literary definition of hypothesis

• Privacy Policy

Home » What is a Hypothesis – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

What is a Hypothesis – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Hypothesis is an educated guess or proposed explanation for a phenomenon, based on some initial observations or data. It is a tentative statement that can be tested and potentially proven or disproven through further investigation and experimentation.

Hypothesis is often used in scientific research to guide the design of experiments and the collection and analysis of data. It is an essential element of the scientific method, as it allows researchers to make predictions about the outcome of their experiments and to test those predictions to determine their accuracy.

Types of Hypothesis

Types of Hypothesis are as follows:

Research Hypothesis

A research hypothesis is a statement that predicts a relationship between variables. It is usually formulated as a specific statement that can be tested through research, and it is often used in scientific research to guide the design of experiments.

Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is a statement that assumes there is no significant difference or relationship between variables. It is often used as a starting point for testing the research hypothesis, and if the results of the study reject the null hypothesis, it suggests that there is a significant difference or relationship between variables.

Alternative Hypothesis

An alternative hypothesis is a statement that assumes there is a significant difference or relationship between variables. It is often used as an alternative to the null hypothesis and is tested against the null hypothesis to determine which statement is more accurate.

Directional Hypothesis

A directional hypothesis is a statement that predicts the direction of the relationship between variables. For example, a researcher might predict that increasing the amount of exercise will result in a decrease in body weight.

Non-directional Hypothesis

A non-directional hypothesis is a statement that predicts the relationship between variables but does not specify the direction. For example, a researcher might predict that there is a relationship between the amount of exercise and body weight, but they do not specify whether increasing or decreasing exercise will affect body weight.

Statistical Hypothesis

A statistical hypothesis is a statement that assumes a particular statistical model or distribution for the data. It is often used in statistical analysis to test the significance of a particular result.

Composite Hypothesis

A composite hypothesis is a statement that assumes more than one condition or outcome. It can be divided into several sub-hypotheses, each of which represents a different possible outcome.

Empirical Hypothesis

An empirical hypothesis is a statement that is based on observed phenomena or data. It is often used in scientific research to develop theories or models that explain the observed phenomena.

Simple Hypothesis

A simple hypothesis is a statement that assumes only one outcome or condition. It is often used in scientific research to test a single variable or factor.

Complex Hypothesis

A complex hypothesis is a statement that assumes multiple outcomes or conditions. It is often used in scientific research to test the effects of multiple variables or factors on a particular outcome.

Applications of Hypothesis

Hypotheses are used in various fields to guide research and make predictions about the outcomes of experiments or observations. Here are some examples of how hypotheses are applied in different fields:

• Science : In scientific research, hypotheses are used to test the validity of theories and models that explain natural phenomena. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a particular variable on a natural system, such as the effects of climate change on an ecosystem.
• Medicine : In medical research, hypotheses are used to test the effectiveness of treatments and therapies for specific conditions. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a new drug on a particular disease.
• Psychology : In psychology, hypotheses are used to test theories and models of human behavior and cognition. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a particular stimulus on the brain or behavior.
• Sociology : In sociology, hypotheses are used to test theories and models of social phenomena, such as the effects of social structures or institutions on human behavior. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of income inequality on crime rates.
• Business : In business research, hypotheses are used to test the validity of theories and models that explain business phenomena, such as consumer behavior or market trends. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a new marketing campaign on consumer buying behavior.
• Engineering : In engineering, hypotheses are used to test the effectiveness of new technologies or designs. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the efficiency of a new solar panel design.

How to write a Hypothesis

Here are the steps to follow when writing a hypothesis:

Identify the Research Question

The first step is to identify the research question that you want to answer through your study. This question should be clear, specific, and focused. It should be something that can be investigated empirically and that has some relevance or significance in the field.

Conduct a Literature Review

Before writing your hypothesis, it’s essential to conduct a thorough literature review to understand what is already known about the topic. This will help you to identify the research gap and formulate a hypothesis that builds on existing knowledge.

Determine the Variables

The next step is to identify the variables involved in the research question. A variable is any characteristic or factor that can vary or change. There are two types of variables: independent and dependent. The independent variable is the one that is manipulated or changed by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the one that is measured or observed as a result of the independent variable.

Formulate the Hypothesis

Based on the research question and the variables involved, you can now formulate your hypothesis. A hypothesis should be a clear and concise statement that predicts the relationship between the variables. It should be testable through empirical research and based on existing theory or evidence.

Write the Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is the opposite of the alternative hypothesis, which is the hypothesis that you are testing. The null hypothesis states that there is no significant difference or relationship between the variables. It is important to write the null hypothesis because it allows you to compare your results with what would be expected by chance.

Refine the Hypothesis

After formulating the hypothesis, it’s important to refine it and make it more precise. This may involve clarifying the variables, specifying the direction of the relationship, or making the hypothesis more testable.

Examples of Hypothesis

Here are a few examples of hypotheses in different fields:

• Psychology : “Increased exposure to violent video games leads to increased aggressive behavior in adolescents.”
• Biology : “Higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will lead to increased plant growth.”
• Sociology : “Individuals who grow up in households with higher socioeconomic status will have higher levels of education and income as adults.”
• Education : “Implementing a new teaching method will result in higher student achievement scores.”
• Marketing : “Customers who receive a personalized email will be more likely to make a purchase than those who receive a generic email.”
• Physics : “An increase in temperature will cause an increase in the volume of a gas, assuming all other variables remain constant.”
• Medicine : “Consuming a diet high in saturated fats will increase the risk of developing heart disease.”

Purpose of Hypothesis

The purpose of a hypothesis is to provide a testable explanation for an observed phenomenon or a prediction of a future outcome based on existing knowledge or theories. A hypothesis is an essential part of the scientific method and helps to guide the research process by providing a clear focus for investigation. It enables scientists to design experiments or studies to gather evidence and data that can support or refute the proposed explanation or prediction.

The formulation of a hypothesis is based on existing knowledge, observations, and theories, and it should be specific, testable, and falsifiable. A specific hypothesis helps to define the research question, which is important in the research process as it guides the selection of an appropriate research design and methodology. Testability of the hypothesis means that it can be proven or disproven through empirical data collection and analysis. Falsifiability means that the hypothesis should be formulated in such a way that it can be proven wrong if it is incorrect.

In addition to guiding the research process, the testing of hypotheses can lead to new discoveries and advancements in scientific knowledge. When a hypothesis is supported by the data, it can be used to develop new theories or models to explain the observed phenomenon. When a hypothesis is not supported by the data, it can help to refine existing theories or prompt the development of new hypotheses to explain the phenomenon.

When to use Hypothesis

Here are some common situations in which hypotheses are used:

• In scientific research , hypotheses are used to guide the design of experiments and to help researchers make predictions about the outcomes of those experiments.
• In social science research , hypotheses are used to test theories about human behavior, social relationships, and other phenomena.
• I n business , hypotheses can be used to guide decisions about marketing, product development, and other areas. For example, a hypothesis might be that a new product will sell well in a particular market, and this hypothesis can be tested through market research.

Characteristics of Hypothesis

Here are some common characteristics of a hypothesis:

• Testable : A hypothesis must be able to be tested through observation or experimentation. This means that it must be possible to collect data that will either support or refute the hypothesis.
• Falsifiable : A hypothesis must be able to be proven false if it is not supported by the data. If a hypothesis cannot be falsified, then it is not a scientific hypothesis.
• Clear and concise : A hypothesis should be stated in a clear and concise manner so that it can be easily understood and tested.
• Based on existing knowledge : A hypothesis should be based on existing knowledge and research in the field. It should not be based on personal beliefs or opinions.
• Specific : A hypothesis should be specific in terms of the variables being tested and the predicted outcome. This will help to ensure that the research is focused and well-designed.
• Tentative: A hypothesis is a tentative statement or assumption that requires further testing and evidence to be confirmed or refuted. It is not a final conclusion or assertion.
• Relevant : A hypothesis should be relevant to the research question or problem being studied. It should address a gap in knowledge or provide a new perspective on the issue.

