types of crime assignment

7.3 Crime and the Law

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Identify and differentiate between different types of crimes
• Evaluate U.S. crime statistics
• Understand the three branches of the U.S. criminal justice system

Although deviance is a violation of social norms, it’s not always punishable, and it’s not necessarily bad. Crime , on the other hand, is a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions. Walking to class backward is a deviant behavior. Driving with a blood alcohol percentage over the state’s limit is a crime. Like other forms of deviance, however, ambiguity exists concerning what constitutes a crime and whether all crimes are, in fact, “bad” and deserve punishment. For example, during the 1960s, civil rights activists often violated laws intentionally as part of their effort to bring about racial equality. In hindsight, we recognize that the laws that deemed many of their actions crimes—for instance, Rosa Parks refusing to give up her seat to a White man—were inconsistent with social equality.

As you have learned, all societies have informal and formal ways of maintaining social control. Within these systems of norms, societies have legal codes that maintain formal social control through laws, which are rules adopted and enforced by a political authority. Those who violate these rules incur negative formal sanctions. Normally, punishments are relative to the degree of the crime and the importance to society of the value underlying the law. As we will see, however, there are other factors that influence criminal sentencing.

Types of Crimes

Not all crimes are given equal weight. Society generally socializes its members to view certain crimes as more severe than others. For example, most people would consider murdering someone to be far worse than stealing a wallet and would expect a murderer to be punished more severely than a thief. In modern U.S. society, crimes are classified as one of two types based on their severity. Violent crimes (also known as “crimes against a person”) are based on the use of force or the threat of force. Rape, murder, and armed robbery fall under this category. Nonviolent crimes involve the destruction or theft of property but do not use force or the threat of force. Because of this, they are also sometimes called “property crimes.” Larceny, car theft, and vandalism are all types of nonviolent crimes. If you use a crowbar to break into a car, you are committing a nonviolent crime; if you mug someone with the crowbar, you are committing a violent crime.

When we think of crime, we often picture street crime , or offenses committed by ordinary people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces. An often overlooked category is corporate crime , or crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment. Embezzlement, insider trading, and identity theft are all types of corporate crime. Although these types of offenses rarely receive the same amount of media coverage as street crimes, they can be far more damaging. Financial frauds such as insurance scams, Ponzi schemes, and improper practices by banks can devastate families who lose their savings or home.

An often-debated third type of crime is victimless crime . Crimes are called victimless when the perpetrator is not explicitly harming another person. As opposed to battery or theft, which clearly have a victim, a crime like drinking a beer when someone is twenty years old or selling a sexual act do not result in injury to anyone other than the individual who engages in them, although they are illegal. While some claim acts like these are victimless, others argue that they actually do harm society. Prostitution may foster abuse toward women by clients or pimps. Drug use may increase the likelihood of employee absences. Such debates highlight how the deviant and criminal nature of actions develops through ongoing public discussion.

Big Picture

Hate crimes.

Attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics are known as hate crimes . Hate crimes in the United States evolved from the time of early European settlers and their violence toward Native Americans. Such crimes weren’t investigated until the early 1900s, when the Ku Klux Klan began to draw national attention for its activities against Black people and other groups. The term “hate crime,” however, didn’t become official until the 1980s (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2011).

The severity and impact of hate crimes is significant, but the different crime reporting methods mentioned earlier can obscure the issue. According to the Department of Justice, an average of approximately 205,000 Americans fall victim to hate crimes each year (Bureau of Justice Statistics 2021). But the FBI reports a much lower number; for example, the 2019 report indicates 7,314 criminal incidents and 8,559 related offenses as being motivated by bias (FBI 2020). The discrepancy is due to many factors: very few people actually report hate crimes for fear of retribution or based on the difficulties of enduring a criminal proceeding; also, law enforcement agencies must find clear proof that a particular crime was motivated by bias rather than other factors. (For example, an assailant who robs someone and uses a slur while committing that crime may not be deemed to be bias-motivated.) But both reports show a growth in hate crimes, with quantities increasing each year.

The majority of hate crimes are racially motivated, but many are based on religious (especially anti-Semitic) prejudice (FBI 2020). The murders of Brandon Teena in 1993 and Matthew Shepard in 1998 significantly increased awareness of hate crimes based on gender expression and sexual orientation; LGBTQ people remain a major target of hate crimes.

The motivation behind hate crimes can arise quickly, singling out specific groups who endure a rash of abuses in a short period of time. For example, beginning in 2020, people increasingly began committing violent crimes against people of Asian descent, with evidence that the attackers associated the victims with the coronavirus pandemic (Asian American Bar Association 2021).

Crime Statistics

The FBI gathers data from approximately 17,000 law enforcement agencies, and the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) is the annual publication of this data (FBI 2021). The UCR has comprehensive information from police reports but fails to account for the many crimes that go unreported, often due to victims’ fear, shame, or distrust of the police. The quality of this data is also inconsistent because of differences in approaches to gathering victim data; important details are not always asked for or reported (Cantor and Lynch 2000). As of 2021, states will be required to provide data for the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), which captures more detailed information on each crime, including time of day, location, and other contexts. NIBRS is intended to provide more data-informed discussion to better improve crime prevention and policing (FBI 2021).

