essay on urbanization and unemployment

Urban youth unemployment: A looming crisis?

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May 2, 2018

Unemployment is a growing challenge around the world, though it is not a full-blown crisis yet. However, when the crisis comes, it is likely to erupt among urban youth.

While heading off such a calamity will not be easy, the global benefits of doing so would be great. As productive and socially responsible adults, the youth of today and in years to come could make planet Earth a better place for all.

A quick survey of the literature makes it clear that there will be no simple or universal solutions to the challenge of urban youth unemployment. The factors producing it are different in each city and useful interventions have to be well tailored to the cultural context.

Youth are the prime unemployment concern globally because their numbers are growing in most countries and because they are more prone to violence than adults. They have less to lose. Harvard professor Samuel Huntington made the point bluntly in an interview with journalist Michael Steinberger in The Observer on October 21, 2001: “Generally speaking, the people who go out and kill other people are males between the ages of 16 and 30.”

The first major outbreaks of violence by unemployed youth are likely to occur in cities because of the rapid pace of urbanization everywhere. The expectations of people in rural areas seem too low and their dispersion too great to create a combustible moment. Subsistence existence is normal there.

Fortunately, there are a number of counter currents. Demography may be the most important. Fertility is falling around the world. Women need to have 2.1 children on average to maintain a stable population size. After rising rapidly in the 20th century due to modern medicine and public health, fertility began falling below 2.1 in high-income countries in the 1970s and in the middle-income countries in the 1990s. Maybe fewer young people in the future will reduce the threat of social disorder.

According to World Population Prospects 2017 published by the United Nations, the mid-range forecast for global population in 2050 is 9.8 billion, up from 7.6 billion in 2015. Fertility in high-income countries is projected to remain below replacement level, stuck around 1.80 in 2050. Fertility in the upper middle-income countries will be only slightly higher at 1.82. For the lower middle-income countries, the largest of these four groups, fertility will be 2.25 in 2050, significantly down from 2.88 in 2015. It is the low-income countries, primarily in Africa, that have been and will continue to be the major source of global population growth, even as their fertility rate is projected to drop from 5.0 in 2015 to 3.08 in 2050. Despite this impressive fall, the population of this group of countries is on track to more than double from 600 million in 2015 to 1.4 billion in 2050.

It is possible that fertility will decline faster in the low-income and lower-middle income countries than the U.N. is projecting. As a result, combined with war and disease, the size of the global youth cohort, 15-24 years of age, could start shrinking by 2050. With continuing migration of youth from rural to urban areas, however, urban youth unemployment could be rising in these countries even as the number of youth is falling.

The other major cross current is that governments and the private sector are focused on creating more good jobs for youth. The leading sources of information and discussion about youth employment are the International Labor Organization based in Geneva, Switzerland, and the World Bank based in Washington, D.C. Both sources are promoting research on effective interventions and ways to scale these up.

Youth employment is also on the agenda of the G-20 Summit process, under the G-20’s Framework Working Group on the Future of Work (co-chaired by India and Canada). This week the ILO is convening the first global conference on “ Innovation for Decent Jobs for Youth .”

The extensive academic research on youth unemployment highlights the complexities of the global challenge. For example, the expectations and education of youth vary tremendously between high-income and low-income countries. At the same time, the capacity of governments to mount effective programs varies greatly. Furthermore, the interests of international nongovernmental organizations and multinational corporations do not always align with the countries of greatest need.

There is a thriving universe of programs seeking to prepare youth for employment through a variety of training and job market activities. Most governments in the world are supporting at least one form of a youth employment program, from volunteer service to tax benefits to matching employers with youth. A multitude of international and domestic NGOs are working in this space. One of the oldest is the International Youth Foundation based in Baltimore, Maryland. Leading multinational corporations have put youth employment at the center of their corporate social responsibility programs, including CitiGroup , the Conrad N. Hilton Foundation , Mastercard Foundation , and McKinsey & Company .

So far, however, assessments of these interventions have found few that have a major and sustained impact on employment, or can be scaled up easily, or can be replicated effectively in other cities.

A major complication is the pace of technological and social change. From one year to the next, the world has gone from seeing social media almost as a panacea to being a threat to civil order. The work place is changing before our eyes, with the gig economy growing while full-time, long-term employment with benefits is stagnant or shrinking.

Is enough being done to avoid an urban youth unemployment crisis before 2030, the benchmark year for the U.N.’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals? Goal 8 is especially relevant; it includes “ full and productive employment and decent work for all .”

What kinds of programs seem to have the potential for mitigating the risks of a crisis and can be scaled up or replicated across cities? Is it enough to focus on preparing youth for jobs or will it be necessary to tackle directly the potential for youth violence in cities and even redefine our visions of work?

An attempt will be made over the coming year to answer these questions in an effort to make sure that the global policy community is giving the challenge of urban youth employment the attention it deserves.

Urbanization: a problem for the rich and the poor?

Md Abdul Kuddus 1 , 2 , 4 ,
Elizabeth Tynan 3 &
Emma McBryde 1 , 2

Public Health Reviews volume 41 , Article number: 1 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Urbanization has long been associated with human development and progress, but recent studies have shown that urban settings can also lead to significant inequalities and health problems. This paper is concerned with the adverse impact of urbanization on both developed and developing nations and both wealthy and poor populations within those nations, addressing issues associated with public health problems in urban areas. The discussion in this paper will be of interest to policy makers. The paper advocates policies that improve the socio-economic conditions of the urban poor and promote their better health. Further, this discussion encourages wealthy people and nations to become better informed about the challenges that may arise when urbanization occurs in their regions without the required social supports and infrastructure.

Urbanization refers to the mass movement of populations from rural to urban settings and the consequent physical changes to urban settings. In 2019, the United Nations estimated that more than half the world’s population (4.2 billion people) now live in urban area and by 2041, this figure will increase to 6 billion people [ 1 ].

Cities are known to play multifaceted functions in all societies. They are the heart of technological development and economic growth of many nations, while at the same time serving as a breeding ground for poverty, inequality, environmental hazards, and communicable diseases [ 2 ]. When large numbers of people congregate in cities, many problems result, particularly for the poor. For example, many rural migrants who settle in an urban slum area bring their families and their domesticated animals—both pets and livestock—with them. This influx of humans and animals leads to vulnerability of all migrants to circulating communicable diseases and the potential to establish an urban transmission cycle. Further, most urban poor live in slums that are unregulated, have congested conditions, are overcrowded, are positioned near open sewers, and restricted to geographically dangerous areas such as hillsides, riverbanks, and water basins subject to landslides, flooding, or industrial hazards. All of these factors lead to the spread of communicable and non-communicable diseases, pollution, poor nutrition, road traffic, and so on [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. The problems faced by the poor spill over to other city dwellers. As the trend to urbanization continues, this spillover effect increases and takes on a global dimension as more and more of the world’s populations are affected [ 3 ].

Some of the major health problems resulting from urbanization include poor nutrition, pollution-related health conditions and communicable diseases, poor sanitation and housing conditions, and related health conditions. These have direct impacts on individual quality of life, while straining public health systems and resources [ 6 ].

Urbanization has a major negative impact on the nutritional health of poor populations. Because they have limited financial resources and the cost of food is higher in cities, the urban poor lack nutritious diets and this leads to illness, which contributes to loss of appetite and poor absorption of nutrients among those affected. Furthermore, environmental contamination also contributes to undernutrition; street food is often prepared in unhygienic conditions, leading to outbreaks of food-borne illnesses (e.g., botulism, salmonellosis, and shigellosis) [ 6 ]. Urban dwellers also suffer from overnutrition and obesity, a growing global public health problem. Obesity and other lifestyle conditions contribute to chronic diseases (such as cancers, diabetes, and heart diseases). Although obesity is most common among the wealthy, international agencies have noted the emergence of increased weight among the middle class and poor in recent years [ 7 ].

Populations in poor nations that suffer from protein-energy malnutrition [ 8 ] have increased susceptibility to infection [ 9 ] through the impact of micronutrient deficiency on immune system development and function [ 10 ]. Around 168 million children under 5 are estimated to be malnourished and 76% of these children live in Asia [ 11 ]. At the same time, the World Health Organization is concerned that there is an emerging pandemic of obesity in poor countries that leads to non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, hypertension, and stroke [ 12 ].

Obesity is caused by increased caloric intake and decreased physical activity [ 13 ], something historically associated with wealth. However, people in urbanized areas of developing countries are also now vulnerable to obesity due to lack of physical space, continually sitting in workplaces, and excessive energy intake and low energy expenditure. In these areas, infrastructure is often lacking, including sufficient space for recreational activities. Further, in developing countries, as in developed countries, large employers frequently place head offices in urban capitals and work is increasingly sedentary in nature [ 14 ]. Another culprit associated with the risk of developing obesity is the change in food intake that has led to the so-called nutrition transition (increased the consumption of animal-source foods, sugar, fats and oils, refined grains, and processed foods) in urban areas. For instance, in China, dietary patterns have changed concomitantly with urbanization in the past 30 years, leading to increased obesity [ 15 ]. In 2003, the World Health Organization estimated that more than 300 million adults were affected, the majority in developed and highly urbanized countries [ 16 ]. Since then, the prevalence of obesity has increased. For example, in Australia, around 28% of adults were obese in 2014–2015 [ 17 ].

Pollution is another major contributor to poor health in urban environments. For instance, the World Health Organization estimated that 6.5 million people died (11.6% of all global deaths) as a consequence of indoor and outdoor air pollution and nearly 90% of air-pollution-related deaths occurred in low- and middle-income countries [ 18 ]. Poor nutrition and pollution both contribute to a third major challenge for urban populations: communicable diseases. The poor live in congested conditions, near open sewers and stagnant water, and are therefore constantly exposed to unhealthy waste [ 6 ]. Inadequate sanitation can lead to the transmission of helminths and other intestinal parasites. Pollution (e.g., from CO 2 emission) from congested urban areas contributes to localized and global climate change and direct health problems, such as respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer for both the rich and the poor.

In addition to human-to-human transmission, animals and insects serve as efficient vectors for diseases within urban settings and do not discriminate between the rich and poor. The prevalence and impact of communicable diseases in urban settings, such as tuberculosis (TB), malaria, cholera, dengue, and others, is well established and of global concern.

National and international researchers and policy makers have explored various strategies to address such problems, yet the problems remain. For example, research on solutions for megacities has been ongoing since the early 1990s [ 19 , 20 ]. These studies have concluded that pollution, unreliable electricity, and non-functioning infrastructure are priority initiatives; nevertheless, air pollution, quality of water in cities, congestion, disaster management issues, and infrastructure are not being systematically addressed [ 19 , 20 ].

The impact of inner city transportation on health, such as road traffic, is emerging as a serious problem. Statistics show that a minimum of 10 people die every day on the railways in the city of Mumbai, India [ 21 ]. Vietnam is another example of a country that has seen a remarkable increase in road traffic accidents [ 22 ]. Improvements to the country’s infrastructure have not been able to meet the increasing growth of vehicular and human traffic on the street. Vietnam reportedly has a population of 95 million and more than 18 million motorbikes on its roads. A deliberate policy is needed to reduce accidents [ 21 ].

Although urbanization has become an irreversible phenomenon, some have argued that to resolve the problems of the city, we must tackle the root causes of the problem, such as improving the socio-economic situation of the urban poor.

Until the conditions in rural areas improve, populations will continue to migrate to urban settings. Given the challenges that rural development poses, the root causes are unlikely to be addressed in the near future. Therefore, governments and development agencies should concentrate on adapting to the challenges of urbanization, while seeking to reduce unplanned urbanization.

Some examples of policies and practices that should be considered include (i) policies that consider whole-of-life journeys, incorporating accessible employment, community participation, mobility/migration and social transition, to break generational poverty cycles; (ii) policies addressing urban environmental issues, such as planned urban space and taxes on the use of vehicles to reduce use or to encourage vehicles that use less fuel as well as encourage bicycle use, walking, and other forms of human transportation; (iii) greater cooperative planning between rural and urban regions to improve food security (e.g., subsidies for farmers providing locally produced, unprocessed and low cost food to urban centers); (iv) social protection and universal health coverage to reduce wealth disparity among urban dwellers; including introduction of programs and services for health, for example by establishing primary healthcare clinics accessible and affordable for all including those living in urban slums [ 23 ].

Availability of data and materials

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the editor for his/her thoughtful comments and efforts towards improving the manuscript.

This work was conducted as a part of a PhD programme of the first authors and funded by the College of Medicine and Dentistry at the James Cook University, Australia (JCU-QLD-933347).

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Kuddus, M.A., Tynan, E. & McBryde, E. Urbanization: a problem for the rich and the poor?. Public Health Rev 41 , 1 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-019-0116-0

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2022 Theses Doctoral

Essays in Urban Economics

Bamford, Iain

This dissertation studies the determinants of the spatial distribution of economic activity and how such activity is affected by public policy. The dissertation contains three chapters. In the first chapter, we ask: what role does labor market competitiveness play in determining the location decisions of firms and workers, and the resulting spatial wage distribution? To answer this question, we develop a model of monopsony power in spatial equilibrium. Workers and firms are free to locate in any labor market, and the degree of market power a firm enjoys depends on the number of competing firms in its location. We show the model can rationalize concentrations of economic activity and the city-size wage premium through an endogenous labor market competitiveness channel: in larger labor markets, endogenous firm entry increases labor market competition, decreasing wage markdowns and increasing equilibrium wages. To estimate the magnitude of labor market competitiveness differences across space, we utilize matched employer-employee data from Germany. Using a canonical empirical methodology from the labor economics literature on monopsony, we estimate that labor markets are significantly more competitive in larger cities. Calibrating the model to match this reduced-form evidence, we find endogenous labor market competitiveness can explain 37% of the city-size wage premium and 14% of all agglomeration. In the second chapter, we use the new framework developed in Chapter 1 to study the spatial and welfare implications of the 2015 German national minimum wage law. We first show a traditional spatial model that ignores variation in monopsony power across space predicts large unemployment effects in smaller, lower-wage labor markets, contradicting the reduced-form evidence on the effects of the law. Turning to our monopsony framework, we note that in the calibrated model, monopsony power is strongest in smaller, lower-wage labor markets: exactly those that the perfectly competitive model predicted would have the largest unemployment effects. Imposing the minimum wage in the calibrated monopsony framework, we find results in line with the reduced-form evidence — minimal unemployment effects, even in the lowest-wage labor markets, and therefore significant convergence in regional nominal wage inequality. Accounting for spatially-varying monopsony power, we find the enacted national law outperforms an alternative policy with a lower level of the minimum wage in East Germany, while a law that takes into account variation in productivity and competitiveness significantly outperforms both. In the third chapter (joint with Pablo Ernesto Warnes and Timur Abbiasov), we examine the effects of pedestrianization on business visits. There are significant debates in urban planning on the use of road space in cities. Should (some) streets be pedestrianized? Critics suggest closing streets to vehicles can harm local businesses by reducing access. The effect of pedestrianization on business visits has been difficult to assess due to the lack of an appropriate experiment and lack of systematic data on foot traffic. We examine a unique recent experiment, New York City's Open Streets program, which closed hundreds of street segments to cars, and utilize new anonymized cellphone geodata to measure visits to businesses. Using a matched difference-in-differences design, we find small effects of the program on visits overall, with sufficient precision to rule out significant negative effects, contradicting critics' predictions. We find significant positive effects on visits for Open Streets further from the Central Business District, especially for restaurants and bars. For such businesses, we find a 14% increase in visits as a result of the program.

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Causes and Effects of Urbanisation

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Industrialisation, social benefits and services, modernization and changes in the mode of living, rural-urban transformation, technological and infrastructural advancements, housing problems, development of slums, traffic congestion, provision of essential services.

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Urbanization, Its Challenges and Benefits

Urbanization refers to the growth of natural or rural land into an area with increased density of people and people made structures due to population in-migration. Urbanization is mainly attributed to the expansion and growth of towns and cities. Urbanization is characterized by the movement of a large number of people from rural areas to urban ones. According to United Nations estimates, approximately half of the world population is living in urban areas. Urbanization is mainly a twentieth century phenomena with population figures at the start of the century indicating that only thirteen percent of world population lived in urban areas at the start of the century. The figure rose dramatically and according the United nations World Urbanization Prospects report approximately forty nine percent of the world population lived in urban areas in 2005. Urbanization today is mainly a feature of the developing countries (Brimblecombe, 2005).

Urbanization is by and large a natural process that involves people moving from rural areas in search of better livelihood. On the whole scale urbanization result to increased investments and business. Apart from meeting government and administration needs, urbanization also creates a conducive environment for businesses to grow. Large numbers of people found in urban areas form a good customer base for existing businesses. For instance, though the city of Dubai was built on the back of its oil industry, the biggest contributor to its economy today is investment. Its revenues from natural gas and oil account for approximately six percent of United Arabs Emirate’s revenues. This is a considerably small figure compare to the 22% coming from real estate and construction, 16% from trade and approximately eleven percent coming from financial services. This are significantly large figures taking in consideration that urban constructions and real estate are the major contributors to the United Arabs Emirates economy (Unesco, 2008).

People move to urban areas either to set up businesses or to seek employment. One of the major benefits of urbanization is that it provides millions of people with a way to earn their living through employment. In China for instance, the number of employed people in urban rose from ninety five million to in 1978 to 174 million in 1995. By 2004 the figure had increased considerably to reach the 500 million mark. According to the China employment situation report of 2004, the income of urban residents also rose from 1,500 yuan to 8470 yuan which this translates to better conditions of living. As the most populous country in the world, China has managed to keep its unemployment rate at a low of approximately five percent thanks to its rapid growth of urban areas. Urban unemployment is actually lower and is estimated to be between three and four percent (Brimblecombe, 1987).

Urbanization leads to efficiency because people and the amenities and the services they need are concentrated at a single location. There is efficient use of land because a large number of people occupy a small portion of land. A single block can be occupied by more than a hundred individuals. If the same number of people was to be settled in single housing units, they will occupy large tracts of land that would otherwise been used for other purposes. Urban areas are also very convenient because everything is nearby. An urban setting makes it possible to have education facilities, health facilities, social services and cultural and recreation facilities all in one place. Proximity to services such as work, homes, shopping, and leisure activities reduces the cost of transport while at the same time boosting energy efficiency. As a result of large numbers of people and concentration of wealth and resources, many institutions such as universities become possible. Urbanization also contributes to conservation of energy and resource. It is easier to and economical to supply electricity, water, fuel, among other things to people concentrated in one place than it is to people who live far apart (Unesco, 2008).

Urbanization especially in the third world countries is a major contributor to widening disparities between the rich and poor regions. Businesses and firms chose their location based on the quality of a location which has to do with proximity to services such as buildings, labor, infrastructure, telecommunication among other things. Urban areas therefore attract lots of people in search of employment. This results to concentration of people and resources in urban areas leaving vast rural areas with little or no development. This is especially so in Africa and Latin America countries where the rural population is left without basic infrastructure as a result of government and the private sector concentrating their resources in urban areas. This leaves the rural areas poor and without basic amenities leading to increased migration to towns and cities. In-migrants to towns and cities put immense pressure on the existing infrastructure and services making the living standards urban areas low (Unesco, 2008).

Urban areas occupy about three percent of the entire world land area. This is considerably small taking into account the amount of pollution and environmental degradation they put on their localities. For instance, Chinese cities suffer regularly from air pollution with thirty nine cities classified as severe air pollution areas. Cities do not only affect their localities but also beyond their boundaries in areas like forests, croplands, coal mines and watersheds. In developing countries cities, where the increasing populations out pace the ability to provide services and the infrastructure, the worst forms of environmental problems are mainly found in urban areas with also residents facing severe economic and social problems. Some of the problems found in such urban areas include inadequate water supply, accumulation of garbage and waste and unsanitary dwelling places (Brimblecombe, 1995). According to estimates, approximately 370 million people living in urban areas do not have adequate sanitation. The estimates also show that at least 180 million people residing in urban areas do not have a nearby source of safe drinking water. Water and sanitation problems are acute especially in developing nations. Slum settlements have numerous challenges associated with provision of water and sanitation (Bowler, 2000).

Urbanization especially has led to a major housing problem due to population explosion hence the informal settings spring up to cater for the growing number of people. Run down areas with substandard housing is a feature of many cities especially in developing countries and countries like China and India. Slums have high rates of poverty, unemployment and are also characterized by urban decay. This results to high levels of crime, disease, unsanitary conditions, drug abuse, alcoholism, suicide, malnutrition, mental illness, among others. Due to lack of basic services, garbage accumulates in huge quantities. Most slums also lack basic infrastructure because of lack of planning by government officials. According to a United Nations HABITAT report on commonwealth countries released in 2006, two out of three people living in urban areas reside in slums. Over 327 million people in these commonwealth nations live in slums. This means that at least one in six people lives in slums (Unesco, 2008).

Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA)

Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), an association founded in 1971, made efforts to reverse the problem of unemployment and housing in India. The project aim is to help poor women is to give women control of natural and financial resources to help them set up their own small businesses and also acquire decent housing. Memberships of the SEWA banks consist of poor, self employed women in businesses such as weaving, pottery, among other small businesses. The SEWA bank has enabled poor self employed women to save, use loans in a productive manner, and repay them in time. The women, with the help of the bank, have been able to acquire four hundred plots under their names. The bank has also managed to push legislation allowing women to acquire land and also transfer assets to the names of women. The women have also managed to build water structures such as wells, ponds, and hand pumps thus giving themselves natural and financial resources. A large number of women also own sewing machines, handcarts, carpentry and black smithy tools, and hand carts to help them earn a decent living(Unesco 2008).

Shelter upgrading in Agadir, Morocco

In a project dubbed Best Work in, Morroco, The Moroccan National Shelter Upgrade took place in Agadir, a large city in Morocco. The city had serious problems of housing and had shantytowns. The city’s situation worsened when it was hit by an earthquake in 1960 and the government efforts of rebuilding did not cater for the housing problems the city was experiencing. Instead the government concentrated in building the infrastructure and restoring the various economic activities that are involved in the city including tourism and canning. There have been reported a tremendous population growth and this has helped in worsening an already bad situation (Brimblecombe, 1987).

There are various projects in the city which have the objective of improving the living condition of the people living in the city. These projects are funded by the government and other organizations which have seen the necessity of the upgrading of the city living conditions. Its main beneficiaries are the numerous squatters who are found in the city and hence have brought about much improved living conditions in the city. There has brought about living quarters and the people have an improved access to such things as water, electricity, education and health services. In the past, people had been distressed about accessing these services and the living conditions was very poor in regards to the current state of affairs (Bowler, 2000).

There has also been social amenities provision by the projects and this has encouraged social interaction between the people living in the city. In the past, people lived in very poor conditions which greatly hindered interaction. Apart from that, social vices have greatly reduced as some of these projects’ objectives are to increase the awareness of the people against some evils.

The Bronx Center Project-“Don’t move, improve”

This project involved a three hundred in South Bronx and its objectives were to restore the health and human services, development of economic activities, culture and education, transportation and housing. It has achieved a lot in respect to its objectives and one of the areas it has achieved is the development of the economy. Many residents have found jobs or started their own businesses and this has continued to the tunes that there is a generation of many jobs in the South Bronx area (Unesco, 2008).

Its other successes include the improved access to health and human services which have greatly improved over the years. Apart from that the community has been mobilized in terms of health issues and on how to prevent contacting some diseases. The education sector of that area has improved and there has been massive construction of schools and higher learning institutions have been built in the area. There has also been an improvement in cultural aspect of the area and people have been more involved in social interaction and hence they benefited socially from the projects.

Unesco (2008) Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) Bank.
Unesco (2008) Shelter Upgrading in Agadir, Morocco.
Unesco (2008) City Management in Tilburg: Past, Present and Future.
Unesco (2008) Banana Kelly Community Improvement Association.
Unesco (2008) Project of Lots and Services for low income population on the North Zone.
Bowler, Catherine and Peter Brimblecombe, “Control of Air Pollution in Manchester prior to the Public Health Act, 1875”, Environment and History , 6 (2000), 71-98
Brimblecombe, Peter, The Big Smoke: a history of air pollution in London since medieval times (London: Methuen, 1987)
Brimblecombe, P., “History of air pollution”, in: H. B. Singh (ed.), Composition Chemistry and Climate of the Atmosphere (New York: VNR publishers, 1995), pp. 1-18.
Brimblecombe, P., “The Globalization of Local Air Pollution”, Globalizations , 2 (2005), 429-442.
Cain, Louis P., “An Economic History of Urban Location and Sanitation”, Research in Economic History , 2 (1977), 337-389.

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Urbanisation and Unemployment

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Guy Standing

Part of the book series: ILO Studies

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Historically, urban population and employment growth in Jamaica was restricted by the dominant plantation mode of production. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the colonial government discouraged the establishment and expansion of towns, since any drift to urban areas depleted the supply of labour to the estates. Thus one eighteenth century commission set the tone when it allowed several ports to be established “provided the said Act will not encourage the Inhabitants to reside in Towns, and there set up Manufactures for the Supply of their own Necessities… “[1] But in the nineteenth century the drift to urban areas gathered momentum after Emancipation, despite attempts to control it. This reflected rural stagnation and the low wages and poor working conditions on the estates. Because wages were low and uncertain even landless labourers rejected estate employment and moved to the towns. [2] As one observer commented, in describing rural-urban migration in the mid-nineteenth century, “I do not doubt that many proprietors really suffer from the partiality of young men to towns; but at the same time I do not doubt that many of these young men prefer, and very naturally prefer, the greater certainty of regular employment that town business offers”. [3]

Labour Force
Labour Force Participation
Migrant Woman
Labour Force Survey

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Quoted in F.W. Pitman: The Development of the British West Indies, 1700–1763 (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1971), p. 20.

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L. Hewitt: “Internal migration and urban growth”, in G.W. Roberts (ed.): Recent Population Movements in Jamaica (CICRED, 1974), pp. 24–55.

K. Tekse: Internal Migration in Jamaica (Kingston, Department of Statistics, 1967). Between 1960 and 1970 the net in-migration of males in the parishes of Kingston and St. Andrew was 25,433 compared with 46,002 females. Hewitt, 1974, op. cit., p. 40.

G.W. Roberts: The Population of Jamaica (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1957), p. 87.

S. Olivier: Jamaica: The Blessed Isle (London, Faber and Faber, 1936), p. 335.

This represented double the absolute number estimated in 1938. G.E. Cumper: The Social Structure of Jamaica (Mona, UCWI, 1949).

O.C. Francis: The People of Modern Jamaica (Kingston, Department of Statistics, 1963), pp. 7–11.

An econometric analysis suggested that urban migration was unrelated to the level of employment opportunities. N.A. Adams: “Internal migration in Jamaica: An economic analysis”, Social and Economic Studies , Vol. 18, No. 2, June 1969, p. 145.

The JIDC was no more successful in the 1960’s. See S. Widdicombe: The Performance of Industrial Development Corporations (New York, Praeger, 1971), pp. 251–55; Clarke, 1975, op. cit., p. 85.

J. D. Durand: The Labour Force in Economic Development (New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1975).

Department of Statistics: Labour Force Survey, October 1973 (Kingston, 1974), Table I, p. 18.

W.F. Maunder: Employment in an Underdeveloped Area (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1960), pp. 29–30.

ILO: Employment and Unemployment in Jamaica , report of a mission undertaken by the PREALC team (Geneva, ILO, 1972), Part II, p. 150.

E. Hoyt: “Voluntary unemployment and unem-ployability in Jamaica, with special reference to the standard of living”, British Journal of Sociology , Vol. 11, June 1960, pp. 129–36. Cumper argued that this was so in rural areas.

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G.E. Cumper (ed.): The Economy of the West Indies (Mona, ISER, I960), pp. 126–51, 178.

L.A. Kirkcaldy: “Institutional reforms in a strategy of employment creation: The case of Jamaica”, in K. Wohlmuth (ed.): Employment Creation in Developing Countries — The Situation of Labour in Dependent Economies (New York, Praeger, 1973), p. 283.

Lewis, 1964, op, cit., p. 27; G. Tidrick: “Wage spillover and unemployment in a wage gap economy: The Jamaican case” (Research Memorandum No. 47, Williams College, Mass., USA, 1972).

L. Taylor: Consumers’ Expenditure in Jamaica (Mona, ISER, 1965).

M.G. Smith: “Education and occupational choice in Jamaica”, Social and Economic Studies , Vol. 9, No.3, September 1960, pp. 332–54;

R.R. Kerton: “Labour theory and developing countries: The individual’s supply of effort in the Caribbean”, Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1969.

G.J. Kruijer: Report on some of Jamaica’s Social Problems (Kingston, February 1968, mimeo).

M. G, Smith: “Aimless, wandering adolescent groups”, in S. Carter (ed.): The Adolescent in the Changing Caribbean (Mona, UCWI, 1963).

C.G. Clarke: “Population pressure in Kingston: A study of unemployment and overcrowding”, Transactions and Papers of the Institute of British Geographers , 1966, Publ. 8, 38, pp. 165–82.

Department of Statistics: The Labour Force 1974 (Kingston, 1975). In October 1977 the proportion out of employment for more than six months was 48 per cent of the total unemployed.

The relationships, controlling for the influence of age, duration of unemployment, schooling and family commitments, were examined by regression analysis elsewhere. G. Standing: “Aspiration wages, migration and urban unemployment ”, Journal of Development Studies , Vol. 14, No.2, January 1978, pp. 237–42.

Tekse, 1968, op. cit. The role and performance of the Government Employment Service is discussed in a paper submitted to the National Planning Agency in 1974. G. Standing: “Registered unemployment in Kingston” (Kingston, National Planning Agency, 1974).

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Standing, G. (1981). Urbanisation and Unemployment. In: Unemployment and Female Labour. ILO Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-06148-8_3

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Urbanization Merits and Challenges Essay

Introduction, benefits of urbanization, challenges facing urbanization, reference list.

Urbanization is in most cases associated with the human movement from the rural to the urban areas. This movement is usually motivated by lack of employment and scarce resources especially land. This results to the areas affected by the influx becoming densely populated and pushing the cost of living in those areas to higher level. The results of urbanization have a dual effect; while the urban centers receive great wealth of labor and specialized skills, the rural areas are deprived of labor resources. This creates an imbalance between the rural and urban areas. Urbanization is also caused by environmental factors. This occurs especially in region where environment does not favor agriculture and people have to seek employment in industrial areas.

Urbanization is profound mainly in the third world countries. This is as a result of increased population in the rural areas in relation to the lands and housing. Urbanization is beneficial to these countries. It has been noted that, in the future, more than 80 % of all economic developments in these countries will mainly be concentrated in the urban areas. Some of the benefits associated with the urbanization are:

Centralization of housing

Availability of apartments in urban areas that houses a great number of residents reduces the resources (land) required in catering for their accommodation. This is in contrary with rural areas where the houses are fragmented and accommodates only a small number of people; usually a family. The cultural diversity within the city centre also helps fight ethnicity as people living together learn to respect other culture (Berg and Hager, 2007, p.79).

Concentration of resources

The urgency to meet economic demand of the diverse urban dwellers contributes to availability of ranging products within the urban centers. Due to the influx of people with different opinions and ideas, people are able to come up with new ways of improving their lives. Demand to improve their livelihood coupled with technological advances results in a growth of a highly skilled labor.

Most of the industries are located within the city center. These industries obtain the raw materials from the rural areas and process them to finished goods. This requires labor force to ensure the production is sustained. This results in creation of jobs and an overall improvement in economy and an in crease in the GDP (Wagner, 2008, p. 59).

Improved transport and communication network

Due to mass production of finished products which requires transportation to the end users, there are better roads in the urban areas as compared to the rural areas. This is also instigated by the availability of administrative offices within the city centers that requires improved transport and communication facilities

Although urbanization is characterized with lots of advantages it has its shortcomings especially if it’s not properly managed. Some of the challenges that face the urbanization include:

Global warming

Though global warming is profound in the developed countries, third world countries also contribute to the depletion of the O-zone layer. According to research, 80% of carbon dioxide comes from urban centers through emission from industries and motor vehicles. This has a detrimental weather effect. It is raising concern that, if burning of carbon fossils continues in a direct proportion of deforestation, there might be a complete depletion of o-zone layer, thereby exposing human being to the poisonous ultra violet rays.

Another challenging posing on urbanization is increased crime (berg and Hager, 2007, p.46). Industrialization had seen sprouts of many industries offering jobs to the people and consequently reduced unemployment. However this was short lived because technological advances saw the introduction of machines in the industries. This meant downsizing the number of employees working within an industry. For instance a single robot could handle a job done by hundred men. This has led to unemployment. This has resulted in a number of youth resulting to crime to earn living.

Accelerated population growth

Population increase in the urban areas has been triggered by two reasons which are interlinked. The first one being lack of requisite education to secure places in the industrial areas. The second factor that has led to population growth is lack of education about family planning and lack of contraceptives. This is a challenge to the urbanization because the local government is not able to supply even the basic necessities like water and sanitation. Evidence shows that most of people in third world countries live in slums areas with no clean water and lack of latrines. This exposes them to communicable disease like Cholera

The UN has been at the centers for rewarding institutions that have been exceptional in addressing the plight of urban and rural poor. Some of the rewarded institutions include, SEWA India (A women’s self-help organization for poverty alleviation in India). This group has been uplifted the living standards of the self-employed women by forming a bank that extends loans to the members. The surplus deposits made by the members are used to provide essential commodities like water. A Cote D’ivoire institution on Institutionalizing Community-Based Development- the institution was rewarded for addressing issues affecting people. CDQ neighborhood committees were established by the committee with the mandate of engaging resources and energies from the society. These resources and energies were later to be channeled with an aim of improving the living standards of the communities. Another institution that was rewarded is The Banana Kelly Community Improvement Association. It revitalized 300 block section of the south Bronx. Other activities of the project were cultural issues, education, development human services as well as health, transportation and issues to do with housing. Project of lots and services for those people in the north zone who receive low incomes were also rewarded, as well as shelter renovations in morocco.

Urbanization can have devastating effects if measures to check its limits are not put in place. It can lead to social adversaries and degradation in environment an overall ecology. However, urbanization can help in ending ethnicity and uniting people. With urbanization there is also great exchange of ideas that can help in improving the standard of living.

Berg, L. R., & Hager, M. C. (2007). Visualizing environmental science. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Wagner, L.N. (2008). Urbanization: 21st century issues and challenges. Berlin: Nova Publishers.
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Essay on Urbanization for Children and Students

Table of Contents

Urbanization is the process in which people migrate from backward and rural areas to urban areas often attributed to modernization and industrialization. Industrial revolution has given rise to Urbanization by creating job opportunities that induces people from rural areas to migrate to urban areas. With economic and social reforms demand for man power has increased in urban areas.

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Long and Short Essay on Urbanization in English

Here are essays on urbanization of varying lengths to help you with the topic in your exam. You can select any Urbanization essay as per your need:

Urbanization Essay 1 (200 Words)

Urbanization refers to movement of mankind from rural areas to urban areas and how society adapts the changes. India is facing serious problem of rise in urban population presently. With Urbanization there is increase in social, economic and political progress but on the other hand it also leads to socio-economic problems due to unplanned growth in urban population and lack of infrastructural facilities.

The natural growth in population combined with the growth due to migration puts heavy load on public utilities like housing, water, health, education, transport and other commodities and services.

People from rural areas migrate to urban areas for better employment opportunities, better education, health and medical facilities, commercialization, better standard of living, social status and so on. Modern-day farming involves new technology lessening the need of manpower leading to Urbanization.

There are several problems that upsurge due to Urbanization that need serious attention. Some of the chief problems in India due to Urbanization are overpopulation, poverty, environmental degradation, unemployment, transport, sanitation, pollution and so on.

Planning and investment is required for infrastructural development. Developing clean cities and green cities is essential. Provisions of essential services such as health, education, clean water, food and electricity among the masses should be the goal. Spreading awareness and educating people about family planning and population control should be emphasized.

Urbanization Essay 2 (300 Words)

Introduction

Urbanization is the rise in growth of people living in cities and towns. Urbanization also means the transformation of society whereby rural economy is being transformed to advanced industrial economy. It is highly accepted notion that urban areas as compared to rural areas have achieved better social, economic and political development. People from the rural areas are induced to urban areas to take advantage of its advanced economic and social benefits.

Urbanization in India

Urbanization began to stimulate in India after independence due to rise in the development of the private sector. Population living in urban areas in India according to census 2001 was 28.53%, standing at 31.16% as per census 2011. A survey conducted by UN state of the world population report in 2007, predicts 40.76% population in India is expected to live in urban areas by 2030 and will lead to world’s urban population surge by 2050.

Main causes of Urbanization in India are Industrial revolution, Urbanization for economic development, economic opportunities and infrastructure facilities, development of private sectors, employment opportunities, land fragmentations and better standard of living.

Like every coin has two sides, Urbanization has several positive as well as negative effects. The positive factors of Urbanization are generation of employment opportunities, better and higher education, healthcare and medical facilities, housing, transport, new technology, social integration, electricity and better standard of living. The negative effects of Urbanization are unemployment, overcrowding, global warming, traffic congestions and air pollution, poverty, shortage in supply of water, urban crime, trash disposal issues and so on. With the passing time negative impacts of Urbanization are increasing immensely.

Due to growth in population, industrialization and infrastructural development has become a necessity in rural areas. This will also raise employment opportunities in rural areas. Better education, healthcare, transport, sanitation facilities should be provided in rural areas.

Urbanization Essay 3 (400 Words)

Urbanization is the process in which people leave rural areas and shift to urban areas either due to push or pull factors. Urbanization turns out to have positive effects when happens to the certain extent. The positive effects of the Urbanization include employment to the unemployed, better education, health care and medical facilities, infrastructural development and access to new and advanced technologies. Urbanization is the process of development. However, over Urbanization in cities especially metro cities is resulting in adverse effects.

Positive Effects of Urbanization

Here is a detailed look at the positive effects of Urbanization:

Efficiency: Urban areas are more efficient in providing resources than rural areas. Basic amenities such as clean water, housing and electricity are easily provided.
Accessibility: Apart from the basic resources people in urban areas get easy access to health care and medical facilities, higher and better education, transport, entertainment etc.
Better Employment: People from rural areas often migrate to urban areas in search of better employment opportunities. Due to industrialization and commercialization there are several job and business opportunities available in cities.
Education: There are more schools, universities and colleges in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Students migrate to urban areas for higher or better education with or without their families. Students can choose from a variety of career options available in cities for their bright future.
Health care: There are several health care and medical facilities available in urban areas as compared to rural areas.
Better social amalgamation: Urbanization promotes cultural and social fusion. People of various religions, castes and gender work and socialize together breaking down the norms of social and cultural barriers.

Push and Pull Factors of Urbanization

There are various push factors and pull factors of Urbanization in India. Push factors are the factors due to which people have to leave rural areas and move to urban areas for instance, unemployment, poverty, lack of infrastructure and limited resources. Pull factors are the factors that induced people to move to urban areas e.g. employment opportunities, better education, infrastructure development, commercialization, health and medical care.

Urbanization also means the transformation of society whereby rural culture is being transformed to modern urban culture. It is alteration from traditional rural economies to industrial economies. Urbanization allows the overall urban population to enjoy the fruits of economic and social development. However, due to increase in global warming due to Urbanization serious measures need to be taken for clean and green cities.

Urbanization Essay 4 (500 Words)

The mass movement of people from rural areas to urban areas, i.e., cities and towns is called Urbanization, the process in which population in cities and towns increases. Higher the population, higher is the demand of public utilities like housing, sanitation water, health, education and so on. Urbanization is subjected to range of elements such as urban planning, economics, sociology and health care.

The concept of Urbanization is increase in developing and developed society as people want to move to cities and towns to enjoy the benefits of social and economic development that include better education, health care, housing, better work opportunities and sanitation.

Main Causes of Urbanization

Here are some of the main causes of Urbanization:

Industrialization
Commercialization
Social benefits
Employment opportunities
Modernization
Better Education

Here is a look at these factors in brief:

Industrialization is the concept of moving from agricultural sector to industrial sector. Industrialization creates economic growth and employment opportunities. With industrial revolution in developing and developed countries, more and more people are moving from rural areas to urban areas for better employment opportunities.

Modern-day trade and commerce also result in Urbanization. In modern times, development of marketing institutions and methods of trade have significantly contributed to Urbanization. There are better commercial opportunities and returns in urban areas than in rural areas. As a result, people are tempted to urban areas.

Social Benefits

There are several social benefits in urban areas compared to rural areas like better education, better health care, transport, sanitation and social status. Better recreational facilities are available such as play grounds, theatres, parks and clubs. Thus, people move to urban areas for enjoying the benefits of modern lifestyle.

Employment Opportunities

In rural areas people mainly have to depend on agricultural sector for their living whereas in the urban areas there are several employment opportunities in various sectors such as education, health care, transport, banking, media, television and sports to name a few.

Agricultural sector mainly depends on monsoon. In times of natural calamities and drought, people have to migrate to urban areas in search of employment. With modern farming technology manpower needed in farming sector is decreased leading to Urbanization.

Urban areas are characterized by new technology, infrastructural development, better health care and medical facilities, liberalization and better standard of living. This induces people from backward and rural areas to move to urban areas.

The management of administration is also responsible for Urbanization. The government has not maintained the rapidity with city growth in terms of infrastructure management or spatial.

As compared to rural areas there are better education facilities available in urban areas. The schools and colleges providing professional education are all located in urban areas. Thus young girls and boys either alone or with their families shift to urban areas to seek quality education.

Poverty and economic degradation are the major problems rising with Urbanization that need serious attention. Planning and investment in sustainable industries, eco-friendly infrastructure and eco-friendly technology is essential. Encouraging the use of eco-friendly products and technology among the masses is vital. Creating more and more job opportunities and equality will help fight poverty.

Urbanization Essay 5 (600 Words)

Increase in the volume of total population in urban areas is called Urbanization. Rising population in urban areas creates rise in the demand of basic amenities such as food, health, transport and shelter in such areas. This contributes to the development of land for housing, economic support institutions, commercialization, transport and so on.

Problems Due to Urbanization

Given below are the problems that we face due to Urbanization:

Overcrowding

Overcrowding means over population in the urban areas due to migration. Cities where the population is rising every single day are getting overcrowded. This is the current situation in all the big cities in India. Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, Delhi are some of the examples of overcrowded cities.

When the population increases, the demand for housing also increases. The factors that are mainly responsible for the lack of housing facilities are lack of financial resources, poverty and unemployment.

Unemployment

The chief cause of unemployment is over population in the urban areas due to migration of people from rural locations to these areas. The growth in economic opportunities fails to keep pace with growth in urban population.

The unplanned growth in the urban areas is growing the spread of slums. Rise in slum settlements in India is a striking feature. Urbanization, poverty and overpopulation, has increased the growth of slums as high rate of land and property in urban areas is beyond the reach of rural migrants and urban poor.

Large use of vehicles for transport has increased traffic congestion making the movement slow and difficult.

Urban Crime

With the rise in urban population there is rise in poverty and unemployment. Due to poverty there is rise in crimes like theft, pick pocketing, cheating and murders.

Air Pollution

Urbanization is a major cause of air pollution and global warming. Industries release greenhouse gases causing rise in the temperature of the earth and creating air pollution. Larger use of vehicles release gases by fuel combustion. Large amount of garbage from the landfills is burnt causing air pollution.

Water is the most important element of nature to sustain life. Due to overcrowding in the cities the supply of water is falling short compared to the demand.

Trash Disposal

As the number of citizens grow in urban areas the problem of trash disposal rises. The large quantity of garbage in the cities increases severe health issues. In most of the areas in cities there is no garbage disposal facility. When the landfills get full innumerable poisons leak around its surroundings, inviting diseases, like malaria, diarrhoea, typhoid, etc. Air travel also carries bacteria from one person to another spreading disease even more.

Ways to Keep Urbanization in Check

Here are some ways to keep Urbanization in check:

The chief reason of Urbanization is the migration of people from rural areas to urban areas in search of employment opportunities. Developing agricultural and rural industries will provide employment opportunities in rural areas.

Infrastructural Development in Rural Areas

Construction of roads, buildings, hospitals, parks, educational centres, etc. is vital for rural development. This will help rural people get better education and health care locally and also provide more job opportunities. Government should develop transport networks and related infrastructure.

Overall Development

Industrial and private sector development in rural areas is necessary. The focus of government should be nationwide Urbanization. Planning and investment in Urbanization of rural areas is essential.

Population Control

Over population is also a chief cause for Urbanization. Educating people about family planning and creating awareness among the rural communities is crucial.

Global Warming

One of the major problems of Urbanization rapidly rising is global warming. Use of renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind energy, hydropower should be encouraged. Investments in energy efficient industries and technologies will lead to clean economy. Reforestation instead of deforestation should be promoted.

Urbanization is on a rapid increase in our country. While it is good that our country is progressing and that more and more people want to lead a modern life, get better education and good employment opportunities, Urbanization can have negative repercussions as well. It is thus essential to control Urbanization.

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unemployed youth

Fraol Undessa

This study describes the social impact of unemployment on unemployed youth in Oromia regional state the case of shakiso town, with objective of assessing social impact of unemployment on unemployed youth where by youths faces different social problems in town. In order to collect the relevant data, questionnaires, interviews and assessment of documents has been employed and the data is collected from those samples that are selected based on systematic random sampling technique. The analysis of the data, in the survey method research, indicated that unemployment is a serious problem on unemployed youth in the town because the formal sector is unable to absorb the massive entry of the workers with the rural -urban migration and natural population increase in the Shakiso town. Thus unemployed youths are socially affected than other communities in the area. These social problem of unemployed youths are social exclusion ,sex works ,health problem, negative feeling of unemployed youth, drug addiction, chat chewing, alcohol and etc. Some of these social problems are beyond the urban local government control and need the attention of different level of government bodies and urban actor. Finally, the paper suggests that, identification of key youth policy interventions, the need to creating enabling environment for private and community participation as the solution for the problem existed in the areas. The strategies, programs and support system are suggested to give due attention to the problems of the unemployed youth with the different level of the government bodies.

Mekonnen Wondmgzahu

Eristu Girma

Research Thesis

ABSTRACT This thesis assesses the determinants of urban poverty and coping strategies of the urban households in shambu town, Oromia. This paper is the outcome of a survey research design on the determinants of poverty and coping strategies of household prevalent in Shambu town. In this regard, this study was conducted to identify the determinants of urban poverty and coping strategies of household in the case of Shambu town. The study used both primary and secondary data; where the primary data were collected from total of 123 randomly selected households from two urban kebeles of the town. The data obtained were analyzed using statistical tools of binary logistic regression. In this case the probability of a household being poor and non poor is taken as a dependent variable and the set of demographic and socio economic variables were explanatory variables. The binary logistic regression indicate that Educ_status HH (p=.039), Household_Mmbr_contrbution (p=.001), Monthly income (p=.001) are major factors that determine poverty level of household which indicate that to predict the probability of being poor or non-poor based on a one-unit change in an independent variable when all other independent variables are kept constant. The major strategies utilized were trading, microfinance loan, social networking and commercializing means of private transportation in this order. The least strategy used to cope with urban poverty was the use of livestock rearing and farming. Keywords: - (Urban poverty, Coping strategy, determinants

Wondimu Agenssa

Developing countries like Ethiopia are facing extreme poverty, unemployment specially women and youths. To poll out these countries from these problems, Micro and Small Scale Enterprises (MSSEs) are coming in to picture as one of the important remedial development tool for poverty reduction. This study has dealt with impact of MSSEs on improving socio-economic status of women in Hawassa City. The data used in the study was collected using survey method from primary sources using questionnaire, interviews, personal observations and focus group discussions while secondary data were collected through reviewing the documents, books and scholars research journals. Techniques of data analysis used in the research work include Chi square tests, ANOVA, Paired sample T-tests and descriptive statistics. In the study, 266 MSSEs owners were participated as a sample of the study by using simple random sampling and stratified sampling design. The findings and the data of the study show that MSSEs...

ABSTRACT In developing countries like Ethiopia rural-urban migration affects socio –economic realities in both urban and rural areas. This study aims at identifying the major causes and consequences of the movement of people from rural to urban areas. To achieve the objective 282 migrant household heads were selected purposively from four Kebeles of the town. Both primary and secondary data were employed and were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively by using SPSS version 17th. Structured questionnaires and FGD were used on the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of migrant households. Most of the migrants move to the town alone. They had some information about the town and the decision of their migration is mostly made by themselves. However, most of them migrated decide to migrate not in planned way. A greater number of the migrants are young adults, males, and unmarried and had some form of education before they decided to migrate. There are many causes for the movement of the people to the town. Among them the search for job, to gain education and training, and problem related with land and agricultural productivity was the major one. Many of the migrants encountered problems at the initial period of adjustment and adaptation and even currently. In line with this, some useful points of recommendations for effective urban management and rural development activities are suggested. Key words: Migration, Rural Urban Migration, Migrants

Dr. Serawit H Melkato

Jan Fransen , Meine Pieter van Dijk , samson kassahun

The book commences with an introduction, which contains the history of the informal sector and the conceptualization by sketching a number of theoretical developments. The information clearly elucidates ‘how to’ and ‘why to’ incorporate informality as a rational strategy of local and national governments in a situation where they cannot create enough employment, nor provide the necessary services. Part I of the book deals with the informal urban economy. It reflects on the performance of informal small-scale businesses in urban Ethiopia based on productivity levels and employment creation. ‘Informal’ businesses are defined as illegal, unlicensed businesses which do not keep books of account and ‘small-scale’ as businesses and cooperatives with fewer than ten employees. Although this sector employs the great majority of the labour force, it is only recently that policy interventions have been initiated towards developing the sector through programmes such as micro- and small-scale enterprise development. The role small and medium enterprises play in the process of economic development is now widely acknowledged. However, successful interventions require good information on the nature and characteristics of informality in the country. Part I of the book tries to fill this gap. Part II is about informality in urban land and housing. It clearly explains Ethiopia’s fast urbanization and its impact on urban centres in making informal settlements. The section compares the importance of land for economic and urban development in Ethiopia and China, where land is owned by the government. It elucidates land issues in both countries and the existence of informal land markets and transactions. Based on case studies of urban centres in Ethiopia, this section of the book explains the reality of a wide spectrum of informality where urban housing and land connect with regard to access to land. The section also goes beyond the spatial and physical aspects of informality and gives insights from the institutional economic paradigm, providing an alternative perspective to the analysis of informal settlements. Part III reflects on informal access to services in urban Ethiopia. Basically the solid waste management and access to credit facilities have been addressed in this part. The idea is to make credit available through more freely accessible credit schemes or institutions in the hope that the poor will be able to use it to establish, grow and improve their ability to generate income. There is also the hope that it could promote employment opportunities. The conclusions and recommendations of the book sum up the findings of all its three parts. Quite simply, informality, in terms of urban economy, urban land and housing, and urban services, is a highly complex entity covering broad aspects of economic and social activity. On one hand, understanding the informality in terms of its causes and consequences is not an easy undertaking. On the other, provision of effective policy solutions is intricate. There is an increasing recognition of the untapped potential of the informal economy and there is an increased focus by policymakers on tackling its root causes, promoting policies that provide the necessary conditions to encourage people to shift to the formal economy and to establish an environment which would enable the growth of enterprises. In parallel, efforts to achieve this shift should not result in the damaging or affect the continuation of existing informality.

Unemployment Essay

500+ words essay on unemployment.

Unemployment is a serious problem among young people. There are thousands of people who do not have any work to do and cannot find work for themselves. Unemployment refers to the situation where a person wants to work but cannot find employment in the labour market. One of the major reasons that contribute to unemployment is the large population of India and the limited availability of resources. In this essay on unemployment, we will discuss all these issues responsible for unemployment in India and how we can overcome this problem. Students must go through this unemployment essay to get ideas on how to write an effective essay on the topic related to unemployment. Also, they can practice more CBSE essays on different topics to boost their writing skills.

Unemployment is measured by the unemployment rate, defined as the number of people actively looking for a job as a percentage of the labour force. The unemployment rate for the year 2013-14 in rural India was 4.7%, whereas it was 5.5% for urban India. In the short term, unemployment significantly reduces a person’s income and, in the long term, it reduces their ability to save for retirement and other goals. Unemployment is a loss of valuable productive resources to the economy. The impact of job loss in rural and regional areas flows through the local community, damaging businesses.

Reason for Unemployment

An unemployed person is one who is an active member of the labour force and is seeking work but is unable to find any work for himself. There are multiple reasons behind the unemployment of a person. One of them is the slow economic growth, due to which jobs in adequate numbers are not created. Excessive dependence on agriculture and slow growth of non-farm activities also limit employment generation. