critical thinking dan problem solving

50 Problem-Solving and Critical Thinking Examples

Critical thinking and problem solving are essential skills for success in the 21st century. Critical thinking is the ability to analyze information, evaluate evidence, and draw logical conclusions. Problem solving is the ability to apply critical thinking to find effective solutions to various challenges. Both skills require creativity, curiosity, and persistence. Developing critical thinking and problem solving skills can help students improve their academic performance, enhance their career prospects, and become more informed and engaged citizens.

Sanju Pradeepa

In today’s complex and fast-paced world, the ability to think critically and solve problems effectively has become a vital skill for success in all areas of life. Whether it’s navigating professional challenges, making sound decisions, or finding innovative solutions, critical thinking and problem-solving are key to overcoming obstacles and achieving desired outcomes. In this blog post, we will explore problem-solving and critical thinking examples.

Table of Contents

Developing the skills needed for critical thinking and problem solving.

It is not enough to simply recognize an issue; we must use the right tools and techniques to address it. To do this, we must learn how to define and identify the problem or task at hand, gather relevant information from reliable sources, analyze and compare data to draw conclusions, make logical connections between different ideas, generate a solution or action plan, and make a recommendation.

The first step in developing these skills is understanding what the problem or task is that needs to be addressed. This requires careful consideration of all available information in order to form an accurate picture of what needs to be done. Once the issue has been identified, gathering reliable sources of data can help further your understanding of it. Sources could include interviews with customers or stakeholders, surveys, industry reports, and analysis of customer feedback.

After collecting relevant information from reliable sources, it’s important to analyze and compare the data in order to draw meaningful conclusions about the situation at hand. This helps us better understand our options for addressing an issue by providing context for decision-making. Once you have analyzed the data you collected, making logical connections between different ideas can help you form a more complete picture of the situation and inform your potential solutions.

Once you have analyzed your options for addressing an issue based on all available data points, it’s time to generate a solution or action plan that takes into account considerations such as cost-effectiveness and feasibility. It’s also important to consider the risk factors associated with any proposed solutions in order to ensure that they are responsible before moving forward with implementation. Finally, once all the analysis has been completed, it is time to make a recommendation based on your findings, which should take into account any objectives set out by stakeholders at the beginning of this process as well as any other pertinent factors discovered throughout the analysis stage.

By following these steps carefully when faced with complex issues, one can effectively use critical thinking and problem-solving skills in order to achieve desired outcomes more efficiently than would otherwise be possible without them, while also taking responsibility for decisions made along the way.

What Does Critical Thinking Involve: 5 Essential Skill

Problem-solving and critical thinking examples.

Problem-solving and critical thinking are key skills that are highly valued in any professional setting. These skills enable individuals to analyze complex situations, make informed decisions, and find innovative solutions. Here, we present 25 examples of problem-solving and critical thinking. problem-solving scenarios to help you cultivate and enhance these skills.

Ethical dilemma: A company faces a situation where a client asks for a product that does not meet quality standards. The team must decide how to address the client’s request without compromising the company’s credibility or values.

Brainstorming session: A team needs to come up with new ideas for a marketing campaign targeting a specific demographic. Through an organized brainstorming session, they explore various approaches and analyze their potential impact.

Troubleshooting technical issues : An IT professional receives a ticket indicating a network outage. They analyze the issue, assess potential causes (hardware, software, or connectivity), and solve the problem efficiently.

Negotiation : During contract negotiations, representatives from two companies must find common ground to strike a mutually beneficial agreement, considering the needs and limitations of both parties.

Project management: A project manager identifies potential risks and develops contingency plans to address unforeseen obstacles, ensuring the project stays on track.

Decision-making under pressure: In a high-stakes situation, a medical professional must make a critical decision regarding a patient’s treatment, weighing all available information and considering potential risks.

Conflict resolution: A team encounters conflicts due to differing opinions or approaches. The team leader facilitates a discussion to reach a consensus while considering everyone’s perspectives.

Data analysis: A data scientist is presented with a large dataset and is tasked with extracting valuable insights. They apply analytical techniques to identify trends, correlations, and patterns that can inform decision-making.

Customer service: A customer service representative encounters a challenging customer complaint and must employ active listening and problem-solving skills to address the issue and provide a satisfactory resolution.

Market research : A business seeks to expand into a new market. They conduct thorough market research, analyzing consumer behavior, competitor strategies, and economic factors to make informed market-entry decisions.

Creative problem-solvin g: An engineer faces a design challenge and must think outside the box to come up with a unique and innovative solution that meets project requirements.

Change management: During a company-wide transition, managers must effectively communicate the change, address employees’ concerns, and facilitate a smooth transition process.

Crisis management: When a company faces a public relations crisis, effective critical thinking is necessary to analyze the situation, develop a response strategy, and minimize potential damage to the company’s reputation.

Cost optimization : A financial analyst identifies areas where expenses can be reduced while maintaining operational efficiency, presenting recommendations for cost savings.

Time management : An employee has multiple deadlines to meet. They assess the priority of each task, develop a plan, and allocate time accordingly to achieve optimal productivity.

Quality control: A production manager detects an increase in product defects and investigates the root causes, implementing corrective actions to enhance product quality.

Strategic planning: An executive team engages in strategic planning to define long-term goals, assess market trends, and identify growth opportunities.

Cross-functional collaboration: Multiple teams with different areas of expertise must collaborate to develop a comprehensive solution, combining their knowledge and skills.

Training and development : A manager identifies skill gaps in their team and designs training programs to enhance critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making abilities.

Risk assessment : A risk management professional evaluates potential risks associated with a new business venture, weighing their potential impact and developing strategies to mitigate them.

Continuous improvement: An operations manager analyzes existing processes, identifies inefficiencies, and introduces improvements to enhance productivity and customer satisfaction.

Customer needs analysis: A product development team conducts extensive research to understand customer needs and preferences, ensuring that the resulting product meets those requirements.

Crisis decision-making: A team dealing with a crisis must think quickly, assess the situation, and make timely decisions with limited information.

Marketing campaign analysis : A marketing team evaluates the success of a recent campaign, analyzing key performance indicators to understand its impact on sales and customer engagement.

Constructive feedback: A supervisor provides feedback to an employee, highlighting areas for improvement and offering constructive suggestions for growth.

Conflict resolution in a team project: Team members engaged in a project have conflicting ideas on the approach. They must engage in open dialogue, actively listen to each other’s perspectives, and reach a compromise that aligns with the project’s goals.

Crisis response in a natural disaster: Emergency responders must think critically and swiftly in responding to a natural disaster, coordinating rescue efforts, allocating resources effectively, and prioritizing the needs of affected individuals.

Product innovation : A product development team conducts market research, studies consumer trends, and uses critical thinking to create innovative products that address unmet customer needs.

Supply chain optimization: A logistics manager analyzes the supply chain to identify areas for efficiency improvement, such as reducing transportation costs, improving inventory management, or streamlining order fulfillment processes.

Business strategy formulation: A business executive assesses market dynamics, the competitive landscape, and internal capabilities to develop a robust business strategy that ensures sustainable growth and competitiveness.

Crisis communication: In the face of a public relations crisis, an organization’s spokesperson must think critically to develop and deliver a transparent, authentic, and effective communication strategy to rebuild trust and manage reputation.

Social problem-solving: A group of volunteers addresses a specific social issue, such as poverty or homelessness, by critically examining its root causes, collaborating with stakeholders, and implementing sustainable solutions for the affected population.

Problem-Solving Mindset: How to Achieve It (15 Ways)

Risk assessment in investment decision-making: An investment analyst evaluates various investment opportunities, conducting risk assessments based on market trends, financial indicators, and potential regulatory changes to make informed investment recommendations.