The U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics publishes a separate self-report study known as the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). A self-report study is a collection of data gathered using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews. Self-report data are gathered each year, asking approximately 160,000 people in the United States about the frequency and types of crime they’ve experienced in their daily lives (BJS 2019). The NCVS reports a higher rate of crime than the UCR, likely picking up information on crimes that were experienced but never reported to the police. Age, race, gender, location, and income-level demographics are also analyzed.

The NCVS survey format allows people to more openly discuss their experiences and also provides a more-detailed examination of crimes, which may include information about consequences, relationship between victim and criminal, and substance abuse involved. One disadvantage is that the NCVS misses some groups of people, such as those who don’t have telephones and those who move frequently. The quality of information may also be reduced by inaccurate victim recall of the crime (Cantor and Lynch 2000).

Public Perception of Crime

Neither the NCVR nor the UCR accounts for all crime in the United States, but general trends can be determined. Crime rates, particularly for violent and gun-related crimes, have been on the decline since peaking in the early 1990s (Cohn, Taylor, Lopez, Gallagher, Parker, and Maass 2013). However, the public believes crime rates are still high, or even worsening. Recent surveys (Saad 2011; Pew Research Center 2013, cited in Overburg and Hoyer 2013) have found U.S. adults believe crime is worse now than it was twenty years ago.

Inaccurate public perception of crime may be heightened by popular crime series such as Law & Order (Warr 2008) and by extensive and repeated media coverage of crime. Many researchers have found that people who closely follow media reports of crime are likely to estimate the crime rate as inaccurately high and more likely to feel fearful about the chances of experiencing crime (Chiricos, Padgett, and Gertz 2000). Recent research has also found that people who reported watching news coverage of 9/11 or the Boston Marathon Bombing for more than an hour daily became more fearful of future terrorism (Holman, Garfin, and Silver 2014).

The U.S. Criminal Justice System

A criminal justice system is an organization that exists to enforce a legal code. There are three branches of the U.S. criminal justice system: the police, the courts, and the corrections system.

Police are a civil force in charge of enforcing laws and public order at a federal, state, or community level. No unified national police force exists in the United States, although there are federal law enforcement officers. Federal officers operate under specific government agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI); the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF); and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Federal officers can only deal with matters that are explicitly within the power of the federal government, and their field of expertise is usually narrow. A county police officer may spend time responding to emergency calls, working at the local jail, or patrolling areas as needed, whereas a federal officer would be more likely to investigate suspects in firearms trafficking or provide security for government officials.

State police have the authority to enforce statewide laws, including regulating traffic on highways. Local or county police, on the other hand, have a limited jurisdiction with authority only in the town or county in which they serve.

Once a crime has been committed and a violator has been identified by the police, the case goes to court. A court is a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law. The U.S. judicial system is divided into federal courts and state courts. As the name implies, federal courts (including the U.S. Supreme Court) deal with federal matters, including trade disputes, military justice, and government lawsuits. Judges who preside over federal courts are selected by the president with the consent of Congress.

State courts vary in their structure but generally include three levels: trial courts, appellate courts, and state supreme courts. In contrast to the large courtroom trials in TV shows, most noncriminal cases are decided by a judge without a jury present. Traffic court and small claims court are both types of trial courts that handle specific civil matters.

Criminal cases are heard by trial courts with general jurisdictions. Usually, a judge and jury are both present. It is the jury’s responsibility to determine guilt and the judge’s responsibility to determine the penalty, though in some states the jury may also decide the penalty. Unless a defendant is found “not guilty,” any member of the prosecution or defense (whichever is the losing side) can appeal the case to a higher court. In some states, the case then goes to a special appellate court; in others it goes to the highest state court, often known as the state supreme court.

Corrections

The corrections system is charged with supervising individuals who have been arrested, convicted, and sentenced for a criminal offense, plus people detained while awaiting hearings, trials, or other procedures. At the end of 2018, approximately 2.3 million people were incarcerated in the United States (BJS 2020); these include people who are in state and federal prisons as well as those in local jails or related facilities, as explained below. Since many convicted people are placed on probation or parole, have their sentences deferred or otherwise altered, or are released under other circumstances, the total number of people within the corrections system is much higher. In 2018, the total number of people either incarcerated, detained, paroled, or on probation was 6,410,000 (BJS 2020).

The U.S. incarceration rate has grown considerably in the last hundred years, but has begun to decline in the past decade. The total correctional population (including parolees and those on probation), peaked in 2007 at 7.3 million, resulting in approximately 1 in 32 people being under some sort of correctional supervision. With the 2018 correction system number close to 6.4 million people, that ratio goes to 1 in every 40 people (BJS 2020). The declines are seen as a positive, but the United States holds the largest number of prisoners of any nation in the world.

Prison is different from jail. A jail provides temporary confinement, usually while an individual awaits trial or parole. Prisons are facilities built for individuals serving sentences of more than a year. Whereas jails are small and local, prisons are large and run by either the state or the federal government. While incarcerated, people have differing levels of freedom and opportunity for engagement. Some inmates have options to take classes, play organized sports, and otherwise enrich themselves, usually with the goal of improving their lives upon release. Other incarcerated people have very limited opportunities. Usually these distinctions are based on the severity of their crimes and their behavior once imprisoned, but available resources and funding can be a significant factor.