Advantages of Hypothesis

Hypotheses have several advantages in scientific research and experimentation:

• Guides research: A hypothesis provides a clear and specific direction for research. It helps to focus the research question, select appropriate methods and variables, and interpret the results.
• Predictive powe r: A hypothesis makes predictions about the outcome of research, which can be tested through experimentation. This allows researchers to evaluate the validity of the hypothesis and make new discoveries.
• Facilitates communication: A hypothesis provides a common language and framework for scientists to communicate with one another about their research. This helps to facilitate the exchange of ideas and promotes collaboration.
• Efficient use of resources: A hypothesis helps researchers to use their time, resources, and funding efficiently by directing them towards specific research questions and methods that are most likely to yield results.
• Provides a basis for further research: A hypothesis that is supported by data provides a basis for further research and exploration. It can lead to new hypotheses, theories, and discoveries.
• Increases objectivity: A hypothesis can help to increase objectivity in research by providing a clear and specific framework for testing and interpreting results. This can reduce bias and increase the reliability of research findings.

Limitations of Hypothesis

Some Limitations of the Hypothesis are as follows:

• Limited to observable phenomena: Hypotheses are limited to observable phenomena and cannot account for unobservable or intangible factors. This means that some research questions may not be amenable to hypothesis testing.
• May be inaccurate or incomplete: Hypotheses are based on existing knowledge and research, which may be incomplete or inaccurate. This can lead to flawed hypotheses and erroneous conclusions.
• May be biased: Hypotheses may be biased by the researcher’s own beliefs, values, or assumptions. This can lead to selective interpretation of data and a lack of objectivity in research.
• Cannot prove causation: A hypothesis can only show a correlation between variables, but it cannot prove causation. This requires further experimentation and analysis.
• Limited to specific contexts: Hypotheses are limited to specific contexts and may not be generalizable to other situations or populations. This means that results may not be applicable in other contexts or may require further testing.
• May be affected by chance : Hypotheses may be affected by chance or random variation, which can obscure or distort the true relationship between variables.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Data Analysis – Process, Methods and Types

Research Methodology – Types, Examples and...

Research Project – Definition, Writing Guide and...

Theoretical Framework – Types, Examples and...

Research Approach – Types Methods and Examples

Research Paper Conclusion – Writing Guide and...

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

How to Write a Great Hypothesis

Hypothesis Definition, Format, Examples, and Tips

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Alex Dos Diaz

• The Scientific Method

Hypothesis Format

Falsifiability of a hypothesis.

• Operationalization

Hypothesis Types

Hypotheses examples.

• Collecting Data

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. It is a preliminary answer to your question that helps guide the research process.

Consider a study designed to examine the relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance. The hypothesis might be: "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep-deprived."

At a Glance

A hypothesis is crucial to scientific research because it offers a clear direction for what the researchers are looking to find. This allows them to design experiments to test their predictions and add to our scientific knowledge about the world. This article explores how a hypothesis is used in psychology research, how to write a good hypothesis, and the different types of hypotheses you might use.

The Hypothesis in the Scientific Method

In the scientific method , whether it involves research in psychology, biology, or some other area, a hypothesis represents what the researchers think will happen in an experiment. The scientific method involves the following steps:

• Forming a question
• Performing background research
• Creating a hypothesis
• Designing an experiment
• Collecting data
• Analyzing the results
• Drawing conclusions
• Communicating the results

The hypothesis is a prediction, but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is then explored through background research. At this point, researchers then begin to develop a testable hypothesis.

Unless you are creating an exploratory study, your hypothesis should always explain what you  expect  to happen.

In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the hypothesis might be that researchers expect the drug to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a specific illness. In psychology, the hypothesis might focus on how a certain aspect of the environment might influence a particular behavior.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore numerous factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.

In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment  do not  support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies.

In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research. For example, prior research has shown that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might hypothesize: "People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after being exposed to the virus than people who have low-stress levels."

In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock together" is one example of folk adage that a psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic partners who are similar to them in interests and educational level."

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

So how do you write a good hypothesis? When trying to come up with a hypothesis for your research or experiments, ask yourself the following questions:

• Is your hypothesis based on your research on a topic?
• Can your hypothesis be tested?
• Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?

Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research. Once you have completed a literature review, start thinking about potential questions you still have. Pay attention to the discussion section in the  journal articles you read . Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.

How to Formulate a Good Hypothesis

To form a hypothesis, you should take these steps:

• Collect as many observations about a topic or problem as you can.
• Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
• Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
• After you have developed some possible hypotheses, think of ways that you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis through experimentation. This is known as falsifiability.

In the scientific method ,  falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis. In order to test a claim scientifically, it must be possible that the claim could be proven false.

Students sometimes confuse the idea of falsifiability with the idea that it means that something is false, which is not the case. What falsifiability means is that  if  something was false, then it is possible to demonstrate that it is false.

One of the hallmarks of pseudoscience is that it makes claims that cannot be refuted or proven false.

The Importance of Operational Definitions

A variable is a factor or element that can be changed and manipulated in ways that are observable and measurable. However, the researcher must also define how the variable will be manipulated and measured in the study.

Operational definitions are specific definitions for all relevant factors in a study. This process helps make vague or ambiguous concepts detailed and measurable.

For example, a researcher might operationally define the variable " test anxiety " as the results of a self-report measure of anxiety experienced during an exam. A "study habits" variable might be defined by the amount of studying that actually occurs as measured by time.

These precise descriptions are important because many things can be measured in various ways. Clearly defining these variables and how they are measured helps ensure that other researchers can replicate your results.

Replicability

One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is that the results must be replicable.

Replication means repeating an experiment in the same way to produce the same results. By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were measured and manipulated, other researchers can better understand the results and repeat the study if needed.

Some variables are more difficult than others to define. For example, how would you operationally define a variable such as aggression ? For obvious ethical reasons, researchers cannot create a situation in which a person behaves aggressively toward others.

To measure this variable, the researcher must devise a measurement that assesses aggressive behavior without harming others. The researcher might utilize a simulated task to measure aggressiveness in this situation.

Hypothesis Checklist

• Does your hypothesis focus on something that you can actually test?
• Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
• Can you manipulate the variables?
• Can your hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards?

The hypothesis you use will depend on what you are investigating and hoping to find. Some of the main types of hypotheses that you might use include:

• Simple hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests there is a relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable.
• Complex hypothesis : This type suggests a relationship between three or more variables, such as two independent and dependent variables.
• Null hypothesis : This hypothesis suggests no relationship exists between two or more variables.
• Alternative hypothesis : This hypothesis states the opposite of the null hypothesis.
• Statistical hypothesis : This hypothesis uses statistical analysis to evaluate a representative population sample and then generalizes the findings to the larger group.
• Logical hypothesis : This hypothesis assumes a relationship between variables without collecting data or evidence.

A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}." One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the  dependent variable  if you change the  independent variable .

The basic format might be: "If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}."

A few examples of simple hypotheses:

• "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat breakfast."
• "Students who experience test anxiety before an English exam will get lower scores than students who do not experience test anxiety."​
• "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."
• "Children who receive a new reading intervention will have higher reading scores than students who do not receive the intervention."

Examples of a complex hypothesis include:

• "People with high-sugar diets and sedentary activity levels are more likely to develop depression."
• "Younger people who are regularly exposed to green, outdoor areas have better subjective well-being than older adults who have limited exposure to green spaces."

Examples of a null hypothesis include:

• "There is no difference in anxiety levels between people who take St. John's wort supplements and those who do not."
• "There is no difference in scores on a memory recall task between children and adults."
• "There is no difference in aggression levels between children who play first-person shooter games and those who do not."

Examples of an alternative hypothesis:

• "People who take St. John's wort supplements will have less anxiety than those who do not."
• "Adults will perform better on a memory task than children."
• "Children who play first-person shooter games will show higher levels of aggression than children who do not." 

Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis

Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a research design and start collecting data. The research method depends largely on exactly what they are studying. There are two basic types of research methods: descriptive research and experimental research.

Descriptive Research Methods

Descriptive research such as  case studies ,  naturalistic observations , and surveys are often used when  conducting an experiment is difficult or impossible. These methods are best used to describe different aspects of a behavior or psychological phenomenon.

Once a researcher has collected data using descriptive methods, a  correlational study  can examine how the variables are related. This research method might be used to investigate a hypothesis that is difficult to test experimentally.

Experimental Research Methods

Experimental methods  are used to demonstrate causal relationships between variables. In an experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of interest (known as the independent variable) and measures the effect on another variable (known as the dependent variable).

Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a relationship between two variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the actual nature of the relationship—whether changes in one variable actually  cause  another to change.

The hypothesis is a critical part of any scientific exploration. It represents what researchers expect to find in a study or experiment. In situations where the hypothesis is unsupported by the research, the research still has value. Such research helps us better understand how different aspects of the natural world relate to one another. It also helps us develop new hypotheses that can then be tested in the future.

Thompson WH, Skau S. On the scope of scientific hypotheses .  R Soc Open Sci . 2023;10(8):230607. doi:10.1098/rsos.230607

Taran S, Adhikari NKJ, Fan E. Falsifiability in medicine: what clinicians can learn from Karl Popper [published correction appears in Intensive Care Med. 2021 Jun 17;:].  Intensive Care Med . 2021;47(9):1054-1056. doi:10.1007/s00134-021-06432-z

Eyler AA. Research Methods for Public Health . 1st ed. Springer Publishing Company; 2020. doi:10.1891/9780826182067.0004

Nosek BA, Errington TM. What is replication ?  PLoS Biol . 2020;18(3):e3000691. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000691

Aggarwal R, Ranganathan P. Study designs: Part 2 - Descriptive studies .  Perspect Clin Res . 2019;10(1):34-36. doi:10.4103/picr.PICR_154_18

Nevid J. Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadworth, 2013.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Breadcrumbs Section. Click here to navigate to respective pages.

DOI link for Hypothesis

Click here to navigate to parent product.

This chapter contains a definition of the term “hypothesis,” a discussion of the qualities of a good hypothesis, and the different kinds of hypotheses and the way to use them. The concepts covered here include analysis with a hypothesis or without a hypothesis (with only description objectives), a priori and a posteriori hypotheses, and the main qualities of a good hypothesis (plausibility, verifiability, precision, novelty). Some analytical texts focus on the validation, refutation, or selection of a global hypothesis (e.g., “I will show that Hamlet is really mad,” or, “Is Hamlet’s madness real? I will attempt to answer this question”). Other analytical texts do not have an aim centered on a principal hypothesis, but rather aim to provide a description of a given phenomenon (e.g., the themes in Hamlet, madness in Hamlet, the oppositions in Shakespeare’s sonnets). To be fully satisfactory, an analysis with a global hypothesis must present a hypothesis that validates, clarifies, completes, or refutes current knowledge. A hypothesis must be verifiable, precise, and novel. It does not necessarily have to be plausible on first impression, and indeed it may be counter-intuitive; if it is implausible and yet it is correctly validated, the analysis will have the virtue of producing surprising new knowledge.

• Privacy Policy
• Terms & Conditions
• Cookie Policy
• Taylor & Francis Online
• Taylor & Francis Group
• Students/Researchers
• Librarians/Institutions

Connect with us

Registered in England & Wales No. 3099067 5 Howick Place | London | SW1P 1WG © 2024 Informa UK Limited

• More from M-W
• To save this word, you'll need to log in. Log In

Definition of hypothesis

Did you know.

The Difference Between Hypothesis and Theory

A hypothesis is an assumption, an idea that is proposed for the sake of argument so that it can be tested to see if it might be true.

In the scientific method, the hypothesis is constructed before any applicable research has been done, apart from a basic background review. You ask a question, read up on what has been studied before, and then form a hypothesis.

A hypothesis is usually tentative; it's an assumption or suggestion made strictly for the objective of being tested.

A theory , in contrast, is a principle that has been formed as an attempt to explain things that have already been substantiated by data. It is used in the names of a number of principles accepted in the scientific community, such as the Big Bang Theory . Because of the rigors of experimentation and control, it is understood to be more likely to be true than a hypothesis is.

In non-scientific use, however, hypothesis and theory are often used interchangeably to mean simply an idea, speculation, or hunch, with theory being the more common choice.

Since this casual use does away with the distinctions upheld by the scientific community, hypothesis and theory are prone to being wrongly interpreted even when they are encountered in scientific contexts—or at least, contexts that allude to scientific study without making the critical distinction that scientists employ when weighing hypotheses and theories.

The most common occurrence is when theory is interpreted—and sometimes even gleefully seized upon—to mean something having less truth value than other scientific principles. (The word law applies to principles so firmly established that they are almost never questioned, such as the law of gravity.)

This mistake is one of projection: since we use theory in general to mean something lightly speculated, then it's implied that scientists must be talking about the same level of uncertainty when they use theory to refer to their well-tested and reasoned principles.

The distinction has come to the forefront particularly on occasions when the content of science curricula in schools has been challenged—notably, when a school board in Georgia put stickers on textbooks stating that evolution was "a theory, not a fact, regarding the origin of living things." As Kenneth R. Miller, a cell biologist at Brown University, has said , a theory "doesn’t mean a hunch or a guess. A theory is a system of explanations that ties together a whole bunch of facts. It not only explains those facts, but predicts what you ought to find from other observations and experiments.”

While theories are never completely infallible, they form the basis of scientific reasoning because, as Miller said "to the best of our ability, we’ve tested them, and they’ve held up."

• proposition
• supposition

hypothesis , theory , law mean a formula derived by inference from scientific data that explains a principle operating in nature.

hypothesis implies insufficient evidence to provide more than a tentative explanation.

theory implies a greater range of evidence and greater likelihood of truth.

law implies a statement of order and relation in nature that has been found to be invariable under the same conditions.

Examples of hypothesis in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'hypothesis.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Greek, from hypotithenai to put under, suppose, from hypo- + tithenai to put — more at do

1641, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

Phrases Containing hypothesis

• counter - hypothesis
• nebular hypothesis
• null hypothesis
• planetesimal hypothesis
• Whorfian hypothesis

Articles Related to hypothesis

This is the Difference Between a...

This is the Difference Between a Hypothesis and a Theory

In scientific reasoning, they're two completely different things

Dictionary Entries Near hypothesis

hypothermia

hypothesize

Cite this Entry

“Hypothesis.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hypothesis. Accessed 11 Jun. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of hypothesis, medical definition, medical definition of hypothesis, more from merriam-webster on hypothesis.

Nglish: Translation of hypothesis for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of hypothesis for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about hypothesis

Subscribe to America's largest dictionary and get thousands more definitions and advanced search—ad free!

Can you solve 4 words at once?

Word of the day.

See Definitions and Examples »

Get Word of the Day daily email!

Popular in Grammar & Usage

What's the difference between 'fascism' and 'socialism', more commonly misspelled words, commonly misspelled words, how to use em dashes (—), en dashes (–) , and hyphens (-), absent letters that are heard anyway, popular in wordplay, the words of the week - june 7, 8 words for lesser-known musical instruments, 9 superb owl words, 10 words for lesser-known games and sports, your favorite band is in the dictionary, games & quizzes.

  Take 10% OFF— Expires in h m s Use code save10u during checkout.

Chat with us

• Live Chat Talk to a specialist
• Self-service options
• Search FAQs Fast answers, no waiting
• Ultius 101 New client? Click here
• Messenger  

International support numbers

For reference only, subject to Terms and Fair Use policies.

• How it Works

Learn more about us

• Future writers
• Explore further

Tested Daily

Click to Verify

About The Author

This post was written by Ultius.

• Writer Options
• Custom Writing
• Business Documents
• Support Desk
• +1-800-405-2972
• Submit bug report
• A+ BBB Rating!

Ultius is the trusted provider of content solutions for consumers around the world. Connect with great American writers and get 24/7 support.

© 2024 Ultius, Inc.

• Refund & Cancellation Policy

Free Money For College!

Yeah. You read that right —We're giving away free scholarship money! Our next drawing will be held soon.

Our next winner will receive over $500 in funds. Funds can be used for tuition, books, housing, and/or other school expenses. Apply today for your chance to win!

* We will never share your email with third party advertisers or send you spam.

** By providing my email address, I am consenting to reasonable communications from Ultius regarding the promotion.

Past winner

• Name Samantha M.
• From Pepperdine University '22
• Studies Psychology
• Won $2,000.00
• Award SEED Scholarship
• Awarded Sep. 5, 2018

Thanks for filling that out.

Check your inbox for an email about the scholarship and how to apply.

Online ordering is currently unavailable due to technical issues. We apologise for any delays responding to customers while we resolve this. For further updates please visit our website: https://www.cambridge.org/news-and-insights/technical-incident

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .

Login Alert

• > Journals
• > Traditio
• > Volume 27
• > The Ancient Hypothesis of Fiction: An Essay on the...

Article contents

The ancient hypothesis of fiction: an essay on the origins of literary theory.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 July 2016

This is the first of several essays investigating the continuity of literary theory and of the principles which may account for its development. While critical terminologies change as they respond to problems emerging from the immediate historical process, a continuity, nevertheless, may be observed in the necessity for literary theory to take account of certain persistent relationships which underlie all intellectual disciplines. Among others, for instance, is the epistemological relation of the concept itself to the materials out of which it is formed and to the functions which it is subsequently to fulfil. Although the type of materials and functions will vary with the subject under consideration, the relation of the mental construct to its sources of sensation and to its role in the formation of knowledge remains relatively constant. The relation of the poet's mind, for instance, to its ethical materials, as described by Sidney, is strikingly near to the relation of the natural philosopher's mind to his data as described by Francis Bacon. Bacon seeks a ‘middle course [ ratio media ]’ between the rationalistic spider and the empirical ant, and finds that the bee ‘gathers its material from the flowers of the garden and of the field, but transforms and digests it by a power of its own.’ The bee goes about the true business of the scientist and represents ‘a closer and purer league between these two faculties, the experimental and the rational, (such as has never yet been made) …. ’ The ratio media in Bacon's material holds a position analogous to that of poetry in Sidney's: the balance between philosophical precept and historical example. This middle way is new, Bacon says, in the scientific method; it defines the intention of literary discourse, however, from its very origins, as I shall try to show, as well as a relationship which literary theory continually attempts to reestablish.

Access options

1 I am indebted to the American Council of Learned Societies for their grant in 1963-64 during which time I began my research and to Stanford University for supplementing this grant at that time and, subsequently, for allowing me time for continuing my work. The two citations immediately following are from The Works of Francis Bacon , ed. Spedding , Ellis , and Heath, (London 1857-74) 4.92-3, and Seneca's Epistulae Morales , trans. Gummere , R. M. (LCL, London 1961 ) Ep. 65. Google Scholar

2 In his Rhetoric (3.1; 1403b36f.) Aristotle observes that the study of language and style had only recently made much progress. Aristotle's Rhetoric and Poetics , trans. ( Rhys Roberts , W. and Bywater , I. (New York 1954 ) 165 . All references to the Rhetoric will be to this edition. Google Scholar

3 For a subtle survey of such reformulations, see McKeon , McKeon , ‘ The Philosophical Bases of Art and Criticism ,’ Critics and Criticism (Chicago 1952 ) 463 – 545 . Google Scholar

4 These distinctions were given their most influential formulation by Aristotle ( Ethics , VI.iv-v) and were adapted from him by St. Thomas Aquinas ( S. T. , I, II qu. 21 ar. 2 and qu. 57 ar. 3 and 5), from whom I have borrowed the example of the knife. For a perceptively detailed account of their origin, development, and extension into the controversy over the contemplative and active life, see Jaeger , Werner , Aristotle , trans. Robinson , R. (Oxford 1948 ) 426–61. Google Scholar

5 McKeon implies that often attempts to resolve the antithesis account for the shifting presuppositions in statements about the poetic arts. He states the possibility of resolution most generally in discussing Aristotle's division of the sciences: ‘Poetic “science” differs from theoretic and practical sciences, for it is concerned neither with knowledge as such nor with action but with artificial objects and products; and if such objects are to be isolated for consideration in themselves, there must be some preliminary consideration of the conditions of their production and some supplementary consideration of the effects of their contemplation,’ op. cit. 517. In such considerations the literary theorist will have to draw upon material proper to the theoretic and prudential sciences. Google Scholar

7 This is even partially reflected in the subsequent history of the two principal definitions of poetry, metrical composition and imitation ( mimesis ). The first states its relation to the prose composition of oratory and the second, in being concerned with the object and representation of certain types of knowledge, to philosophy. Google Scholar

8 Isocrates , trans. Norlin , G. and van Hook , L. , 3 vols. ( LCL London 1928-45 ). All references to Isocrates will be to this edition. Google Scholar

9 This imposition is later revealed in Hermagoras' development of his system of status , which, perhaps as was characteristic of the Hellenistic period generally, led to an almost exclusive concern with forensic oratory. The victory of his system over Aristotle's is a clear example of the more specialized form of an art overcoming the less. Cicero's ultimate liberalization of rhetoric was effected by a return to Aristotelian and Isocratean traditions. See Solmsen , F. , ‘ The Aristotelian Tradition in Ancient Rhetoric ,’ AJP 62 ( 1941 ) 180 , 189-90. For Hermagoras see Matthes , D. , ‘Hermagoras von Temnos 1904-55,’ Lustrum 3 (1958) 58-214. Google Scholar

11 Op. cit. 134–6. For general accounts of Isocrates' cultural and intellectual development see Jaeger , , Paideia , 3.46-155 and Marrou , , op. cit. 121-36. For his subsequent influence, see Marrou, passim , and Hubbell , H. M. , The Influence of Isocrates on Cicero, Dionysius and Aristides (New Haven 1913 ). Von Armin describes the persistence of sophistic ideals — despite Plato's and Aristotle's attempt to break with them — even within the ‘philosophical’ schools, op. cit. 63-7. Grube , G. M. A. , The Greek and Roman Critics (Toronto 1965), comments very generally with regard to poetry on how ‘the two approaches, the philosophical and the rhetorical, continue side by side through the fourth century,’ how Isocrates combined them in his concept of general education (37-40), how Aristotle ‘may be said to have brought them together in the Rhetoric ' (102), and on how Cicero later defends general culture ‘in an age of over-specialization’ (171-5). Grube's conclusion that ‘neither Plato nor Aristotle even attempt to define the nature of poetry’ (102) is perplexing in view of the subjects he discusses in relation to them. Whatever he considers the ‘nature of poetry’ to be, he seems to prefer the Longinian treatise, which he claims (surprisingly to me) ‘needs little explanation of its ideas because Longinus, more than any other ancient critic, speaks a language that the modern reader can understand without intermediary’ (353). Google Scholar

13 Isocrates, frankly distrusting any system developed to handle all occasions, had nothing comparable to Aristotle's proofs to offer to the orator. Though he probably confined the appeal to the emotions of the audience principally to the proem and epilogue, he would have appreciated Aristotle's great emphasis upon their manipulation, and he did insist with Aristotle upon the importance of the speaker's reputed character. Also, he would have applauded Aristotle's intention to supply a method for political oratory which the earlier manuals had slighted in the interest of forensic debate ( v. Rhet . 1354b22ff. ; cf . 1418a21-36). Google Scholar

14 The Collected Dialogues of Plato , ed. Hamilton , E. and Cairns , H. (New York 1963 ) 223 . Google Scholar

17 These generalizations with regard to discourse are consistent with Aristotle's intellectual development. Jaeger describes how in the early Protrepticus Aristotle accepted Plato's view of ethics and politics as theoretical sciences ‘proceeding more geometrico ’ and then later abandoned the ideal of mathematical exactness in his Ethics and Politics ( Aristotle , 82–8). With regard to the more specialized form of philosophical discourse (i.e., the more general definition), Jaeger says ‘Aristotle here [ cf. Eth. Nic . II. 7, 1107a29] replies that the more general ethical propositions are the more empty and ineffective they are’ (85). The movement toward greater particular application in ethics corresponds to one toward unspecialized philosophical discourse. In his later period, this movement is reflected in his researches where ‘the individual is now almost an end in itself’ (328). Despite this, Jaeger stresses that he avoided the fragmentary Hellenistic antiquarianism, because, perhaps as a result of his Platonic inheritance, his method consisted of ‘applying the principle of form to the details of reality, the idea of the uni for mity of nature' (328). His aim was ‘all along to make the Idea capable of producing knowledge of appearances’ (p. 381). He lived ‘not in the Ideal world but in the tension between Idea and experience’ (399). Google Scholar

18 Lucian , trans. Harmon , A. M. , LCL , 8 vols. (London 1921 ) 3.109 . For a similar defense of his attempt to combine philosophy with comedy, see To One Who Said ‘You're a Prometheus in Words ,’ 6.417-27. Google Scholar

19 The editor notes that these are allusions to Aristophanes' The Clouds (line 225) and to Plato's Phaedrus , 246e and 247b. Google Scholar

20 Sextus Empiricus , trans. Bury , R. G. , LCL , 4 vols. (Cambridge 1933-59 ) 4 . 245-7. Sextus lists the third usage first. It is usually rendered in Latin as materia or argumentum . Prefatory summaries and outlines of any work were called ‘hypotheses,’ and this usage persisted through the Renaissance. Google Scholar

22 Institutio Oratoria , trans. Butler , H. E. , LCL , 4 vols. (Cambridge 1953 ). As a commentary on this passage, see J. Cousin, Études sur Quintilien (Paris 1936) 1.173-5. The most conservative form of rhetoric, the quaestio definita , represented the principle of individualization as well as history (cf. Minturno, paraphrasing Aristotle: ‘Onda il Poeta a guisa di Filosofo riduce la cosa al genere, ed alla natura universale; l'Istorico, sicome l'Oratore, quando tratta le cause, al particolare descende.’ L'Arte Poetica (1563) [repr. in Naples 1725] 39.). Google Scholar

24 Turnebus observes how these two movements can function together: ‘ Theses , ut docuit Fabius, pleraeque ad deliberativum pertinent genus, & adjectis modo personis, suasoriae fiunt. nam deliberationis initium ducitur ab hypothesi , sed postea revocatur ad thesin : atqueita interdum de toto genere disceptamus, cum tamen causa pendeat ab hypothesi ' ( loc. cit .). This bears upon the discussion of ‘thesis,’ 49-55 below. Google Scholar

25 This exclusion may be a reflection of the old controversy of the contemplative vs. the active life. Jaeger observes that Dicaerachus, in opposition to Aristotle and Theophrastus, held the active life to be superior to the contemplative: he ‘severed the connexions … between moral action and the knowledge of the highest questions, and reached the logical conclusion of which we hear the echo in the author of the Great Ethics : “One must wonder what sophia has to do with ethics,” since the latter concerns character and action' ( Aristotle , 451 ). In excluding the thesis from rhetoric, the young Cicero is arguing for the ‘active’ life of the orator in the most pragmatic sense. Later he emphasized greatly the role of thesis or philosophical question in oratory, and Jaeger, in citing his Ep. ad Att ., 2.16, shows how he has left Dicaearchus, representing the active, pragmatic life, for Theophrastus, representing the contemplative, scholastic life. For the place of thesis and hypothesis in the attempts in the second and first centuries B. C. to establish the sophistic ideal of the philosophical and rhetorical disciplines perfectly combined in the person of the rhetorician, see von Armin , , op. cit ., pp. 92-114 and Matthes , D. , Lustrum , 3 ( 1958 ). Google Scholar

29 The word ‘thesis’ means a ‘stand’ or ‘position’ and is translated positio ; ‘hypothesis,’ whose Latin form is suppositio ( sub+ponere ), means a ‘placing under,’ and, by extension, what one has placed under,’ or a ‘subtending.’ In the rhetorical usage, where hypothesis is considered a species of the genus thesis and refers to questions about actions and events, the ‘ sub ' carries the meaning of being placed under a more inclusive heading and of sharing characteristics, indicated by that heading, with other species. In the philosophical and scientific usage of ‘assumption,’ the hypothesis metaphorically ‘subtends’ in the sense of lying behind or below whatever we wish to investigate or demonstrate. We come first to the problem, i.e. the given ‘situation’ to be explained, and then formulate hypotheses in accordance with which the given situation may be accounted for and now regarded as a ‘conclusion.’ Google Scholar

30 In ‘ Against the Rhetoricians ’ ( 60 – 71 ), Sextus attacks the aim of persuasion by defining ‘credible’ in three senses: belief in something true, in something like truth (verisimilar), and in something both true and false. The second sense (the probable) is a belief in what is false but which we are deceived into believing in; its validity is no greater than simple error, and it is more dangerous than error. For further attacks on the probable, see ‘Against the Logicians,’ 1.166-89, and ‘Outlines of Pyrrhonism,’ 1.226-31. Google Scholar

31 Philebus , trans. Fowler , H. N. , LCL (Cambridge 1952 ). For the aesthetic response to mathematical constructs in relation to modern formalism, see Appendix C. Google Scholar

32 The Republic , trans. Shorey , P. , 2 vols., LCL (Cambridge 1946 ). This translation is used in the text unless otherwise indicated. For the development of Plato's hypothetical method, see Robinson , R. , Plato's Earlier Dialectic (Ithaca 1941) esp. 97-191. Google Scholar

34 Euthydemus , trans. Lamb , W. R. M. , LCL (London 1924 ). Google Scholar

35 Phaedo , trans. Fowler , H. N. , LCL (London 1913 ). Google Scholar

36 Burnet , Burnet , Greek Philosophy: Thales to Plato (London 1924 ) 344 . For the historical development of the idea of spatial ‘location’ in the memorial and imaginative faculties, see Francis A. Yates, The Art of Memory (Chicago 1966). For the many variations of the idea of the imagination as an intermediary between the sensible and intelligible worlds, see Bundy , M. W. , The Theory of Imagination in Classical and Mediaeval Thought, Univ. of Ill. Sts. in Lang, and Lit . 12 (Urbana 1927) esp. 45, 96f., 117ff., 148-50, 158-9, 170-71, and de Bruyne , Edgar , Études d'esthétique médiévale (Brugge 1946), esp. 2. ch. 5: ‘ L'esthétique des Victorins .’ For geometry as a discipline of this intermediate location, see The Philosophical and Mathematical Commentaries of Proclus on the First Book of Euclid's Elements , trans. Taylor , T. (London 1792). The translator claims geometry is ‘the genuine passage to true theology, and the vestibule of divinity’ for those ‘who look beyond sense for certainty' (Pref.). He translates the title of Proclus' first chapter as ‘On the Middle Nature of the Mathematical Essence,’ since ‘mathematical natures, and whatever falls under cogitation, are allotted a middle order’ between intelligible and sensible natures (47). Proclus considers the objects of mathematics in the first chapter of his second book as participating in both the universal and the particular through the medium of the phantasy. For St. Augustine, as well, both the ‘suppositions’ of literary fictions and of geometrical diagrams belong to the province of the imagination (see n. 68). Google Scholar

37 On the disagreement between Plato and Aristotle concerning the independent existence of such intermediate constructs, see Ross , W. D. , Aristotle's Metaphysics (Oxford 1958 ) 1 .166-8. For a general summary of the problem, see Ross' Aristotle (London 1966) 157-9. Google Scholar

38 Particularly useful are the studies of Cornford , F. M. , Lee , H. D. P. , Einarson , B. , and Robinson , R. referred to below. I have found Cornford's essay, ‘Mathematics and Dialectic in the Republic VI-VII,’ Mind 41 , ( 1932 ) 37 – 52 , 173-90, the most valuable. Whether or not one accepts his central thesis explaining Proclus' comments on Platonic dialectic, which Robinson does not ( Mind , 45.464-73), the implications for fiction in the material he discusses remain forceful. Page references to his essay are given in my text. Google Scholar

40 Cornford offers an illustration of going through these steps after which the geometer will ‘frame his demonstration in full discursive form — a deduction starting from the hypothesis, “ Let there be a triangle ABC ” ( Eucl . I ,. 32 ),’ 45. Google Scholar

42 Translated by Randall , J. H. in his Aristotle (New York 1965 ) 96 . Aristotle gives a similar argument in De Anima III. 7; 431b5-20. Ross comments that ‘Aristotle seems here to be setting himself against Plato's view, expressed in the Divided Line…,’ Aristotle , 148. Google Scholar

44 Else observes that ‘in Aristotle's theory of vision the size of the thing seen and the time required to see it are interconnected. Magnitude, motion, and time are strictly correlative: Phys . 4.11.219a10; Ibid . 12.220b15; 6.2.233a10…. Hence there is an “imperceptible time” corresponding to the imperceptible magnitude' (285 n. 10). See n. 36 above. The ‘organic’ comparison is Plato's ( Phaedrus , 264c). Google Scholar

45 Prior Analytics , trans. Tredennick. , Tredennick. LCL (Cambridge 1938 ). It is precisely these ‘non-existent’ hypothetical concepts that Sextus attacks. Google Scholar

46 Posterior Analytics , trans. Tredennick , H. , LCL (Cambridge 1960 ). Cicero offers an early defense of fiction as illustrative example in his De Officiis (3.39) which is analogous to this justification of geometric diagrams. He is defending Plato's use of the story of Gyges' ring against certain philosophers who reject the argument because the story itself could not be true: ‘As if he affirmed that it was actually true or even possible!’ Cicero exclaims. ‘They press their point with right boorish obstinacy: they assert that it is impossible and insist upon it; they refuse to see the meaning of my words, “if possible.” For when we ask what they would do, if they could escape detection, we are not asking whether they can escape detection; but we put them as it were upon the rack: should they answer that, if impunity were assured, they would do what was most to their selfish interest, that would be a confession that they are criminally minded; should they say that they would not do so, they would be granting that all things in and of themselves immoral should be avoided.’ De Officiis , trans. Miller , W. , LCL (London 1961). Google Scholar

49 ‘ Geometrical Method and Aristotle's Account of First Principles ,’ CQ , 29 ( 1935 ) 113–24. Page references to this essay are given in my text. Google Scholar

50 In Ross , ' description ( Aristotle , 55 ), the transition ‘from sense to reason’ is ‘made possible by the fact that perception itself has an element of the universal; we percieve a particular thing, it is true, but what we perceive in it is characters which it shares with other things.’ The progress to higher and higher universality is inductive and intuitive. Google Scholar

51 The Metaphysics , trans. Tredennick , H. , LCL , 2 vols. (London 1933 ). For the relation between the Platonic hypotheses in the Republic and the Aristotelian archai see Solmsen , F. , Die Entwicklung der aristotelischen Logik und Rhetorik , 92-107. Google Scholar

52 Aristotle , 40 . Randall's third chapter, ‘Science as Right Talking: The Analysis of Discourse,’ esp. 40-51, contains interesting implications for fiction. Google Scholar

54 Randall extends his analysis to drama: ‘In real life, in history, we can hardly discern why things have to be as they are: there are far too many complicated and chance or accidental factors. The universal that is implicit there does not stand out clearly. But in tragedy the poet can improve on nature, and show the inevitable dependence of destiny on character. He can make plain not the mere bare event, the “fact that”, to hoti , but also the “reason why,” to dioti : he can disclose how it had to be the way it was' (p. 290). Wimsatt , W. K. and Brooks , C. observe that ‘the terms beginning, middle , and end emphasize a specially close cohesion of causes' and resemble the syllogistic terms major, minor , and middle . They say, further, that, if one thinks in terms of enthymeme, ‘a counterpart of the syllogism in the realm of probability,’ the ‘events in a drama would yield not one but several middle terms, so that we should have the kind of chain of suspended syllogisms known as Aristotelian sorites’ ( Literary Criticism , [New York 1967] 30–2). Google Scholar

55 In his edition of the Poetics (Oxford 1968 ), Lucas , D. W. cites Dryden's dedication to The Rival Ladies (1664): ‘When the whole plot is laid open, the spectators may rest satisfied that every cause was powerful enough to produce the effect it had … till they [i.e., cause and effect] all reached the conclusion necessary’ (p. 298). Quintilian observes that the syllogistic method is used not only by geometry and dialectic but also by the logical development of oratory: ‘Geometry arrives at its conclusions from definite premises, and by arguing from what is certain proves what was previously uncertain. Is not this just what we do in speaking?’ In addition to enthymeme the orator will occasionally use a regular syllogism, and, like the geometer, is chiefly concerned with proof (1.10.37-8). Google Scholar

56 Metaphysics ( 13 . 7 ; 1082b2-4), trans. Ross , W. D. , in The Basic Works of Aristotle , ed. McKeon , R. (New York 1941) 901. Google Scholar

59 Aristotle's Poetics : The Argument , Else , G. (Cambridge, Mass. 1963 ) 503 . All references will be to Else's translation and commentary, unless otherwise assigned, and will be included in the text. Google Scholar

61 After the description of the dramatic plot, virtually paraphrased later by Minturno among others ( De Poeta , [Venetiis, 1559] 128-9), Aristotle gives an even more extreme summary of the Odyssey: ‘This is the core; the rest is episodes.’ There can be no mistaking his meaning. Google Scholar

62 Aristotle on the Art of Poetry , Bywater , Ingram (Oxford 1909 ) 51 and 246. Butcher , S. H. translates the sentence: ‘After this, the names being once given, it remains to fill in the episodes,’ Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art , ed. Gassner , J. (New York 1951) 63. In discussing the relation of art to nature in Aristotle, Webster , T. B. L. translates a passage on the growth of embryos from On the Generation of Animals (743b20-25) which applies well to the construction of a plot: ‘“everything is defined first by outlines, and later takes on colours, hardness, and softness, just as if nature, who constructs it, were a painter. For painters first draw the lines and then cover the painted animals with colours,” ’ ( Art and Literature in Fourth-Century Athens , [London 1956] 54). Google Scholar

63 Webster relates Aristotle's biological conception of species to his assertion of the universality of poetry: ‘The theory is a direct answer to Plato; poetry is not an imitation of an imitation of a reality but creates a new reality, which is itself a union of individual and universal. I believe that Aristotle here views a play in rather the same way as he views Socrates or a particular house. Socrates is the universal, man (the species), realised and individualised by this matter. The particular house is the universal, house, realised and individualised by these bricks and mortar. The Iphigenia in Tauris is similarly a universal story realised and individualised by these episodes, verses, and names' ( ibid . 55 – 56 ). That episodes may ‘fill in’ intermediate causes and thus articulate the universal was mentioned by Renaissance critics: for Bartolomeo Maranta the episode ‘does nothing else but extend and augment the plot and the universal by telling how what is summarized in the universal has come about’ (quoted in Weinberg , B. , A History of Literary Criticism in the Italian Renaissance , [Chicago 1961] 472). Google Scholar

66 Translated by Bucher , , op. cit. 172 n. 1, who explains the false inference as being based on the assumptions ‘that because a given thing is the necessary consequent of a given antecedent, the consequent necessarily implies the antecedent. Antecedent and consequent are wrongly assumed to be reciprocally convertible.’ Compare Lucian's statement in n. 57 above, particularly ‘You go forward led by the consistency of what came after, not considering that things may be consistent and false.’ It is significant that Aristotle says that such ‘Reciprocation is more usual in mathematical problems, because mathematics never assumes an accident but only definitions.’ In such a case, ‘Let A be a real fact, whose reality implies that of certain other facts, e.g., B, which I know to be real; then from the latter I will prove the existence of A’ ( Post. Anal. , 78a7-12). Google Scholar

68 An Apology for Poetry , op. cit. , 1 .168–9; also Minturno, De Poeta , (Venetiis 1559) 119, who cites Virgil's Musa mihi causis memora . ( Aen . 1.8). Sidney's use of the English word derived from the Latin form of ‘hypothesis’ in relation to causation is most suggestive: ‘The Historian, wanting the precept, is so tyed, not to what shoulde bee but to what is, to the particuler truth of things and not to the general reason of things, that hys example draweth no necessary consequence, and therefore a lesse fruitfull doctrine. Nowe dooth the peerelesse Poet performe both: for whatsoeuer the Philosopher sayth shoulde be doone, hee giueth a perfect picture of it in some one, by whom hee presupposeth it was doone. So as hee coupleth the generall notion with the particuler example’ (164). The poet completes his ‘picture’ of an action (that is, offers motivations) by means of a ‘presupposition’ that it was done by a certain kind of person. For the contribution of ‘precept’ to ‘necessary consequence’ see my discussion of ‘thesis’ below, 51-55. As Lucian had done earlier, St. Augustine in his seventh epistle associates imaginary presuppositions in epic and drama with those in geometry. He divides the images of the phantasy according to their origin either in the senses, the imagination, or the reason. By means of those images in the imagination ‘for the sake of illustration in discourse, we ourselves suppose things which have no existence …; or when we call up … a lively conception of the things described while we read history, or hear, or compose, or refuse to believe fabulous narrations.’ This happens when picturing ‘the appearance of Aeneas, or of Medea with her team of winged dragons, or of Chremes, or Parmeno…. Moreover, we often say, when carrying on a discussion, “Suppose that three worlds, such as the one which we inhabit, were placed one above another”; or, “Suppose the earth to be enclosed within a four-sided figure,” and so on : for all such things we picture to ourselves, and imagine according to the mood and direction of our thoughts.’ The third class of images, those originating in the reason, embody forth concepts of number and measure, found partly in the nature of things and partly in sciences such as geometry and music. Works of St. Augustine , ed. Schaff , P. , Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (New York 1892) 1.225. See Bundy , , op. cit. 153-72. Google Scholar