Environmental sustainability: An environmental scientist analyzes the impact of industrial processes on the environment, develops strategies to mitigate risks, and promotes sustainable practices within organizations and communities.

Adaptation to technological advancements : In a rapidly evolving technological landscape, professionals need critical thinking skills to adapt to new tools, software, and systems, ensuring they can effectively leverage these advancements to enhance productivity and efficiency.

Productivity improvement: An operations manager leverages critical thinking to identify productivity bottlenecks within a workflow and implement process improvements to optimize resource utilization, minimize waste, and increase overall efficiency.

Cost-benefit analysis: An organization considering a major investment or expansion opportunity conducts a thorough cost-benefit analysis, weighing potential costs against expected benefits to make an informed decision.

Human resources management : HR professionals utilize critical thinking to assess job applicants, identify skill gaps within the organization, and design training and development programs to enhance the workforce’s capabilities.

Root cause analysis: In response to a recurring problem or inefficiency, professionals apply critical thinking to identify the root cause of the issue, develop remedial actions, and prevent future occurrences.

Leadership development: Aspiring leaders undergo critical thinking exercises to enhance their decision-making abilities, develop strategic thinking skills, and foster a culture of innovation within their teams.

Brand positioning : Marketers conduct comprehensive market research and consumer behavior analysis to strategically position a brand, differentiating it from competitors and appealing to target audiences effectively.

Resource allocation: Non-profit organizations distribute limited resources efficiently, critically evaluating project proposals, considering social impact, and allocating resources to initiatives that align with their mission.

Innovating in a mature market: A company operating in a mature market seeks to innovate to maintain a competitive edge. They cultivate critical thinking skills to identify gaps, anticipate changing customer needs, and develop new strategies, products, or services accordingly.

Analyzing financial statements : Financial analysts critically assess financial statements, analyze key performance indicators, and derive insights to support financial decision-making, such as investment evaluations or budget planning.

Crisis intervention : Mental health professionals employ critical thinking and problem-solving to assess crises faced by individuals or communities, develop intervention plans, and provide support during challenging times.

Data privacy and cybersecurity : IT professionals critically evaluate existing cybersecurity measures, identify vulnerabilities, and develop strategies to protect sensitive data from threats, ensuring compliance with privacy regulations.

Process improvement : Professionals in manufacturing or service industries critically evaluate existing processes, identify inefficiencies, and implement improvements to optimize efficiency, quality, and customer satisfaction.

Multi-channel marketing strategy : Marketers employ critical thinking to design and execute effective marketing campaigns across various channels such as social media, web, print, and television, ensuring a cohesive brand experience for customers.

Peer review: Researchers critically analyze and review the work of their peers, providing constructive feedback and ensuring the accuracy, validity, and reliability of scientific studies.

Project coordination : A project manager must coordinate multiple teams and resources to ensure seamless collaboration, identify potential bottlenecks, and find solutions to keep the project on schedule.  

These examples highlight the various contexts in which problem-solving and critical-thinking skills are necessary for success. By understanding and practicing these skills, individuals can enhance their ability to navigate challenges and make sound decisions in both personal and professional endeavors.

Conclusion:

Critical thinking and problem-solving are indispensable skills that empower individuals to overcome challenges, make sound decisions, and find innovative solutions. By honing these skills, one can navigate through the complexities of modern life and achieve success in both personal and professional endeavors. Embrace the power of critical thinking and problem-solving, and unlock the door to endless possibilities and growth.

• Problem solving From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
• Critical thinking From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
• The Importance of Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills for Students (5 Minutes)

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Critical Thinking and Decision-Making  - What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking and decision-making  -, what is critical thinking, critical thinking and decision-making what is critical thinking.

Critical Thinking and Decision-Making: What is Critical Thinking?

Lesson 1: what is critical thinking, what is critical thinking.

Critical thinking is a term that gets thrown around a lot. You've probably heard it used often throughout the years whether it was in school, at work, or in everyday conversation. But when you stop to think about it, what exactly is critical thinking and how do you do it ?

Watch the video below to learn more about critical thinking.

Simply put, critical thinking is the act of deliberately analyzing information so that you can make better judgements and decisions . It involves using things like logic, reasoning, and creativity, to draw conclusions and generally understand things better.

This may sound like a pretty broad definition, and that's because critical thinking is a broad skill that can be applied to so many different situations. You can use it to prepare for a job interview, manage your time better, make decisions about purchasing things, and so much more.

The process

As humans, we are constantly thinking . It's something we can't turn off. But not all of it is critical thinking. No one thinks critically 100% of the time... that would be pretty exhausting! Instead, it's an intentional process , something that we consciously use when we're presented with difficult problems or important decisions.

Improving your critical thinking

In order to become a better critical thinker, it's important to ask questions when you're presented with a problem or decision, before jumping to any conclusions. You can start with simple ones like What do I currently know? and How do I know this? These can help to give you a better idea of what you're working with and, in some cases, simplify more complex issues.  

Real-world applications

Let's take a look at how we can use critical thinking to evaluate online information . Say a friend of yours posts a news article on social media and you're drawn to its headline. If you were to use your everyday automatic thinking, you might accept it as fact and move on. But if you were thinking critically, you would first analyze the available information and ask some questions :

• What's the source of this article?
• Is the headline potentially misleading?
• What are my friend's general beliefs?
• Do their beliefs inform why they might have shared this?

After analyzing all of this information, you can draw a conclusion about whether or not you think the article is trustworthy.

Critical thinking has a wide range of real-world applications . It can help you to make better decisions, become more hireable, and generally better understand the world around you.

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5.3: Using Critical Thinking Skills- Decision Making and Problem Solving

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Introduction

In previous lessons, you learned about characteristics of critical thinkers and information literacy. In this module, you will learn how to put those skills into action through the important processes of decision making and problem solving.

As with the process of developing information literacy, asking questions is an important part of decision making and problem solving. Thinking is born of questions. Questions wake us up. Questions alert us to hidden assumptions. Questions promote curiosity and create new distinctions. Questions open up options that otherwise go unexplored. Besides, teachers love questions.

We make decisions all the time, whether we realize it or not. Even avoiding decisions is a form of decision making. The student who puts off studying for a test until the last minute, for example, might really be saying, “I’ve decided this course is not important” or “I’ve decided not to give this course much time.”

Decisions are specific and lead to focused action. When we decide, we narrow down. We give up actions that are inconsistent with our decision.

In addition to decision making, critical thinking skills are important to solving problems. We encounter problems every single day, and having a solid process in place is important to solving them.

At the end of the lesson, you will learn how to put your critical thinking skills to use by reviewing an example of how critical thinking skills can help with making those everyday decisions.

Using Critical Thinking Skills: Asking Questions

Questions have practical power. Asking for directions can shave hours off a trip. Asking a librarian for help can save hours of research time. Asking how to address an instructor—by first name or formal title—can change your relationship with that person. Asking your academic advisor a question can alter your entire education. Asking people about their career plans can alter your career plans.

You can use the following strategies to develop questions for problem solving and decision making:

Ask questions that create possibilities. At any moment, you can ask a question that opens up a new possibility for someone.

• Suppose a friend walks up to you and says, “People just never listen to me.” You listen carefully. Then you say, “Let me make sure I understand. Who, specifically, doesn’t listen to you? And how do you know they’re not listening?”
• Another friend tells you, “I just lost my job to someone who has less experience. That should never happen.” You respond, “Wow, that’s hard. I’m sorry you lost your job. Who can help you find another job?”
• A relative seeks your advice. “My mother-in-law makes me mad,” she says. “You’re having a hard time with this person,” you say. “What does she say and do when you feel mad at her? And are there times when you don’t get mad at her?”

These kinds of questions—asked with compassion and a sense of timing—can help people move from complaining about problems to solving them.

Discover new questions. Students sometimes say, “I don’t know what questions to ask.” Consider the following ways to create questions about any subject you want to study or about any

area of your life that you want to change:

• Let your pen start moving. Sometimes you can access a deeper level of knowledge by taking out your pen, putting it on a piece of paper, and writing down questions—even before you know what to write. Don’t think. Just watch the pen move across the paper. Notice what appears. The results might be surprising.
• Ask about what’s missing . Another way to invent useful questions is to notice what’s missing from your life and then ask how to supply it. For example, if you want to take better notes, you can write, “What’s missing is skill in note taking. How can I gain more skill in taking notes?” If you always feel rushed, you can write, “What’s missing is time. How do I create enough time in my day to actually do the things that I say I want to do?”
• Pretend to be someone else. Another way to invent questions is first to think of someone you greatly respect. Then pretend you’re that person. Ask the questions you think she would ask.
• What can I do when ... an instructor calls on me in class and I have no idea what to say? When a teacher doesn’t show up for class on time? When I feel overwhelmed with assignments?
• How can I ... take the kind of courses that I want? Expand my career options? Become much more effective as a student, starting today?
• When do I ... decide on a major? Transfer to another school? Meet with an instructor to discuss an upcoming term paper?
• What else do I want to know about ... my academic plan? My career plan? My options for job hunting? My friends? My relatives? My spouse?
• Who can I ask about ... my career options? My major? My love life? My values and purpose in life?

Many times you can quickly generate questions by simply asking yourself, “What else do I want to know?” Ask this question immediately after you read a paragraph in a book or listen to someone speak.

Start from the assumption that you are brilliant. Then ask questions to unlock your brilliance.

Using Critical Thinking Skills in Decision Making

As you develop your critical thinking skills, you can apply them as you make decisions. The following suggestions can help in your decision-making process:

Recognize decisions. Decisions are more than wishes or desires. There’s a world of difference between “I wish I could be a better student” and “I will take more powerful notes, read with greater retention, and review my class notes daily.” Deciding to eat fruit for dessert instead of ice cream rules out the next trip to the ice cream store.

Establish priorities. Some decisions are trivial. No matter what the outcome, your life is not affected much. Other decisions can shape your circumstances for years. Devote more time and energy to the decisions with big outcomes.

Base decisions on a life plan. The benefit of having long-term goals for our lives is that they provide a basis for many of our daily decisions. Being certain about what we want to accomplish this year and this month makes today’s choices more clear.

Balance learning styles in decision making. To make decisions more effectively, use all four modes of learning explained in a previous lesson. The key is to balance reflection with action, and thinking with experience. First, take the time to think creatively, and generate many options. Then think critically about the possible consequences of each option before choosing one. Remember, however, that thinking is no substitute for experience. Act on your chosen option, and notice what happens. If you’re not getting the results you want, then quickly return to creative thinking to invent new options.

Choose an overall strategy. Every time you make a decision, you choose a strategy—even when you’re not aware of it. Effective decision makers can articulate and choose from among several strategies. For example:

• Find all of the available options, and choose one deliberately. Save this strategy for times when you have a relatively small number of options, each of which leads to noticeably different results.
• Find all of the available options, and choose one randomly. This strategy can be risky. Save it for times when your options are basically similar and fairness is the main issue.
• Limit the options, and then choose. When deciding which search engine to use, visit many search sites and then narrow the list down to two or three from which to choose.

Use time as an ally. Sometimes we face dilemmas—situations in which any course of action leads to undesirable consequences. In such cases, consider putting a decision on hold. Wait it out. Do nothing until the circumstances change, making one alternative clearly preferable to another.

Use intuition. Some decisions seem to make themselves. A solution pops into your mind, and you gain newfound clarity. Using intuition is not the same as forgetting about the decision or refusing to make it. Intuitive decisions usually arrive after we’ve gathered the relevant facts and faced a problem for some time.

Evaluate your decision. Hindsight is a source of insight. After you act on a decision, observe the consequences over time. Reflect on how well your decision worked and what you might have done differently.

Think of choices. This final suggestion involves some creative thinking. Consider that the word decide derives from the same roots as suicide and homicide . In the spirit of those words, a decision forever “kills” all other options. That’s kind of heavy. Instead, use the word choice , and see whether it frees up your thinking. When you choose , you express a preference for one option over others. However, those options remain live possibilities for the future. Choose for today, knowing that as you gain more wisdom and experience, you can choose again.

Using Critical Thinking Skills in Problem Solving

Think of problem solving as a process with four Ps : Define the problem , generate possibilities ,

create a plan , and perform your plan.

Step 1: Define the problem. To define a problem effectively, understand what a problem is—a mismatch between what you want and what you have. Problem solving is all about reducing the gap between these two factors.

Tell the truth about what’s present in your life right now, without shame or blame. For example: “I often get sleepy while reading my physics assignments, and after closing the book I cannot remember what I just read.”

Next, describe in detail what you want. Go for specifics: “I want to remain alert as I read about physics. I also want to accurately summarize each chapter I read.”

Remember that when we define a problem in limiting ways, our solutions merely generate new problems. As Albert Einstein said, “The world we have made is a result of the level of thinking we have done thus far. We cannot solve problems at the same level at which we created them” (Calaprice 2000).

This idea has many applications for success in school. An example is the student who struggles with note taking. The problem, she thinks, is that her notes are too sketchy. The logical solution, she decides, is to take more notes; her new goal is to write down almost everything her instructors say. No matter how fast and furiously she writes, she cannot capture all of the instructors’ comments.

Consider what happens when this student defines the problem in a new way. After more thought, she decides that her dilemma is not the quantity of her notes but their quality . She adopts a new format for taking notes, dividing her notepaper into two columns. In the right-hand column, she writes down only the main points of each lecture. In the left-hand column, she notes two or three supporting details for each point.

Over time, this student makes the joyous discovery that there are usually just three or four core ideas to remember from each lecture. She originally thought the solution was to take more notes. What really worked was taking notes in a new way.

Step 2: Generate possibilities. Now put on your creative thinking hat. Open up. Brainstorm as many possible solutions to the problem as you can. At this stage, quantity counts. As you generate possibilities, gather relevant facts. For example, when you’re faced with a dilemma about what courses to take next semester, get information on class times, locations, and instructors. If you haven’t decided which summer job offer to accept, gather information on salary, benefits, and working conditions.

Step 3: Create a plan. After rereading your problem definition and list of possible solutions, choose the solution that seems most workable. Think about specific actions that will reduce the gap between what you have and what you want. Visualize the steps you will take to make this solution a reality, and arrange them in chronological order. To make your plan even more powerful, put it in writing.

Step 4: Perform your plan. This step gets you off your chair and out into the world. Now you actually do what you have planned.

Ultimately, your skill in solving problems lies in how well you perform your plan. Through the quality of your actions, you become the architect of your own success.

When facing problems, experiment with these four Ps, and remember that the order of steps is not absolute. Also remember that any solution has the potential to create new problems. If that happens, cycle through the four Ps of problem solving again.

Critical Thinking Skills in Action: Thinking About Your Major, Part 1

One decision that troubles many students in higher education is the choice of a major. Weighing the benefits, costs, and outcomes of a possible major is an intellectual challenge. This choice is an opportunity to apply your critical thinking, decision-making, and problem-solving skills. The following suggestions will guide you through this seemingly overwhelming process.

The first step is to discover options. You can use the following suggestions to discover options for choosing your major:

Follow the fun. Perhaps you look forward to attending one of your classes and even like completing the assignments. This is a clue to your choice of major.