Parole refers to a temporary release from prison or jail that requires supervision and the consent of officials. Parole is different from probation, which is supervised time used as an alternative to prison. Probation and parole can both follow a period of incarceration in prison, especially if the prison sentence is shortened. Most people in these situations are supervised by correctional officers or other appropriate professionals, including mental health professionals; they may attend regular meetings or counseling sessions and may be required to report on their activities and travel. People on probation or parole often have strict guidelines; not only will they be returned to jail upon committing a crime, but they may also be prohibited from associating with known criminals or suspects. These strategies are designed to prevent people on parole or probation from returning to criminal engagements, and to increase the likelihood that they will remain positive members of the community through interactions with family, productive employment, and mental health treatment if needed.

Policing and Race

This chapter described just a few of the sociological theories regarding deviance and crime; there are many more, as well as many approaches for preventing crime and enforcing laws. Citizens, law enforcement, and elected officials weigh a wide array of contexts and personal experiences when considering the best way to address crime. In at least some cases, decision makers are motivated by a desire to protect the status quo or improve their political or financial position.

As discussed earlier, during the 1980s, crack cocaine was exploding in usage among lower income, Black, and Hispanic people. White middle class and upper economic class Americans became terrified of the potential for their family and children to be involved with drugs and drug-related crime. State governments passed increasingly harsh laws, resulting in stiffer penalties and the removal of judges’ discretion in drug case sentencing. Among the most well known of these were “three strikes laws,” which mandated long sentences for anyone convicted of multiple drug offenses, even if the offenses themselves were minor. Practices like civil forfeiture, in which law enforcement or municipalities could seize cash and property of suspected criminals even before they were convicted, provided a significant financial incentive to investigate drug crimes (Tiegen 2018).

The additional funding sources and high likelihood of successful prosecution drove police forces toward more aggressive and inequitable tactics. After training by the Drug Enforcement Agency, police forces around the country began racial profiling in a focused, consistent manner. Black and Hispanic people were many times more likely than White people to be pulled over for routine traffic stops. Local police forces focused on patrolling minority-inhabited neighborhoods, resulting in more arrests and prosecutions of Black and Hispanic people (Harris 2020).

No issue related to race and policing is of more concern than the shooting of unarmed Black people by police. The lack of punishment of police officers for committing these acts perpetuates the issue of unequal justice. Eric Garner was killed by an officer using a prohibited chokehold after Garner had allegedly committed a misdemeanor.

Breonna Taylor was killed by police who were executing a no-knock search warrant at her apartment. The police were investigating suspected drug activity involving Taylor’s ex-boyfriend. Taylor was at home with her current boyfriend who was licensed to carry a firearm. Fearing for their safety, he fired one round at plain clothes officers as they busted in the door, striking an officer in the leg. Officers responded by riddling the apartment with bullets, claiming the life of Taylor, a 26-year-old EMT. Several officers were fired and have been found civilly liable in her death, but no officers were convicted of murder or manslaughter. Taylor’s death prompted protest among growing concerns about police involved shootings. The officer who killed George Floyd was immediately charged with the crime, and was eventually convicted, but some believe that to be the case due to the clear and horrific video of the event (Abdollah 2021).

Police advocates, elected officials, and ordinary citizens often express the importance of effective and just law enforcement. When “Defund The Police” became a widespread position during 2020, many Black people spoke out against it; polling revealed that a majority of Black people did not support the idea, and over 80 percent of Black people preferred having the police spend the same or more time in their communities (Saad 2020). While this frequently cited result is relatively consistent across different polls, it also reveals divisions within the Black community, often based on age or other factors. The same polls find that many Black people still distrust the police or feel less secure when they see them (Yahoo/Yougov 2020).

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1.4 Classification of Crimes

Learning objectives.

• Ascertain the basis for grading.
• Compare malum in se and malum prohibitum crimes.
• Compare the punishment options for felonies, misdemeanors, felony-misdemeanors, and infractions.
• Compare jail and prison.

Crimes can be classified in many ways. Crimes also can be grouped by subject matter. For example, a crime like assault, battery, or rape tends to injure another person’s body, so it can be classified as a “crime against the person.” If a crime tends to injure a person by depriving him or her of property or by damaging property, it can be classified as a “crime against property.” These classifications are basically for convenience and are not imperative to the study of criminal law.

More important and substantive is the classification of crimes according to the severity of punishment. This is called grading . Crimes are generally graded into four categories: felonies , misdemeanors , felony-misdemeanors , and infractions . Often the criminal intent element affects a crime’s grading. Malum in se crimes, murder, for example, are evil in their nature and are generally graded higher than malum prohibitum crimes, which are regulatory, like a failure to pay income taxes.

Felonies are the most serious crimes. They are either supported by a heinous intent, like the intent to kill, or accompanied by an extremely serious result, such as loss of life, grievous injury, or destruction of property. Felonies are serious, so they are graded the highest, and all sentencing options are available. Depending on the jurisdiction and the crime, the sentence could be execution, prison time, a fine, or alternative sentencing such as probation, rehabilitation, and home confinement. Potential consequences of a felony conviction also include the inability to vote, own a weapon, or even participate in certain careers.

Misdemeanors

Misdemeanors are less serious than felonies, either because the intent requirement is of a lower level or because the result is less extreme. Misdemeanors are usually punishable by jail time of one year or less per misdemeanor, a fine, or alternative sentencing like probation, rehabilitation, or community service. Note that incarceration for a misdemeanor is in jail rather than prison. The difference between jail and prison is that cities and counties operate jails, and the state or federal government operates prisons, depending on the crime. The restrictive nature of the confinement also differs between jail and prison. Jails are for defendants who have committed less serious offenses, so they are generally less restrictive than prisons.

Felony-Misdemeanors

Felony-misdemeanors are crimes that the government can prosecute and punish as either a felony or a misdemeanor, depending on the particular circumstances accompanying the offense. The discretion whether to prosecute the crime as a felony or misdemeanor usually belongs to the judge , but in some instances the prosecutor can make the decision.

Infractions

Infractions , which can also be called violations , are the least serious crimes and include minor offenses such as jaywalking and motor vehicle offenses that result in a simple traffic ticket. Infractions are generally punishable by a fine or alternative sentencing such as traffic school.

Figure 1.3 Diagram of Grading

Key Takeaways

• Grading is based on the severity of punishment.
• Malum in se crimes are evil in their nature, like murder. Malum prohibitum crimes are regulatory, like a failure to pay income taxes.

Felonies are graded the highest. Punishment options for felonies include the following:

• Prison time
• Alternative sentencing such as probation, rehabilitation, and home confinement

Misdemeanors are graded lower than felonies. Punishment options for misdemeanors include the following:

• Jail time of one year or less per misdemeanor
• Alternative sentencing such as probation, rehabilitation, and community service
• Felony-misdemeanors are punished as either a felony or a misdemeanor.

Infractions, also called violations, are graded lower than misdemeanors and have less severe punishment options:

• Alternative sentencing, such as traffic school
• One difference between jail and prison is that cities and counties operate jails, and the state or federal government operates prisons, depending on the crime. The restrictive nature of the confinement is another difference. Jails are for defendants who have committed less serious offenses, so they are generally less restrictive than prisons.

Answer the following questions. Check your answers using the answer key at the end of the chapter.

• Harrison kills Calista and is prosecuted and sentenced to one year in jail. Did Harrison commit a felony or a misdemeanor?
• Read State v. Gillison , 766 N.W. 2d 649 (2009). In Gillison , why did the Iowa Court of Appeals rule that the defendant’s prior convictions were felony convictions? What impact did this ruling have on the defendant’s sentence? The case is available at this link: http://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=8913791129507413362&q= State+v.+Gillison&hl=en&as_sdt=2,5&as_vis=1 .

Criminal Law Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

7 Different Types of Crimes

• Criminals & Crimes
• Serial Killers
• The U. S. Government
• U.S. Foreign Policy
• U.S. Liberal Politics
• U.S. Conservative Politics
• Women's Issues
• Civil Liberties
• The Middle East
• Race Relations
• Immigration
• Canadian Government
• Understanding Types of Government

A  crime  is defined as any act that is contrary to legal code or laws. In other words, crime and legality are social constructs that are fluid and change over time. There are many different types of crimes, from crimes against persons to victimless crimes and violent crimes to white collar crimes. The study of crime and deviance is a large subfield within sociology, with much attention paid to who commits which types of crimes and why.

Crimes Against Persons

Crimes against persons also called personal crimes, include murder, aggravated assault, rape, and robbery. Personal crimes are unevenly distributed in the United States, with young, urban, poor, non-white, and other historically marginalized groups both more often affected by these crimes and arrested for them than white, middle- and upper-class people are.

Crimes Against Property

Property crimes involve the theft of property without bodily harm, such as burglary, larceny, auto theft, and arson. Like personal crimes, members of historically marginalized groups are arrested for these crimes more than others.

Hate Crimes

Hate crimes are crimes against persons or property that are committed while invoking prejudices of race, gender or gender identity, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity. The rate of hate crimes in the U.S. remains fairly constant from year to year, but there have been a few events that have caused surges in hate crimes. In 2016, the election of Donald Trump was followed by an uptick in hate crimes .

Crimes Against Morality

Crimes against morality are also called victimless crimes because there is no complainant or victim. Prostitution, illegal gambling, and illegal drug use are all examples of victimless crimes.

White-Collar Crime

White-collar crimes are crimes committed by people of high social status who commit their crimes in the context of their occupation. This includes embezzling (stealing money from one’s employer), insider trading , tax evasion, and other violations of income tax laws.

White-collar crimes generally generate less concern in the public mind than other types of crime, however, in terms of total dollars, white-collar crimes are even more consequential for society. For example, the Great Recession can be understood as in part the result of a variety of white-collar crimes committed within the home mortgage industry. Nonetheless, these crimes are generally the least investigated and least prosecuted because they are protected by a combination of privileges of race , class, and gender.

Organized Crime

Organized crime is committed by structured groups typically involving the distribution and sale of illegal goods and services. Many people think of the Mafia when they think of organized crime , but the term can refer to any group that exercises control over large illegal enterprises (such as the drug trade, illegal gambling, prostitution, weapons smuggling, or money laundering).

