effects of bullying essay pdf

• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 14 December 2021

Bullying at school and mental health problems among adolescents: a repeated cross-sectional study

• Håkan Källmén 1 &
• Mats Hallgren   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0599-2403 2  

Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health volume  15 , Article number:  74 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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To examine recent trends in bullying and mental health problems among adolescents and the association between them.

A questionnaire measuring mental health problems, bullying at school, socio-economic status, and the school environment was distributed to all secondary school students aged 15 (school-year 9) and 18 (school-year 11) in Stockholm during 2014, 2018, and 2020 (n = 32,722). Associations between bullying and mental health problems were assessed using logistic regression analyses adjusting for relevant demographic, socio-economic, and school-related factors.

The prevalence of bullying remained stable and was highest among girls in year 9; range = 4.9% to 16.9%. Mental health problems increased; range = + 1.2% (year 9 boys) to + 4.6% (year 11 girls) and were consistently higher among girls (17.2% in year 11, 2020). In adjusted models, having been bullied was detrimentally associated with mental health (OR = 2.57 [2.24–2.96]). Reports of mental health problems were four times higher among boys who had been bullied compared to those not bullied. The corresponding figure for girls was 2.4 times higher.

Conclusions

Exposure to bullying at school was associated with higher odds of mental health problems. Boys appear to be more vulnerable to the deleterious effects of bullying than girls.

Introduction

Bullying involves repeated hurtful actions between peers where an imbalance of power exists [ 1 ]. Arseneault et al. [ 2 ] conducted a review of the mental health consequences of bullying for children and adolescents and found that bullying is associated with severe symptoms of mental health problems, including self-harm and suicidality. Bullying was shown to have detrimental effects that persist into late adolescence and contribute independently to mental health problems. Updated reviews have presented evidence indicating that bullying is causative of mental illness in many adolescents [ 3 , 4 ].

There are indications that mental health problems are increasing among adolescents in some Nordic countries. Hagquist et al. [ 5 ] examined trends in mental health among Scandinavian adolescents (n = 116, 531) aged 11–15 years between 1993 and 2014. Mental health problems were operationalized as difficulty concentrating, sleep disorders, headache, stomach pain, feeling tense, sad and/or dizzy. The study revealed increasing rates of adolescent mental health problems in all four counties (Finland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark), with Sweden experiencing the sharpest increase among older adolescents, particularly girls. Worsening adolescent mental health has also been reported in the United Kingdom. A study of 28,100 school-aged adolescents in England found that two out of five young people scored above thresholds for emotional problems, conduct problems or hyperactivity [ 6 ]. Female gender, deprivation, high needs status (educational/social), ethnic background, and older age were all associated with higher odds of experiencing mental health difficulties.

Bullying is shown to increase the risk of poor mental health and may partly explain these detrimental changes. Le et al. [ 7 ] reported an inverse association between bullying and mental health among 11–16-year-olds in Vietnam. They also found that poor mental health can make some children and adolescents more vulnerable to bullying at school. Bayer et al. [ 8 ] examined links between bullying at school and mental health among 8–9-year-old children in Australia. Those who experienced bullying more than once a week had poorer mental health than children who experienced bullying less frequently. Friendships moderated this association, such that children with more friends experienced fewer mental health problems (protective effect). Hysing et al. [ 9 ] investigated the association between experiences of bullying (as a victim or perpetrator) and mental health, sleep disorders, and school performance among 16–19 year olds from Norway (n = 10,200). Participants were categorized as victims, bullies, or bully-victims (that is, victims who also bullied others). All three categories were associated with worse mental health, school performance, and sleeping difficulties. Those who had been bullied also reported more emotional problems, while those who bullied others reported more conduct disorders [ 9 ].

As most adolescents spend a considerable amount of time at school, the school environment has been a major focus of mental health research [ 10 , 11 ]. In a recent review, Saminathen et al. [ 12 ] concluded that school is a potential protective factor against mental health problems, as it provides a socially supportive context and prepares students for higher education and employment. However, it may also be the primary setting for protracted bullying and stress [ 13 ]. Another factor associated with adolescent mental health is parental socio-economic status (SES) [ 14 ]. A systematic review indicated that lower parental SES is associated with poorer adolescent mental health [ 15 ]. However, no previous studies have examined whether SES modifies or attenuates the association between bullying and mental health. Similarly, it remains unclear whether school related factors, such as school grades and the school environment, influence the relationship between bullying and mental health. This information could help to identify those adolescents most at risk of harm from bullying.

To address these issues, we investigated the prevalence of bullying at school and mental health problems among Swedish adolescents aged 15–18 years between 2014 and 2020 using a population-based school survey. We also examined associations between bullying at school and mental health problems adjusting for relevant demographic, socioeconomic, and school-related factors. We hypothesized that: (1) bullying and adolescent mental health problems have increased over time; (2) There is an association between bullying victimization and mental health, so that mental health problems are more prevalent among those who have been victims of bullying; and (3) that school-related factors would attenuate the association between bullying and mental health.

Participants

The Stockholm school survey is completed every other year by students in lower secondary school (year 9—compulsory) and upper secondary school (year 11). The survey is mandatory for public schools, but voluntary for private schools. The purpose of the survey is to help inform decision making by local authorities that will ultimately improve students’ wellbeing. The questions relate to life circumstances, including SES, schoolwork, bullying, drug use, health, and crime. Non-completers are those who were absent from school when the survey was completed (< 5%). Response rates vary from year to year but are typically around 75%. For the current study data were available for 2014, 2018 and 2020. In 2014; 5235 boys and 5761 girls responded, in 2018; 5017 boys and 5211 girls responded, and in 2020; 5633 boys and 5865 girls responded (total n = 32,722). Data for the exposure variable, bullied at school, were missing for 4159 students, leaving 28,563 participants in the crude model. The fully adjusted model (described below) included 15,985 participants. The mean age in grade 9 was 15.3 years (SD = 0.51) and in grade 11, 17.3 years (SD = 0.61). As the data are completely anonymous, the study was exempt from ethical approval according to an earlier decision from the Ethical Review Board in Stockholm (2010-241 31-5). Details of the survey are available via a website [ 16 ], and are described in a previous paper [ 17 ].

Students completed the questionnaire during a school lesson, placed it in a sealed envelope and handed it to their teacher. Student were permitted the entire lesson (about 40 min) to complete the questionnaire and were informed that participation was voluntary (and that they were free to cancel their participation at any time without consequences). Students were also informed that the Origo Group was responsible for collection of the data on behalf of the City of Stockholm.

Study outcome

Mental health problems were assessed by using a modified version of the Psychosomatic Problem Scale [ 18 ] shown to be appropriate for children and adolescents and invariant across gender and years. The scale was later modified [ 19 ]. In the modified version, items about difficulty concentrating and feeling giddy were deleted and an item about ‘life being great to live’ was added. Seven different symptoms or problems, such as headaches, depression, feeling fear, stomach problems, difficulty sleeping, believing it’s great to live (coded negatively as seldom or rarely) and poor appetite were used. Students who responded (on a 5-point scale) that any of these problems typically occurs ‘at least once a week’ were considered as having indicators of a mental health problem. Cronbach alpha was 0.69 across the whole sample. Adding these problem areas, a total index was created from 0 to 7 mental health symptoms. Those who scored between 0 and 4 points on the total symptoms index were considered to have a low indication of mental health problems (coded as 0); those who scored between 5 and 7 symptoms were considered as likely having mental health problems (coded as 1).

Primary exposure

Experiences of bullying were measured by the following two questions: Have you felt bullied or harassed during the past school year? Have you been involved in bullying or harassing other students during this school year? Alternatives for the first question were: yes or no with several options describing how the bullying had taken place (if yes). Alternatives indicating emotional bullying were feelings of being mocked, ridiculed, socially excluded, or teased. Alternatives indicating physical bullying were being beaten, kicked, forced to do something against their will, robbed, or locked away somewhere. The response alternatives for the second question gave an estimation of how often the respondent had participated in bullying others (from once to several times a week). Combining the answers to these two questions, five different categories of bullying were identified: (1) never been bullied and never bully others; (2) victims of emotional (verbal) bullying who have never bullied others; (3) victims of physical bullying who have never bullied others; (4) victims of bullying who have also bullied others; and (5) perpetrators of bullying, but not victims. As the number of positive cases in the last three categories was low (range = 3–15 cases) bully categories 2–4 were combined into one primary exposure variable: ‘bullied at school’.

Assessment year was operationalized as the year when data was collected: 2014, 2018, and 2020. Age was operationalized as school grade 9 (15–16 years) or 11 (17–18 years). Gender was self-reported (boy or girl). The school situation To assess experiences of the school situation, students responded to 18 statements about well-being in school, participation in important school matters, perceptions of their teachers, and teaching quality. Responses were given on a four-point Likert scale ranging from ‘do not agree at all’ to ‘fully agree’. To reduce the 18-items down to their essential factors, we performed a principal axis factor analysis. Results showed that the 18 statements formed five factors which, according to the Kaiser criterion (eigen values > 1) explained 56% of the covariance in the student’s experience of the school situation. The five factors identified were: (1) Participation in school; (2) Interesting and meaningful work; (3) Feeling well at school; (4) Structured school lessons; and (5) Praise for achievements. For each factor, an index was created that was dichotomised (poor versus good circumstance) using the median-split and dummy coded with ‘good circumstance’ as reference. A description of the items included in each factor is available as Additional file 1 . Socio-economic status (SES) was assessed with three questions about the education level of the student’s mother and father (dichotomized as university degree versus not), and the amount of spending money the student typically received for entertainment each month (> SEK 1000 [approximately $120] versus less). Higher parental education and more spending money were used as reference categories. School grades in Swedish, English, and mathematics were measured separately on a 7-point scale and dichotomized as high (grades A, B, and C) versus low (grades D, E, and F). High school grades were used as the reference category.