See whether you can find lasting patterns in the subjects and extracurricular activities that you’ve enjoyed over the years. Look for a major that allows you to continue and expand on these experiences.

Also, sit down with a stack of 3 × 5 cards and brainstorm answers to the following questions:

• What do you enjoy doing most with your unscheduled time?
• Imagine that you’re at a party and having a fascinating conversation. What is this conversation about?
• What kind of problems do you enjoy solving—those that involve people? Products? Ideas?
• What interests are revealed by your choices of reading material, television shows, and other entertainment?
• What would an ideal day look like for you? Describe where you would live, who would be with you, and what you would do throughout the day. Do any of these visions suggest a possible major?

Questions like these can uncover a “fun factor” that energizes you to finish the work of completing a major.

Consider your abilities. In choosing a major, ability counts as much as interest. In addition to considering what you enjoy, think about times and places when you excelled. List the courses that you aced, the work assignments that you mastered, and the hobbies that led to rewards or recognition. Let your choice of a major reflect a discovery of your passions and potentials.

Use formal techniques for self-discovery. Explore questionnaires and inventories that are designed to correlate your interests with specific majors. Examples include the Strong Interest Inventory and the Self-Directed Search. Your academic advisor or someone in your school’s career planning office can give you more details about these and related assessments. For some fun, take several of them and meet with an advisor to interpret the results. Remember inventories can help you gain self-knowledge, and other people can offer valuable perspectives. However, what you do with all this input is entirely up to you.

Critical Thinking Skills in Action: Thinking About Your Major, Part 2

As you review the following additional suggestions of discovering options, think about what strategies you already use in your own decision-making process. Also think about what new strategies you might try in the future.

Link to long-term goals. Your choice of a major can fall into place once you determine what you want in life. Before you choose a major, back up to a bigger picture. List your core values, such as contributing to society, achieving financial security and professional recognition, enjoying good health, or making time for fun. Also write down specific goals that you want to accomplish 5 years, 10 years, or even 50 years from today.

Many students find that the prospect of getting what they want in life justifies all of the time, money, and day-to-day effort invested in going to school. Having a major gives you a powerful incentive for attending classes, taking part in discussions, reading textbooks, writing papers, and completing other assignments. When you see a clear connection between finishing school and creating the life of your dreams, the daily tasks of higher education become charged with meaning.

Ask other people. Key people in your life might have valuable suggestions about your choice of major. Ask for their ideas, and listen with an open mind. At the same time, distance yourself from any pressure to choose a major or career that fails to interest you. If you make a choice solely on the basis of the expectations of other people, you could end up with a major or even a career you don’t enjoy.

Gather information. Check your school’s catalog or website for a list of available majors. Here is a gold mine of information. Take a quick glance, and highlight all the majors that interest you. Then talk to students who have declared these majors. Also read the descriptions of courses required for these majors. Do you get excited about the chance to enroll in them? Pay attention to your gut feelings.

Also chat with instructors who teach courses in a specific major. Ask for copies of their class syllabi. Go to the bookstore and browse the required texts. Based on all of this information, write a list of prospective majors. Discuss them with an academic advisor and someone at your school’s career-planning center.

Invent a major. When choosing a major, you might not need to limit yourself to those listed in your school catalog. Many schools now have flexible programs that allow for independent study. Through such programs, you might be able to combine two existing majors or invent an entirely new one of your own.

Consider a complementary minor. You can add flexibility to your academic program by choosing a minor to complement or contrast with your major. The student who wants to be a minister could opt for a minor in English; all of those courses in composition can help in writing sermons. Or the student with a major in psychology might choose a minor in business administration, with the idea of managing a counseling service some day. An effective choice of a minor can expand your skills and career options.

Think critically about the link between your major and your career. Your career goals might have a significant impact on your choice of major.

You could pursue a rewarding career by choosing among several different majors. Even students planning to apply for law school or medical school have flexibility in their choice of majors. In addition, after graduation, many people tend to be employed in jobs that have little relationship to their major. And you might choose a career in the future that is unrelated to any currently available major.

Critical Thinking Skills in Action: Thinking About Your Major, Part 3

Once you have discovered all of your options, you can move on to the next step in the process— making a trial choice.

Make a Trial Choice

Pretend that you have to choose a major today. Based on the options for a major that you’ve already discovered, write down the first three ideas that come to mind. Review the list for a few minutes, and then choose one.

Evaluate Your Trial Choice

When you’ve made a trial choice of major, take on the role of a scientist. Treat your choice as a hypothesis, and then design a series of experiments to evaluate and test it. For example:

• Schedule office meetings with instructors who teach courses in the major. Ask about required course work and career options in the field.
• Discuss your trial choice with an academic advisor or career counselor.
• Enroll in a course related to your possible major. Remember that introductory courses might not give you a realistic picture of the workload involved in advanced courses. Also, you might not be able to register for certain courses until you’ve actually declared a related major.
• Find a volunteer experience, internship, part-time job, or service-learning experience related to the major.
• Interview students who have declared the same major. Ask them in detail about their experiences and suggestions for success.
• Interview people who work in a field related to the major and “shadow” them—that is, spend time with those people during their workday.
• Think about whether you can complete your major given the amount of time and money that you plan to invest in higher education.
• Consider whether declaring this major would require a transfer to another program or even another school.

If your “experiments” confirm your choice of major, celebrate that fact. If they result in choosing a new major, celebrate that outcome as well.

Also remember that higher education represents a safe place to test your choice of major—and to change your mind. As you sort through your options, help is always available from administrators, instructors, advisors, and peers.

Choose Again

Keep your choice of a major in perspective. There is probably no single “correct” choice. Your unique collection of skills is likely to provide the basis for majoring in several fields.

Odds are that you’ll change your major at least once—and that you’ll change careers several times during your life. One benefit of higher education is mobility. You gain the general skills and knowledge that can help you move into a new major or career field at any time.

Viewing a major as a one-time choice that determines your entire future can raise your stress levels. Instead, look at choosing a major as the start of a continuing path that involves discovery, choice, and passionate action.

As you review this example of how you can use critical thinking to make a decision about choosing your major, think about how you will use your critical thinking to make decisions and solve problems in the future.

Module 5: Thinking and Analysis

Problem-solving with critical thinking, learning outcomes.

• Describe how critical thinking skills can be used in problem-solving

Most of us face problems that we must solve every day. While some problems are more complex than others, we can apply critical thinking skills to every problem by asking questions like, what information am I missing? Why and how is it important? What are the contributing factors that lead to the problem? What resources are available to solve the problem? These questions are just the start of being able to think of innovative and effective solutions. Read through the following critical thinking, problem-solving process to identify steps you are already familiar with as well as opportunities to build a more critical approach to solving problems.

Problem-Solving Process

Step 1: define the problem.

Albert Einstein once said, “If I had an hour to solve a problem, I’d spend 55 minutes thinking about the problem and five minutes thinking about solutions.”

Often, when we first hear of or learn about a problem, we do not have all the information. If we immediately try to find a solution without having a thorough understanding of the problem, then we may only be solving a part of the problem.  This is called a “band-aid fix,” or when a symptom is addressed, but not the actual problem. While these band-aid fixes may provide temporary relief, if the actual problem is not addressed soon, then the problem will continue and likely get worse. Therefore, the first step when using critical thinking to solve problems is to identify the problem. The goal during this step is to gather enough research to determine how widespread the problem is, its nature, and its importance.

Step 2: Analyze the Causes

This step is used to uncover assumptions and underlying problems that are at the root of the problem. This step is important since you will need to ensure that whatever solution is chosen addresses the actual cause, or causes, of the problem.