A key sociological concept in the study or organized crime is that these industries are organized along the same lines as legitimate businesses and take on a corporate form. There are typically senior partners who control profits, employees who manage and work for the business, and clients who buy the goods and services that the organization provides.

A Sociological Look at Crime

Arrest data show a clear pattern of arrests in terms of race , gender , and class . For instance, as mentioned above, young, urban, poor, Black and brown people, and historically marginalized groups overall are arrested and convicted more than others for personal and property crimes. To sociologists, the question posed by this data is whether this reflects actual differences in committing crimes among different groups, or whether this reflects differential treatment by the criminal justice system.

Studies show that the answer is “both.” Certain groups are in fact more likely to commit crimes than others because crime​ often looked to as a survival strategy, is linked to patterns of inequality in the United States. However, the process of prosecution in the criminal justice system is also significantly related to patterns of race, class, and gender inequality. We see this in the official arrest statistics, in treatment by the police, in sentencing patterns, and in studies of imprisonment.

• What Constitutes a Crime?
• What Is Racketeering? Understanding Organized Crime and the RICO Act
• Criminology Definition and History
• What Is Retributive Justice?
• The Main Classifications of Criminal Offenses
• Sutherland's Differential Association Theory Explained
• Jury Nullification: Definition and Examples
• Vocabulary About Crime and Criminals
• The 10 Stages of a Criminal Case
• What is Embezzlement? Definition and Famous Cases
• Deviance and Strain Theory in Sociology
• The Sociology of Social Inequality
• Defining Racism Beyond its Dictionary Meaning
• Definition of Intersectionality
• Definition and Examples of Fraud
• African American Men and the Criminal Justice System

CRIME: MEANING, TYPES, CAUSES

Meaning of Crime

Societies have been concerned about behavioural expectations, disruptions to social order, and the protection of the natural flow of life since ancient times. Ancient Babylon’s Code of Hammurabi is the earliest evidence of a society that clearly identified a set of rules governing social life. King Hammurabi (1795–1750 BC) established a historical precedent for other societies to follow. By drawing notice to his subjects of what he saw as acceptable behaviour, he laid the foundation for a more organized, purposeful, and civilized social order. With varying degrees of formalization and success, rulers have endeavoured to protect their kingdoms, albeit the wealth and power of monarchs have frequently superseded the interests and protection of their citizens. The key issue here is that rules governing social life have been part of the social order of human communities since recorded time. Violations of these codes of conduct have also been part of the social fabric and social experience since humans began living in social groups.

Crime has traditionally been studied as a form of deviant behaviour. Crime is a behaviour that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions. The dictionary meaning of the word ‘crime’ refers to a “violation of law” or “an act punishable by law”.

For example , driving with a blood alcohol percentage over the province’s limit is a crime.

The English word ‘crime’ is derived from the Latin term “crimen” which means ‘charge’ or ‘offence’ . Thus, literally the word crime means “an attack on norms or the law”. It also means “violation of norms and laws”.

Definition of Crime

According to Samuel Koenig, “Crime may be defined as any act forbidden by law which society expects its authorized officials to enforce.”

According to F.R. Scarpitti and M.L. Andersen, “Crime can be defined in terms of the body of law that codifies a society’s rules about proper and improper behaviour.”

According to Hall Jerome has defined crime as “legally forbidden and intentional action which has a harmful impact on social interests, which has a criminal intent, and which has legally-prescribed punishment for it.”

According to Elliot and Merrill, “Crime may be defined as anti-social behaviour which the group rejects and to which it attaches penalties.” Therefore crime is believed that anti-social elements are responsible for increase in crime rate.

According to Mowrer (1959) has defined as “an anti-social act”.

TYPES OF CRIMES

Crimes have been classified on varied bases. Sutherland has given two types of crimes on the basis of their atrocity and seriousness – felony and misdemeanour. The distinction between the two is made in terms of the sentence that can be imposed.

Felonies are the most serious of crimes that one can commit. Felonies are punishable by one year or more imprisonment. In fact, there are some states which impose the death penalty for certain types of felony crimes. Felony crime includes personal crimes, such as murder, robbery and rape. Other types are crimes against property, including burglary or larceny.

One well-known celebrity case that involved a felony charge was the murders of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ron Goldman. Celebrity O.J. Simpson, the former husband of Nicole Brown Simpson, was charged with the murders of the two victims. After a lengthy public trial, O.J. Simpson was found not guilty of the felony murder charges.

Misdemeanours are less serious crimes. These crimes are punishable by less than one-year imprisonment. Examples of misdemeanours include assault, battery or writing bad checks. For instance, in 2011, actress Lindsay Lohan pled guilty to a misdemeanour charge for stealing a $2,500 necklace.

Clinard and Quinney (Criminal Behaviour Systems: A Typology, 1967: 14-18) have given six types of crimes:

Violent personal crime : This crime is based on the use of violence and is committed by a person who does not have earlier record of crime against him. Murder, rape, assault are some examples of this crime. The reaction of society against those who commit this crime is very harsh.

Occasional property crime : This crime is violation of individual property rules. Shoplifting is one example of this crime.