69 History is a record of random effects (from man's point of view as distinct from God's, which includes a knowledge of causes), and its literary procedures, as in a chronicle, reflect a random progression. Insofar as an historian ‘interprets’ the effects (events), he is ‘constructing,’ not ‘recording,’ but his construction is never certain, final , or true . It must be constantly revised in accordance with new data about events: in this sense its allegiance is always to the events, not to any given construct of events. Its progressions are undelimited and random insofar as they are subservient to subsequent effects occurring or being discovered by chance. (When his memory fails, Thucydides admits he constructs speeches which are plausibly demanded by various occasions (1.21-2). Such speeches would be subject to revision, however, if more details were learned about the occasions.) This is also the procedure of the fantasy, in which sense impressions are the events, the equivalent of effects; they are reflected in the fantasy, recorded, and later ‘interpreted’ to give a construct of the stimuli by other faculties. Fiction is distinct from fantasy in the same way that it is distinct from history. In fiction there is no randomness; causes are ‘discovered’ (given) for effects: it is always ‘true.’ In the Renaissance Dionigi Atanagi writes: ‘The order of poetry is certain, connected, and linked, since because of the interrelationship of its actions it makes one out of many, one toward which it directs all the others as servants and domestics serve a mistress…. The order of history is for the most part uncertain, disjointed, and fortuitous, since its actions are not similar and linked but separate and diverse; neither does one depend from another nor do they relate to a single end’ (Weinberg, op. cit. 458 ). Google Scholar

71 How this generality might derive from an association with dialectic as well is suggested in Aristotle's account of destructive arguments: if such and such is or is not true of one member of a genus, it is or is not true of all members: ‘Now it is clear that he who makes the hypothesis makes the problem universal, though it is posited in a particular form; for he demands that the maker of a particular admission should make a universal admission, since he demands that, if an attribute belongs in a particular case, it belongs in like manner to all’ ( Topica , 3.6; 120a2-5, trans. Forster , E. S. , LCL , [Cambridge 1960 ]). Such an explanation would not be out of place in the Poetics . Google Scholar

72 See Aristotelis de Poetica Liber … per Theodorum Goulstonum [bound with Aristotelis de Poetica Liber ex versione Theodori Goulstoni ], (Cantabrigiae 1696) 26: ‘Poësis Philosophiae similior, quàm historia. Siquidem Poëtae Fabula, Universales ac Indefinitas captet. In comedies theses were “proposed” for illustration in plays to serve a didactic purpose: Sunt in singulis Comoediis certae quaedam theses de hominum diversis moribus, ingeniis, & officiis propositae, quae multum faciunt ad vitam sapienter & civiliter instituendam’ ( P. Terentii Afri Poetae Lepidissimi Comoediae , Parisiis, 1552 , p. 675 ). Google Scholar

73 For this difficult passage (1450b4-12), see Else's commentary, esp. 270-1, and compare the translations of Butcher and Bywater. The main point is that what Aristotle says of ‘thought’ resembles closely his definition of a ‘thesis’ ( Top . 104b19ff.) as well as the later embodiment of a thesis in the literary exercise of the suasoria . Such declamations, in turn, greatly influenced all types of set speeches, such as the Elizabethan soliloquy: ‘To be or not to be, that is the question’ (i.e. the matter to be considered generally , not the decision specifically about the speaker's committing suicide at that moment). Later in the Poetics (1456a35 ff.) Aristotle refers everything concerning ‘thought’ to his Rhetoric . Google Scholar

74 In this broader sense of a universal, the ‘thesis’ connotes the generic within the specific, not isolated in abstraction but immanent in a given particular situation. This ‘fictional’ combination of (assumed) circumstantial existence and definitive significance is suggested by the way Aristotle distinguishes these technical terms: ‘A thesis which assumes one or the other part of a proposition, i.e., that something does, or does not exist, is a hypothesis ; a thesis which does not do this is a definition. A definition is a kind of thesis <or laying-down>, because the arithmetician lays it down that to be a unit is to be quantitatively indivisible; but it is not a hypothesis, because to define the nature of a unit is not the same as to assert its existence' (72a19-25). Robinson interprets this passage to mean that an hypothesis is an ‘assertion’ which may be true or false and that a definition is a ‘convention’ or a ‘promise’ which claims neither truth nor falsity ( op. cit. 105f ). ‘Thesis’ retains something of the generic quality as definition and something of the asserted existence of initial premises of action (plot outline) as hypothesis (see n. 71). For the exclusion of generic significance from narrative hypothesis after the Renaissance, see Appendix C. , because the arithmetician lays it down that to be a unit is to be quantitatively indivisible; but it is not a hypothesis, because to define the nature of a unit is not the same as to assert its existence" (72a19-25). Robinson interprets this passage to mean that an hypothesis is an ‘assertion’ which may be true or false and that a definition is a ‘convention’ or a ‘promise’ which claims neither truth nor falsity ( op. cit. 105f). ‘Thesis’ retains something of the generic quality as definition and something of the asserted existence of initial premises of action (plot outline) as hypothesis (see n. 71). For the exclusion of generic significance from narrative hypothesis after the Renaissance, see Appendix C.' href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=In+this+broader+sense+of+a+universal,+the+‘thesis’+connotes+the+generic+within+the+specific,+not+isolated+in+abstraction+but+immanent+in+a+given+particular+situation.+This+‘fictional’+combination+of+(assumed)+circumstantial+existence+and+definitive+significance+is+suggested+by+the+way+Aristotle+distinguishes+these+technical+terms:+‘A+thesis+which+assumes+one+or+the+other+part+of+a+proposition,+i.e.,+that+something+does,+or+does+not+exist,+is+a+hypothesis;+a+thesis+which+does+not+do+this+is+a+definition.+A+definition+is+a+kind+of+thesis+ ,+because+the+arithmetician+lays+it+down+that+to+be+a+unit+is+to+be+quantitatively+indivisible;+but+it+is+not+a+hypothesis,+because+to+define+the+nature+of+a+unit+is+not+the+same+as+to+assert+its+existence'+(72a19-25).+Robinson+interprets+this+passage+to+mean+that+an+hypothesis+is+an+‘assertion’+which+may+be+true+or+false+and+that+a+definition+is+a+‘convention’+or+a+‘promise’+which+claims+neither+truth+nor+falsity+(+op.+cit.+105f).+‘Thesis’+retains+something+of+the+generic+quality+as+definition+and+something+of+the+asserted+existence+of+initial+premises+of+action+(plot+outline)+as+hypothesis+(see+n.+71).+For+the+exclusion+of+generic+significance+from+narrative+hypothesis+after+the+Renaissance,+see+Appendix+C.>Google Scholar

75 On potentiality and actuality, see Ross , , Aristotle , 176 ff. Later (285), he observes that character corresponds to potentiality, plot to actuality: the play is then potentiality-in-actualization, i.e., character-in-action. Actualization and plot are ‘prior’ to potentiality and character. Google Scholar

76 Lee , , acknowledging that ‘each science assumes the existence of the genus of which it is its business to prove the essential attributes,’ observes that Euclid's postulates correspond to Aristotle's hypotheses: Euclid must ‘ assume the possibility of constructing a certain minimum of figures, from which it would be possible to prove the possibility of constructing the rest' (p. 115 ). So also ‘according to Aristotle the geometer must assume the existence of points and lines (76b5)’ (115 n. 1). Google Scholar

77 Atkins , J. W. H. , Literary Criticism in Antiquity , 2 vols. (London 1952 ) 1 . 80. Google Scholar

79 For a more thoroughly syllogistic analysis of metaphor, see Rhetoric , 1410b5-35 and 1412a17-25. Google Scholar

80 Laws , trans. Taylor , A. E. in The Collected Dialogues of Plato , ed. Hamilton , E. and Cairns , H. (New York 1963 ). Cf. Republic , 592b . Google Scholar

