does school culture affect student learning essay

How does school culture affect student learning?

By Melissa Chittenden, Assistant Head of School/Director, UCDS Institute

As an Assistant Head of School, I’ve witnessed the link between school culture and student learning first-hand. School culture embodies a community’s shared driving purpose. Mission statements and values are two factors that feed school culture, and impact the entire academic experience.

Here’s the six values we believe are most important to shape your school’s culture and positively affect student learning:

Be thoughtful.

Be inclusive., involve students., build relationships., challenge yourself., become an advocate..

At UCDS, our mission is to design a culture of inquiry essential to meaningful learning. Through this environment, we’ve cultivated reflective, collaborative and skillful thinkers who ignite positive change in their communities.

The success of our dynamic and inclusive school culture has led to its replication in schools around the globe. To share some insight on how school culture affects student learning, I’ve tapped into a former UCDS teacher and current principal at Ascend International School in India, Meg Roosa.

“After spending 18 years at UCDS, I moved to Mumbai to help create a school using UCDS’ structure and culture as a framework,” said Roosa. “Thanks to our teachers, staff, students and parent’s dedication to effective school culture, we’ve been able to remain committed to our mission and values.”

Research reviewed by the Illinois State Board of Education underlies the state’s indicators of effective practice, outlines the direct positive impact school culture has on student learning (ISBE, CL10).

To guide you in your school culture journey, we’re breaking down each value and walking through how to incorporate it.

Pause and reflect on what your school community is doing. Is your school community actually embodying the values set forth in your mission statement? Each year I ask every member of our school community – are you being heard? Through a horizontal, shared leadership model , you can ensure your entire school community has the chance to voice their opinion.

A thoughtful and engaged faculty elevates learning. At UCDS, as a whole faculty and staff, we’ve adopted a yearly theme initiative to create connections across our curriculum and inspire the way we approach and teach subject areas. For example, this year’s theme is Wave. While students continuously develop essential skills, a yearly theme gives our teachers and students a fresh content lens that meaningfully frames teaching and learning.

As your school community changes from year to year, activities and details will shift. When teachers are professionally reflective and acting as designers of learning experiences, this brings shared focus to the common purpose of the mission. Every member of your school community is responsible for shaping the culture.

An inclusive culture supports the uniqueness of every student and educator. In Creating an Inclusive School , inclusion is defined as a belief system, not merely a set of strategies. For example, an inclusive classroom requires accommodations and supports, and a strong attitude and disposition from the teacher.

If you can include extra minds in the classroom, do it. Ascend International decided to incorporate multiple teachers in the classroom. This way, the different views, life experiences and culture of each educator have been naturally embedded in curriculum and inspired thoughtful conversations among students.

Transparency and flexibility are also pivotal in jumpstarting inclusivity. I encourage schools to embrace the power of collaboration and have faculty work as a team.

Roosa shared another strategy to get staff in the right mindset. When approached with a new idea, she asks reflective questions, like “does this fit our culture?” or, “does it fit our values?” Everything then connects back to your mission and values.

Keeping students involved strengthens your school community and creates a culture built on trust and respect. When students and teachers are involved in what happens in school, everyone has a place and voice in the classroom. Students who feel valued are more invested in their learning and take ownership over their growth.

The American Psychological Association drives home this point, stating that improving student-teacher relationships has important, positive and long-lasting effects for academic and social development.

To offer context from our school, our fifth graders work alongside faculty each year as a service-learning project. It helps faculty and students get to know our students on a more personal level, which has strengthened our community and culture of involvement even further.

Activities that involve students and faculty reinforce relationships and build respect. Consider implementing an annual project for students to participate in to grow their skills beyond the classroom.

The effects of school culture extend to student families, too. Teachers must share why culture matters with parents, but doing so requires building trust and credibility. When you collaborate with student families, you can begin to share the importance of school culture with them.

When it comes to developing and maintaining school culture, it is crucial to get the buy-in from the parents of your students. As an educator, it’s important to understand your role in helping parents learn to appreciate school culture. Invite parents to school and walk them through what their students are learning and to demonstrate the connection between achievement and culture.

The teachers at Ascend International established relationships with families through respect, communication and trust, and the relationships are stronger than ever.

“Our dedication to school culture only works if we’re partners with parents. As school leaders, we have to gain their trust and take the time to explain how mission and values impact student learning,” shared Roosa of the Ascend International School.

Similarly, our Seattle-based UCDS program began hosting courses and events where parents can see our culture in action and learn how much time and effort is put into designing individualized curriculum for our students. The same can be said for Ascend International, where curriculum nights and parties give parents a better understanding behind their school’s culture.

Whether it’s in the form of an engaging mock lesson, pizza party or some other fun-filled event, take time to invite parents to invest in your school culture. I promise parents will thank you for it!

School culture is fluid and dynamic, it’s what shapes our perceptions around future learning and collaboration. My last piece of advice for the school culture puzzle is to challenge yourself.

Administrators, let’s dismiss the traditional top-down model where curricula and pedagogy are assigned to teachers. Instead, let’s prepare them for how to assess, build and sustain an environment that’s ripe for creative curriculum. Let’s work to create a school culture that’s chock-full of shared perspectives.

Reflect on your mission statement. Explore what values or goals will help students succeed. Connect with your colleagues to ask questions and exchange ideas.

Change isn’t always easy, but it is worth it. Students deserve a culture that evolves to meet their needs, and teachers deserve an environment where they have freedom to explore new ideas.

School culture positively affects student learning, when we are intentional about shaping it. As a teacher, you are a steward of culture.

You don’t have to work in education to recognize a positive school culture. Roosa observes that “Visitors are always commenting about how it ‘feels good’ in our school – people are smiling, happy, open and friendly. That’s because at Ascend, all voices are valued and all students understand each other’s unique strengths. Our culture pulses throughout the entire school.”

Schools are looking for people who can create and sustain an effective school culture. This is work that we are refining and practicing all the time. I hope the above values help you reflect on and grow the strengths of the culture in your school – tiny changes make monumental differences for students.

That’s our 6-step guide to the impact school culture has on student learning. If you’re asking yourself, what’s the next step in my education career? The UCDS College for School Culture Master of Education Program is well positioned to help today’s teachers and school leaders learn how to build inclusive cultures for tomorrow’s students.

Until February 3, 2020,  applications are currently free to submit – simply use code: UCDS50

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Exploring the effect of school culture on student learning

Key takeaways.

• A positive school culture fosters an environment that supports student well-being, promotes engagement, and encourages academic achievement.
• Understanding the importance of school culture in student learning is crucial for students, educators, and parents.

Research has shown that school culture has a significant impact on student learning. A positive culture fosters an environment that supports student well-being, promotes engagement, and encourages academic achievement. On the other hand, a negative culture can cause stress, disengagement, and disinterest in learning.

Whether you are an educator or parent, understanding the   importance of school culture in student learning   is crucial. In this article, we will explore the different aspects of school culture and how it affects your academic journey. We will also discuss strategies for creating a positive school culture that fosters student learning and engagement.

Understanding School Culture and Its Components

As an educator, you play a crucial role in creating a school culture that supports student learning and development. But before you can do that, it's important to understand what school culture entails and the different components that contribute to it.

What is School Culture?

School culture refers to the shared beliefs, values, attitudes, behaviors, and practices that characterize a school community. It is shaped by a range of factors, including the school's history, environment, and demographics, as well as the attitudes and actions of its educators, staff, and students.

The Role of School Culture in Student Learning

School culture has a significant impact on student learning. A positive school culture can help students feel safe, engaged, and supported, promoting their overall academic and personal growth. Conversely, a negative or toxic school culture can hinder student learning and contribute to negative outcomes, such as low academic achievement and dropout rates.

"Only one in three students rate their school culture positively." -Youthtruth

The Responsibilities of Educators and Teachers

Educators and teachers have a vital role in shaping school culture. They can model positive behaviors, promote inclusivity, and foster a sense of belonging and community among students. It is also their responsibility to create a safe and supportive learning environment, establish clear expectations, and provide guidance and support to students as needed.

Creating a Positive School Culture

In order to foster a positive school culture that enhances student learning, there are several strategies and practices that district and school leaders can implement. By promoting a culture of respect, inclusion, and collaboration, students are more likely to feel supported and engaged in their learning.

Emphasize Values, Norms, and Rituals

One important aspect of creating a positive school culture is establishing clear values, norms, and rituals. This includes promoting a sense of community and shared responsibility among students and staff. By emphasizing these values, norms, and rituals, students feel a sense of belonging and are more likely to be invested in their academic pursuits.

Promote Collaboration and Communication

Collaboration and communication are also key components of a positive school culture. This includes encouraging teamwork among students and providing opportunities for students to work together on projects and assignments. Additionally, fostering open lines of communication between students, teachers, and administrators helps to ensure that everyone is working towards a common goal.

Encourage Inclusivity

In order to create a positive school culture that enhances student learning, it is also important to promote inclusivity. This means embracing diversity and celebrating differences among students and staff. By creating a welcoming and inclusive environment, all students feel valued and supported in their educational journey.

Provide Support

Finally, providing support for students is essential in fostering a positive school culture. This includes offering resources for students who may be struggling academically or emotionally, as well as providing opportunities for students to seek out extra help if needed. By offering this support, students feel more confident and empowered in their educational pursuits.

How can social skills and a positive school culture promote inclusivity in education?

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How School Culture Affects Student Learning

• When a student is in a positive learning environment, they are more likely to participate in class and ask questions.
• A supportive school culture fosters a sense of belonging and community, which can enhance motivation to learn.
• When students feel that their school values and supports them, they are more likely to take ownership of their learning and strive to achieve their goals.

Cultivating a Culture of Continuous Improvement

As you have learned, creating a positive school culture is key to enhancing student learning. But the work does not stop there. Embracing a culture of continuous improvement is also crucial to ensuring that students receive the best education possible.

Professional Development

One important aspect of continuous improvement is professional development. As an educator, it is essential to stay up-to-date with the latest teaching techniques, research, and technology. By participating in workshops, conferences, and other forms of professional development, you can gain new knowledge and skills that will benefit your students.

Feedback and Reflection

Another vital component of a culture of continuous improvement is feedback and reflection. Taking the time to reflect on your teaching practices and receive feedback from colleagues, administrators, and even students can help you identify areas for growth and improvement. By incorporating this feedback into your teaching, you can continually refine your methods and enhance student learning outcomes.