Occupational crime : This crime is committed, during the course of one’s occupation, with an economic motive. The criminals who commit this crime accept the traditional norms of society except that of honesty. Embezzlement, black-marketing, misleading advertisements are some examples of this crime.

Political crime : This is committed by an individual with vested political and economic interests. Treason, spying, passing secrets to enemy countries are examples of this crime.

Public order crime : This crime is one in which an individual violates the rules of conduct in society. Some examples of this crime are alcoholism vandalism, prostitution, homosexuality and violation of traffic rules.

Conventional crime : This is a crime in which an individual violates the sacred norms of individual property. Theft, robbery, dacoity, kidnapping, and riot are some examples of this crime. Individuals commit these crimes on a part-time basis, and these crimes are not the main source of their income. However, these criminals are more committed to criminal subculture.

Besides the above kinds of classification, crimes are also classified as white-collar crime (committed by persons of high status with an economic motive) , professional crime (committed as a profession and as the main source of livelihood because of which crime becomes a way of life which gives criminals a status in their criminal group) , and organized crime (committed in a planned way by a group of criminals).

CAUSES OF CRIME

Lack of Family Control: One of the causes responsible for committing crimes is lack of control the head of the family over his children. Due to lack of family bonds, children do not obey their parents thereby resulting in broken families. This leads to considerable freedom among children for committing crime.

Lack of Social Control: The control over its members in society has considerably weakened. That is more so in urban rather than in rural area. In big cities one finds absolutely no social control. In rural areas there is still little control and local self government institutions that persist. That is perhaps the reasons as to why rate of crimes in the cities is higher than in villages.

Use of Intoxicating Drinks: Intoxication and alcohol increases crime rate. A drunkard commits serious crimes under the influence of drinks; on the other hand hard earned money is also wasted on drinks, eventually bringing down the living standard of family lives. There are cases of family disputes when low income is drained out in drinks.

Religion: Religion is the most important source of purification; it is believed to keep people away from committing crimes. But unfortunately, religion is the cause for serious crime as well. For instance in India, in the name of religion country was partitioned, properties were looted and most heinous crimes were committed.

Education: The present day educational system has certain flows. The system of education does not lay stress on moralities which are effective forces for checking crimes. Apart from that, it is partly vocational oriented and does not help the young people to be employed in time. So, many to choose alternate means to earn money, sometimes leading to crime.

Defective marriage: Unhealthy marriages such as dowry, child marriage, polygamy, sexual assaults, molestation, and sati can be termed as defective marriage. There have been many cases where women were victims of these social practices or bad situations. Upon which the rate of crimes and suicide have increased in the society.

Cinema: Today cinema is a very popular source of recreation. But it has indirectly encouraged crimes such as pornography, robbery, murder, gambling, human trafficking, sex trade etc. All this factors collectively result in making a person criminal and many imitate it in real life. Scientifically it has been proved that solace for every disappointment lies in taking liquors, which again drives the mind to execute unstable behaviour.

It is impossible to find a society in which crimes are not committed. Crime rate is even higher in advanced societies, especially sex crimes, which are rapidly increasing every day. If such hideous crimes are not checked, then maybe mankind will near its doomsday.

Theoretical Explanation for Criminal Behaviour

The theoretical explanation for criminal behaviour can be discussed by dividing them into the following four classifications. They are as follows -

Classicist Explanation: Classicist explanations of crime and punishment were developed in the second half of the eighteenth century. The propounder of the classicist explanation was an Italian thinker Beccaria. The main postulates of his classicist explanation developed in 1764 were:

Man’s behaviour is purposive and rational and is based on hedonism or pleasure-pain principles, that is, he consciously chooses pleasure and avoids pain.

Punishment should be assigned to each crime so that the pain would outweigh any pleasure from the commission of come.

Punishment should not be severe and deterrent but it should be proportionate to crime and also be predetermined, prompt, and public.

The law must apply equally to all citizens.

The legislatures should clearly enact the law and prescribe specific punishment for its violation.

Biogenic Explanation: There are three major positivist thinkers. They are Lombroso, Ferri and Garofalo. This thinker emphasized the biogenic or hereditary aspect of criminal behaviour. Lombroso claimed that the criminal is of a different physical type than the non-criminal. According to him, he identified criminals by a number of characteristics or stigmata, for instance, asymmetrical face, large ears, excessively long arms, flattened nose and other physical peculiarities. Though, Ferri and Garofelo supported Lombroso but he (Lombroso) modified his theory at the end of his life and said that all criminals are not ‘born criminals’.

Psychogenic Explanation: In this explanation, the psychogenic theories could trace crime to some defect in the personality of the offender or ‘in the inside of the person’. According to Henry Goddard, crime is caused due to feeble-mindedness which is inherited and is very little affected by life events. He emphasized that a criminal is not born but made.

Sociogenic Explanation: In sociogenic explanation apart from physiological, psychiatric and psychological theoretical explanations, sociologists argue that criminal behaviour is learnt and it is conditioned by the social environment. Sociologists have used two approaches in studying the causation of crime -

The relationship between crime and the social structure of society.

The process by which an individual becomes a criminal.

