basic Research. 2.) Objectivity. 3.) Reactivity. A sociologist thinks he has discovered a very interesting and unique finding. His data show a correlation between children's shoe sizes and their reading test scores. He thinks that children with bigger feet must be smarter.

Informed by research: Developed by a cognitive psychologist, InQuizitive is based on research-backed psychological principles, including retrieval practice, active learning, quizzing to learn, and metacognitive monitoring. Adaptive and personalized: Guiding answer-specific feedback and unique question sets targeted at individual student's ...

Chapter 2: Sociological Research Methods In this Chapter: Beyond the Textbook; State Resources; Study-to-Go; Glencoe Graphing Tool; Current Events and Interactive Time Line; Textbook Resources. Online Student Edition; Web Links; Unit Resources. Chapter Activities. Chapter Overviews; Student Web Activites; Self-Check Quizzes; ePuzzles and Games ...

Question: INQUIZITIVEChapter 2: Sources of Information: Why Research Is Best and How to Find It2.1. The Research Versus Your ExperienceWhich of the following statements are reasons why basing one's conclusions on research is superior to basing one's conclusions on personal experience?Reason (s)Drag appropriate answer (s) hereConclusions ...

1 pt. What does it mean if two variables have a positive correlation? As one variable increases, so does the other. As one variable increases, the other decreases. The correlation between the two variables is 0. The correlation between the two variables is greater than 1.0. 3. Multiple Choice. 45 seconds.

1. Discuss the purposes of doing research. Give an example of each by using a hypothetical from the field of criminal justice. 2. Compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of field research and survey research. Give specific attention to the topics of validity, reliability, and generalizability. 3.

Rapport: Develop friendly, conversational relationships with the band members. Reflexivity: Consider how the sociologists own high school experience might shape how they engage the marching band context. Inquisitive questions from Chapter 2: Studying Social Life: Sociological Research Methods" Learn with flashcards, games, and more — for free.

Research Methods In Psych (PSY 3213) 40 Documents. Students shared 40 documents in this course. University Florida Gulf Coast University. Academic year: 2022/2023. ... In Quizitive Chapter 4 Ethical Guidelines for Psychology Research; In Quizitive Chapter 7 Sampling Estimating the Frequency of Behaviors and Beliefs;

See Answer. Question: INQUIZITIVEChapter 2: Sources of Information: Why Research Is Best and How to Find It2.2. The Research Versus Your IntuitionFill in the blanks to complete the passage about examples of faulty thinking.Drag word (s) below to fill in the blank (s) in the passage.Overestimating the percentage of shark attacks that occur ...

scientific method. a five-step process for empirical investigation of a hypothesis under conditions designed to control biases and subjective judgement. 1-developing a hypothesis, 2-performing a controlled test, 3-gathering objective data, 4-analyzing the results, 5-publishing, criticizing, and replicating the results.

Chapter 2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The methodology describes and explains about the different procedures including research design, respondents of the study, research instrument, validity and reliability of the instrument, data gathering procedure, as well as the statistical treatment and analysis. Research Method The descriptive method was used in ...