A Cycle of Growth

By prioritizing professional development, feedback, and reflection, you can create a cycle of growth and improvement in your school culture. This means that every member of the school community is continually learning, growing, and striving to provide the best possible education for students.

Importance of a Culture of Continuous Improvement

It is important to remember that creating a positive school culture is not a one-time event. It is an ongoing process that requires dedication, hard work, and a commitment to excellence. By cultivating a culture of continuous improvement, you can ensure that your school is always evolving and improving to meet the needs of your students.

Embracing Diversity and Inclusion

What is inclusion in education? How to be inclusive in schools

Promoting Equity

Embracing diversity means promoting equity, and ensuring that all students have equal opportunities to succeed. Equity involves acknowledging and addressing systemic barriers that may affect some students' ability to learn and succeed. By promoting equity, schools can create a fair and just learning environment that gives every student the opportunity to reach their full potential.

Cultivating a Sense of Belonging

Creating a positive school culture for student learning   also involves cultivating a sense of belonging. When students feel valued and included, they are more likely to engage in their learning and feel motivated to succeed. Schools can foster a sense of belonging by promoting cultural awareness, providing opportunities for student voice and choice, and creating a safe and supportive learning environment.

Supporting Academic Achievement

Embracing diversity and inclusion can also support academic achievement. Studies show that when students feel safe, supported, and included, they perform better academically. When schools promote diversity and inclusion, they create a learning environment that is conducive to student success.

Remember that school culture has a significant impact on student learning, and it is essential to prioritize its development. By embracing diversity, promoting equity, and fostering a sense of community, you can create a school culture that supports the success of every student.

As you reflect on your school's culture, consider the strategies and practices outlined in this article to enhance and improve the learning experience for your students. By working together and committing to cultivating a positive school culture, you can help your students reach their full potential and achieve success in their educational journey.

Author: Hope Marvin

Posted: 20 Nov 2023

Estimated time to read: 6 mins

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Impact of School Culture on Student Development and Learning

The culture within a school plays a vital role in shaping students’ educational experiences and outcomes. Often overlooked, school culture profoundly impacts everything from student achievement and teacher retention rates to a school’s sense of community. At North American International School (NAIS), we recognize that nurturing a positive school culture is as important as the curriculum . 

This blog post will explore why learning culture in schools matters. We’ll also look at the critical elements of a healthy culture and how to create an environment that brings out the best in students and teachers. When students feel safe, valued, and invested in their school community, it unlocks their potential inside and outside the classroom.

Defining School Culture

School culture refers to the beliefs, perceptions, relationships, attitudes, and written and unwritten rules that shape and influence every aspect of a school’s functions. It also encompasses more concrete issues such as the physical and emotional safety of students, the orderliness of classrooms, and the degree to which a school embraces and celebrates racial, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural diversity.

School culture is often described as the character of a school. It’s the intangible “feel” when you walk through the doors, the impact of which is highly tangible. While every school has a culture, that culture can be intentionally shaped to facilitate high levels of learning. 

The Importance of School Culture

School culture profoundly influences students’ motivation to learn, teacher retention, educator collaboration, and almost every learning experience aspect. Some key reasons why school culture has such a significant impact include:

• Sense of Belonging: When students feel welcomed, accepted, included, and supported, they are more likely to be engaged and take academic risks in the classroom. Positive relationships and belonging help meet students’ fundamental needs.
• Safety & Trust: Physical and emotional safety are foundational learning needs. Bullying, discrimination, or a chaotic school environment inhibit learning. Trust between teachers, students, and families enables open communication, which supports students. 
• Collaborative Spirit: Schools where teachers, administrators, and families work together as a team are likely to have a unified school culture focused on student-centered outcomes.
• Diversity: Embracing and celebrating cultural diversity in schools fosters students’ abilities to collaborate across differences and prepares them to live and work in a multicultural world.
• Growth Mindset: Students are motivated to persevere through challenges when the culture emphasizes effort, progress, and mastery over innate ability and high-stakes testing.

A school’s culture impacts everything within the building. Creating a positive school culture is one of the most effective ways to provide students with the best learning environment . 

The Role of Cultural Activities  

Cultural activities for schools are a valuable way to cultivate diversity, inclusion, and identity within their culture. Schools can incorporate cultural experiences into academic and extracurricular activities to expose students to new perspectives and unite the community. Cultural festivals like Diwali, Lunar New Year, and Día de los Muertos provide immersive experiences where students engage in traditions meaningful to their peers. International Days can highlight cuisines, fashions, music, and customs from cultures worldwide. These celebrations teach students about diverse backgrounds and validate multicultural representation within the student body.

Elements of a Positive School Culture

School culture is complex and multifaceted. While each school culture is unique, certain elements facilitate student learning in all settings. Here are some critical components for building a positive school culture:

Safe, Supportive Environment 

Students need to feel physically, socially, emotionally, and intellectually safe to engage in learning fully. This means classrooms, hallways, and common areas are orderly and well-supervised. Peer-to-peer connections are positive, and bullying is not tolerated. Teachers work to cultivate inclusion, celebrate diversity, and foster a growth mindset where students feel free to take academic risks without fear of embarrassment.

Trusting Relationships

Learning is a social process built on trusting relationships between students, teachers, and families. Teachers get to know students personally and show care for each learner. Healthy teacher-student and peer relationships create a team environment. Families are welcomed into the school community as valued partners in their children’s education.

Shared Mission & Vision

When all stakeholders work toward a shared, student-centered mission focused on high levels of learning for all students, school culture and learning outcomes improve. Collaboratively developing the vision can help build alignment, relationships, and accountability.

Positive Behavior Management

Consistent behavioral expectations, classroom management, and schoolwide systems of positive discipline and restorative practices help maintain a calm, orderly environment focused on learning.

Effective Leadership

School leaders and educators actively engage in teamwork to make decisions, promote a growth mindset, facilitate customized learning experiences, and prioritize inclusivity. They help shape school culture through the policies, programs, and priorities they establish and promote.

Meaningful Traditions 

From special events to the day-to-day routines, traditions build community and identity. They reflect what the community cares about, from honoring heritage and culture to promoting core values. Traditions engage students and give them a sense of belonging.

By intentionally cultivating these and other positive elements, schools can build a supportive school culture that meets the needs of our diverse community and empowers students to reach their full potential. 

Strategies to Develop School Culture

School culture affects diverse stakeholders, including students, teachers, administrators, families, and the wider community. Therefore, school culture development must utilize an inclusive process that brings people together around a shared vision and a sense of purpose. Here are several strategies NAIS uses to build a vibrant culture focused on student learning and development:

• Form a Culture Committee: At NAIS, a team of representative stakeholders comes together to assess our current culture and make recommendations. Getting input from various voices ensures a comprehensive approach.
• Focus Groups: We facilitate structured conversations to dive deeper into issues of culture. Focus groups shed light on stakeholders’ lived experiences and root causes of problems.
• Develop Shared Vision & Values: Through an inclusive process, we created consensus statements that paint a picture of NAIS’s ideal culture and articulate core values that guide our work.
• Define Expectations: Articulating norms of respectful behavior for classrooms and common areas, as well as modeling nurturing, equitable practices, helps maintain a positive culture.
• Foster Diversity: NAIS celebrates cultural heritage months, equitable hiring practices, and diversity training to help build cultural competence and inclusion.
• Community Building: From new student welcome ceremonies to inclusive school wide events, we bring people together across differences to form bonds centered on shared values.
• Observe Classrooms: Seeing student engagement and teacher-student interactions provides insight into how culture affects learning and relationships at the classroom level.
• Be Proactive: School culture is easier to maintain than repair. We monitor issues proactively and quickly intervene to resolve problems before they escalate.

By taking a holistic approach focused on our people, NAIS aims to create an empowering culture that allows students and educators to thrive.

School culture significantly impacts students’ education and well-being. Nurturing a positive culture with safety, trust, collaboration, and meaningful traditions is vital. Strategies like forming committees, fostering diversity, and proactive monitoring are crucial to building a thriving school culture that benefits everyone involved. At NAIS, we aim to create an empowering culture that enables both students and educators to thrive.

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• Perspective on leadership
• TI-AIE: Perspective on leadership: leading the school’s self-review
• Perspective on leadership: leading the school’s self-review
• TI-AIE: Perspective on leadership: leading the school development plan
• Perspective on leadership: leading the school development plan
• TI-AIE: Perspective on leadership: using data on diversity to improve your school
• Perspective on leadership: using data on diversity to improve your school
• TI-AIE: Perspective on leadership: planning and leading change in your school
• Perspective on leadership: planning and leading change in your school
• TI-AIE: Perspective on leadership: implementing change in your school
• Perspective on leadership: implementing change in your school
• TI-AIE: Perspective on leadership: building a shared vision for your school
• Perspective on leadership: building a shared vision for your school
• Managing and developing self
• TI-AIE: Managing and developing self: managing and developing yourself
• Managing and developing self: managing and developing yourself
• Transforming teaching-learning process
• TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: leading improvements in teaching and learning in the elementary school
• Transforming teaching-learning process: leading improvements in teaching and learning in the elementary school
• TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: leading improvements in teaching and learning in the secondary school
• Transforming teaching-learning process: leading improvements in teaching and learning in the secondary school
• TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: leading assessment in your school
• Transforming teaching-learning process: leading assessment in your school
• TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: leading teachers’ professional development
• Transforming teaching-learning process: leading teachers’ professional development
• TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: supporting teachers to raise performance
• Transforming teaching-learning process: supporting teachers to raise performance
• TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: mentoring and coaching
• Transforming teaching-learning process: mentoring and coaching
• What this unit is about

What school leaders can learn in this unit

1 What is school culture and how does it impact on learning?

2 Styles of school leadership

• 3 Identifying and analysing the culture in your school
• 4 Developing a positive shared culture
• Resource 1: Plan of action
• Transforming teaching-learning process: developing an effective learning culture in your school
• TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: promoting inclusion in your school
• Transforming teaching-learning process: promoting inclusion in your school
• TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: managing resources for effective student learning
• Transforming teaching-learning process: managing resources for effective student learning
• TI-AIE: Transforming teaching-learning process: leading the use of technology in your school
• Transforming teaching-learning process: leading the use of technology in your school
• Leading partnerships
• TI-AIE: Leading partnerships: engaging with parents and the wider school community
• Leading partnerships: engaging with parents and the wider school community
• School Leadership acknowledgements
• TI-AIE: TESS-India Video Resources
• TI-AIE: TESS-India School Leadership Video Resources
• TESS-India OER title list
• TESS-India Subject Frameworks
• TESS-India Key Resources and Video Resources mapping matrix
• TESS-India Video Script titles
• TESS-India Localisation Handbook
• TESS-India MOOC Facilitation Guide
• TESS-India Consultant Orientation Handbook (Draft)
• Academic mentoring
• Action research
• Facilitating teachers' meetings
• Networks: effective professional development for educational change
• Reflection in education
• Running an effective participatory interactive workshop
• Engaging students
• Focusing on examination results
• Improving attendance
• Dealing with large multi-grade classes
• Motivating teachers
• Speaking English with confidence
• Supporting school leaders in motivating teacher change in their schools
• Teacher development meetings
• Teaching student teachers
• Teaching multilingual classes
• Using English in everyday life
• Working with elementary Maths teachers

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A school that is able to develop and maintain a positive shared culture knows what aspects of the culture are important in developing an effective learning environment; it consciously transmits these values to its students. Through collective awareness and action, culture can be used positively in order to enhance student learning and achievement, whether through small actions such as celebrating achievements in public events, or to more large-scale projects such as developing democratic processes for teachers, students and other stakeholders to contribute to curriculum reform.