Statistical analyses

The prevalence of mental health problems and bullying at school are presented using descriptive statistics, stratified by survey year (2014, 2018, 2020), gender, and school year (9 versus 11). As noted, we reduced the 18-item questionnaire assessing school function down to five essential factors by conducting a principal axis factor analysis (see Additional file 1 ). We then calculated the association between bullying at school (defined above) and mental health problems using multivariable logistic regression. Results are presented as odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (Cis). To assess the contribution of SES and school-related factors to this association, three models are presented: Crude, Model 1 adjusted for demographic factors: age, gender, and assessment year; Model 2 adjusted for Model 1 plus SES (parental education and student spending money), and Model 3 adjusted for Model 2 plus school-related factors (school grades and the five factors identified in the principal factor analysis). These covariates were entered into the regression models in three blocks, where the final model represents the fully adjusted analyses. In all models, the category ‘not bullied at school’ was used as the reference. Pseudo R-square was calculated to estimate what proportion of the variance in mental health problems was explained by each model. Unlike the R-square statistic derived from linear regression, the Pseudo R-square statistic derived from logistic regression gives an indicator of the explained variance, as opposed to an exact estimate, and is considered informative in identifying the relative contribution of each model to the outcome [ 20 ]. All analyses were performed using SPSS v. 26.0.

Prevalence of bullying at school and mental health problems

Estimates of the prevalence of bullying at school and mental health problems across the 12 strata of data (3 years × 2 school grades × 2 genders) are shown in Table 1 . The prevalence of bullying at school increased minimally (< 1%) between 2014 and 2020, except among girls in grade 11 (2.5% increase). Mental health problems increased between 2014 and 2020 (range = 1.2% [boys in year 11] to 4.6% [girls in year 11]); were three to four times more prevalent among girls (range = 11.6% to 17.2%) compared to boys (range = 2.6% to 4.9%); and were more prevalent among older adolescents compared to younger adolescents (range = 1% to 3.1% higher). Pooling all data, reports of mental health problems were four times more prevalent among boys who had been victims of bullying compared to those who reported no experiences with bullying. The corresponding figure for girls was two and a half times as prevalent.

Associations between bullying at school and mental health problems

Table 2 shows the association between bullying at school and mental health problems after adjustment for relevant covariates. Demographic factors, including female gender (OR = 3.87; CI 3.48–4.29), older age (OR = 1.38, CI 1.26–1.50), and more recent assessment year (OR = 1.18, CI 1.13–1.25) were associated with higher odds of mental health problems. In Model 2, none of the included SES variables (parental education and student spending money) were associated with mental health problems. In Model 3 (fully adjusted), the following school-related factors were associated with higher odds of mental health problems: lower grades in Swedish (OR = 1.42, CI 1.22–1.67); uninteresting or meaningless schoolwork (OR = 2.44, CI 2.13–2.78); feeling unwell at school (OR = 1.64, CI 1.34–1.85); unstructured school lessons (OR = 1.31, CI = 1.16–1.47); and no praise for achievements (OR = 1.19, CI 1.06–1.34). After adjustment for all covariates, being bullied at school remained associated with higher odds of mental health problems (OR = 2.57; CI 2.24–2.96). Demographic and school-related factors explained 12% and 6% of the variance in mental health problems, respectively (Pseudo R-Square). The inclusion of socioeconomic factors did not alter the variance explained.

Our findings indicate that mental health problems increased among Swedish adolescents between 2014 and 2020, while the prevalence of bullying at school remained stable (< 1% increase), except among girls in year 11, where the prevalence increased by 2.5%. As previously reported [ 5 , 6 ], mental health problems were more common among girls and older adolescents. These findings align with previous studies showing that adolescents who are bullied at school are more likely to experience mental health problems compared to those who are not bullied [ 3 , 4 , 9 ]. This detrimental relationship was observed after adjustment for school-related factors shown to be associated with adolescent mental health [ 10 ].

A novel finding was that boys who had been bullied at school reported a four-times higher prevalence of mental health problems compared to non-bullied boys. The corresponding figure for girls was 2.5 times higher for those who were bullied compared to non-bullied girls, which could indicate that boys are more vulnerable to the deleterious effects of bullying than girls. Alternatively, it may indicate that boys are (on average) bullied more frequently or more intensely than girls, leading to worse mental health. Social support could also play a role; adolescent girls often have stronger social networks than boys and could be more inclined to voice concerns about bullying to significant others, who in turn may offer supports which are protective [ 21 ]. Related studies partly confirm this speculative explanation. An Estonian study involving 2048 children and adolescents aged 10–16 years found that, compared to girls, boys who had been bullied were more likely to report severe distress, measured by poor mental health and feelings of hopelessness [ 22 ].

Other studies suggest that heritable traits, such as the tendency to internalize problems and having low self-esteem are associated with being a bully-victim [ 23 ]. Genetics are understood to explain a large proportion of bullying-related behaviors among adolescents. A study from the Netherlands involving 8215 primary school children found that genetics explained approximately 65% of the risk of being a bully-victim [ 24 ]. This proportion was similar for boys and girls. Higher than average body mass index (BMI) is another recognized risk factor [ 25 ]. A recent Australian trial involving 13 schools and 1087 students (mean age = 13 years) targeted adolescents with high-risk personality traits (hopelessness, anxiety sensitivity, impulsivity, sensation seeking) to reduce bullying at school; both as victims and perpetrators [ 26 ]. There was no significant intervention effect for bullying victimization or perpetration in the total sample. In a secondary analysis, compared to the control schools, intervention school students showed greater reductions in victimization, suicidal ideation, and emotional symptoms. These findings potentially support targeting high-risk personality traits in bullying prevention [ 26 ].

The relative stability of bullying at school between 2014 and 2020 suggests that other factors may better explain the increase in mental health problems seen here. Many factors could be contributing to these changes, including the increasingly competitive labour market, higher demands for education, and the rapid expansion of social media [ 19 , 27 , 28 ]. A recent Swedish study involving 29,199 students aged between 11 and 16 years found that the effects of school stress on psychosomatic symptoms have become stronger over time (1993–2017) and have increased more among girls than among boys [ 10 ]. Research is needed examining possible gender differences in perceived school stress and how these differences moderate associations between bullying and mental health.

Strengths and limitations

Strengths of the current study include the large participant sample from diverse schools; public and private, theoretical and practical orientations. The survey included items measuring diverse aspects of the school environment; factors previously linked to adolescent mental health but rarely included as covariates in studies of bullying and mental health. Some limitations are also acknowledged. These data are cross-sectional which means that the direction of the associations cannot be determined. Moreover, all the variables measured were self-reported. Previous studies indicate that students tend to under-report bullying and mental health problems [ 29 ]; thus, our results may underestimate the prevalence of these behaviors.

In conclusion, consistent with our stated hypotheses, we observed an increase in self-reported mental health problems among Swedish adolescents, and a detrimental association between bullying at school and mental health problems. Although bullying at school does not appear to be the primary explanation for these changes, bullying was detrimentally associated with mental health after adjustment for relevant demographic, socio-economic, and school-related factors, confirming our third hypothesis. The finding that boys are potentially more vulnerable than girls to the deleterious effects of bullying should be replicated in future studies, and the mechanisms investigated. Future studies should examine the longitudinal association between bullying and mental health, including which factors mediate/moderate this relationship. Epigenetic studies are also required to better understand the complex interaction between environmental and biological risk factors for adolescent mental health [ 24 ].

Availability of data and materials

Data requests will be considered on a case-by-case basis; please email the corresponding author.

Code availability

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Acknowledgements

Authors are grateful to the Department for Social Affairs, Stockholm, for permission to use data from the Stockholm School Survey.

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HK conceived the study and analyzed the data (with input from MH). HK and MH interpreted the data and jointly wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Additional file 1..

Principal factor analysis description.

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Källmén, H., Hallgren, M. Bullying at school and mental health problems among adolescents: a repeated cross-sectional study. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health 15 , 74 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-021-00425-y

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Effects of Bullying Forms on Adolescent Mental Health and Protective Factors: A Global Cross-Regional Research Based on 65 Countries

1 School of Humanities and Law, Northeastern University, No. 195 Chuangxin Road, Hunnan District, Shenyang 110169, China; moc.kooltuo@uil_gnotaij

Jiatong Liu

Zengxin xue.

2 College of Economics and Management, Zhejiang Agriculture and Forestry University, No. 666 Wusu Road, Lin’an District, Hangzhou 310000, China; moc.kooltuo@euxnixgnez

Associated Data

The data are available online at https://www.cdc.gov/gshs/ (accessed on 10 December 2021).

Adolescent bullying is a public health issue of great global concern. Given the serious negative effect of bullying on adolescent mental health, it is critical to seek protective factors to protect adolescent mental health. From a global cross-regional perspective, the study aims to explore the relationship between forms of bullying and adolescent mental health and the role of parental support as a protective factor. Data were drawn from adolescents aged 12–17 years in 65 countries from the Global School-based Student Health Survey between 2003 and 2015. After controlling the state-fixed effects, individual adolescent behavior, and family factors, the ordinary least squares model was used to analyze the influence of bullying frequency and forms of bullying on adolescent mental health. The results found that the prevalence of bullying in the sample of 167,286 adolescents was 32.03%, with the highest prevalence of bullying in the sample countries in Africa. Verbal bullying had the highest prevalence and the most significant negative effect on adolescent mental health. The study also discussed the differences in bullying among adolescents by gender, age, and region. “Parental supervision”, “parental connectedness” and “parental bonding” played a positive and protective role in the mental health of adolescents who experienced bullying.

1. Introduction

Bullying is intentional and repeated aggressive behavior toward another person in which there is a real or perceived power imbalance, and the victim of bullying feels vulnerable and powerless to protect themselves [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Bullying includes physical assault, verbal abuse, and neglect [ 4 ]. Globally, bullying is widespread among adolescents. In a 2018 report by UNICEF, more than one-third of students aged 13–15 worldwide said they had experienced different forms of bullying [ 5 ]; data published by the World Health Organization in 2020 showed that more than 100 million children worldwide died each year from violence, including severe domestic violence as well as bullying [ 6 ]. In a survey involving 40 developing countries, the results showed that an average of 42% of boys and 37% of girls had experienced or were experiencing bullying [ 7 ].