Asking “why” questions to uncover root causes

A common way to uncover root causes is by asking why questions. When we are given an answer to a why question, we will often need to question that answer itself. Thus the process of asking “why” is an  iterative process —meaning that it is a process that we can repeatedly apply. When we stop asking why questions depends on what information we need and that can differ depending on what the goals are. For a better understanding, see the example below:

Problem: The lamp does not turn on.

• Why doesn’t the lamp turn on? The fuse is blown.
• Why is the fuse blown? There was overloaded circuit.
• Why was the circuit overloaded? The hair dryer was on.

If one is simply a homeowner or tenant, then it might be enough to simply know that if the hair dryer is on, the circuit will overload and turn off.  However, one can always ask further why questions, depending on what the goal is. For example, suppose someone wants to know if all hair dryers overload circuits or just this one. We might continue thus:

• Why did this hair dryer overload the circuit? Because hair dryers in general require a lot of electricity.

But now suppose we are an electrical engineer and are interested in designing a more environmentally friendly hair dryer. In that case, we might ask further:

• Why do hair dryers require so much energy?

As you can see from this example, what counts as a root cause depends on context and interests. The homeowner will not necessarily be interested in asking the further why questions whereas others might be.

Step 3: Generate Solutions

The goal of this step is to generate as many solutions as possible. In order to do so, brainstorm as many ideas as possible, no matter how outrageous or ineffective the idea might seem at the time. During your brainstorming session, it is important to generate solutions freely without editing or evaluating any of the ideas. The more solutions that you can generate, the more innovative and effective your ultimate solution might become upon later review.

You might find that setting a timer for fifteen to thirty minutes will help you to creatively push past the point when you think you are done. Another method might be to set a target for how many ideas you will generate. You might also consider using categories to trigger ideas. If you are brainstorming with a group, consider brainstorming individually for a while and then also brainstorming together as ideas can build from one idea to the next.

Step 4: Select a Solution

Once the brainstorming session is complete, then it is time to evaluate the solutions and select the more effective one.  Here you will consider how each solution will address the causes determined in step 2. It is also helpful to develop the criteria you will use when evaluating each solution, for instance, cost, time, difficulty level, resources needed, etc. Once your criteria for evaluation is established, then consider ranking each criterion by importance since some solutions might meet all criteria, but not to equally effective degrees.

In addition to evaluating by criteria, ensure that you consider possibilities and consequences of all serious contenders to address any drawbacks to a solution. Lastly, ensure that the solutions are actually feasible.

Step 6: Put Solution into Action

While many problem-solving models stop at simply selecting a solution, in order to actually solve a problem, the solution must be put into action. Here, you take responsibility to create, communicate, and execute the plan with detailed organizational logistics by addressing who will be responsible for what, when, and how.

Step 7: Evaluate progress

The final step when employing critical thinking to problem-solving is to evaluate the progress of the solution. Since critical thinking demands open-mindedness, analysis, and a willingness to change one’s mind, it is important to monitor how well the solution has actually solved the problem in order to determine if any course correction is needed.

While we solve problems every day, following the process to apply more critical thinking approaches in each step by considering what information might be missing; analyzing the problem and causes; remaining open-minded while brainstorming solutions; and providing criteria for, evaluating, and monitoring solutions can help you to become a better problem-solver and strengthen your critical thinking skills.

iterative process: one that can be repeatedly applied

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Critical Thinking dan Problem Solving untuk Milenial

Hidup di tengah perkembangan teknologi serta persaingan global yang sedemikian tinggi dan dengan gerak yang cepat, menjadi tantangan tersendiri bagi setiap orang, termasuk bagi generasi milenial. Critical thinking dan problem solving menjadi kemampuan yang harus dimiliki agar dapat bersaing. Kedua softskill tersebut tentu tidak didapatkan begitu saja, melainkan perlu dilatih.

Sudah bukan zamannya mengikuti arus, waktunya bagi generasi milenial meraih suksesnya sendiri. Caranya, adalah dengan meng- upgrade kemampuan diri agar tidak kalah bersaing dan dapat memiliki pencapaian yang diinginkan.

Memahami Critical Thinking dan Problem Solving

Apa sebenarnya yang dimaksud critical thinking dan problem solving ? Satu persatu akan dibahas agar dapat lebih dipahami.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking atau keterampilan berpikir kritis, artinya tidak begitu saja menerima informasi yang datang. Kita perlu mencari kebenaran dari informasi tersebut, melihat dari berbagai perspektif, atau jika perlu berpikirkan dengan menggunakan 6 Topi Berpikir . 

Teknik critical thinking adalah kemampuan berpikir secara rasional dan melibatkan diri dalam pemikiran reflektif. Dengan memiliki kemampuan berpikir kritis, Anda lebih mudah memahami sudut pandang orang lain, tidak terlalu terpaku pada pendapat Anda sendiri, dan lebih terbuka terhadap pemikiran, ide, atau pendapat orang lain, serta bisa mulai mendorong munculnya innovation mindset .

Problem solving

Problem solving, atau kemampuan menyelesaikan masalah, merupakan kemampuan yang wajib dimiliki generasi milenial. Kemampuan ini berguna saat dihadapkan pada kondisi yang sulit sehingga mampu fokus pada solusi, bukan pada masalah yang dihadapi. 

Setiap masalah yang datang, memang sudah seharusnya masalah cepat diselesaikan . Masalah yang dibiarkan berlarut-larut bisa menjadi bom waktu, yang seharusnya berdampak kecil jadi memiliki dampak yang besar. Hal berikutnya, Anda juga perlu memahami perbedaan permasalahan dan persoalan demi menemukan solusi terbaik.

Globalisasi dan kemajuan teknologi telah menghancurkan batas-batas yang menimbulkan persaingan global. Tantangan yang harus dihadapi juga kian beragam, maka dari itu kemampuan problem solving harus dimiliki agar tidak mudah kalah dengan keadaan.

Menumbuhkan Kemampuan Critical Thinking dan Problem Solving

Kemampuan critical thinking dan problem solving tidak dapat begitu saja dimiliki seseorang. Butuh cara untuk menumbuhkan kemampuan ini. 

Identifikasi Masalah

Setiap sisi kehidupan akan selalu menghadirkan tantangan tersendiri, entah dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, dalam pekerjaan, dalam rumah tangga, bahkan urusan anak. Ketika terjadi masalah, maka hal pertama yang perlu Anda lakukan adalah melakukan identifikasi terhadap permasalahan tersebut. 

Untuk itu, Anda perlu memiliki kemampuan analisa masalah, melihat dari berbagai sudut pandang, kemudian memikirkan solusi yang bisa memecahkan masalah, bahkan jika perlu memikirkan beberapa solusi sekaligus. Selanjutnya, baru Anda mengambil keputusan terbaik untuk menyelesaikan masalah itu. 

Agar bisa melakukannya, Anda perlu memahami teknik pengambilan keputusan yang didasari oleh data dan fakta, sehingga keputusan yang diambil dapat lebih akurat serta tepat sasaran. Cerdas menganalisis permasalahan dan jitu dalam pengambilan keputusan akan mengantarkan Anda pada solusi terbaik untuk menyelesaikan masalah, atau bisa jadi malah bisa memanfaatkan peluang yang datang bersamaan dengan kehadiran masalah tadi. 

Pahami Kebutuhan dan Minat Orang Lain

Kemampuan untuk mengakomodir kebutuhan dan minat setiap orang yang terlibat dalam suatu masalah juga perlu Anda miliki. Tujuannya, agar bisa mengambil keputusan terbaik yang mampu menguntungkan semua pihak atau minimal tidak ada yang dirugikan. Dalam hal ini, critical thinking dan problem solving berperan penting.