While it appears to be constant , culture is a dynamic space that is influenced by laws, policies and changes of leadership. It therefore requires school leaders to be aware of what influences or changes aspects of the school culture, whether deliberately or not, and ensuring that the culture for learning and achievement are never put at risk. Research demonstrates that school leaders have a critical role in ensuring that the culture supports student achievement (MacNeil et al., 2009). But – as identified by Bulach (2001) – a leader must identify a school’s existing culture before attempting to change it.

A positive school culture can be defined broadly to include (Character Education Partnership, 2010):

• social climate , including a safe and caring environment in which all students feel welcomed and valued, and have a sense of ownership of their school; this helps students in their moral development
• intellectual climate , in which all students in every classroom are supported and challenged to do their very best and achieve work of quality; this includes a rich, rigorous and engaging curriculum, and a powerful pedagogy for teaching it
• rules and policies that hold all school members accountable to high standards of learning and behaviour
• traditions and routines built from shared values that honour and reinforce the school’s academic and social standards
• structures for giving staff and students a voice in, and shared responsibility for, solving problems and making decisions that affect the school environment and their common life
• ways of effectively working with parents to support students’ learning and character growth
• norms for relationships and behaviours that create a professional culture of excellence and ethical practice.

Figure 2 Does your school have a positive school culture?

This definition covers the breadth of school life, both academic and social. However, every bullet point can be seen to have a direct impact on student learning, whether it is through developing a culture of excellence, or ensuring that students feel safe and listened to. The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) recognises this by stating that ‘schools have a major role to play in ensuring that children are socialised into a culture of self-reliance, resourcefulness, peace-oriented values and health’ (2005, p. 35).

The NCF mentions the conscious creation of a culture that has a long-term, developmental impact, stating that ‘children cannot wake up one morning and know how to participate in, preserve and enhance a democracy, especially if they have had no prior personal or even second-hand experience of it, nor any role models to learn from’. It specifically mentions the importance of:

• a culture of reading
• a culture of innovation, curiosity and practical experience
• highlighting students’ identities as ‘learners’ and creating an environment that enhances the potential and interests of each student
• messages that convey interpersonal relations, teacher attitudes, and norms and values that are part of the culture of the school.

More recently, Section 17 of the Right to Education Act 2009 (RtE) is of particular significance in the context of developing a positive school culture, because it states that ‘no child shall be subjected to physical punishment or mental harassment’. This calls for the school leader to focus on making the school an enabling and facilitative place for all school children, thereby providing a stress-free, child-friendly, learner-centred classroom environment, which requires redefining notions of discipline, punishment and student–teacher relationships. Further, the National Programme Design and Curriculum Framework (2014) highlights the need to empower and develop the capabilities of the school leader so that the transformed school proactively nurtures children and facilitates their all-round development.

Before understanding the role of school leaders in establishing, modelling and sharing their vision of a positive school culture, it is necessary to consider how different aspects of the culture are enacted in schools. Activity 1 will help you to consider your own understanding of school culture in relation to the Character Education Partnership (CEP) definition above.

Activity 1: Identifying examples of positive school culture

Look again at the seven bullet points listed above in the CEP definition of school culture. For each bullet point, write down in your Learning Diary two examples of how this might be reflected to your school.

For each example you have listed, justify how it would have a positive impact on student learning.

You will have naturally drawn on examples from your own experience, and will maybe have thought of examples of practice that you feel your school should aim to implement. You may notice that the examples you have thought of range from something as small as all teachers saying good morning to students as they enter classrooms, to something more substantial such as changing the classroom pedagogy .

The examples you thought of for Activity 1 are likely to be context-specific. Table 1 lists some generic ideas to help you think through the broad range of practical elements that might contribute to a school culture.

Having considered the multi-faceted nature of what is meant by a school’s culture, it should be clear that there is very little that does not have an impact on how staff and students experience the school and affect the learning that takes place. As a school leader, this includes the way you lead and manage the staff, how you communicate your vision of the school’s development, and the relationships and interactions you have with staff, students and stakeholders.

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What Makes a Good School Culture?

• Posted July 23, 2018
• By Leah Shafer

Most principals have an instinctive awareness that organizational culture is a key element of school success. They might say their school has a “good culture” when teachers are expressing a shared vision and students are succeeding — or that they need to “work on school culture” when several teachers resign or student discipline rates rise. 

But like many organizational leaders, principals may get stymied when they actually try to describe the elements that create a positive culture. It's tricky to define, and parsing its components can be challenging. Amid the push for tangible outcomes like higher test scores and graduation rates, it can be tempting to think that school culture is just too vague or “soft” to prioritize.

That would be a mistake, according to  Ebony Bridwell-Mitchell , an expert in education leadership and management. As she explains, researchers who have studied culture have tracked and demonstrated a strong and significant correlation between organizational culture and an organization’s performance. Once principals understand what constitutes culture — once they learn to see it not as a hazy mass of intangibles, but as something that can be pinpointed and designed — they can start to execute a cultural vision.

A culture will be strong or weak depending on the interactions between people in the organization. In a strong culture, there are many, overlapping, and cohesive interactions, so that knowledge about the organization’s distinctive character — and what it takes to thrive in it — is widely spread.

At a recent session of the  National Institute for Urban School Leaders  at the  Harvard Graduate School of Education , Bridwell-Mitchell took a deep dive into “culture,” describing the building blocks of an organization’s character and fundamentally how it feels to work there. 

Culture Is Connections

A culture will be strong or weak depending on the interactions between the people in the organization, she said.  In a strong culture, there are many, overlapping, and cohesive interactions among all members of the organization.   As a result, knowledge about the organization’s distinctive character — and what it takes to thrive in it — is widely spread and reinforced.  In a weak culture, sparse interactions make it difficult for people to learn the organization’s culture , so its character is barely noticeable and the commitment to it is scarce or sporadic.

• Beliefs, values, and actions will spread the farthest and be tightly reinforced when everyone is communicating with everyone else. In a strong school culture, leaders communicate directly with teachers, administrators, counselors, and families, who also all communicate directly with each other.
• A culture is weaker when communications are limited and there are fewer connections. For example, if certain teachers never hear directly from their principal, an administrator is continually excluded from communications, or any groups of staff members are operating in isolation from others, it will be difficult for messages about shared beliefs and commitments to spread. 

Culture Is Core Beliefs and Behaviors

Within that weak or strong structure, what exactly people believe and how they act depends on the messages — both direct and indirect — that the leaders and others in the organization send. A good culture arises from messages that promote traits like collaboration, honesty, and hard work.

Culture is shaped by five interwoven elements, each of which principals have the power to influence: 

• Fundamental beliefs and assumptions , or the things that people at your school consider to be true. For example: “All students have the potential to succeed,” or “Teaching is a team sport.”
• Shared values , or the judgments people at your school make about those belief and assumptions — whether they are right or wrong, good or bad, just or unjust. For example: “It’s wrong that some of our kindergarteners may not receive the same opportunity to graduate from a four-year college,” or “The right thing is for our teachers to be collaborating with colleagues every step of the way.” 
• Norms , or how members believe they  should  act and behave, or what they think is expected of them. For example: “We should talk often and early to parents of young students about what it will take for their children to attend college.” “We all should be present and engaged at our weekly grade-level meetings.”
• Patterns and behaviors , or the way people  actually  act and behave in your school. For example: There are regularly-scheduled parent engagement nights around college; there is active participation at weekly team curriculum meetings. (But in a weak culture, these patterns and behaviors can be different than the norms.)
• Tangible evidence , or the physical, visual, auditory, or other sensory signs that demonstrate the behaviors of the people in your school. For example: Prominently displayed posters showcasing the district’s college enrollment, or a full parking lot an hour before school begins on the mornings when curriculum teams meet.

Each of these components influences and drives the others, forming a circle of reinforcing beliefs and actions, Bridwell-Mitchell says; strong connections among every member of the school community reinforce the circle at every point.

More on School Culture

• See Part II of our story, which moves from "what makes school culture" to "how to build it."

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How does school culture influence teaching and learning?

To be a truly amazing school leader, we need to focus on helping students achieve real growth and success. When students know school is a place that is safe and supportive , they do better. They meet curricular benchmarks faster and garner more substance from their learning outcomes. The key to unleashing their potential lies in creating a positive, safe, and healthy school culture. 

It's certainly challenging. How many of us stop every day to remember what it was like to be 5, 7, 9 years old ? The things that scared us made our days frustrating or challenging.

To be a great school leader means to remember what this was like, on top of all our responsibilities to our colleagues, teachers, parents, community partners, and of course, the kids, in guiding them to grow to be the best they can and fulfill their potential , eventually leading happy, productive lives as adults with young learners of their own.

How can we best measure students' wellbeing ? How can we make sure they're engaged, excited to come to school, curious to learn? What can we do to improve school leadership — and by extension, school operations and student success outcomes — other than what we're already doing?

Students do better when they know that adults care . With experience, we know students who may be lagging in problem solving or social skills may be having difficulties in their home life. We recognize the red flags when something is off. But it can be challenging to know if there's a problem at home or in the classroom, where the teacher can't keep an eye on every single social interaction the students have with each other. We don't know if a child is acting out because their home life is unsafe, or if they've eaten before coming into school. We can't know unless we find a way to get answers from little pitchers with big ears… and small spouts.