Evidence from several longitudinal studies on the effects of bullying suggests that experiencing bullying, especially in adolescence, can severely impair a person’s physical, psychological, and social functioning, leading to risky behaviors [ 8 ], anxiety [ 9 ], depression [ 3 , 10 ], lower levels of academic achievement [ 11 , 12 ], suicidal ideation, suicidal behavior, or self-harm [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. At the same time, as a deliberate, repetitive act of aggression that occurs when there is a power imbalance between the perpetrator and the victim, the perpetrator repeats the bullying against the victim, and the repetition tilts the “balance” between the perpetrator and the victim, making it difficult for the victim to escape from the situation [ 2 , 4 ], thus having a lasting psychological effect on the victim [ 16 , 17 ]. This has a long-lasting effect on the victim’s psyche. Research has shown that the frequency of bullying is one of the factors that affect adolescent mental health. Adolescents are more likely to experience more severe depression when they are bullied more frequently [ 4 ], and some victims of bullying may even become perpetrators of bullying, harming peers or others [ 18 , 19 , 20 ].

In recent years, some studies have also begun to further explore the effects of different forms of bullying on adolescent mental health, and found that the form of bullying is also an essential factor affecting adolescent mental health. The first was to explore what forms of bullying had a profounder effect on adolescent mental health, but most of the current studies by researchers on this issue have been conducted in individual countries or regions and have not reached uniform conclusions, e.g., Maunder et al. (2010) conducted a survey of students, teachers, and staff in four secondary schools in England, and a total of 1302 people participated in this survey, and the results found that physical bullying was the most harmful to students [ 21 ]; Chen et al. (2012) selected a middle school in Taiwan, China, and conducted two samples (605 students and 869 students) and found that relational bullying such as rumor spreading and cyberbullying were more harmful than physical and verbal bullying [ 22 ]; Thomas et al. (2016) selected 10,273 secondary school students in the first adolescent health survey conducted in 2009 in Victoria, Australia, and found that neglect had the strongest association with mental health among four forms of bullying (teased or called names, spread rumors, neglect and physical bullying) [ 4 ]. In a representative cross-sectional standardized survey conducted by Baier et al. (2018) in a federal state of Germany (10,638 students in the 9th grade), psychological cyberbullying was found to be the most important influence on the mental health of boys and girls, followed by relational bullying from peers or from teachers, and girls’ mental health was associated with sexual cyberbullying. There was no significant effect between physical bullying and mental health [ 23 ].

The second was to focus on the effect of different forms of bullying on adolescent mental health under the gender group. For example, Turner et al. (2013) selected 1874 students from middle and high schools in North Carolina to explain the results of the effects of different forms of bullying (physical, verbal and cyber) on mental health (including depression and suicidal intention) and found that females had higher levels of depression after cyberbullying compared with males, and there was no significant difference in suicidal intent after either form of bullying for either males or females [ 24 ]. Shongwei et al. (2021) used the database of the 2013 Eswatini Global School-based Student Health Survey to examine gender differences in the effects of different forms of bullying on mental health in a sample of 2920 children aged 15–17 years, and found that both boys and girls felt lonely and feared re-victimization after being bullied [ 25 ]. Using data from U.S. Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System in 2015, Kim et al. (2019) found that school bullying had a greater negative psychological effect on girls than on boys [ 26 ]. Wang et al. (2009) selected a sample of 7182 U.S. adolescents in grades 6 to 10 based on the 2005 Health Behavior in School-Aged Children Survey, and found that boys were more likely to involve physical or verbal bullying and girls were more likely to be involved in relational bullying [ 27 ]. Very few studies have focused on the effects of different forms of bullying on adolescent mental health according to age groups, and Yen et al. (2014) found that adolescents in middle school had more severe mental health problems after bullying than those in high school [ 28 ].

In addition to exploring the negative effects of bullying on adolescents, there were very few studies that analyze the role and effect of protective factors in preventing the occurrence of multiple forms of violence as positive actions to build resilience in children, in terms of protective factors [ 29 , 30 , 31 ]. For example, Biswas et al. (2020) used data from the Global School-based Student Health Survey to divide protective factors into parental support and peer support, and explored the effect of each on the mental health of adolescents following bullying [ 32 ].

Although some studies have been conducted on the effect of bullying on adolescent mental health, there are still the following research gaps: Firstly, for the global prevalence of adolescent bullying, the current studies are mostly limited to one country or a few regions [ 33 , 34 ], the findings are not consistent across countries, and there is a lack of cross-regional comparative studies. Secondly, in addition to focusing on the effect of bullying on the mental health of adolescents as a whole and different gender groups, there are not enough studies on the effect of bullying on the mental health of different adolescent subgroups. Adolescents are at a critical stage of development and the influence of age on their behaviors is crucial, but there is a lack of research discussing the effect of different forms of bullying on mental health according to age groups. Thirdly, current research has focused more on the risk factors of adolescent bullying and not enough on protective factors [ 31 , 35 , 36 ]. Therefore, to address these limitations, this study attempts to analyze the frequency of bullying, the prevalence of different forms of bullying, and the effects of both on adolescent mental health in 65 countries from a cross-regional comparative perspective, and to explore the differences in the effects of different forms of bullying on adolescent mental health by gender and age groups in different regions. In addition, the study focused on parental support as a protective factor to examine the relationship between parental support and the mental health of adolescents who experienced bullying, and the mental health of adolescents who experienced different forms of bullying. The following were our hypotheses:

Forms of bullying would be associated with adolescents’ psychological well-being.

Forms of bullying would have significantly different effects on different genders and ages.

Parental support would play a moderating role in psychological well-being of adolescents who experienced bullying.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. data and sample.

Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) is a World Health Organization international survey of adolescents that uses primarily standardized, self-administered questionnaires to make results comparable between countries. The core questionnaire looks at 10 domains of key factors affecting adolescent health, including tobacco use, alcohol abuse, drug use, diet, hygiene, physical activity, sexual behavior, violent behavior, and unintentional injuries, protective factors, and mental health. For the actual survey, the GSHS was approved by national governments and sponsored or organized by official agencies at the national level (usually by Ministry of Health or Education, and an institutional review board or ethical committee), using a school-class two-stage whole-group sampling method. Questionnaires were translated into the national language for student comprehension. After excluding the samples with missing data, countries covering the key variables of this study were selected, using the most recent data available for each country, and the final sample was drawn from survey data from 2003 to 2015, for a total of 167,286 samples from 65 countries, 5 regions (21,501 samples from Africa, 59,326 samples from Americas, 23,222 samples from Eastern Mediterranean, 13,301 samples from South East Asia, 49,936 samples from Western Pacific).

2.2. Ethics Statement

GSHS received ethics approval from each country. Written informed consent was obtained from participants or guardians prior to the survey, and privacy protections were obtained. The current study used publicly available data.

2.3. Measures

2.3.1. dependent variable: mental health.

“Mental health”: Mental health was measured based on the two indicators of loneliness and anxiety in the questionnaire [ 37 ], with the questions “During the past 12 months, how often have you felt lonely / been so worried about something that you could not sleep at night?”. In order to visually explain the effect of bullying on adolescent mental health, this paper recoded the responses to the above measurement questions as “1 = always, 2 = most of the time, 3 = sometimes, 4 = rarely, 5 = never”. The current methods for comprehensive index measurement include subjective weighting method and objective weighting method. The subjective weighting method determines the weight based on the researcher’s subjective attention to the evaluation indicators, and the objective weighting method is based on the correlation between the indicators or indicators [ 38 ]. The degree of dispersion of information determines the weight. In order to eliminate the subjective arbitrariness of determining weights, following Huang’s research [ 39 ], this study chose the entropy method in the objective weighting method to determine the weights between the various indicators of the observed variable “mental health”, and used the information carried by the entropy value to calculate the “mental health”. According to the entropy method, the study determined the weight of each index as follows: there were N samples and M evaluation indexes, which were the value of the j-th index of the i-th sample.

Since the various indicators of sample mental health had different dimensions and orders of magnitude, the range standardized formula was used to process the indicators, and the absolute values of the indicators were converted into relative values to solve the homogeneity problem of various indicators, as shown below:

The formula following shows the standardized value of the j-th index of the i-th sample, the minimum and maximum value of the j-th index. In order to ensure the non-negativity of the calculation results, this study would shift the coordinates by 1 unit:

Finally, the standardized values were used to calculate the mental health “MH” of adolescents in the sample:

The formula above represents the entropy value of the j-th index, k = 1/In(n); n is the sample size, which is the weight of the j-th index of the i-th sample. Finally, the evaluation score of “mental health” was calculated as 1.02–9.89, and the higher the score, the better the mental health status.

2.3.2. Independent Variables: Frequency and Forms of Being Bullied

“Frequency of being bullied”: “Frequency of being bullied” was measured by the question “During the past 30 days, on how many days were you bullied?” and recoded (1 = 1 to 5 days, 2 = 6 to 19 days, 3 = more than 20 days). The larger value represented the higher frequency of being bullied.

“Forms of being bullied”: “Forms of being bullied” was measured by the question “During the past 30 days, how were you bullied most often?” and recoded (1 = physical bullying, 2 = verbal bullying, 3 = neglect).

2.3.3. Control Variables

Previous studies have reported that individual factors contributing to adolescent mental health, such as age, gender [ 40 ], substance use [ 26 , 41 ], weight status [ 42 ] and family socioeconomic status [ 43 ]. Therefore, the study used the following variables related to mental health of adolescents in GSHS as control variables, including age, gender, physical well-being, cigarette smoking, alcohol use, proxy of family socioeconomic status, number of close friends and frequency of missing school.

“Weight status” was measured by the value of body mass index (BMI), calculated with two adolescents’ indicators of height and weight, and recoded (1 = underweight, 2 = normal weight, 3 = overweight) [ 44 , 45 ]. “Cigarette smoking” and “alcohol use” were measured by the questions “During the past 30 days, on how many days did you smoke cigarettes / have at least drink containing alcohol?” and recoded (1 = less than 5 days, 2 = 6–19 days, 3= more than 20 days).

According to a prior study [ 14 ], “proxy of family socioeconomic status” was measured by the question “During the past 30 days, how often did you go hungry because there was not enough food in your home?” and recoded (1 represents “low”, 5 represents “high”). The larger value represented the higher family socioeconomic status.

“Number of close friends” was measured by the question “How many close friends do you have?” (0 = 0 friends, 1 = 1 friend, 2 = 2 friends, 3 = 3 or more friends). “Frequency of missing school” was measured by the question “During the past 30 days, on how many days did you miss classes or school without permission?” (1 = less than 2 days, 2 = 3–9 days, 3 = more than 10 days).