Hadapi Setiap Masalah yang Datang dengan Tenang

Menghadapi masalah hingga bisa menemukan solusi terbaik membutuhkan kemampuan berpikir yang baik, juga pengendalian diri. Dengan kata lain, Anda perlu kemampuan untuk menghadapi masalah dengan tenang . Ketenangan ini nantinya membuat Anda mampu berpikir dengan jernih, bahkan bisa melihat hal-hal yang sebelumnya mungkin terlewatkan. 

Artikel critical thinking dan problem solving untuk milenial ini sebenarnya bisa pula berlaku bagi siapa pun yang ingin meningkatkan kemampuan diri dalam menghadapi dan menyelesaikan masalah. Tidak ada salahnya mempelajari kedua softskill ini karena keduanya akan sangat membantu Anda dalam menjalani kehidupan sehari-hari di bidang apa pun yang saat ini Anda tekuni. 

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Critical Thinking, Decision Making, and Problem Solving

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The Joint Matriculation Board published each year reports of how the candidates performed in each of the questions. One comment on a question in engineering science was published by Carter, Heywood and Kelly (i). It illustrates just how difficult it is to design such questions. The report reads: “The figure (not shown here) represents some of the more important parts of a single bar, 1 kw radiant electric fire. Discuss the purpose of these components and suggest a suitable material for each. (Base your discussion on the function each part has to fulfil and requisite physical properties). Discuss the other factors that a manufacturer would consider in producing the components from particular materials. Describe and suggest materials for other parts which you believe will be necessary for satisfactory use of the fire, but which has not been indicated in the sketch.” 77 The examiners published comment on the answers was: “This was the most popular question and the most badly done. Only one of the two candidates calculated the resistance required for the element. Candidates tended not to answer the questions asked. E.g., they did not state the function of each of the parts of the fire and materials were often suggested without reasons. Candidates stated factors the manufacturer should consider, without discussion. The question was answered on the whole in too facile a number.” In (i) they expanded on this type of question as follows, “Although this type of question suffered from superficiality of response it was retained in similar form as a component of the examination for six years. However, significant attempts were made to direct candidates’ answers into more detailed engineering analyses of the problems set, by the requiring statements relevant, for example, to improved safety and efficiency, broadening the range of use or versatility of the device, and by specifying more closely, the parameters which were of most importance, e.g., electrical, mechanical, thermal or optical properties. Although this further guidance was given, the Examiners’ reports continued to indicate that a significant proportion of the candidates’ answers were superficial, and that the necessary skills for attempting such questions were not being fully developed by the curriculum study as hoped. In the seventh year, therefore, this type ofquestion was modified to consider not engineering devices, but engineering situations, and the methods of achieving solutions under a variety of constraints. Thus, in the next examination a question was set about the design of a technician’s preparation room and the modifications to the design which would be necessary by imposition of a 50% reduction in available finance after the first design stage. The topic was deliberately chosen to lie within the familiarity and experience of the candidates; logical argument and judgement about possible alternative solutions were required from the candidate. The realities of life were introduced into the question through economic constraints and the skills of evaluation and judgement were tested. This type of question is generally, most difficult to assess but with experience the examiners are readily able to evaluate the cogent and relevant arguments and detect the simplistic and facile. Since the introduction ofthis type ofquestion, there have been many excellent answers and there have been some signs ofa general improvement in the candidates’ engineering reasoning, synthesis and evaluative ability.” (i) Carter, G., Heywood, J., and D. T. Kelly (1986). Case Study in Curriculum Assessment. GCE Engineering Science (Advanced). Manchester. Roundthorn Press.

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Heywood, J. (2018). Critical Thinking, Decision Making, and Problem Solving. In: Empowering Professional Teaching in Engineering. Synthesis Lectures on Engineering. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-79382-0_6

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Home > Books > Teacher Training and Practice

Critical Thinking, Problem-Solving and Computational Thinking: Related but Distinct? An Analysis of Similarities and Differences Based on an Example of a Play Situation in an Early Childhood Education Setting

Submitted: 27 February 2023 Reviewed: 06 March 2023 Published: 25 May 2023

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.110795

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In the twenty-first century, four important different and intertwined domains for children’s skills have been identified: cognitive, interpersonal, intrapersonal and technical. In the cognitive domain, key terms such as critical thinking, problem-solving and computational thinking have been highlighted. Although these terms have been identified as fundamental for preschool children, the literature draws attention to early childhood teachers’ difficulty in including them in curriculum activities, which can therefore hinder children’s learning. This chapter aims to analyse the similarities and differences in the characteristics of the three terms computational thinking, problem-solving and critical thinking. Such analysis of the terms will be of importance, both for further research in the area and for clarification in communication with teachers. In this way, the concepts may be more accessible for teachers. In particular, in this chapter, the concepts will be analysed and explained through an example from an educational setting where a group of children and a teacher play together with a digital toy.

• computational thinking
• problem-solving
• critical thinking
• teachers’ competence

Author Information

Francesca granone *.

• University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway

Elin Kirsti Lie Reikerås

Enrico pollarolo, monika kamola.

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

In a rapidly changing world, supporting children in developing specific skills that help them understand and make choices in various situations has been recognised as essential. These skills have been identified as twenty-first-century skills [ 1 ]. Amongst the skills classified as cognitive competencies, critical thinking, problem-solving and computational thinking have been highlighted and considered part of higher-order thinking skills [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. These terms have been identified as fundamental for preschool children [ 1 , 5 , 6 ], especially when mathematics is the learning goal [ 7 , 8 ]. Granone et al. conducted a study in Norway on early childhood education settings (ECECs), where some terms, such as problem-solving and critical thinking, are known and well-introduced [ 8 , 9 ], whereas computational thinking at an educational level is only mentioned in the curriculum for schools [ 10 ].

Wing, who introduced for the first time the term “computational thinking” [ 11 ], stressed the importance of making this term accessible, to allow teachers not only to use it but also to understand its meaning in all its parts without only carrying out procedures [ 12 ]. Some attempts have been made in the literature to analyse the similarities between the constituent characteristics of the three terms computational thinking, problem-solving and critical thinking [ 13 ] but never through a detailed analysis of the different elements that characterise each of them. Moreover, each of these terms has been analysed through Bloom’s taxonomy [ 14 ] or the revised Bloom’s taxonomy [ 15 ], but never all together [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. However, the taxonomy seems to be a possible key for analysing all these terms together.

This chapter intends to present this analysis to identify any common aspects. Such an analysis of the terms will be of importance, both for further research in the area and for clarification in communication with teachers. In this way, the concepts may be more accessible for teachers, and this will help them to support children’s acquisition of problem-solving, critical thinking and computational thinking skills more effectively [ 7 , 8 ]. In this chapter, the concepts are analysed and explained through an example from an educational setting.

2. Problem-solving, critical thinking and computational thinking

The three skills that we analyse (problem-solving, critical thinking and computational thinking) can all be enhanced in different ways; they can also be enhanced through technology [ 7 , 19 ]. Children’s learning of these skills is considered fundamental, and teachers’ roles have been highlighted in the literature as essential [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Hence, we explain these terms through an example taken from an educational setting where a group of children and a teacher play together with a digital toy.

A possible way to compare these terms seems to be offered, as anticipated, from the revised Bloom’s taxonomy [ 15 ].

Recognising: Locating knowledge in the long-term memory that is consistent with the presented material.

Recalling: Retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory.

Understand: Changing from one form of representation (e.g. numerical) to another (e.g. verbal).

Exemplifying: Finding a specific example or illustration of a concept or principle.

Classifying: Determining that something belongs to a category.

Summarising: Abstracting a general theme or major point(s).