Ask them the right way, and they will answer

But how to figure out what the students need? How to ask them what they can't say yet as they develop and grow, especially when you have so much on your plate? Staff management. Bureaucracy. Ensuring the students are having their needs met so they can succeed.

We need to be passionate about creating great learning environments, or we wouldn't be in this field in the first place. We need emotional intelligence to lead well and earn the genuine respect of the teachers and staff under our purview. We need the judgment to make tough decisions, and the clarity of focus, the moral vision to understand the outcomes of these decisions .

We need resilience, both to handle the consequences of these decisions and the constant small crises of our daily grind. We must be motivational for both the children and adults we lead alike and dare to ask difficult — and sometimes, uncomfortable — tough questions to growing young ones who often seem braver than we do because they have curiosity, passion, and hunger for the world and learning itself that we need to keep up with too.

A simple, fast, and safe solution

Asking the right questions the right way is challenging. We don't want to intimidate the students. We want them to feel they can be honest with us, to trust that we will solve challenges that are so important to them. To feel safe, protected, and cared for.

A better way to benchmark student emotional wellbeing

Successful school days should:

• End making the next day a new beginning, so we can build off the successes of the ones that came before while changing what wasn't working to make school a better place for everyone.
• Be a safe place for students to learn from, and be guided by, adults they trust to care: to be honest and open and supportive;
• Be a place where collaborative teamwork, recognition of individual and team efforts and successes together, and celebration of student differences and uniqueness is the norm;
• Begin and end with a routine that fosters this environment of emotional safety, transparency, and support.

So, what is School Day ? We believe our results better speak for themselves. Check out how others have succeeded in making their school days better with School Day here !

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A Principal’s Perspective: The Importance of School Culture

Building a strong school culture helps breed student success.

As a school leader, your top commitment is to improve student learning. So refining instructional practice among your staff should be at the top of your priority list. But before you go sifting through data and refining your school’s standards, you should keep in mind that creating a positive school culture can have a remarkable impact on the success of your school.

The ASCD book How to Create a Culture of Achievement in Your School and Classroom shows how positive school culture encourages greater effort and productivity, improves collegial collaboration, supports successful change and improvement efforts, builds commitment and identification of students and teachers with your school, and amplifies energy and motivation of staff members and students.

And, really, what leader wouldn’t want a more energized and motivated staff?

While there is no exhaustive list of the most effective strategies for creating this sense of community at your school, I have tried many over the years. The following techniques and examples represent my top five. 

1. Plan a Bridge Program for New Students and Staff

We were all newbies at one point. Plan immersive experiences that help newbies fit into the culture of the school. At University Park Campus School in Worcester, Massachusetts, students begin learning the culture curriculum before the first day of school. Every new middle school student is required to attend a three-week academy to meet his or her teachers and peers and engage in a learning experience. Similarly, at High Tech Middle School in San Diego, students attend a 10-day bridge program to complete a project-based experience in order to be ready for their first projects when they start the school year. These immersive experiences allow new staff and students to feel a sense of community on the first day of school.

2. Make School-Wide Goals Visible

Where do you post the goals for your school? Chances are, they are hidden away in a website or a staff room. Post school-wide goals in a visible place so that the entire school community will feel a shared sense of purpose. You can also recite your mission statement over the PA each day and provide an example of a student or classroom that is achieving it. In “ The Principal’s Role in Successful Schools ,” Shelly Habegger finds that even schools with a disproportionately high number of underqualified teachers and students from disadvantaged backgrounds experience greater academic success when a positive school culture is created.

3. Keep a Loyal Opposition

How do leaders move the school in a positive direction when there are loud voices that stand in opposition? Quite simply, according to Thomas Sergiovanni in The Principalship: A Reflective Practice Perspective , keeping a loyal opposition builds trust. At the International School of Beijing, for example, before rolling out any initiative to the faculty, the head of the school always asked those opposed to provide their critique. This gesture transformed the biggest naysayers into his greatest proponents. Another way to do this is to create a survey that asks staff members to rate their commitment to fulfilling each school-wide initiative. Invite them to include the additional support they need to reach each goal.

4. Establish Collaborative Networks

Once you have identified the greatest obstacles to achieving your school-wide goals, hire an educational consultant to help you overcome these obstacles. In New York City, LaShawnna Harris, the principal of P.S. 330Q in Queens, partnered with Morrison Healthcare to improve school culture through staff appreciation days and team-building activities. The school saw a 22 percentage point increase in the number of teachers who found the principal’s vision to be clear, as well as a 43 percentage point increase in the number of teachers who felt supported.

5. Hold School-Wide Rallies and Assemblies

How often does your whole school gather? While many schools have a smattering of assemblies spread across the school year, it’s less common to gather every morning. At Quest College Preparatory School in McCallen, Texas, the school gathers daily to celebrate achievements and emphasize expectations for behavior and character. These celebrations often include a school song, announcements by students of upcoming events, and sometimes a brief showcase of student work. Beyond building school spirit and unity, a daily routine like this helps keep you focused on the big picture as a leader (Related Article: Daily Assemblies: Deepening Relationships Through Ritual and Recognition )

Motivating a school is an effort that lasts throughout the year. By focusing on instilling a positive school culture, principals can make these tasks manageable and fulfilling.

How do you support a strong school culture in your building? Please share your strategies in the comments below. 

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How school culture affects teachers’ classroom implementation of learning from professional development

• Original Paper
• Open access
• Published: 01 February 2023
• Volume 26 , pages 785–801, ( 2023 )

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• Katrina McChesney   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3991-6265 1 &
• Jenny Cross 1  

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This article has been updated

A core element of almost all educational improvement efforts is an intention to improve teacher practice in order to enhance student- and system-level outcomes. To this end, a range of strategies are deployed to facilitate teacher professional learning and development, with great investments of time, financial, and human resources. However, the environments in which teachers learn and their impact on teachers’ implementation of new learning remain underexamined. By considering how the psychosocial learning environments present in schools affect the teacher development process, there is scope to enhance the impacts of professional development. This study explored how aspects of school climate and culture (that is, the learning environments that teachers experience) affect teachers’ classroom implementation of their professional learning. Qualitative data were gathered from 36 teachers in New Zealand through focus groups and analysed via reflexive thematic analysis following a latent inductive approach. Five areas of school climate and culture were identified that, according to the teachers, affected their implementation of new professional learning. These areas were: leadership engagement/actions; the change environment; relationships; beliefs and attitudes related to TPLD; and all being on the same page. Understanding the roles these five areas play provides insights into how school leaders and policymakers can seek to shape the learning environments that surround teachers’ daily classroom practice in order to facilitate learning and improvement for all.

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Introduction

It can be extremely challenging to ensure that investments in teacher professional learning and development (TPLD) opportunities lead to enhanced teaching and learning outcomes (Hill et al., 2013 ; Lauer et al., 2014 ; McChesney, 2022 ; McChesney & Aldridge, 2019 , 2021 ; TNTP, 2015 ). The trajectory from TPLD opportunities to teacher and student impacts is complex and affected by a range of factors that are not yet adequately understood (McChesney & Aldridge, 2021 ). To deepen our understanding of how various factors affect the impacts arising from TPLD opportunities, further research is required.

This article examines the influence of school climate and culture on teachers’ implementation of new learning (arising from TPLD opportunities) in their classroom practice. The general importance of school environments for educational improvement efforts is well-known (e.g. Drago-Severson 2012 ; Gruenert & Whitaker, 2015 ; Lee & Louis, 2019 ; Stoll, 2000 ). However, this article offers more specific insights into how particular aspects of the environment in which teachers learn shape a key outcome of that learning (changed classroom practice).

The research question addressed in this article is: What aspects of the school climate or culture affect teachers’ classroom implementation of new learning gained through professional learning and development opportunities? Thus, the present article is interested only in situations where a teacher has (a) engaged in some TPLD opportunity/ies and (b) gained some new learning, knowledge, insight, or understanding from that engagement.

The extent to which—and the reasons why—TPLD opportunities may or may not actually lead to teacher learning are beyond the scope of this paper; the focus here is on whether teachers implement their new learning by changing their classroom practice. Similarly, the relationships between changed classroom practice and student outcomes are also beyond the scope of this paper. The paper focuses on a specific part of the TPLD-to-impact trajectory (as conceptualised by McChesney & Aldridge 2021 ), seeking to offer more detailed understandings of factors affecting teachers’ implementation of new learning. Importantly, whereas policy statements and associated research offer a ‘top-down’ picture of TPLD systems and intentions, this study focused on people’s lived experiences related to TPLD, shifting the focus from “what should happen” to “what actually happens” (McChesney & Aldridge, 2021 , p. 849).

The paper makes a unique contribution by bringing together three distinct fields: learning environments, teacher professional development, and implementation science. Learning environments research seeks to understand how the environments within which people are situated affect learning. Implementation science—a relatively new discipline, particularly in relation to education (Century & Cassata, 2016 )—seeks to document, evaluate, and understand the implementation of new approaches or innovations, including identifying factors that affect the success of these change efforts. Some, but relatively limited, research has linked teacher professional development with the field of learning environments (e.g. Soebari & Aldridge 2015 ); however, almost none has linked teacher professional development with implementation science. In this paper, it is hoped that insights arising from the combination of these three fields may help to address the “wicked problem” (Opfer & Pedder, 2011 , p. 379) of how best to maximise the outcomes of professional learning and development.

Teacher professional learning and development

In this article, professional learning and development is understood to refer to any activities that cause, or are intended to cause, teacher learning (McChesney, 2017 ). Thus, TPLD includes activities such as workshops, coaching, and further study as well as informal teacher collaboration, learning through the use of teaching resources or exemplars, and professional reading. This definition deliberately suspends the assumption that all TPLD activities or opportunities will necessarily result in teacher learning.

Recent research has highlighted the complexities associated with the extent to which TPLD leads to positive teaching and learning impacts. The previous assumption that the design of TPLD was the key driver for subsequent impact has been increasingly challenged (Bobis et al., 2020 ; Hill et al., 2013 ; Jacob et al., 2017 ; Kennedy, 2016 ; McChesney, 2022 ). Instead, there have been calls for increased consideration of the complexity of teacher learning (Boylan et al., 2018 ; Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002 ; Strom & Viesca, 2021 ), the role of teacher-related factors (Carpendale et al., 2021 ; Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002 ; Kennedy, 2014 ), and the role of contextual factors (Cameron et al., 2013 ; McChesney & Aldridge, 2021 ; Opfer & Pedder, 2011 ).