From the above explanations, we learned valuable insights that the understanding of criminal behaviour is complex and multifaceted. The causes of crime likely involve a combination of individual factors, biological and genetic predispositions, psychological characteristics, and the influence of social and environmental factors. A comprehensive understanding of criminal behaviour requires considering various theoretical perspectives and recognizing the interplay of these factors in shaping human actions.

References:

Ahuja, R. (2012). Criminology . Jaipur: Prem Rawat for Rawat Publications.

Clinard, M. B., & Quinney, R. (2016). Criminal Behavior Systems: A Typology . London: Routledge.

Turner, B. S. (2006). The Cambridge dictionary of sociology . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rao, C. N. (2015). INDIAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS: A sociological perspective . Place of publication not identified: S CHAND & CO.

Macdonald, A. M. (1903). Chambers twentieth century dictionary . Edinburgh: Chambers. (p.220)

Ahuja, R. (1992). Social problems in India . Rawat publications.

ddceutkal - Social Problem (pp 50-53) ~ Link

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Types of Crime

Assignment content.

• 1 crime against persons
• 1 crime against property
• 1 drug-related crime

Answer  the following prompts using 350 to 525 words for each crime chosen:

• Define each crime and its elements using your home state’s penal code (online).
• Evaluate each crime and determine which theory of criminality best applies. Explain your answer.
• Speculate about what type of person is likely to commit the crime and why.

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National Center for Victims of Crime

Attached:  Types of Crime Grading Guide

Answer preview The New York state penal code categorizes assault as a crime against persons. The penal code describes assault as the act of intentionally inflicting injury on another individual through contact.  (Ellis, 2018). There exist different elements of aggression, which include third-degree assault, second-degree assault, and first-degree assault. Third-degree assault is the least serious of all the features of assault and…

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Final assignment solutions for Coursera course "Databases and SQL for Data Science"

Problem 1: Find the total number of crimes recorded in the CRIME table

Problem 2: Retrieve first 10 rows from the CRIME table

Problem 3: How many crimes involve an arrest?

Problem 4: Which unique types of crimes have been recorded at GAS STATION locations?

Problem 5: In the CENUS_DATA table list all Community Areas whose names start with the letter ‘B’.

Problem 6: Which schools in Community Areas 10 to 15 are healthy school certified?

Problem 7: What is the average school Safety Score?

Problem 8: List the top 5 Community Areas by average College Enrollment

Problem 9: Use a sub-query to determine which Community Area has the least value for school Safety Score?

Problem 10: (Without using an explicit JOIN operator) Find the Per Capita Income of the Community Area which has a school Safety Score of 1.

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Cybercrime – Definition, Types, and Reporting

Last updated on March 11, 2024 by Alex Andrews George

Computers, mobile phones, and the internet have changed modern life. They provide us with many benefits.

However,  information technology also makes us vulnerable to a wide range of threats. These threats may result in financial loss or damage to our reputation.

A minor lapse in managing our digital lives can open the door to cybercriminals. So it is extremely important to know how to prevent us from cybercrimes.

Table of Contents

What is cybercrime?

A Cybercrime is a crime involving computers and networks.

The computer may have been used in the execution of a crime or it may be the target.

Definition of Cyber Crime

Cybercrime may be defined as “Any unlawful act where computer or communication device or computer network is used to commit or facilitate the commission of a crime”.

Two Main Types of Cybercrimes

Most cybercrime falls under two main categories:

• Criminal activity that  targets computers.
• Criminal activity that  uses computers.

Cybercrime that  targets computers often involves malware like viruses.

Cybercrime that  uses computers to commit other crimes may involve using computers to spread malware, illegal information or illegal images.

List of Cybercrimes: Examples

Cybercrimes include monetary crimes as well as non-monetary offences. The crimes result in damage to persons, computers, or governments.

1. Child Pornography OR Child sexually abusive material (CSAM)

Child sexually abusive material (CSAM) refers to a material containing sexual images in any form, of a child who is abused or sexually exploited. Section 67 (B) of the IT Act states that “it is punishable for publishing or transmitting of material depicting children in the sexually explicit act, etc. in electronic form.

2. Cyber Bullying

A form of harassment or bullying inflicted through the use of electronic or communication devices such as computers, mobile phones, laptops, etc.

3. Cyber Stalking

Cyberstalking is the use of electronic communication by a person to follow a person, or attempts to contact a person to foster personal interaction repeatedly despite a clear indication of disinterest by such person; or monitors the internet, email or any other form of electronic communication commits the offence of stalking.

4. Cyber Grooming

Cyber Grooming is when a person builds an online relationship with a young person and tricks or pressures him/ her into doing a sexual act.

5. Online Job Fraud

Online Job Fraud is an attempt to defraud people who are in need of employment by giving them false hope/ promise of better employment with higher wages.

6. Online Sextortion

Online Sextortion occurs when someone threatens to distribute private and sensitive material using an electronic medium if he/ she doesn’t provide images of a sexual nature, sexual favours, or money.

7. Phishing

Phishing is a type of fraud that involves stealing personal information such as Customer ID, IPIN, Credit/Debit Card number, Card expiry date, CVV number, etc. through emails that appear to be from a legitimate source.

Vishing is an attempt where fraudsters try to seek personal information like Customer ID, Net Banking password, ATM PIN, OTP, Card expiry date, CVV etc. through a phone call.