2.3.4. Protective Factors: Parental Supports

Protective factors were assessed by parental supports. As critical factors of resiliency, parental supports included parental supervision, parental connectedness and parental bonding [ 34 , 35 ], based on the questions “how often did your parents or guardians check to see if your homework was done?”, “how often did your parents or guardians understand your problems and worries?”, and “how often did your parents or guardians really know what you were doing with your free time?”, and assessed by frequency in the past 30 days (1 represents “never”, 5 represents “always”).

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Firstly, the study conducted descriptive statistics on the overall prevalence of maltreatment and the prevalence of different forms of maltreatment among adolescents aged 12–17 years in 65 sample countries among five regions, and to visualize the differences in the distribution of bullying across regions, a global distribution of bullying rates among adolescents in the 65 sample countries was drawn. Secondly, an ordinary least squares model was used to analyze the effects of bullying frequency and different forms of bullying on adolescent mental health. In the model estimation, state-fixed effects were controlled for in addition to the effects of the above-mentioned control variables on adolescent mental health. The study further regressed subgroups by gender and age to estimate differences in the effects of bullying exposure, bullying frequency, and forms of bullying on adolescent mental health by gender and by age (under 15, over 15) across continents, respectively. The reason for choosing 15 years as the age group cut-off was that in most countries, adolescents under 15 years are at the middle school level and those over 15 years are at the high school level, where they show more significant differences in psychological and behavioral aspects [ 28 ]. Finally, the study conducted moderation test to explore the protective factors of adolescent bullying, i.e., whether parental support could play a significant positive role in the effect of bullying on adolescent mental health. The study used Stata 15.0 to analyze the data and ArcGIS software for mapping.

3.1. Sample Description

The descriptive statistics of the sample are shown in Table 1 . The mean age of the sample adolescents was 14.14 years (SD = 1.20), of which 46.74% were male (78,187) and 53.26% were female (89,099). In terms of bullying prevalence, 32.03% of the 167,286 overall samples of adolescents aged 12–17 years had experienced bullying in the past 30 days of the survey. Regarding the frequency of bullying, 24.68% of adolescents were bullied for less than five days, less than 10% of adolescents were bullied for more than five days.

Descriptive statistics of the sample (N = 167,286).

In terms of mental health, the mean of mental health of adolescents in the sample countries was 5.79 (SD = 1.82), which was in the middle to upper level. Among different regions, the mental health level of adolescents in South East Asia was the highest (M = 5.97, SD = 1.78), and African adolescents’ mental health level was the lowest (M = 5.47, SD = 1.92).

In terms of parental support, the mean values of “parental supervision”, “parental connectedness”, and “parental bonding” for the overall sample of adolescents were 2.94 (SD = 1.49), 3.00 (SD = 1.46), and 3.19 (SD = 1.44), respectively. The mean values of “parental supervision” ranged from “rarely” to “sometimes”, and the mean values of “parental connectedness” and “parental bonding” ranged from “sometimes” to “most of the time”.

3.2. Prevalence and Forms of Bullying across the Regions

Table 1 shows the prevalence of different forms of bullying in the six regions. Overall, verbal bullying had the highest prevalence (66.36%), followed by physical bullying (24.02%), and the neglect had the lowest prevalence (9.62%). Across regions, physical bullying was highest in Africa (28.98%) and lowest in the Americas (18.84%); verbal bullying was the opposite of physical bullying, highest in the Americas (71.09%) and lowest in Africa (61.75%); neglect was highest in South East Asia (11.10%) and lowest in Eastern Mediterranean (7.11%).

Table 2 and Figure 1 show specifically the prevalence of bullying and different forms of bullying in each sample country. In terms of bullying prevalence, the African region had the highest prevalence of adolescent bullying at 47.36%, followed by Eastern Mediterranean (41.53%), South East Asia (33.19%), Western Pacific (27.58%), and the Americas (26.23%). In terms of sample countries, 5 of the 12 sample countries in Africa had more than half of the bullying prevalence, namely, Botswana (52.20%), Ghana (56.72%), Kenya (54.35%), Zambia (61.58%), and Zimbabwe (59.15%). In Americas, the prevalence of bullying was ranging from 47.14% in Peru to 12.50% in Barbados. The Eastern Mediterranean region had the highest bullying rate in the Occupied Palestinian Territory with over half (52.27%) and the lowest bullying rate in Iraq (27.45%). South East Asia also had more than half of adolescents in Indonesia (50.14%) as its highest bullying rate, and the lowest adolescent bullying rate was in Myanmar (19.51%). Samoa, in the Western Pacific region, had the highest prevalence of bullying among all countries in the sample, at 72.40%, while Malaysia (16.99%) had the lowest prevalence of bullying among adolescents in the Western Pacific region.

Prevalence of frequency of being bullied and forms of bullying in 65 countries.

Prevalence and forms of bullying across regions (N = 167,286).

3.3. Effects of Bullying on Psychological Well-Being of Adolescents

After controlling for state-fixed effects, the study used OLS models to examine the effect of bullying and different forms of bullying on adolescent mental health, and the results are shown in Table 3 . In Model 1, with bullying frequency as the core explanatory variable, the regression results showed that bullying frequency negatively affected adolescent mental health, with the largest negative effect on mental health for adolescents who had been bullied for more than 20 days in the past 30 days, with a 7.53 decrease in mental health ( p < 0.001, CI: −7.72, −7.33). Model 2 further estimated the effects of different forms of bullying on adolescent mental health, and the results showed that verbal bullying negatively affected adolescent mental health mostly, with a 9.64 decrease in mental health ( p < 0.001, CI: −9.89, −1.01). Physical and neglect also negatively affected adolescent mental health, with a 7.49 ( p < 0.001, CI: −7.89, −7.10) and a 1.21 ( p < 0.001, CI: −1.27, −1.15) decrease in mental health, respectively, which verified H1.

Effects of bullying on psychological well-being of adolescents (N = 167,286).

Note: *** p < 0.001.

3.4. Effects of Bullying on Psychological Well-Being in Adolescents of Different Gender

Table 4 demonstrates the effects of bullying frequency and bullying form on the mental health of adolescents by gender. Overall, both bullying frequency and bullying form had a significant negative effect on both male and female adolescents in the sample across continents ( p < 0.001). In the total sample, the negative effect of bullying frequency on the mental health of female adolescents was more significant than that of males ( p < 0.001). Specifically, the negative effect of bullying frequency on the mental health of female adolescents was greater than that of males in the sample countries of the Eastern Mediterranean region, the South East Asian region, and the Western Pacific region; the negative effect of bullying frequency on males was greater when the bullying frequency was less than 19 days in the sample countries of the American region ( p < 0.001).

Effects of bullying on psychological well-being in adolescents of different gender (N = 167,286).

Looking at the different forms of bullying, verbal bullying and neglect had a greater negative effect on overall female adolescents than on males, while physical bullying had a greater negative effect on overall male adolescents, supporting partial of H2. Across continents, all three forms of bullying had a significant negative effect on the mental health of male adolescents in Africa compared with females ( p < 0.001); in the Americas, physical bullying had a greater negative effect on the mental health of male adolescents than females ( p < 0.001), neglect had a greater negative effect on the mental health of female adolescents than males, and verbal bullying did not differ between the two sexes; in the Eastern Mediterranean region, physical bullying and verbal bullying had a greater negative effect on females than males ( p < 0.001), and neglect had a more severe negative effect on males; in South East Asia, both physical bullying and verbal bullying had a more severe negative effect on females ( p < 0.001), and neglect had a more severe negative effect on males ( p < 0.001); in the Western Pacific, physical bullying and neglect had a more severe negative effect on female mental health, and verbal bullying had a more severe negative effect on male mental health.

3.5. Effects of Bullying on Psychological Well-Being in Adolescents of Different Ages

Table 5 demonstrates the effects of bullying and different forms of bullying on the mental health of adolescents of different ages across continents and their variability. In terms of bullying frequency, bullying frequency had a greater negative effect on the overall mental health of adolescents under the age of 15 than adolescents over the age of 15 ( p < 0.001). In terms of forms of bullying, physical bullying, verbal bullying and neglect had a greater negative effect on the mental health of adolescents under 15 years old than adolescents over 15 years old in the total sample ( p < 0.001) as hypothesized. Among the regions, the negative effect of neglect on the mental health of adolescents over the age of 15 was more significant in the sample countries of the Western Pacific region ( p < 0.001), and the negative effect of physical bullying and verbal bullying on the mental health of adolescents under the age of 15 was more significant ( p < 0.001); the situation in the other regions was consistent with that of the overall sample.

Effects of bullying on psychological well-being in adolescents of different ages (N = 167,286).

Note: * p < 0.05. *** p < 0.001.

3.6. The Protective Effect of Parental Support on the Psychological Well-Being

To test the potential moderating role of parental support as a protective factor on adolescent mental health after bullying, the study conducted the procedure to test significant interactions. The results from Table 6 show that being bullied was negatively associated with mental health in three models ( p < 0.001). Significant interaction effects between parental supervision and being bullied ( p < 0.001), between parental connectedness and being bullied ( p < 0.001), between parental bonding and being bullied ( p < 0.001) were found to be positively associated with psychological well-being, indicating that the moderating effect of parental support occurred in the protection of mental health of adolescents who experienced being bullied as H3 hypothesized.

Tested moderation models with psychological well-being as outcomes predicted by being bullied, parental support and multiplicative interaction terms (N = 167,286).

Table 7 shows the results of the effect of parental support on the mental health of adolescents following different forms of bullying. Among them, “parental connectedness” had a positive protective effect on the mental health of adolescents after verbal bullying or peer neglect, i.e., the more parents understand the adolescents’ distress after verbal bullying or neglect at school, the higher the level of mental health of the adolescents, and the frequency of parental understanding increases by one unit, the level of mental health increased by 8.71 units ( p < 0.001) and 1.05 units ( p < 0.001), respectively; “parental bonding” had a positive restorative effect on the psychological health of adolescents who were verbally bullied, i.e., for each unit increase in the frequency of “parental bonding”, the psychological health level of adolescents who were verbally bullied increased by 2.47 units ( p < 0.05).