In response to these calls, the present study was informed by McChesney and Aldridge’s ( 2021 ) conceptual model for the trajectory from teacher TPLD to impacts. This model is unique in that it is.

informed by data that reflected teachers’ perceptions of what actually happened in relation to the impacts of professional development. [This] model thus differs from past models that have primarily emerged from theorising about what we think should happen. Second, [this] model depicts how progression among the stages of the model occurs and offers insights into what can ‘get in the way’. (p. 13)

McChesney and Aldridge’s ( 2021 ) model suggests that a series of ‘filters’ restrict the progression from TPLD to impact. One such filter—termed “implementation barriers” (p. 841)—lies between teachers’ learning from TPLD and their subsequent implementation of that new learning in their classroom practice. Participants in McChesney and Aldridge’s study highlighted the overall importance of school-level factors in affecting TPLD’s impacts. However, that study was not able to clarify the specific nature of the school-level factors that posed implementation barriers. The present study, therefore, extended existing literature by exploring some of those school-level implementation barriers.

Successful implementation of educational improvements

Implementation research in education is a relatively young field (Albers & Pattuwage, 2017 ; Century & Cassata, 2016 ). It seeks to look beyond decisions about desired or expected educational changes and/or the communication and promotion of those changes. Instead, implementation research aims to carefully examine “what happens next— what is actually enacted, how an innovation is enacted, and why the contexts, conditions, characteristics, and other influences shape innovation enactment as they do” (Century & Cassata, 2016 , p. 172). Implementation research recognises that it is not typically the change or ‘solution’ itself that is effective or ineffective. Rather, the way a change is implemented in each individual context shapes the resulting outcomes as “task and organization factors combine to create … variability” (Bryk, 2015 , p. 473; see also Bryk et al., 2015 ).

Past research has identified factors at the individual teacher, school, and system levels that all affect the successful implementation of educational improvements (Albers & Pattuwage, 2017 ; Century & Cassata, 2016 ; Lee & Louis, 2019 ). Given the school-level focus of the present article, this section focuses on what we know about school-level factors affecting the implementation of educational improvement.

Characteristics of particular school settings are known to affect the implementation of educational change. Some of these characteristics are relatively objective, such as class size, available resources, the nature of the physical space/s, timetabling, and school structures and systems. Other school characteristics are more subjective (but no less real or important), such as the attitudes, values, and behaviours that are prevalent within the school or the approaches taken to leadership, decision-making, and administration (Daniëls et al., 2019 ; Murphy et al., 2007 ). The characteristics of particular cohorts of students also affect teachers’ implementation of change as teachers actively monitor and assess whether they feel a recommended innovation is appropriate for their students (McChesney & Aldridge, 2021 ). Together, the above factors constitute general characteristics of a particular school environment. They form the ‘backdrop’ for change and improvement efforts, but they also influence those efforts.

Change management strategies are further school-level factors that affect the implementation of change. Such strategies may include resourcing, strategic planning, active monitoring of change, coaching, support systems, and evaluation mechanisms (Fullan, 2014 ; Fullan & Quinn, 2016 ). Both the presence and the absence of such change management strategies can influence teachers’ implementation of change; however, strategies need to reflect and respond to the existing landscape of the specific school context in order to be effective (Bryk et al., 2015 ; Drysdale et al., 2009 ; Mourshed et al., 2010 ).

School characteristics and change management strategies both highlight the important role that school leaders play in facilitating the implementation of educational change (Drysdale et al., 2009 ). Arguably, it is school leaders who have the greatest influence on both the school characteristics and the presence, absence, and nature of any change management strategies. The extent to which leaders actively leverage these factors to influence change efforts can be characterised using three categories: “letting it happen”, “helping it happen”, or “making it happen” (Lyon, n.d. , p. 2).

A further school-level factor that affects the implementation of educational change is the school culture (Lee & Louis, 2019 ). This element is discussed in the next section.

School culture, school climate, and educational improvement

School culture and school climate are related constructs that have been defined in a range of ways within both literature and professional practice. Both refer to aspects of what it is like to be, learn, or work at a particular school, and sometimes the terms have been used interchangeably (Aldridge & Ala’i, 2013 ; Gruenert, 2008 ; Kaplan & Owings, 2013 ). In professional contexts, school culture has often been described simply as “the way we do things around here” (Kaplan & Owings, 2013 , p. 7; Stoll, 2000 , p. 9). Wang & Degol ( 2016 , p. 315) suggest that the term school climate encompasses “virtually every aspect of the school experience,” including aspects related to safety, community, academic climate, and the institutional environment.

Research literature, however, often differentiates school culture from school climate. Gruenert & Whitaker ( 2015 ) argue that school climate describes what we do (our values and beliefs in action) and may change relatively rapidly within the bounds of the existing culture, whereas school culture describes why we do it (our underlying values and beliefs) and only changes slowly. This position echoes Schein’s ( 1985 , p. 9) seminal statement that the culture of any organisation is

a pattern of basic assumptions—invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with problems … that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems.

An organisation or school’s climate thus concerns the more visible manifestations of the underlying culture: the “patterns of people’s experiences of school life … norms, goals, values, interpersonal relationships, teaching and learning practices, and organizational structures” (Thapa et al., 2012 , p. 2). These aspects of climate are heavily shaped by the organisation or school’s underlying culture , which acts as the “software of the mind” shaping people’s behaviours (Hofstede et al., 2010 , p. 5).

Much attention has been paid to the links between school environments and educational improvement. Gruenert ( 2008 ) has argued that it is much easier to change the climate of a school than to shift the underlying culture , meaning that school climate could be used as a lever to begin shifting school culture. Various tools have thus been developed to support the measurement of school climate (e.g. Aldridge & Ala’i 2013 ; Aldridge & Fraser, 2017 ; Jin, 2021 ; Ramelow et al., 2015 ), and research has identified associations between school climates and a range of outcomes for both students (Aldridge & McChesney, 2018 ; Kutsyuruba et al., 2015 ; Thapa et al., 2013 ; Wang & Degol, 2016 ) and staff (Aldridge & Fraser, 2017 ; Collie et al., 2012 ; Gray et al., 2017 ; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011 ).

School culture and climate have important links to teacher TPLD (Timperley, 2008 ) and school improvement (Bryk et al., 2015 ; Lee & Louis, 2019 ). These links arise because

professional learning is strongly shaped by the context in which the teacher practises. This is usually the classroom, which, in turn, is strongly influenced by the wider school culture and the community and society in which the school is situated. Teachers’ daily experiences in their practice context shape their understandings, and their understandings shape their experiences. (Timperley, 2008 , p. 6).

Building on this understanding, key threads of recent work have considered how schools can become “learning organisations” (Kools et al., 2020 ; Kools & Stoll, 2016 ) or “networked improvement communities” (Bryk, 2015 ); how professional learning communities can be developed within schools to support school improvement (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017 ; Jensen et al., 2016 ; Lee & Louis, 2019 ); how teachers can be supported to engage in collaborative inquiry (Bayliss, 2012 ; Capps et al., 2012 ; Colton et al., 2015 ; Timperley et al., 2014 ); and the role of school leaders in establishing these kinds of teacher learning environments (Drago-Severson, 2012 ; Kaser & Halbert, 2017 ). All this work emphasises the importance of the environments in which teachers learn, exploring the characteristics and structures that characterise learning organisations and/or professional learning communities (Bryk, 2015 ; Bryk et al., 2015 ; Colton et al., 2015 ; Jensen et al., 2016 ; Kools et al., 2020 ; Kools & Stoll, 2016 ). The present study contributes further to developing these understandings.

Methodology

This article explores the relationship between the school environment and one specific aspect of educational improvement: changed classroom practice following TPLD. Rather than focusing solely on either school climate or school culture, we took an inductive approach, seeking to identify school-level factors—which might reflect either climate or culture—that, in teachers’ views, affected their implementation of new learning from TPLD.

Our research can be situated within Century and Cassata’s ( 2016 ) taxonomy of implementation research methodologies. They note that, at the highest level, implementation studies either seek to evaluate the fidelity of an innovation’s implementation or to understand “implementation as conducted (i.e. what actually happened?)” (p. 190). This study sits within the latter category. Century & Cassata ( 2016 ) then identify a range of possible lines of inquiry within that category; of these, this study focused on “explor[ing] the contextual factors that support or inhibit innovation use” (p. 190).

Data came from n  = 36 New Zealand teachers (29 female and 7 male Footnote 1 ; 25 from primary/intermediate schools and 11 from secondary schools) who participated in one of eight focus groups. Six teachers self-identified as early-career; eight came from schools in rural locations. All were teachers with ongoing employment at a single school (i.e. not casual/day relief teachers).

Within the focus groups, the teachers were introduced to McChesney and Aldridge’s ( 2021 ) model of the trajectory from TPLD opportunities to various forms of impact as well as the definition of TPLD noted earlier in the paper. Teachers responded to the model and discussed factors that, in their experience, had acted as barriers at each stage of the model. The teachers also collaboratively completed a written brainstorm activity identifying barriers at each stage of the model.

The focus group sessions were audio recorded and transcribed, and the brainstorms were digitised in a consistent format Footnote 2 . Reflexive thematic analysis was then conducted, in two stages. First, all the data were coded using NVivo software both inductively to identify broad themes and constructs within the data and deductively using the pre-existing components of McChesney and Aldridge’s ( 2021 ) conceptual model (for example, applying codes such as “implementation barriers” and “teacher learning”). Data that had been coded as relating to both school climate or culture and the implementation of new learning from TPLD was then extracted. A second round of finer-grained coding and reflexive thematic analysis followed, using inductive codes. As a result, five aspects of the school environment were identified that (in teachers’ views) affected the extent to which teachers changed their classroom practice following new learning from TPLD. The next section presents these findings with supporting quotes from the data.

Leadership engagement and actions

All eight focus groups highlighted the importance of school leaders’ engagement and actions for their implementation of new learning from TPLD. Implementation was facilitated when school leaders were supportive of the changes being advocated within TPLD [FG1 Footnote 3 ]; conversely, implementation was restricted if “ I’ve gone out and done this PD and it shows this, and so I’d like to put that in place, but it doesn’t line up with … the principal’s view ” [FG7; also FG5]. Leaders played an important role in providing resourcing, systems, and structures that all supported teachers’ implementation of new learning from TPLD [FG1, FG3, FG4, FG7]; where this provision was not present, teachers’ implementation was inhibited [FG1]. Teachers noted that, to facilitate classroom implementation, school leaders needed to maintain this support and resourcing beyond the initial TPLD experience [FG1, FG5].

Leaders also supported teachers’ implementation of learning from TPLD through fostering a culture of trust and safety within which teachers could learn, experiment, and take risks with new practices: “ It’s that professional trust, and that stems from management ” [FG2]. However, teachers described some leaders’ counterproductive ways of trying to build a safe environment, which inhibited meaningful learning and change:

Quite often the first thing they [leaders] start with is by basically reassuring people they’re already doing this stuff anyway … And that was the comforting lie that everyone really enjoyed, “Oh, yeah, I’m already doing it, I’ve just got to write it down.” Rather than the unpleasant truth which was nobody was doing it. Either because they [leaders] didn’t understand it or they didn’t value it, and they didn’t feel people could take the criticism … So let’s repackage it, let’s make it nice and clean, make it look like you’re already doing it instead of addressing where the issues are . [FG7]

The expectations and processes that leaders put in place around accountability and teacher appraisal affected teachers’ implementation of new learning from TPLD. Teachers shared that these processes could make them feel critiqued and watched: “ You feel like you’re constantly being [watched] … people look at you no matter what ” [FG2]. Implementation was also affected by the extent to which teacher appraisal expectations aligned with TPLD focuses [FG1, FG6].

The change environment

The second aspect of the school environment that affected teachers’ implementation of TPLD learning related to the pace, scale, and infrastructure associated with change efforts in their particular school context. Although these things are likely to be largely determined by school leaders, they are expressed here as a distinct theme because the teachers’ comments typically referred to the change environment itself rather than the leaders’ role in shaping the environment.

A common issue raised by teachers was the tendency to move on to a new TPLD focus before teachers had sufficiently implemented and embedded classroom practices from previous TPLD [FG1, FG8]: “ As soon as everyone’s done a lesson or two using the [new] structures or resources or whatever, they then want to move you on, because we’ve done this, tick it off, now let’s move on to something else ” [FG8]. Teachers felt that school-level goals and priorities changed too rapidly, bringing in new TPLD focuses too soon [FG1, FG3, FG5, FG8]:

Before you can get a chance to implement it or try it out, there’s another change, so that [previous] PD’s dropped and then suddenly there’s another one rolled out … All the time, it seems to be that you don’t actually get the chance to implement it. [FG1]

Teachers described the challenges of having too many simultaneous but distinct TPLD and improvement efforts: “ change fatigue ” [FG4], “ overload ” [FG4], feeling “ overwhelmed ” [FG6], lacking “ time and brain capacity to take on intended PLD ” [FG7], and having “ just too much to focus on at once ” [FG6; also FG3]. This overload inhibited implementation: “ We might be looking at six different things all at once, and then nothing gets effectively implemented because the school’s picked too many things to focus on ” [FG8; also FG3]. This overload was particularly problematic for early-career teachers, who had to quickly familiarise themselves with much of a school’s previous TPLD in order to fit in with current practices: “ It’s a little too much for him [a beginning teacher] to try and implement in his first year of teaching everything that’s gone on prior ” [FG7].

Time factors affected teachers’ implementation of new learning from TPLD. Teachers reported needing time to undertake the additional practical work involved in implementing new learning [FG1, FG2, FG3, FG4, FG6, FG7, FG8]; time to collaborate with colleagues [FG2, FG5]; and time to process their new learning individually: “ I need to sit somewhere and actually go deep, and I can’t go deep because I don’t have time ” [FG4; also FG1, FG6, FG7]. The “ crowded curriculum ” [FG7, also FG3] restricted teachers’ opportunities to implement some new learning from TPLD, as class time was needed for other priorities. Teachers also struggled to focus on improving their classroom practice when they had too many extra-curricular responsibilities [FG4] or when “ staff are feeling tired/stressed/overworked and just don’t have mental space for something else ” [FG6].

One focus group commented that a sense of urgency around ensuring students were continually advancing could inhibit sustained implementation of new learning. They felt teachers could be too quick to discard new practices if positive outcomes were not observed immediately:

There’s that sense that we’ve got to keep moving, and we’ve got to keep accelerating, and we’ve got to keep [the student/s] moving up the levels, and we can’t afford to stop for a moment in case the moss starts to grow back under our feet, so you’re constantly pushing and running. So there’s that mindset that you don’t have time to wait for something to work. You know, I don’t have time to invest in this [new] thing; if they’re not making progress and I’ve been doing this for two days, well, shit, I’m going to have to ditch it and go back to what I was doing because at least I know I’ve got some [student achievement] gains there. [FG4]

Attitudes towards change

The third aspect of the school environment that appeared to affect teachers’ implementation of TPLD learning related to the attitudes towards change that were held amongst staff. For implementation to occur, it was essential for teachers to acknowledge the need for change and to be “ ready to learn/challenge existing beliefs they may have ” [FG6; also FG1]. Teachers in all eight focus groups acknowledged the concept of “ buy in ” as being a prerequisite for implementation, although one teacher raised a counter-view that “ Regardless of your own individual needs, you are part of an institution that has a general direction and strategic plan … You do have to actually buy into the whole school PD ” [FG2].

Buy-in and openness to change were not always present when TPLD priorities had been set by leadership (either at the school level or for individual teachers through appraisal processes). In these situations, teachers sometimes felt they had not had a voice [FG3, FG6, FG7, FG8] or that the TPLD priority was not relevant for their own learning or their students’ needs [FG7, FG8]. This inhibited teachers’ implementation of what they had learned through TPLD: “ Your barrier’s going to go up quite quickly, because you don’t have that buy-in, you don’t have that option to get to voice what you think you need and want, and your kids need and want” [FG3].

Staff dynamics

The fourth aspect of the school environment that affected teachers’ implementation of learning from TPLD related to interpersonal staff dynamics. Teachers’ accounts of these dynamics contrasted widely. Some described a sense of competition among staff:

“I’m a better teacher than you”—there’s just so much of that and it doesn’t help anybody. It can be that particular person has a very much “my department is better than every other department” … kind of thing. There is a lot of competition. [FG2]

Power dynamics were also discussed, with reference to “ hierarchy ” [FG3] and leaders who “ expect you to implement it their way ” [FG3]. Beginning teachers faced particular difficulties in this regard:

You’re caught in a vulnerable position because you can’t really challenge that authority. Your mentor says, “Implement this, do it this way” but you’re actually allowed to bring those fresh ideas as well, which you might have been hired for initially—[but] you don’t get the opportunity to do that because there’s some senior staff that says, “No, we’ve always done it like this, this is how you go.” [FG3]

Others, however, described trusting communities of colleagues within which they could safely and honestly admit their weaknesses, ask questions, and seek support [FG2]. Having this sort of environment was seen as critical to enable teachers to implement new learning from TPLD in their classroom practice:

I am such a relationship person. If I am expected to go to PLD with somebody that I don’t have a good working relationship with, or I am expected to implement it with somebody that you don’t have that good relationship with … you’ve got to be able to work well with those people before you can actually apply all of those things. [FG3]

All being on the same page

The final aspect of the school environment that affected teachers’ implementation of TPLD learning related to a sense that the school community was on the same page. Classroom implementation was more likely to occur when teachers felt they were on a shared journey with their colleagues [FG1, FG3, FG7]. Shared TPLD focuses provided positive accountability [FG7], opportunities for collaborative learning [FG3], and support to ensure that classroom implementation remained “ at the forefront of what you were doing ” [FG3]. In contrast, implementation was hindered if only one teacher was pursuing a particular direction [FG1, FG4, FG6] or when colleagues supposedly on the same TPLD journey had different understandings of what implementation might look like [FG4, FG7]. One teacher also observed that “ If PLD is perceived negatively by other teachers, this may impact on a teacher’s decision to implement it in their classroom or not ” [FG6]. These considerations were particularly acute when multiple teachers had to negotiate shared practice in a single teaching space such as an innovative learning environment [FG1, FG3].

Staff turnover could disrupt the sense of everyone being on the same page, inhibiting TPLD implementation [FG3, FG5, FG8]:

Staff turnover can have a huge impact. Especially if staff are leaving part way through the year, whether it be changing jobs or maternity leave or anything like that. If you’re doing staff-wide PD then you’ve got everyone on the same page, [but] then someone leaves and you get someone new in and trying to bring them up to speed and things can be quite tricky. [FG8]

The impact of staff turnover was heightened for TPLD that involved more major changes to teaching and learning and was therefore likely to take a long time to be effectively embedded in a school:

You might not see too many changes in the first six months. Within a year, things are starting to tick but it might be two, three, four years later—[but] by the time there’s that real ingrained culture, part of your staff might have left. [FG3]

Bringing new staff up to speed with established TPLD implementation was not always easy. Other teachers or team leaders sometimes had to absorb this extra work when funding was not available for the new staff to attend external TPLD or have TPLD facilitators come into the school to work with them individually [FG8]. This was described as “ a massive burden ” for both the new staff and those supporting them [FG3].

At a broader level, teachers also commented that TPLD implementation required wider buy-in from students and their families [FG3, FG4, FG5, FG6, FG7]: “ Another aspect, too, is how much do the community buy into it? If the students and the whānau [families] are keen, there’s a drive where you can see it actually impacting the classroom and everybody’s excited about it” [FG5]. If students resisted or reacted negatively to a teacher’s implementation of new practices following TPLD, the teacher was less likely to maintain the new practices [FG1, FG2, FG3, FG4]. Teachers reported that sometimes students were “ not open to change ” and did not like feeling “ like they are part of an experiment because it [the newly implemented practice] is not what they are used to ” [FG6; also FG7].

In the research reported in this paper, we considered the role of school climate and culture as the environment in which teachers learn. Drawing on McChesney and Aldridge’s ( 2021 ) conceptualisation of the TPLD-to-impact trajectory, the study highlighted five aspects of the school environment that constrained or enabled teachers’ classroom implementation of new learning they had gained through TPLD opportunities.

Most implementation research in education has focused on evaluating the fidelity of innovation implementation (Century & Cassata, 2016 ). Such work has tended toward quantitative methods and experimental or quasi-experimental designs. However, given the complexity and diversity of real school settings, there is an urgent need to understand the contextual factors that lead to variation in the outcomes of educational change efforts (Bryk, 2015 ). Valuable insights into “the ‘why’ and the ‘how’” (Century & Cassata, 2016 , p. 184) of educational improvement can be obtained through the richness of qualitative data, as in the case of the study reported in this paper.