Inferring: Drawing a logical conclusion from the presented information.

Comparing: Detecting correspondences between two ideas, objects and the like.

Explaining: Constructing a cause-and-effect model of a system.

Executing: Applying a procedure to a familiar task.

Implementing: Applying a procedure to an unfamiliar task.

Differentiating: Distinguishing relevant from irrelevant parts or important from unimportant parts of the presented material.

Organising: Determining how elements fit or function within a structure.

Attributing: Determining a point of view, bias, value or intent underlying presented material.

Checking: Detecting inconsistencies or fallacies within a process or product; determining whether a process or product has internal consistency; detecting the effectiveness of a procedure as it is being implemented.

Critiquing: Detecting inconsistencies between a product and external criteria; determining whether a product has external consistency; detecting the appropriateness of a procedure for a given problem.

Generating: Coming up with alternative hypotheses based on criteria.

Planning: Devising a procedure for accomplishing some task.

Producing: Inventing a product.

2.1 Problem-solving

Children’s problem-solving is presented as a key element in Norwegian ECECs [ 9 ].

The term problem-solving has been used for identifying a cognitive activity (what problem-solvers do), a learning goal (something to be taught) and an instructional approach (something to teach through) [ 23 ]. Furthermore, it has also been highlighted that problem-solving is a quite complex term that presents many nuances and that has been described according to many interpretations [ 24 ].

For example, the literature presents problem-solving from different points of view, referring to it as a cognitive process. It has been presented as a process that has as a goal to find a way out of difficulties or as a variety of cognitive processes, such as attention, memory, language and metacognition [ 25 , 26 , 27 ].

If we consider problem-solving as a learning goal, it has been described as a competence that children can reach through very different approaches, such as technology [ 7 ], or during outdoor activities [ 28 ].

However, problem-solving can also be identified as an instructional approach for helping children learn, for example, mathematics [ 29 ].

If we look at the evolution of the problem-solving framework [ 30 ], it is possible to see that it has been a development from the original definition introduced by Polya [ 31 ]. For example, we can find a model that identifies six steps instead of four [ 32 ] or a model that focuses more on the solver than on the process [ 33 ]. Because we are more interested in the process than in the solver and because Schoenfeld phases can be related to Polya’s phases, we choose Polya as a reference for the analysis in our study. The three first phases of Schoenfeld (“read”, “analyse” and “explore”) can be related to Polya’s phase “understand the problem”, whereas the other phases are clearly similar.

In addition, recent literature still uses Polya as the main reference [ 7 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Hence, we analyse Polya’s problem-solving process, aiming to increase accessibility to this term.

Polya describes problem-solving through four phases: understand the problem, make a plan, carry out the plan and look back. Each phase is important because it leads to a different understanding of the problem and the process [ 31 ] ( Table 1 ).

Polya’s phases. Ref: Polya [ 31 ].

2.2 Critical thinking

Children’s critical thinking is another key element presented in ECECs [ 9 ].

Critical thinking has been defined in different ways in the literature, and a consensus has not been reached [ 34 ]. In particular, some authors consider the terms critical thinking and problem-solving components of separate domains, whereas others include problem-solving in the term critical thinking or vice versa [ 34 ]. The term problem-solving has also been used as a synonym for thinking and as related to creative thinking and critical thinking [ 35 ]. This is because creative thinking is described as the ability to generate an idea that can be used to solve a problem, whereas critical thinking is more on evaluating ideas that can be used to solve a problem.

With the aim of describing in more detail critical thinking through the roots that he has in academic disciplines, three separate academic strands can be identified: the philosophical approach, the cognitive psychological approach and the educational approach [ 34 ].

The focus of the philosophical approach is on the critical thinker rather than on the actions that a critical thinker performs. This approach describes a critical thinker as a person who is open-minded, flexible and interested in being well informed and in understanding other perspectives [ 36 ]. Some researchers have defined this approach as not always in accordance with reality [ 37 ].

The cognitive psychological approach is instead more focused on the thoughts and mental processes used to solve problems [ 37 ], identifying the critical thinker by the action or behaviour that they have [ 38 ]. An important element recognised is the ability to see both sides of an issue [ 39 ].

The educational approach is based on years of experience and observations and has Bloom’s taxonomy as a key element [ 40 ], where the three highest levels are related to critical thinking. However, this approach has been criticised for being too undefined [ 34 ].

Because these approaches are quite different, we refer to the definition presented in Lai’s literature review [ 34 ], where critical thinking is identified through skills that include both cognitive skills and dispositions. In this article, we focus only on cognitive skills (abilities) for analysing which common aspects can be identified amongst problem-solving, computational thinking and critical thinking ( Table 2 ).

Critical thinking skills. Ref: Lai [ 34 ].

2.3 Computational thinking

Even if the term computational thinking is not explicitly present in the.

Norwegian Framework Plan for Kindergartens [ 9 ], other similar concepts, such as digital practice and the use of digital tools, are presented.

The term computational thinking was introduced by Wing as “a fundamental skill […] that involves solving problem, designing systems and understanding human behavior, by drawing on the concepts fundamental to computer science” [ 11 ].

The definition has evolved, and the literature presents various models that can be used to describe the computational thinking process. A framework is presented by Angeli [ 41 ], where computational thinking is described as a process where various steps occur, such as algorithmic thinking, modularity, debugging, pattern recognition, generalisation and abstraction.

In contrast, another framework points out abstraction, decomposition, debugging, remixing and productive attitudes against failure as the elements that should be considered for describing computational thinking [ 42 ].

Another model describes computational thinking as composed of the ability to think algorithmically in terms of decomposition, generalisations, abstractions and evaluation [ 43 ].

The models presented have some common aspects but also some differences. The description presented originally by Wing is broader and contains all the aspects presented later in various models [ 11 ]. The step “reformulating or reduction/transformation” is in relation to “remixing” [ 42 ]; “decomposition or thinking recursively” is in relation to “modularity” and “algorithmic thinking” [ 41 , 43 ]; “choosing a representation” is in relation with “pattern recognition” [ 41 ]; and “learning” is in relation with “debugging” [ 41 , 42 ], “productive attitudes against failure” [ 42 ] and “evaluation” [ 43 ].

Hence, we analyse the description of the different phases of computational thinking, starting from Wing’s definition ( Table 3 ).

Steps in computational thinking. Ref: Wing [ 11 ].

Four stages that compose a content analysis method have been followed in content analysis [ 44 ]. These stages are “decontextualisation”, “recontextualisation”, “categorisation” and “compilation”. Decontextualisation is the stage in which meaningful units are identified. After reading a whole text to understand its meaning, a small part is identified and coded. Each researcher wrote a coding list to avoid changing during the analysis. The articles were analysed through an inductive approach, identifying the keywords that describe the various steps of each term. On the contrary, the practical example was analysed deductively, trying to identify the different parts in the transcription used as an example. The decontextualisation process was conducted repeatedly to guarantee stability.

Recontextualisation is necessary to ensure that all aspects of the content have been covered. This foresees that the text is read in its whole again, and that all the uncoded parts are evaluated with attention to understanding if those can also be coded. If those parts are evaluated again, not in relation to the aim of the study, they are then definitively excluded.

The categorisation process indicates when the codes are condensed and assembled into categories and themes. The themes should be chosen to avoid data that fit into more than one group or that fall between two themes.

Compilation is the process of choosing the appropriate units for each theme.

As suggested in the content analysis, each stage was performed several times to guarantee the quality and trustworthiness of the analysis. To draw realistic conclusions, different authors checked the keywords identified, as well as the connections amongst them. This is necessary for maintaining the quality of the process, assuring both the validity and the reliability of the study and avoiding mistakes or biases.