Association of protective effect of parental support with psychological well-being by forms of being bullied (N = 167,286).

Note: * p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001.

4. Discussion

The study examined the overall prevalence of bullying among adolescents and the prevalence of different forms of bullying in a total of 167,286 sample in five regions, and further analyzed the effect of different forms of bullying on adolescent mental health, the protective role of parental support, and the main findings were as follows:

Firstly, adolescent bullying cannot be ignored, with the highest prevalence of verbal bullying. Our study showed that the overall prevalence of bullying among adolescents in the 167,286 sample countries was 32.03%, a result that was consistent with the previous UNICEF report published in 2018 that more than one-third of students aged 13–15 worldwide experienced bullying. The results of Biswas et al. (2020) and Elgar et al. (2015) cross-regional comparative studies on bullying and violence among adolescents were generally consistent with the results of the two studies on the prevalence of bullying among adolescents, which were 31% [ 32 ] and 30% [ 8 ], respectively. From the results of the cross-regional comparison, the highest prevalence of bullying among adolescents (47.36%) was found in the sample countries in the African region, which may be related to the low-income level, poorer schools, and social environment, war, and riots in the African region [ 46 ]. In terms of the prevalence of different forms of bullying, verbal bullying had the highest prevalence (66.36%), followed by physical bullying (24.02%), and neglect had the lowest prevalence (9.62%). The results of a survey conducted by Scheithauer et al. (2006) in Germany with students in grades 5–10 [ 47 ], and the results of the prevalence of six forms of bullying among 2667 Italian secondary school students, obtained by Vieno et al. in 2011 using the results of the Health Behavior in School-aged Children Survey database, also both showed the highest prevalence of verbal bullying, consistent with the findings of this paper [ 48 ]. This suggested that verbal bullying, which takes the form of making fun of a peer’s race, nationality, color, creed, body, and appearance, was the most prevalent and most likely to occur among adolescents because it was the most recognizable and less costly to occur. However, it was worth pointing out that the findings for the prevalence of physical bullying and neglect in this study differ slightly from those of the two studies mentioned above, due to the different criteria used to measure them.

Secondly, compared with physical bullying and neglect, verbal bullying had the most serious negative effect on adolescent mental health. Not only did verbal bullying had the highest prevalence of the three forms of bullying, but it also had the most serious negative effect on adolescent mental health for two main reasons: firstly, verbal bullying occurred most frequently, and according to the study, the frequency of bullying significantly and negatively affects adolescent mental health, so the lower the level of mental health when adolescents suffered frequent ridicule or name-calling from peers; secondly, from the perspective of social identity theory, this highly discriminatory ridicule led to negative mental health outcomes, especially for adolescents with extremely strong identity, and this discrimination increased their psychological distress [ 49 ].

Thirdly, overall, the frequency of bullying had a greater negative effect on the mental health of female adolescents compared with male adolescents, which was consistent with the findings of a recent study conducted in the United States that school bullying had a greater effect on psychological depression in females than in males [ 26 ]. In addition, physical bullying had a greater negative effect on the mental health of male adolescents, and verbal bullying and neglect had a greater negative effect on the mental health of female adolescents. This was generally consistent with previous research finding that depressive symptoms were more pronounced after active forms of bullying (i.e., physical bullying) in boys and after passive forms of bullying (i.e., verbal and relational bullying) in girls [ 28 , 50 ]. This would require further exploration of the effect of different forms of bullying on the mental health of male and female adolescents in specific regions. While we need to protect boys and girls equally from bullying, countries also need to consider the gender differences in the occurrence and effect of different forms of bullying in their countries and pay targeted attention to adolescents who are victims of bullying.

Fourth, the frequency of bullying had a more significant negative effect on the mental health of adolescents under the age of 15, and different forms of bullying also had a more significant negative effect on the mental health of adolescents under the age of 15. Previous studies have found that the odds of bullying are higher for younger adolescents (under 15) [ 25 , 51 ]. Compared with younger adolescents, older adolescents (15 years and older) were more aware of self-concept and self-regulation in terms of self-perception and psychological construction [ 49 ], so both the frequency of bullying and the different forms of bullying had a more significant negative effect on the mental health of adolescents under the age of 15. In addition, the study showed regional differences in mental health of adolescents in different age groups after various forms of bullying, which provided a basis for the development and implementation of intervention policies in each region or country.

Finally, in terms of protective factors, “parental supervision”, “parental connectedness” and “parental bonding” played positive roles in the relationship between bullying and adolescent mental health. Positive relationships, especially positive family relationships that provided intimacy, support, trust, emotional comfort, and a sense of belonging, are one of the key elements of resiliency [ 52 ]. In such a family environment, even if adolescents were abused and bullied, they could still buffer the stress and shock from other aspects by increasing their self-efficacy, self-worth, and emotional belongingness [ 53 ]. “Parental connectedness” and “parental bonding” were important indicators of parent–child intimacy and emotional comfort, and played a positive role in adolescents’ resilience. However, there were no consistent conclusions to the role of “parental supervision”. Some studies have not found a significant link between parental supervision and mental health after bullying [ 54 , 55 ]. Others have identified the lack of parental supervision as a risk factor to adolescents’ mental health development [ 56 ], which is consistent with the current study. Future research would explore how the degree or the forms of parental supervision influence mental health when adolescents experience bullying.

Limited by the consistency of the GSHS database, this study suffered from the following shortcomings: Firstly, the countries or regions selected represent only some of the five regions. We did not contain the European continent because only one country provided useful data. Future studies would include more specific countries to explore the global adolescent bullying situation. Secondly, the GSHS used a self-administered questionnaire, and although self-administration was an acceptable way to collect data on adolescent bullying victimization, there was a limitation of possible shared method variance. Finally, we observed significant regional differences in the prevalence of different forms of bullying, including gender differences and age differences, and future research would consider social context and cultural heterogeneity to explain regional differences better and provide more possibilities for countries to implement adolescent bullying intervention programs.

5. Conclusions

Despite these limitations, our study contributed to the exploration of adolescent bullying in the following ways: firstly, unlike previous studies limited to individual countries or regions, our analysis covered 65 sample countries across five continents, providing more evidence for cross-regional comparative studies of adolescent bullying; secondly, in addition to focusing on bullying among adolescents as a whole and its effect on mental health, we focused on intergroup differences in adolescent subgroups (gender groups and age groups) to provide a basis for targeted development of specific intervention policies for different groups of adolescents. Finally, we focused on the potential protective factors of adolescent bullying and found that “parental supervision”, “parental connectedness” and “parental bonding” played a positive role in protecting the psychological health of adolescents who were bullied. The above findings suggested that, as a global public health problem, adolescent bullying should attract sufficient policy concern and practical intervention, and further establish a comprehensive adolescent social protection mechanism and protection system including family, school, and community.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank children and their families who participated in the GSHS. The authors would like to thank World Health Organization for providing the datasets and codebook for data analysis of GSHS.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.M.; methodology, X.M. and J.L.; software, Z.X. and J.L.; validation, X.M., J.L. and Z.X.; formal analysis, X.M., J.L. and Z.X.; data curation, Z.X.; writing—original draft preparation, X.M. and J.L.; writing—review and editing, X.M., J.L. and Z.X.; visualization, X.M., J.L. and Z.X.; supervision, X.M.; project administration, X.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research was funded by Social Science Planning Fund of Liaoning Province (Grant Number: L20BGL004) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities supported by Ministry of Education of China (Grant Number: N2114001).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Effects of Cyber Bullying on Teenagers: a Short Review of Literature

2018, IrisPublishers LLC

Among the numerous advantages of the internet, there is an unintended outcome of the internet’s extensive reach: the growing rate of harmful offences against children and teens. Cyber-bullying victimization has recently received a fair amount of attention due to some heart-breaking events orbiting in schools and even at homes. Although research has already demonstrated a number of serious consequences of cyber-victimization, many questions remain unanswered concerning the impact of cyber-bullying. This study gathers literature from 18 studies pieces together only the factors that kick-start cyber-bullying perpetration and victimization but also the effects of bullying on the victims as well as the bullies.

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sobia altaf

While forms of traditional bullying have been declining over the past two decades, cyber bullying has emerged as a modern form of bullying in recent times. Previous research studies have not been developed much on the issue of cyber bullying. The current study reviews the relevant research studies as the excessive usage of social media and by young people and different themes have been carried out from the help of the existing literature. The present study has synthesised current literature on: i) prevalence of cyber bullying among adolescents ii) huge level of cyber bullying occurrences in educational institutions iii) people who are more prone to be the victims and perpetrators iv) effects of cyber bullying on adolescence v) preventive measures for the wellbeing of Pakistani adolescents. In this article, the researcher reviews the literature related to cyber bullying conducted between the years from 2000 to 2019.

Marija Nešić

With the rapid development of communication technology and its wide use by the adolescents, cyberspace became a new risky environment for bullying manifestation and victimization. The significance of the problem lies in the fact that, unlike the traditional bullying, the cyberbullying victimization occurs also out of the school surroundings, it?s characterized by the possible anonymity of the bully, it?s harder to discover it and it could have a much bigger audience. Results of numerous studies show that the prevalence of cyberbullying victimization is 10% to 40% during one school year and that it is related to different negative outcomes - from problems of lower self-esteem to severe psychological and behavioral problems. The aim of the paper is to present basic characteristics and negative outcomes of cyberbullying victimization and also to summarize possible factors which are associated with this form of bullying. Lastly, possible ways of preventive action and coping with cyberbu...

Tahany Gadalla

Background and Purpose: The Internet is becoming the preferred method of communication for youth. It is also becoming a site for bullying, exacerbated by perceptions of anonymity, greater technological knowledge among youth, and the ability of bullying messages and images to be sent at any time and quickly transmitted to a large audience. The devastating impact of cyber bullying, including depression, substance use and delinquency (Mitchell, Ybarra & Finklehor, 2007) has revealed cyber bullying as a dominant public health problem. While a developing research base exists, estimating the prevalence of cyber bullying between 9-25% (Kowalski & Limber, 2007; Li, 2007; Williams & Guerra, 2007), this is the first study to specifically examine cyber bullying with a representative sample. The purpose was to identify the extent and impact of cyber bullying to generate knowledge and inform interventions. Methods: A geographically stratified random sample of grade six, seven, ten and eleven stu...