The study took an inductive approach, seeking teachers’ accounts of school-level factors that affected their implementation of TPLD learning. Having identified these factors, it is now possible to consider whether they reflect school climate or school culture , which are defined differently in the literature (Gruenert, 2008 ; Gruenert & Whitaker, 2015 ). Three of the five factors identified in this study—leadership engagement and actions; the change environment; and all being on the same page—seem best characterised as features of school climate . These factors reflect values and beliefs in action, with specific practical decisions being made (and having the potential to be made differently) around things such as who participates in TPLD; who determines TPLD focuses and the pace or extent of change; and the practical ways in which leaders support TPLD and change efforts. On the other hand, the attitudes towards change and the staff dynamics present in a school seem better characterised as features of the school culture , reflecting underlying values and beliefs that cannot be so rapidly changed but that shape people’s behaviours in important ways. Thus, the findings of this research indicate that both school culture and school climate influence the extent to which teachers implement new learning from TPLD in their classrooms.

Two of the present study’s themes—leadership engagement and actions, and staff dynamics—have clear correspondences within Wang and Degol’s ( 2016 ) categorisation of the constructs that have been examined in existing school climate research. However, the change environment, attitudes towards change, and the sense of all being on the same page do not directly align with any of the elements noted by Wang and Degol Footnote 4 . This suggests that these three areas could offer new lines of inquiry within learning environments research. For example, instruments could be developed and validated to explore concepts of change fatigue or change overload in educational contexts, teachers’ attitudes towards change and perceptions of the change expectations, and the extent to which teachers feel that the whole community is on the same page around improvement goals.

At a broader level, the study’s findings can be considered in relation to existing theories and models of educational improvement. Much existing research highlights the crucial role of school leaders in leading educational change (Daniëls et al., 2019 ; Robinson et al., 2009 ). However, whereas some past studies have emphasised school leaders’ pedagogical or instructional leadership roles, the findings of this study more closely align with Murphy et al.’s ( 2007 ) Leadership for Learning model, which encompasses pedagogical and instructional aspects of leadership but also highlights leaders’ work setting the vision for collective improvement, facilitating the development of communities of learners, managing resource acquisition and use, and shaping the organisational culture and climate.

The importance of all being on the same page—highlighted in the present study—resonates with recent literature that has focused on the role of coherence in educational change efforts (Fullan & Quinn, 2016 ; Robinson et al., 2017 ) and more established literature identifying coherence as a feature of effective TPLD (Desimone, 2009 ; Garet et al., 2001 ). Related to this is the importance of managing the overall pace and scope of change being asked of teachers, so that improvements are able to be meaningfully and sustainably embedded (Robinson, 2018 ).

The insights generated through this research are important as they provide new specificity around the ways in which school climate and culture affect the outcomes of TPLD. Although there has previously been ample acknowledgement that school climate and culture matter for educational improvement, identifying the specific elements that are influential can inform practice-based efforts to enhance the classroom implementation of TPLD. Leaders can consider their practice in relation to the points raised by teachers in this study, as well as reflecting on and seeking to enhance the change environment, the prevailing attitudes towards change amongst staff, the wider staff dynamics, and the extent to which staff, students, and the wider school community are all “on the same page” in relation to change efforts. Professional development providers and policymakers can also be mindful of the role that these school-level factors play in teachers’ TPLD implementation. For example, they might talk with teachers or school leaders about these aspects of their school climate and culture and invite reflection and action around how to enhance the teachers’ learning environment in order to promote successful TPLD implementation in classrooms.

In identifying the school-level factors that affect the outcomes of TPLD, it is important to remain attentive to the huge variation that we know will be present among schools, teachers, and students in any context. While the teachers in this study described the importance of (for example) school leaders supporting TPLD with appropriate resourcing, this should not be interpreted as meaning that all schools or all leaders do this either poorly or well – and similarly for the other factors identified in the study. It is therefore important to empower both teachers and school leaders as actively engaged “improvers” who shape, implement, reflect on, and refine TPLD and change efforts in their specific context (Bryk, 2015 , p. 475). Hearing teacher voice, as in the case of this study, should inform ongoing improvement efforts: In line with Bryk’s ( 2015 , p. 475) vision, “respecting and valuing the varied expertise that is needed to solve educational problems, networked improvement communities embrace all involved as full members.”

Directions for further research

This study has explored one specific aspect of the TPLD-to-impact trajectory (teachers’ classroom implementation of new learning) and, within that, has looked specifically at school-level (rather than teacher-level, TPLD-related, or wider environmental) factors. Similar research could identify factors influencing other aspects of the TPLD-to-impact trajectory.

Researchers in the field of learning environments have previously developed instruments for measuring teachers’ perceptions of school climate and culture (for an overview, see Aldridge & Fraser 2017 ). However, some of the factors highlighted in this study have not previously been examined within learning environments research. These factors, therefore, suggest directions for further instrument development and application in order to help schools assess the extent to which their current environment and/or improvements made to the environment over time support teachers’ implementation of new learning from TPLD.

As a qualitative study arising from one geographic context, this study naturally has limitations. The sample of teachers was self-selected, and the experiences of teachers in New Zealand may differ from those of teachers in other contexts. Therefore, further research could usefully explore the extent to which the factors highlighted in this study are endorsed as important by teachers in other contexts.

It is interesting to note that, despite sharing a broad definition of TPLD (as any activities that cause, or are intended to cause, teacher learning; McChesney, 2017 ) with the participating teachers, their contributions in the focus groups and brainstorms seem to imply a persistent focus on more structured forms of professional development. Teachers spoke of TPLD and change as being essentially “top down”, stemming from school-wide strategic planning and decision making. This perhaps contributes to our understanding of the teachers’ calls for clear leadership engagement and for a school community to be all on the same page, but it obscures to some extent how school environments can facilitate teachers’ independent and/or informal engagement in diverse forms of professional learning and development. Findings from the present study related to staff dynamics, attitudes towards change, and the need for time and “headspace” to allow for learning and reflection are likely to remain relevant for more personalised and informal professional learning as well as for teacher inquiry, but these types of TPLD need further targeted research.

A further limitation of the present study is the conceptualisation of teachers’ classroom implementation of practice following sequentially from their learning. Much literature indeed conceptualises the TPLD-to-impact trajectory in sequential ways, meaning there is a significant basis for this kind of modelling, but there are nonetheless weaknesses in such conceptualisations that should be acknowledged. It is likely that the trajectory is not purely linear, as (for example) the process of implementing new pedagogies in their classrooms following TPLD could lead teachers to develop better understandings (i.e. new learning) of those pedagogies.

Finally, further research might continue to bring together the fields of learning environments research, teacher development research, and/or implementation science. Ongoing work located at the intersections of these fields could generate further helpful insights that will support educational improvement.

Teachers, just like their students, need access to quality learning experiences situated within supportive learning environments. However, it has long been recognised that “To bring about improvement at the heart of education—classroom instruction … [is] the most difficult kind of reform” (Tyack & Cuban, 1995 , p. 135). Recent trends within both the implementation science literature and the TPLD literature move towards acknowledging and better understanding the contextual complexity that makes classroom change so challenging to achieve. For example, writing about TPLD, Strom & Viesca ( 2021 , p. 221) argue that “rather than attempting to link teacher learning outcomes directly to student learning outcomes, we need to design and conduct studies that account for all the mediating elements in between these, in all their complexity”—while, writing about implementation science, Century & Cassata ( 2016 , pp. 171–172) teach us that “contexts and conditions can affect innovation enactment in legitimate ways … [and] improving education requires processes for changing individuals, organizations, and systems.”

The research reported in this article has contributed to our understanding of how contextual conditions—in the form of the school culture and climate, understood as the environment in which teachers learn and practice—affect teachers’ implementation of new learning gained through engagement in TPLD. It is hoped that the findings of this study might support school leaders, teachers, and TPLD facilitators to be more mindful of, and deliberate in seeking to enhance, the school climate and culture in order to promote positive changes to teachers’ classroom practice.

Change history

21 february 2023.

Missing Open Access funding information has been added in the Funding Note.

For comparison to the population figures for the New Zealand teaching workforce, see https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/statistics/teacher-numbers .

As some focus groups had been held in-person and others online, formats were inconsistent. In-person focus groups had used post-it notes and a large printed template to record the brainstorm activity whereas the online focus groups had used a collaborative Google Document.

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Acknowledgements

The research reported in this article was supported by a University of Waikato Research Trust Contestable Fund grant and a University of Waikato Summer Scholarship. The authors wish to acknowledge with thanks Maree Logan, research assistant, who contributed to data collection and preliminary analysis.

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McChesney, K., Cross, J. How school culture affects teachers’ classroom implementation of learning from professional development. Learning Environ Res 26 , 785–801 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-023-09454-0

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Improving School Culture for a Better Learning Environment

School culture is so much more than academic performance or happiness. It’s a complicated, hard-to-define measurement of institutional values, staff training and decision making, and daily behaviors. It’s more important than ever as the pandemic and other dynamics have challenged our educational system. 

To learn more, check out the infographic below, created by American University’s School of Education .

What Do We Mean by School Culture?

School culture has no easy definition, even though most educators agree on the importance of having a positive culture. School culture is sometimes referred to as school climate and it includes everyone: students, families, teachers, and support staff.

Why Does School Culture Matter?               

School culture matters because it can help improve quality of life. A strong school culture can help guard against the negative impacts of social media. It can increase students’ interest in learning, improve academic outcomes, reduce problematic and risky behavior, limit school suspensions, strengthen student-teacher relationships, and boost attendance rates.

Elements of school culture include how the school is structured, including its educational aims; the enjoyment and respect of school community members; and collaboration to develop a vision for the school. It also includes the involvement of the community in caring for the school; the satisfaction of its learners; respect for each person’s beliefs; and community values concerning what’s good, what’s bad, and what’s wrong. Behavior is also key, be it the expectations of student and staff behavior or actual student and staff behavior.

Measuring School Culture              

Across the country, school districts survey students, parents, and educators to understand how positive their school culture is. In elementary schools, surveys cover familial support; diversity; behaviors, both internal and external; how connected students and others feel; motivation to learn; relationships with classmates; and social skills, including caring for others.

In junior high, middle, and high schools, surveys cover mental health, including suicide; alcohol and drug use; physical activity levels; sexual behavior; academic support; engagement levels; and bullying and aggression. 

Teachers Are Key to Positive School Culture

Student performance is closely linked to teaching quality, which means teachers have an important role to play in creating a strong school culture. Unfortunately, in 2020, only 38 percent of teachers saw their profession in a positive light.

Nearly three-quarters of teachers surveyed said their students were struggling to meet existing emotional and social needs, while 58 percent worried about students having more social and emotional needs as a result of the pandemic, and 56 percent saw social and emotional needs as crucial for post-pandemic academic catch-up.

Return to In-Class Instruction a Positive Step             

However, teachers were positive about the return to in-class instruction, with 80 percent excited to teach and 75 percent believing their students will be more engaged as a result of being on-site.

Still, teachers have a tough job. They need to prepare the next generation of citizens for an uncertain future, and they can’t do that very well if they’re struggling. That means those looking to improve school culture need to understand the importance of choosing teachers; teacher accountability; and teaching quality, including attitude, practical skills, and motivation. This might be difficult since the United States is short on teachers.

Why A Positive School Culture Matters More Than Ever

Not all schools take the same approach to education, but experts tend to agree on at least two points. First, that positive school culture leads to positive outcomes, and second, that negative school culture leads to negative outcomes.

Not every educator or parent will agree on what makes a positive learning environment. Schools can be a microcosm for cultural debates more broadly. Some of the major current debates concern mask mandates (pandemic related), sports policies, teaching critical race theory, and transgender rights.

From teachers to parents to students, COVID-19 has had an impact on everyone involved in creating a positive school culture. Students, in particular, are now struggling with anger, separation issues, isolation, reduced ability to self-regulate, and a lack of socialization.

How to Establish and Reinforce a Positive School Culture             

Educators can take several steps to establish and reinforce positive school culture. They can start by getting everyone on board, discussing the specific school culture during the hiring process, and making space for professional development. Formal training is also a way to reinforce culture, embrace informal conversations, and encourage honesty.

Educators should communicate aims clearly and make sure that everyone knows what the school culture is, and why. They can give concrete examples, be positive, and make sure that everyone knows it’s a collective effort by using “we” statements.

They can also spread culture in visible ways by creating unique traditions, updating the school’s physical design, identifying symbolic objects, and ascertaining relevant mottoes. Ultimately, they need to encourage engagement by all. Connections are key, so they should identify those who aren’t connecting, figure out why not, and then adjust accordingly.

Strong school culture is key to making schools more constructive and instructive places; this is why some refer to school culture as “the hidden curriculum.” Better school culture doesn’t necessarily mean spending more money. Instead, it means building strong emotional and social connections that set students on the path to success. 

Cedarville University, “The Impact of School Culture Upon an Educational Institution”

Connecticut Association of Schools, “School Culture: ‘The Hidden Curriculum’”

Dinaric Perspectives on TIMSS 2019, “Teachers, Teaching and Student Achievement”

Education Week, “The Essential Traits of a Positive School Climate”

HMH, 7th Annual Educator Confidence Report

International Journal of Education , “The Effects of School Culture on Students Academic Achievements”

McKinsey & Company, “Teacher Survey: Learning Loss Is Global—and Significant”

National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments, School Climate Measurement

Psychology Today , “Post-Pandemic School Culture and How to Navigate It”

The New York Times , “The School Culture Wars: ‘You Have Brought Division to Us’”

The Palgrave Handbook of Positive Education , “Teacher and Staff Wellbeing: Understanding the Experiences of School Staff”

The Washington Post, “School Environments Can Be Toxic. Why and How They Must Change”

U.S. Department of Education, Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)

U.S. Department of Education, Fact Sheet: The U.S. Department of Education Announces Partnerships Across States, School Districts, and Colleges of Education to Meet Secretary Cardona’s Call to Action to Address the Teacher Shortage

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Multicultural Education & Technology Journal

ISSN : 1750-497X

Article publication date: 21 August 2009

The purpose of this paper is to analyse similarities and differences in perceptions of learning among students from diverse cultural backgrounds, using the responses of 2,200 undergraduate students surveyed at an Australian University.

Design/methodology/approach

A survey questionnaire is designed to elicit perceptions about the impact of prior learning, competence in language and communication, quality of student‐staff relations and cultural interactions, on student learning. It draws from disciplines including cognitive psychology, social sciences, higher education and economics. The questionnaire is implemented to approximately 2,200 undergraduate students at one of the Australia's largest and most diverse universities. The results are analysed through quantitative techniques.

There are statistically significant differences between the experiences and learning perceptions of students born in Australia, Asian countries and elsewhere. Differences emerge in prior learning and preparation before entry into university, self‐confidence and the ability to participate in classroom discussions, interacting with peers, and engaging with teaching staff from similar and different language backgrounds.

Research limitations/implications

The quantitative approach to exploring the student experience provides data across a broad spectrum of issues but does not probe into causal factors. A mixed method approach provides such information.

Practical implications

Students from diverse backgrounds need to be provided with appropriate institutional and academic support to acculturate to their new learning and language environments.

Originality/value

The paper provides valuable insights into the learning experiences of students from diverse backgrounds, an increasingly important area as the number of students seeking higher education across boarders and cultures continues to rise.

• Higher education

Ramburuth, P. and Tani, M. (2009), "The impact of culture on learning: exploring student perceptions", Multicultural Education & Technology Journal , Vol. 3 No. 3, pp. 182-195. https://doi.org/10.1108/17504970910984862

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Copyright © 2009, Emerald Group Publishing Limited

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Jessica Grose

Screens are everywhere in schools. do they actually help kids learn.

By Jessica Grose

Opinion Writer

A few weeks ago, a parent who lives in Texas asked me how much my kids were using screens to do schoolwork in their classrooms. She wasn’t talking about personal devices. (Smartwatches and smartphones are banned in my children’s schools during the school day, which I’m very happy about; I find any argument for allowing these devices in the classroom to be risible.) No, this parent was talking about screens that are school sanctioned, like iPads and Chromebooks issued to children individually for educational activities.

I’m embarrassed to say that I couldn’t answer her question because I had never asked or even thought about asking. Partly because the Covid-19 era made screens imperative in an instant — as one ed-tech executive told my colleague Natasha Singer in 2021, the pandemic “sped the adoption of technology in education by easily five to 10 years.” In the early Covid years, when my older daughter started using a Chromebook to do assignments for second and third grade, I was mostly just relieved that she had great teachers and seemed to be learning what she needed to know. By the time she was in fifth grade and the world was mostly back to normal, I knew she took her laptop to school for in-class assignments, but I never asked for specifics about how devices were being used. I trusted her teachers and her school implicitly.

In New York State, ed tech is often discussed as an equity problem — with good reason: At home, less privileged children might not have access to personal devices and high-speed internet that would allow them to complete digital assignments. But in our learn-to-code society, in which computer skills are seen as a meal ticket and the humanities as a ticket to the unemployment line, there seems to be less chatter about whether there are too many screens in our kids’ day-to-day educational environment beyond the classes that are specifically tech focused. I rarely heard details about what these screens are adding to our children’s literacy, math, science or history skills.

And screens truly are everywhere. For example, according to 2022 data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress, only about 8 percent of eighth graders in public schools said their math teachers “never or hardly ever” used computers or digital devices to teach math, 37 percent said their math teachers used this technology half or more than half the time, and 44 percent said their math teachers used this technology all or most of the time.

As is often the case with rapid change, “the speed at which new technologies and intervention models are reaching the market has far outpaced the ability of policy researchers to keep up with evaluating them,” according to a dazzlingly thorough review of the research on education technology by Maya Escueta, Andre Joshua Nickow, Philip Oreopoulos and Vincent Quan published in The Journal of Economic Literature in 2020.

Despite the relative paucity of research, particularly on in-class use of tech, Escueta and her co-authors put together “a comprehensive list of all publicly available studies on technology-based education interventions that report findings from studies following either of two research designs, randomized controlled trials or regression discontinuity designs.”

They found that increasing access to devices didn’t always lead to positive academic outcomes. In a couple of cases, it just increased the amount of time kids were spending on devices playing games. They wrote, “We found that simply providing students with access to technology yields largely mixed results. At the K-12 level, much of the experimental evidence suggests that giving a child a computer may have limited impacts on learning outcomes but generally improves computer proficiency and other cognitive outcomes.”

Some of the most promising research is around computer-assisted learning, which the researchers defined as “computer programs and other software applications designed to improve academic skills.” They cited a 2016 randomized study of 2,850 seventh-grade math students in Maine who used an online homework tool. The authors of that study “found that the program improved math scores for treatment students by 0.18 standard deviations. This impact is particularly noteworthy, given that treatment students used the program, on average, for less than 10 minutes per night, three to four nights per week,” according to Escueta and her co-authors.

They also explained that in the classroom, computer programs may help teachers meet the needs of students who are at different levels, since “when confronted with a wide range of student ability, teachers often end up teaching the core curriculum and tailoring instruction to the middle of the class.” A good program, they found, could help provide individual attention and skill building for kids at the bottom and the top, as well. There are computer programs for reading comprehension that have shown similar positive results in the research. Anecdotally: My older daughter practices her Spanish language skills using an app, and she hand-writes Spanish vocabulary words on index cards. The combination seems to be working well for her.

Though their review was published in 2020, before the data was out on our grand remote-learning experiment, Escueta and her co-authors found that fully online remote learning did not work as well as hybrid or in-person school. I called Thomas Dee, a professor at Stanford’s Graduate School of Education, who said that in light of earlier studies “and what we’re coming to understand about the long-lived effects of the pandemic on learning, it underscores for me that there’s a social dimension to learning that we ignore at our peril. And I think technology can often strip that away.”

Still, Dee summarized the entire topic of ed tech to me this way: “I don’t want to be black and white about this. I think there are really positive things coming from technology.” But he said that they are “meaningful supports on the margins, not fundamental changes in the modality of how people learn.”

I’d add that the implementation of any technology also matters a great deal; any educational tool can be great or awful, depending on how it’s used.

I’m neither a tech evangelist nor a Luddite. (Though I haven’t even touched on the potential implications of classroom teaching with artificial intelligence, a technology that, in other contexts, has so much destructive potential .) What I do want is the most effective educational experience for all kids.

Because there’s such a lag in the data and a lack of granularity to the information we do have, I want to hear from my readers: If you’re a teacher or a parent of a current K-12 student, I want to know how you and they are using technology — the good and the bad. Please complete the questionnaire below and let me know. I may reach out to you for further conversation.

Do your children or your students use technology in the classroom?

If you’re a parent, an educator or both, I want to hear from you.

Jessica Grose is an Opinion writer for The Times, covering family, religion, education, culture and the way we live now.