84 Such an apprehension, intended to vindicate Isocrates in the eyes of his audience, is consistent with Else's interpretation of ‘ catharsis ’ (pp. 224–32, 423-50). Butcher ( op. cit. , p. 245) and others cite Plato's Sophist (229E-230E) to illustrate the medical use of the term, but the passage has further implications for this essay. Plato is describing the cathartic effect of the elenchus upon the respondent who is ‘purified’ of his pretence to knowledge by experiencing the shame of refutation. Once purified he can begin to learn properly. The emotional acquiescence, brought about by the hypothetical method of moral dialectic, corresponds to the emotional acceptance of the synthesis of ‘given’ events, brought about by observing the ‘elenchic’ and consistent selection of means within the fictional hypothesis. Google Scholar

85 In describing the extent of mathematical presuppositions in attitudes toward certainty, probability, and the arts, Webster , T. B. L. observes that ‘mathematical proof has universal validity; it is what the Greeks call “necessary” (anankaion).’ Such a ‘necessity’ was often invoked to control the arguments from probability: ‘Thus the mathematical arguments provide a framework within which the general truths established by observation or otherwise can be related to each other’ ( Greek Art and Literature 700-530 B.C. [London 1959 ] 95–6). Google Scholar

86 In distinguishing Plato's hypothetical method in the Republic from that in the Meno and Phaedo , Robinson argues that the method used to achieve the highest category on the Divided Line ‘has gone back to being practically the Socratic elenchus’ ( op. cit. , p. 184 ). He later criticizes the method for avoiding an infinite regress only by means of the assumption (unacceptable today even in geometry) that a premise could be examined dialectically without assuming other premises: ‘What seemed to Plato the gradual forging of an hypothesis to which there were no objections turns out … to be merely the gradual forging of a consistent set of beliefs; and it therefore does not escape the stricture passed in the Cratylus , that consistency is no guarantee of truth' (190). It is interesting that the exclusion of other premises was precisely what the fictional hypothesis (once again in agreement with Euclidean geometry) enabled the poet to do. Literary discourse might avoid the danger of infinite regress by its very power to delimit its philosophical premises with stipulated circumstances, analogous to the rhetorical hypothesis, in a fictional plot. The desire to justify a type of discourse which could avoid this danger may have influenced the development of literary theory after Plato. Google Scholar

This article has been cited by the following publications. This list is generated based on data provided by Crossref .

• Google Scholar

View all Google Scholar citations for this article.

Save article to Kindle

To save this article to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle .

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

• Wesley Trimpi (a1)
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0362152900005274

Save article to Dropbox

To save this article to your Dropbox account, please select one or more formats and confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you used this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your Dropbox account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox .

Save article to Google Drive

To save this article to your Google Drive account, please select one or more formats and confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you used this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your Google Drive account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive .

Reply to: Submit a response

- No HTML tags allowed - Web page URLs will display as text only - Lines and paragraphs break automatically - Attachments, images or tables are not permitted

Your details

Your email address will be used in order to notify you when your comment has been reviewed by the moderator and in case the author(s) of the article or the moderator need to contact you directly.

You have entered the maximum number of contributors

Conflicting interests.

Please list any fees and grants from, employment by, consultancy for, shared ownership in or any close relationship with, at any time over the preceding 36 months, any organisation whose interests may be affected by the publication of the response. Please also list any non-financial associations or interests (personal, professional, political, institutional, religious or other) that a reasonable reader would want to know about in relation to the submitted work. This pertains to all the authors of the piece, their spouses or partners.

Methodology of Social Science & International Relations

6 hypothesis , research question & literature review.

Hypothesis is a potential explanation to a phenomenon, and in a much more rigorous way. It’s the core of research design, after Research Question and Literature Review. 1,Hypothesis should be used in formal logic, if XXX ,then XXX. 2,Hypothesis should have clear boundaries and testable. 3,Hypothesis should never be regarded as certain events, and it’s must be theoretical.

6.1 With Research Question

Hypothesis is the potential explanation or mechanism to the Research Question.If we try to research what result in Nagorno-Karabakh War. We need follow the steps, Research Question, Literature Review, Theoretical Framework, Hypothesis. Theoretical framework in literature is the most important resource to figure out the hypothesis.The meaning and contribution should start from existed research.

Figure 6.1: literature review & hypothesis

6.2 With Literature Review

After diving in the facts and literatures, we possiblely can have some hypotheses. Last time I introduced 3 steps of searching literatures, now we connect those with hypothesis building.

If you want to research Nagorno-Karabakh War, there are many structures we can use, like ethnic conflicts, new independent countries’ nation-buildings, or territorial conflicts. We can choose ethnic conflicts.

Inside international ethinic conflicts, then there are lots of possible hypotheses.Like ethinic diversity, regime, nationalism, economic imbalance, resource trap, cross-broder ethenic group, colonazation.The Main difference is the benchmark, that’s why firstly we need should choose problem domain. The problem domain determains our hypothesis boundary, and potential choices.

Figure 6.2: literature review & hypothesis

6.3 Rethinking Hypothesis

Should we take as much explanation as possible ? Should we call one approach is the most convincing ?

6.4 Hypothesis & Proving

Figure 6.3: circular argument

6.5 From Science

Try to introduce some explanations to obsity. 1, In evolutionary biology, in case of hunger or unstable envrionment, evolutionary selection make us to prefer high-calorie food, and feel more attractive. 2, Genomics， Ceratin genes can make our body much easier to store calorie. 3, Microbiology， Intestinal Flora affect our digestion procedures 4, Biochemistry, How stomach send the signals to our brain. 5, Neuroscience, How our brain handle incentive of food.refined/calorie 6, Medicine, Some disease can cuase obesity, like metabolism. others, like diet, sleeping, pressure

6.6 From Social Science

1, Economics, food industry’s profit-orentiation and marketing enhance our preference. 2, Political Science, Interest Group, Lobbying affect the policy 3, Psychology, Pressure and our neuro-mental mechanism 4, Sociology, social class, inequality, popoular culture, habit 5, IR, Globalisation, the expansion of global suger. 6, Reflection, How BMI, obesity is defined and interpretation.

• Subscriber Services
• For Authors
• Publications
• Archaeology
• Art & Architecture
• Bilingual dictionaries
• Classical studies
• Encyclopedias
• English Dictionaries and Thesauri
• Language reference
• Linguistics
• Media studies
• Medicine and health
• Names studies
• Performing arts
• Science and technology
• Social sciences
• Society and culture
• Overview Pages
• Subject Reference
• English Dictionaries
• Bilingual Dictionaries

Recently viewed (0)

• Save Search

• Find at OUP.com
• Google Preview
• Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

More on this Topic

• hypothesis, literary in The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3 rev ed.)
• hypothesis, literary in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World
• View overview page for this topic

Related Content

In this work.

Aristophanes

• Callimachus (3)(of *Cyrene)
• Aristotle (384–322 bc)
• Dicaearchus
• Sophocles (1)
• Menander (1) (344)
• Aristophanes (1)
• Demosthenes (2) (384–322 bc)

Related Overviews

Euripides (c. 485—406 bc) Greek dramatist

Sophocles (496—406 bc)

View all related overviews »

• Publishing Information
• General Links for this Work
• Preface to the Fourth Edition
• List of New and replacement Entries in the Fourth Edition
• Area Advisors for the Fourth Edition
• Index to Initials of Contributors
• Abbreviations used in the Present Work
• Note to Readers
• Previous Version

hypothesis, literary (Greek) .  

(1) Prefixed to plays. Nearly all Greek dramas have an introductory note giving an outline of the plot and often other information; a number of them are in verse. They are of three main types, though they have become much confused in the course of transmission. Far the most important are those which are based on the introductions which ... ...

Access to the complete content on Oxford Reference requires a subscription or purchase. Public users are able to search the site and view the abstracts and keywords for each book and chapter without a subscription.

Please subscribe or login to access full text content.

If you have purchased a print title that contains an access token, please see the token for information about how to register your code.

For questions on access or troubleshooting, please check our FAQs , and if you can''t find the answer there, please contact us .

• Oxford University Press

PRINTED FROM OXFORD REFERENCE (www.oxfordreference.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2023. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single entry from a reference work in OR for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice ).

date: 11 June 2024

• Cookie Policy
• Privacy Policy
• Legal Notice
• Accessibility
• [185.80.149.115]
• 185.80.149.115

Character limit 500 /500