Faye Mishna , Tahany Gadalla

Faye Mishna , Tahany Gadalla , Joanne Daciuk

New media & society

Heidi Vandebosch

The New Educational Review

Miriam Niklová

Motif Akademi Halkbilimi Dergisi

Esra Nihan Bridge, LMFT

Cyberbullying, a new growing phenomenon due to society's heavy reliance on advanced technologies is an intricate and ever-evolving form of bullying. Little is known about how cyberbullying is perpetrated at the middle and high school levels. The current study aims to investigate the prevalence, impact, and differential experience of cyberbullying victimization comprehensively. The participants of the study consist of 1752 middle and high school students in İstanbul. The cyber victimization inventory and personal information questionnaire were used to gather research data. These surveys examined the relationship between cyber victimization and technology use and students' sociodemographic information. As a result of the research, it was observed that male students experienced significantly higher cyber victimization than females. Also, the results demonstrated that 10 th and 11 th grade students have experienced more cyber victimization compared to 6 th , 7 th , 8 th , and 9 th grade students. When internet access was not supervised by the parents and students' time of internet usage increased, it was found that they have experienced cyber victimization significantly higher. This research contributes to the literature in terms of revealing cyber victimization and related factors. Understanding the level of cyber victimization that children are exposed to and the factors related to victimization are important for reinforcing studies to prevent bullying behaviors in the online environment.

Journal of School Health

Research, Society and Development

Marcel Pereira Pordeus

One form of bullying has been more frequent and has gained space in the media and in the scientific community, virtual bullying, or cyberbullying, which has consequences as serious as the traditional ones. Like bullying, cyberbullying can be seen as a public health issue, as a phenomenon that significantly affects the development of children and adolescents, causing short, medium, and long-term consequences. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to analyze and discuss the aspects of this form of aggression through social media, conceptualizing and differentiating it from traditional bullying, focusing on the psychological consequences of the adolescent in the position of victim of cyber aggression. In effect, a bibliographic research was conducted, without specific date criteria, of exploratory nature, where theoretical and empirical studies of authors/researchers were used, such as: Cortés et al. (2021); Hinduja & Patchin, (2020); De Oliveira (2016), among other authors/researchers w...

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Essay on Bullying

Bullying is a pervasive issue that affects individuals of all ages, backgrounds, and walks of life. It is a problem that transcends geographical boundaries and has profound emotional, psychological, and even physical consequences on its victims. In recent years, the global community has recognized the urgency of addressing this issue and has taken significant steps to combat bullying. This essay aims to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of bullying, its various forms, the reasons behind it, its consequences, and strategies to prevent and address it.

Bullying can be defined as a deliberate and repeated aggressive behavior that is intended to harm, intimidate, or exert control over another person. This harmful behavior can manifest in various forms, including physical, verbal, relational, and cyberbullying.

Types of Bullying

• Physical Bullying : Physical bullying involves direct physical harm or the threat of harm to the victim. This can include hitting, pushing, kicking, or any other form of physical aggression.
• Verbal Bullying : Verbal bullying includes using words or language to hurt, humiliate, or belittle another person. It can take the form of name-calling, insults, taunts, or spreading rumors.
• Relational Bullying : Relational bullying, also known as social bullying, aims to damage a person’s reputation or social standing. It involves manipulating social relationships, spreading gossip, or excluding someone from a group.
• Cyberbullying : With the rise of technology, cyberbullying has become a significant concern. It involves using electronic devices and social media to harass, threaten, or embarrass others. This form of bullying can have severe consequences due to its widespread nature.

Reasons Behind Bullying

Understanding the motivations behind bullying is crucial for addressing the issue effectively. Some common reasons include:

• Power and Control : Bullies often seek power and control over their victims, using intimidation to feel superior.
• Insecurity: Some bullies may suffer from low self-esteem and use bullying as a way to boost their own confidence.
• Peer Pressure : Individuals may engage in bullying due to pressure from peers or a desire to fit in with a certain group.
• Lack of Empathy: A lack of empathy or understanding for the feelings of others can lead to bullying behavior.

Dealing With Bullying (for Teens)

Bullying is a distressing and challenging issue that many teenagers face at some point in their lives. It can take various forms, such as physical, verbal, relational, or cyberbullying, and can have lasting emotional and psychological effects. If you or someone you know is dealing with bullying, here are some important steps and strategies to consider:

• Recognize It: The first step in dealing with bullying is recognizing it. Understand that bullying can be subtle, and it’s not always easy to identify. It’s crucial to distinguish between a conflict or disagreement and genuine bullying behavior.
• Talk About It: Don’t keep your feelings or experiences bottled up. Talk to someone you trust, whether it’s a friend, family member, teacher, or counselor. Sharing your experiences can provide emotional support and guidance.
• Keep Records: Document instances of bullying, including dates, times, locations, and the people involved. This documentation can be valuable if you decide to report the bullying to school authorities or law enforcement.
• Avoid Retaliation: While it’s natural to feel angry and want to retaliate, avoid responding to the bully with aggression. Retaliation can escalate the situation and lead to more harm. Focus on seeking help and support instead.
• Seek Adult Help: Talk to a trusted adult about the bullying. They can provide guidance, help you report the issue to school officials or authorities if necessary, and ensure your safety.
• Use Technology Wisely: In the case of cyberbullying, protect your online presence by adjusting privacy settings, blocking the bully, and avoiding engaging in any further online conflicts.
• Know Your Rights: Familiarize yourself with your school’s anti-bullying policies and your legal rights. Schools are required to take bullying seriously and take appropriate actions to address it.
• Report It: If the bullying continues or escalates, report it to school authorities and, if necessary, to local law enforcement. Provide them with your documentation and any evidence you have.
• Stay Safe Online: Be cautious with your online presence, and avoid sharing personal information or engaging in online conflicts. Report cyberbullying to the platform or social media site administrators.

Consequences of Bullying

Bullying has profound and lasting consequences on both the victim and the bully. These consequences include:

• Emotional and Psychological Effects: Victims often experience anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, and in severe cases, suicidal thoughts. Bullies may develop a pattern of aggressive behavior that persists into adulthood.
• Academic Impact: Bullying can disrupt a student’s ability to concentrate, leading to poor academic performance and school avoidance.
• Health Consequences: Both victims and bullies may experience physical health problems, such as headaches, stomachaches, and sleep disturbances.
• Long-term Effects: The effects of bullying can extend into adulthood, impacting relationships, mental health, and overall quality of life.

Prevention and Intervention Strategies

Efforts to combat bullying should involve a combination of prevention and intervention strategies:

• Awareness Programs: Schools and communities can implement awareness programs that educate students about the consequences of bullying and promote empathy and kindness.
• Open Communication: Encourage open communication between students, parents, and educators, creating a safe space for reporting bullying incidents.
• Strict Anti-Bullying Policies: Schools should have clear anti-bullying policies with consequences for those who engage in bullying behavior.
• Support Systems: Provide support and counseling for both victims and bullies to address their emotional and psychological needs.
• Cyberbullying Prevention: Promote responsible internet usage and educate students about the dangers of cyberbullying.

Bullying is a complex and deeply rooted issue that affects countless individuals around the world. Students participating in essay writing competitions must understand the different forms of bullying, its causes, and the devastating consequences it can have on individuals and society as a whole. By fostering empathy, promoting open communication, and implementing effective prevention and intervention strategies, we can work towards a world where bullying is a thing of the past, and all individuals can thrive in a safe and respectful environment.

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Preventing workplace mistreatment and improving workers’ mental health: a scoping review of the impact of psychosocial safety climate

• Mustapha Amoadu 1 ,
• Edward Wilson Ansah 1 &
• Jacob Owusu Sarfo 1  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  195 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Work environment is rapidly evolving, unfortunately, it is also becoming increasingly hostile for workers due mostly to common psychosocial hazards. This situation is posing significant challenges for organisations to protect the psychological well-being of their workers. Hence, this review aims to map studies to understand the influence of psychosocial safety climate (PSC) on workplace mistreatment and mental health of workers.

The guidelines outlined by Arksey and O’Malley were adopted for this review. PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, JSTOR, Google and Google Scholar were searched for relevant papers. Only peer-reviewed studies that measured PSC using PSC-12, PSC-8 or PSC-4 were included in this review.

Thirty-eight studies met the inclusion criteria. This review found that PSC has a negative association with workplace mistreatment such as bullying, harassment, violence, discrimination and abuse. Further, PSC has a positive association with psychological well-being, personal resilience and hope. Low level organisational PSC also promotes psychological distress, stress, depression, cognitive weariness and emotional exhaustion. The buffering effect of PSC is well-established. Moreover, PSC mediates the association between health-centric leadership and workers’ psychological health problems. The inverse relationship between PSC and depressive symptoms was stronger for females than males.

Organisations should prioritise training and development of supervisors to enhance their supportive skills, encourage respectful behaviour, encourage the use of resources promote open and bottom-up communication and provide guidance on conflict resolution. By promoting a high PSC context, organisations can create a culture that discourages mistreatment, leading to increased employee well-being, job satisfaction, and productivity.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Work environment globally is rapidly evolving, but it is also becoming increasingly hostile for workers. Recent evidence from the International Labour Organisation (ILO) indicates that about 23% of workers have experienced violence and harassment at work, encompassing physical, psychological, and sexual abuse [ 1 ]. This disturbing statistic reveals that more than one in five people in employment have encountered workplace violence and harassment, posing significant challenges for organizations to protect the psychological well-being of their workforce. There is also a growing realization of the need to understand the influence of the psychosocial work environment on workplace mistreatment and mental health. The World Health Organisation (WHO) and ILO have jointly reported a global increase in occupational morbidity and mortality resulting from a poor psychosocial work environment [ 2 , 3 ], emphasising the importance of exploring the concept of psychosocial safety climate (PSC).

PSC is an organisational culture that prioritises workers’ psychological health and safety at the workplace [ 4 ]. Thus, PSC refers to the shared perceptions of workers concerning workplace policies, practices, and procedures that are designed to protect and promote their psychological well-being [ 5 ]. It encompasses a range of organisational factors including leadership commitment to workers’ well-being, job design, organisational justice, social support and overall climate of trust and respect at the workplace [ 6 ]. A high PSC context emphasises the importance of fostering a psychologically healthy work environment, where workers feel safe, supported, valued, treated fairly and respected [ 7 ], thus, lowering the tendency of mistreatment of workers.

Workplace mistreatment refers to any form of harmful, abusive, or disrespectful behaviour that occurs in the work environment [ 1 ] This includes but not limited to bullying, harassment, violence, abuse and discrimination [ 1 ]. Workplace mistreatment has gained significant research and policy attention due to its detrimental effects on both workers and organizations [ 1 ]. Victims of workplace mistreatment often experience poor mental health, job dissatisfaction and impaired productivity [ 8 ]. Recognising the crucial role of the PSC in mitigating workplace mistreatment and protecting workers’ mental health has become a pressing concern for researchers, industries and policymakers [ 8 ]. For over a decade of research into PSC, identifying and synthesising studies that have explored PSC in reducing workplace mistreatment and improving mental health is noteworthy. Thus, this scoping review aims at mapping existing studies to provide a comprehensive understanding of the influence of PSC on workplace mistreatment and mental health on workers. The purpose is to make recommendations for future research and systematic reviews. This review will also help organisations, managers and policymakers to develop evidence-based strategies and interventions that promote a PSC work-context that fosters a respectful and supportive work environment and safeguard workers’ psychological well-being. Also, this review aims to provide evidence that is useful in promoting a healthy and decent workplace that eliminates all forms of workplace mistreatment and mental health stressors.

The guidelines outlined by Arksey and O’Malley [ 9 ] were adopted for this scoping review: thus, identifying and stating the research questions, identifying relevant studies, studies selection, data collection, summary and synthesis of results and consultation. Therefore, we formulated research questions based on the Population, Concept and Context (PCC) framework. The following questions guided this scoping review:

What is the relationship between PSC and workplace mistreatment?

What is the relationship between PSC and mental health parameters?

What is the mediating and moderating role of PSC in improving workers’ mental health and reducing workplace mistreatment?

Search for relevant papers was conducted in four main databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and JSTOR). Google and Google Scholar were explored for additional papers. Reference lists of eligible records were also checked for relevant papers. The authors created a search technique that used a combination of controlled vocabularies like Medical Subject Headings (MeSH). Keywords for each of the four major electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and JSTOR) were also created to address the research questions and identify relevant literature. Table  1 presents the search strategy conducted in PubMed and other databases. The search strategies were informed by PCC. The context was not limited to a specific country or region since this review was given a global focus. The search strategy used in PubMed was then modified for search in other databases. The authors used three keywords in their search strategy (1) psychosocial safety climate, (2) workplace abuse and (3) mental health. The search for relevant papers started on March 12, 2023, and ended on July 1, 2023. Chartered librarians at the Sam Jonah Library, University of Cape Coast were consulted.

Mendeley software was used to remove duplicate records. Ten graduate students were trained and supervised by MA to screen titles and abstracts for full-text-eligible records. This was done to enhance efficiency in the screening process and allowed for a more thorough and expedited review of titles and abstracts to identify records eligible for full-text examination. Authors checked the reference list of full-text records to identify additional eligible records. Eligible full-text records were then screened independently by MA and JOS and supervised by EWA using the eligibility criteria presented in Table  2 . Weekly meetings were used to resolve disagreements identified during the screening process.

Data extraction was handled independently by two independent researchers (MA and JOS) and supervised by EWA. This was done to ensure that accurate and reliable data were extracted for this review. Disagreements during the data extraction phase were handled during weekly meetings. Authors extracted data on authors, the country where the study was conducted, year of publication, purpose of the study, study design, population, sample size, measure of PSC and study outcomes. Finally, thematic content analysis was conducted by the authors based on the research questions. The analysis involved identifying recurring themes relevant to the research questions. This process included organising and categorising data to extract meaningful patterns and insights from the extracted information. The search results, characteristics of reviewed studies and thematic analysis were presented.

Search results

Search conducted in the four main databases produced 4,621 records and additional 29 records were retrieved from Google and Google Scholar. The Mendeley software was used to remove 742 duplicate records. After title and abstract screening, 3,820 records were removed because they were not relevant to this review. Additional 5 records were retrieved through reference checking of eligible studies and 93 full-text records were screened for eligibility. Finally, 38 full-text records were included in this scoping review and the remaining 55 full-text records were removed because they did not report on variables of interest. The search results and screening process is presented in Fig.  1 .

PRISMA flow diagram of search results and screening process

Characteristics of reviewed studies

Reviewed studies collectively sampled 53,733 workers. A cross-sectional survey design was mostly used in conducting these studies (See Fig.  2 for details). A few (6) of the studies were published in 2021 (See Fig.  3 for details), with about half (19) conducted in Australia (See details in Fig.  4 ). Most of the studies we reviewed sampled general working population (16) and healthcare providers (11) (See details in Fig.  5 ). Characteristics of reviewed studies are presented in Supplementary File (Table S1 ).

Study designs of reviewed studies

Year of publication of included studies

Map showing countries and continents where reviewed studies were conducted

Occupational groups explored by reviewed studies

Influence of PSC on workplace mistreatment

Evidence indicates that PSC has a direct and significant influence on workplace mistreatment. For instance, reviewed studies reported that a high PSC work context provides a favourable work environment that helps eliminates or reduces workplace bullying among workers [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Also, workplace violence [ 8 , 10 ] and abuse [ 18 ] are common in a low PSC context. In addition, studies further highlighted that workplace harassment [ 10 , 11 ] and discrimination [ 18 ] are less common or eliminated in a high PSC context.

Influence of PSC on workers’ mental health

Evidence established that PSC directly improves workers’ mental health. For example, evidence is consistent that high PSC context improves psychological well-being [ 14 , 19 , 20 , 21 ] and reduces psychological distress [ 4 , 18 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Furthermore, it is indicated that low PSC work exposes workers to emotional exhaustion [ 4 , 16 , 22 , 25 , 30 , 31 , 32 ], stress [ 33 , 34 ], cognitive weariness [ 35 ] and depression [ 23 , 36 , 37 , 38 ]. For instance, a study reported that the inverse relationship between PSC and depressive symptoms was stronger for females than males [ 36 ]. Moreover, a high PSC context makes workers more assertive [ 39 ] and resilient [ 40 ] and presents opportunities for hope [ 40 ]. We present thematic analysis of the influence of PSC on workplace mistreatment and mental health in Table  3 .

Mediation and the buffering effect of PSC

The literature consistently confirms the buffering effect of PSC on various outcomes related to worker well-being and mistreatment. Yulita et al. [ 7 ]for example, found that in a high PSC context, job resources had a stronger impact on reducing psychological distress. Similarly, Lawrie et al. [ 41 ] demonstrated positive impact of job control on worker mindfulness which is enhanced in a high PSC work environment. Besides, Siami et al. [ 40 ] revealed that the association between supportive leadership and personal hope is strengthened in the presence of a high PSC. Hall et al. [ 42 ] showed that the effect of job demands on depression is diminished when workers perceive high PSC. Additionally, Loh et al. [ 43 ] found a negative impact of emotional demands on psychological well-being that is mitigated in a high PSC context.

Furthermore, it is indicated that the adverse association between workplace bullying, harassment, and psychological well-being is attenuated when workers perceive high PSC [ 11 ]. Thus, PSC has the capacity to reduce the impact of workplace bullying on post-traumatic disorder and work engagement [ 12 , 44 ] Kwan et al. [ 39 ] revealed that the positive association between bullying and neglect is diminished when a high PSC is perceived by workers. Moreover, PSC moderates the associations between role conflict and workplace bullying [ 17 ], role ambiguity and workplace bullying [ 17 ] and stigma and workplace bullying [ 15 ]. While a limited research attention is given, a study reported that PSC mediates the association between health-centric leadership and workers’ psychological health problems [ 26 ]. These findings collectively emphasize the crucial role of PSC in mitigating the negative consequences of mistreatment and enhancing workers’ well-being.

Workplace-specific findings

The findings from various studies reveal workplace-specific outcomes related to Psychosocial Safety Climate (PSC). In the education sector in Australia, PSC was associated with a reduction in psychological distress and emotional exhaustion among education workers [ 4 ]. Similarly, in Malaysia, among police officers, PSC buffered the effect of job resources on psychological distress [ 7 ]. Healthcare workers in China experienced a decrease in workplace violence in the presence of a positive PSC [ 8 ]. For the general working population in Australia, PSC was linked to a decrease in harassment, violence, and bullying [ 10 ]. In diverse settings, including police officers, the general working population, and refugees in Australia, PSC demonstrated a consistent negative association with workplace mistreatment such as bullying, harassment, violence, discrimination, and abuse [ 12 , 13 , 18 ]. Healthcare workers in both Australia and Malaysia reported improved psychological well-being in the presence of a high PSC context [ 19 ]. Construction workers in China showed enhanced mental well-being [ 20 ]. Various workplace settings, such as attorneys in the USA and oil and gas workers in Malaysia, exhibited a decrease in psychological distress with a positive PSC [ 27 , 28 ]. Notably, healthcare workers across different countries, including Iran, Australia, and Canada, experienced positive outcomes such as decreased emotional exhaustion and stress, emphasizing the universal impact of PSC in healthcare settings [ 22 , 30 , 35 ].

This review found that PSC has a negative association with workplace mistreatment such as bullying, harassment, violence, discrimination and abuse. Furthermore, we found that PSC has a positive association with psychological well-being, personal resilience and hope. Moreover, PSC has a negative association with psychological distress, stress, depression, cognitive weariness and emotional exhaustion. The buffering effect of PSC is well-established in the literature.