9. Smishing

Smishing is a type of fraud that uses mobile phone text messages to lure victims into calling back on a fraudulent phone number, visiting fraudulent websites or downloading malicious content via phone or web.

10. Sexting

Sexting is an act of sending sexually explicit digital images, videos, text messages, or emails, usually by cell phone.

11. SIM Swap Scam

SIM Swap Scam occurs when fraudsters manage to get a new SIM card issued against a registered mobile number fraudulently through the mobile service provider. With the help of this new SIM card, they get One Time Password (OTP) and alerts, required for making financial transactions through the victim’s bank account. Getting a new SIM card against a registered mobile number fraudulently is known as SIM Swap.

12. Credit Card Fraud or Debit Card Fraud

Credit card (or debit card) fraud involves the unauthorized use of another’s credit or debit card information for the purpose of purchases or withdrawing funds from it.

13. Impersonation and identity theft

Impersonation and identity theft is an act of fraudulently or dishonestly making use of the electronic signature, password or any other unique identification feature of any other person.

14. Spamming

Spamming occurs when someone receives an unsolicited commercial message sent via email, SMS, MMS and any other similar electronic messaging media. They may try to persuade the recipient to buy a product or service, or visit a website where he can make purchases, or they may attempt to trick him/ her into divulging bank account or credit card details.

15. Ransomware

Ransomware is a type of computer malware that encrypts the files, storage media on communication devices like desktops, Laptops, Mobile phones etc., holding data/information as a hostage. The victim is asked to pay the demanded ransom to get his device decrypts

16. Viruses, Worms, and Trojans

A computer virus is a program written to enter your computer and damage/alter your files/data and replicate itself.

Worms are malicious programs that make copies of themselves again and again on the local drive, network shares, etc.

A Trojan horse is not a virus. It is a destructive program that looks like a genuine application. Unlike viruses, Trojan horses do not replicate themselves but they can be just as destructive. Trojans open a backdoor entry to your computer which gives malicious users/programs access to your system, allowing confidential and personal information to be theft.

17. Data Breach

A data breach is an incident in which information is accessed without authorization.

18. Denial of Services (DoS) attack

A denial of Services (DoS) attack is an attack intended for denying access to computer resources without the permission of the owner or any other person who is in charge of a computer, computer system or computer network.

A Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack is an attempt to make an online service unavailable by overwhelming it with traffic from multiple sources.

19. Website Defacement

Website Defacement is an attack intended to change the visual appearance of a website and/ or make it dysfunctional. The attacker may post indecent, hostile and obscene images, messages, videos, etc.

20. Cyber-Squatting

Cyber-Squatting is an act of registering, trafficking in or using a domain name with an intent to profit from the goodwill of a trademark belonging to someone else.

21. Pharming

Pharming is a cyber-attack aiming to redirect a website’s traffic to another, bogus website.

22. Cryptojacking

Cryptojacking is the unauthorized use of computing resources to mine cryptocurrencies.

23. Online Drug Trafficking

Online Drug Trafficking is a crime of selling, transporting, or illegally importing unlawful controlled substances, such as heroin, cocaine, marijuana, or other illegal drugs using electronic means.

24. Espionage

Espionage is the act or practice of obtaining data and information without the permission and knowledge of the owner.

How to file a Cybercrime complaint online in India?

A cybercrime complaint can be filed using the National Crime Reporting Portal of India .

Website link is – https://cybercrime.gov.in/

National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal of India

This portal is an initiative of the Government of India to facilitate victims/ complainants to report cybercrime complaints online.

This portal caters for all types of cybercrime complaints including complaints pertaining to

• online Child Pornography (CP),
• Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM),
• sexually explicit content such as Rape/Gang Rape (CP/RGR) content and
• other cybercrimes such as mobile crimes, online and social media crimes, online financial frauds, ransomware, hacking, cryptocurrency crimes and online cyber trafficking.

The portal also provides an option of reporting an anonymous complaint about reporting online Child Pornography (CP) or sexually explicit content such as Rape/Gang Rape (RGR) content.

Cybercrime Helpline Number

The Cyber Crime Helpline Number is 155260.

Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-IN or ICERT)

The  Indian Computer Emergency Response Team  ( CERT-IN  or  ICERT ) is an office within the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology of the Government of India.

CERT-In is the national nodal agency for responding to computer security incidents as and when they occur. CERT-In is operational since January 2004.

CERT-In has been designated to serve as the national agency to perform the following functions in the area of cyber security:

• Collection, analysis and dissemination of information on cyber incidents.
• Forecast and alerts of cyber security incidents.
• Emergency measures for handling cyber security incidents.
• Coordination of cyber incident response activities.
• Issue guidelines, advisories, vulnerability notes and whitepapers relating to information security practices, procedures, prevention, response and reporting of cyber incidents.
• Such other functions relating to cyber security may be prescribed.

CERT-IN has overlapping responsibilities with other agencies such as National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC) .

Cyber Laws in India

Information Technology Act 2000 (IT Act 2000) is the main law connected with cyber security in India.

Indian Penal Code, 1860 is also used to book criminals connected with cybercrimes.

India also has a cyber security policy .

Read: eSIM: All you need to know

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