A content analysis of a vignette from an educational setting, including a group of children and a teacher playing together with a digital toy, was the basis for developing a comparison of the three terms. The play situation was in an early childhood setting, with four children aged 4–5 years and their teacher. They were all participants in the larger project DiCoTe “Increasing professional digital competence in early childhood teacher education with a focus on enriching and supporting children’s play with coding toys”, which the present study is a part of. The teacher and the parents of the children gave written permission to participate.

A second comparison starts from the results of the previous analysis and discusses a possible explanation of those results through the revised Bloom’s taxonomy [ 45 ].

4. Results and discussion

Given that the purpose of this study was to highlight any similarities and differences between the terms problem-solving, critical thinking and computational thinking in an understandable way, we made two types of comparisons.

As indicated in the methods chapter, the analysis shows a comparison of the three terms based on practice, that is, on an example from an educational setting, where a group of children and a teacher play together with a digital toy. The use of technology is useful for having a greater chance to identify all three terms. The results are reported in Table 4 .

Example from the field of practice analysed through the terms.

The second comparison starts from the results of the previous analysis and discusses a possible explanation of those results through the revised Bloom’s taxonomy [ 45 ]. The results are presented in Table 5 .

Discussion based on the revised Bloom’s taxonomy. Ref: Anderson and Krathwohl [ 45 ].

4.1 Comparison based on an example from practice

The present vignette is an example of a play situation in an early childhood setting with four children aged 4–5 years and their teacher.

The teacher is sitting on the floor in a circle with four children. They have a coding toy in the centre of the circle. The coding toy is a robot that can be programmed without a screen through tactile arrows that can be puzzled on the floor and on which the robot moves. It is not the first time that the group is playing with the coding toy, so the teacher asks the children to remember what they did the day before, when they observed the movement of the robot on each arrow. To ensure their understanding, the teacher asks the children to verbally explain what they have learned, step by step. The teacher asks the children to build a path from a decided starting point to an arrival point. The children start building the path, and the teacher asks them after each step why they are choosing those arrows. A child puts an arrow that is for a “forward” movement, but he says verbally that the robot is going to turn. The teacher asks the child to reflect on a similar situation that happened the day before to help him see the similarity of the two problems and invite him to use the same solution that he used the day before. Then, the teacher asks for a verbal explanation of the error and of the correcting process. To help them further, the teacher highlights that when they have to find a solution, it is wise to try to remember similar problems without focusing too much on details. The teacher points out that many solutions are good, but sometimes, some solutions are better, maybe because a solution needs fewer arrows or maybe because it is faster. The teacher asks them to build a path from the same starting point and to the same arrival point, but that is shorter.

The teacher challenges the children to build a new path but asks them to guess what they need before building the real path. The children suggest a solution and build it.

The teacher then challenges the children again to use the same building strategy, suggesting a new starting point and a new arrival point. Whilst the robot moves on the path, the teacher invites the children to observe the robot and asks them if some elements could have been different because not every arrow may not be necessary. Then, the teacher challenges the children to think differently, going beyond some decisions and limitations that were correct but not necessary.

As a last challenge, the teacher asks the children to decide on a new path, define the starting point and the arrival point, describe it verbally and justify how they will build it.

Each part of the vignette was analysed through the three terms to highlight how each step of each term can be visible in a practical situation. The results in Table 4 present a clear explanation.

4.2 Comparison based on the revised Bloom’s taxonomy

To understand the results presented in Section 4.1 more clearly, we focus on the verbs used in each description to analyse whether they can be put in relation to Bloom’s taxonomy in his revised form [ 45 ]. When the teacher asked the children to remember and describe what they learned through a verbal explanation, she was clearly helping the children to understand the problem [ 31 ], to reason verbally [ 34 ] and to decompose the problem [ 11 ]. Looking at the verbs used, we can identify a connection with the thinking skills “remember” and “understand” from the revised Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson and Krathwohl, [ 45 ]). In the same way, the teacher invited the children to think about similar problems and try out similar solutions. This can be seen as an invitation to think in analogy [ 31 ], making inferences [ 34 ] and choosing representation [ 11 ]. Then, she explained that the solutions could be different, that another solution can be better, and that it is important to reflect and analyse the situations to identify errors or possible improvements. This can be seen as a suggestion for a solution improvement [ 31 ], and a process of judgement and evaluation [ 34 ] or a learning process [ 11 ]. The thinking skills that can be identified here are “apply”, “analyse” and “create”.

However, from a more detailed analysis based on the specific verbs used in each step of each term and on each thinking skill, important considerations can be deduced.

Table 5 presents a discussion about how computational thinking, problem solving and critical thinking can be related to the educational goals that are relevant for the 21st-century skills [ 1 ], which are related to higher-order skills (Brookhart, [ 2 ]).

In our analysis, we can see that the three terms problem-solving, critical thinking and computational thinking have similar elements, but they do not completely overlap. For example, the element “identifying assumptions” [ 34 ] can be considered as a way for “understanding the problem” [ 31 ]. However, because of the specificity of the definitions, we did not include it in the first line of the table. This can, in our opinion, reduce the bias related to our point of view. The same consideration can be done for “planning” [ 11 ] and the step in problem-solving called “carry out the plan” [ 31 ].

The description that Polya gives on the step “make a plan: specialisation”, and that can be identified through the guiding questions reported in the second part of his publication [ 31 ], point to a quite creative approach. It is not an approach composed only of various steps that are compiled recursively (as in the step “decomposition or thinking recursively” [ 11 ]) or a heuristic approach, but is connected to the question “What can I do with an incomplete idea?” [ 31 ]. This means having a plan that may not be complete yet, but that can be tried out for developing a different plan when a partial answer is acquainted.

Similarly, we were not able to create a relation between the various steps of computational thinking and one element that composes the critical thinking definition. The element “seeing both sides of an issue” [ 34 ] implies a broader analysis of a situation than the one that is in the step “stating the difficulty of a problem” [ 11 ]. This is because a path must be chosen to apply a computational thinking approach. This means that it should not be possible to change the condition during the process or analyse both sides of an issue at the same time.

What can be highlighted is that some skills can be supported simultaneously through enhancing children’s problem-solving, critical thinking or computational thinking skills. However, some skills can be supported merely by enhancing children’s problem-solving (recalling, executing, implementing, differentiating and producing), others by merely enhancing children’s critical thinking (explaining) and others by merely enhancing children’s computational thinking (exemplifying and planning).

This provides evidence of the importance of supporting all these skills, for example, by playing activities in ECEC. The analysis presents the key role of the teacher in supporting children’s learning through questions and guidance. What seems to be highlighted is that different skills can be supported depending on the type of questions or guidance that the teacher uses.

5. Conclusions

The aim of the present article was to investigate the existing relationship amongst three important twenty-first-century skills: problem-solving, critical thinking and computational thinking. The results indicate a significant degree of congruence between the concepts but also highlight some differences. In particular, the analysis shows that all three terms can stimulate skills that can be described through Anderson and Krathwohl’s taxonomy [ 45 ], but those skills are different if problem-solving, critical thinking or computational thinking is enhanced. The analysis, based on a correlation amongst a practical example from a play situation in an early childhood setting with four children aged 4–5 years and their teacher, shows that all three skills can be stimulated. However, the role of the teacher and how she stimulates and supports children’s learning seem crucial. The example analysis suggests that a teacher’s questions and guidance can lead children to learn various skills. This points out the fundamental aspects of a teacher’s knowledge and awareness.

Acknowledgments

The present chapter is a part of the project “DiCoTe - Increasing professional digital competence in ECTE with focus on enriching and supporting children’s play with coding toys”, financed by the National Council of Norway, project number NFR-326667.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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