PSC has a negative association with workplace mistreatment. A high PSC work environment indicates that managers and supervisors are perceived as supportive, approachable and caring towards their workers. In such a work context, workers are more likely to feel protected, valued and respected [ 5 ]. Furthermore, such work context acts as a deterrent to workplace mistreatment including bullying and harassment because workers are more assertive at work [ 18 ]. Furthermore, when workers perceive their supervisors as supportive, they are likely to develop trust and respect among workers and towards their supervisors. This trust and respect may lead to positive interpersonal relationships between supervisors and workers, fostering a sense of fairness, partnership, and open communication [ 10 , 11 ]. In such a work context, discrimination and mistreatment are less likely to occur, since they contradict the principles of trust and respect. In a high PSC context, managers and supervisors are expected to exhibit positive behaviours to serve as role models for their colleagues and subordinates. When managers and supervisors exhibit respectful and inclusive behaviours, it serves as precedents for acceptable conduct at the workplace, reducing the occurrence of mistreatment [ 8 , 10 ]. In a high PSC work context, bottom-up communication is encouraged and supervisors are more likely to intervene and address workplace mistreatment, provide training on respectful behaviours and establish mechanisms for reporting incidents [ 5 ]. These communication and conflict resolution mechanisms do not only deter mistreatment but also provide a sense of security for workers.

Influence of PSC on mental health

PSC has a positive association with psychological well-being. In a high PSC context, workers are trained and encouraged to utilise essential resources capable of helping workers to cope effectively with the psychological and emotional demands of work. Furthermore, high PSC implies that supervisors provide emotional support, understanding and validation of their workers which helps buffer against stressors at the workplace [ 5 ]. Besides, the presence of supportive supervisors or management contributes to workers’ mental well-being by reducing feelings of isolation, enhancing self-esteem, and promoting a sense of belongingness [ 7 ]. Moreover, in a high PSC context, supervisors are more likely to be responsive to workers’ needs and concerns, providing workers with essential resources and guidance that alleviate psychological distress [ 33 , 34 ]. Thus, high PSC contexts encourage and empower workers by promoting assertiveness, resilience, and hope [ 39 ]. In such an environment, workers may feel more confident in expressing their needs, standing up for themselves, and seeking solutions to challenges. Consequently, this may lead to increased assertiveness, better coping mechanisms, and a more positive outlook on work-related issues [ 39 ].

The finding that the negative association between PSC and depressive symptoms is stronger for females than males highlight the potential of gender differences in the impact of PSC on mental health outcomes. This finding could be influenced by several variables including differences in socialisation, communication styles, and the importance of supportive relationships for women [ 36 ]. However, further research is needed to explore these gender-specific dynamics in more detail.

The buffering effects of PSC

In a high PSC environment, job resources including job control and supportive leadership, are perceived as more beneficial and impactful [ 5 ]. Thus, PSC acts as an amplifier, enhancing the positive effects of these resources on workers’ mental well-being [ 43 ]. When workers perceive a supportive work environment, they are more likely to utilise job resources that are more effective in reducing psychological distress, increasing mindfulness, fostering personal hope, and mitigating the negative impact of job demands on depression and emotional exhaustion [ 7 ]. A high PSC context would create a sense of psychological safety, where workers feel comfortable expressing their concerns, reporting mistreatment, and seeking essential support [ 5 ]. This situation creates an environment where bullying, harassment, and other forms of workplace mistreatment are less tolerated, and thus, less occur [ 4 ]. The perception of high PSC buffers the adverse effect of workplace mistreatment on psychological well-being, post-traumatic disorder, stress, cognitive weariness and other psychological health problems to improve productivity and organisational image [ 4 ].

PSC in specific workplaces

The workplace-specific findings underscore the intricate interplay between PSC and various professional domains, shedding light on the nuanced dynamics within diverse work settings [ 12 , 35 ]. In the education sector, the observed reduction in psychological distress and emotional exhaustion among education workers in the presence of a positive PSC speaks to the profound impact of a supportive climate on educators’ well-being [ 4 ]. This suggests that cultivating an environment where educators feel psychologically safe translates into not only improved mental health but also potentially enhanced teaching effectiveness. Similarly, the buffering effect of PSC among police officers in Malaysia, mitigating the impact of job resources on psychological distress, implies that the nature of law enforcement work may be less psychologically taxing when embedded in a supportive organisational climate [ 7 ]. This finding holds implications for law enforcement agencies globally, urging a closer examination of the organisational factors influencing officers’ mental well-being.

In healthcare settings across different countries, the consistent positive outcomes, including decreased emotional exhaustion and stress, emphasise the universal importance of PSC in fostering a supportive environment for healthcare professionals [ 22 , 30 , 35 ]. The demanding and often emotionally charged nature of healthcare work makes the role of PSC in enhancing mental well-being particularly crucial. In the context of the general working population, the findings of reduced harassment, violence, and bullying in Australia underscore the broader societal impact of promoting a psychosocially safe work environment [ 10 ]. These results imply that organisational climates that prioritise employee well-being contribute not only to individual flourishing but also to creating healthier workplace cultures that extend beyond specific professions.

The enhanced mental well-being observed among construction workers in China suggests that the positive effects of PSC are not confined to traditional office settings [ 20 ]. In physically demanding and high-risk occupations, cultivating a supportive climate may play a pivotal role in mitigating the adverse psychological impacts of the job. Furthermore, the positive outcomes observed among attorneys in the USA and oil and gas workers in Malaysia highlight the relevance of PSC in diverse and high-pressure work environments [ 27 , 28 ]. The findings imply that irrespective of the industry or professional demands, a psychosocially safe climate can act as a buffer against psychological distress.

Practical implications for managers and organisations

Organisations and managers need to cultivate a supportive leadership style that emphasise open and bottom-up communication, approachability, and empathy towards workers [ 44 ]. Building positive relationships with workers and demonstrating genuine care is enhance PSC which contributes to creating a healthy and decent work environment where the psychological well-being of workers is prioritised. Furthermore, organisations should establish clear policies and procedures that explicitly address workplace mistreatment such as violence, bullying, harassment, discrimination, and abuse. These policies should be effectively communicated to all workers, reinforced and encouraged through training programmess. Organisations emphasising a zero-tolerance approach to workplace violence and harassment, have the potential of promoting a culture of respect and fairness, thereby promoting the health and well-being of their workers [ 45 ].

Managers and supervisors ought to undergo training on the significance of PSC and its relation to preventing mistreatment at the workplace. This training should concentrate on augmenting supportive leadership skills, promoting positive communication, conflict resolution, and creating an awareness of the impact of mistreatment on both individual and the organisation [ 46 ]. It is of utmost importance to institute confidential mechanisms for workers to report incidents of mistreatment without any apprehension of retaliation. Encouraging reporting can help identify and address mistreatment cases expediently. Managers should communicate the existence of reporting channels and ensure that workers feel secure and supported when reporting their concerns and seeking support and resources.

Managers possess a vital function in establishing a culture that highly regards respect, diversity, and inclusion. Through the cultivation of an inclusive work environment, wherein individuals are treated with dignity and fairness, managers can contribute to creating a high PSC context that minimizes the occurrences of mistreatment [ 46 ]. Managers should consistently evaluate and attend to work-related stressors that may lead to psychological distress, cognitive fatigue, emotional exhaustion, and depression. This can encompass the management of workload, provision of resources and support, and promotion of work-life balance. Organisations ought to allocate resources to workers’ well-being initiatives, such as mental health programmess, wellness activities, and workshops that develop resilience [ 46 , 47 ]. Such initiatives may further reinforce psychological well-being, personal resilience, and hope among workers.

Limitations and recommendations for future research

Most of the studies included this study were cross-sectional surveys which are usually affected by response bias, which may also affect the findings of this review. Using only papers published in the English language may affect the volume and depth of evidence retrieved for this review. There is limited evidence from continents such as Africa and South America that may skew the findings. However, authors used robust protocols to retrieve essential papers from 13 countries, screen papers, extract data and thematic analysis which may help in generalisation findings and make recommendations for future research and practice. Authors did not appraise the studies included in this scoping review. This poses a limitation as it may impact the overall quality and reliability of the included studies. Hence, caution should be taken when interpretating the findings and conclusion drawn from this review. Further research is needed to explore gender-specific dynamics in the influence of PSC on workplace mistreatment and mental health. A future systematic review is needed to estimate the practical effect of PSC on psychological well-being and workplace mistreatment.

This review found that PSC has a negative association with workplace mistreatment such as bullying, harassment, violence, discrimination and abuse. Furthermore, the authors found that PSC has a positive association with psychological well-being, personal resilience and hope. PSC also has a negative association with psychological distress, stress, depression, cognitive weariness and emotional exhaustion, strongly establishing the buffering effect of PSC on worker health and well-being. The findings highlight the importance of fostering a supportive work environment and cultivating positive relationships between supervisors and employees. Workplaces or organisations should prioritise the training and development of supervisors to enhance their supportive skills, encourage respectful behaviour, and provide guidance on conflict resolution. By promoting a high PSC context, organizations can create a culture that discourages mistreatment, leading to increased employee well-being, job satisfaction, and productivity. Finally, organizations need to address factors that contribute to low PSC, such as ineffective leadership, lack of open bottom-up communication, or perceived unfairness. By identifying and addressing these issues, organisations can make practical steps towards creating a work environment that minimises mistreatment and promotes a positive workplace culture. Further research is needed to explore gender-specific dynamics in the influence of PSC on workplace mistreatment and mental health. A future systematic review is needed to estimate the practical effect of PSC on psychological well-being and workplace mistreatment in various and diverse organisational settings, especially in settings such as Africa and South America that have received limited research on PSC and its interplay with workplace mistreatment and mental health.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this article and its supplementary file (Table S1 ).

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Acknowledgements

Authors are grateful to graduate students at the Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, University of Cape Coast, for their enormous support. Authors are also grateful to the chartered librarians at the research commons and digital library units at the Sam Jonah Library, University of Cape Coast for the support.

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E.W.A and M.A conceptualisation and design the study. M.A conducted data collection and analysis and initial write-up, M.A and J.O.S independently extracted data for evidence synthesis, reviewed by E.W.A. M.A wrote the first and final draft. M.A and E.W.A examined and oversaw the review process. The final draft of the manuscript was read and authorised for publication by all authors.

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Amoadu, M., Ansah, E.W. & Sarfo, J.O. Preventing workplace mistreatment and improving workers’ mental health: a scoping review of the impact of psychosocial safety climate. BMC Psychol 12 , 195 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01675-z

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01675-z

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A Solar Eclipse Means Big Science

By Katrina Miller April 1, 2024

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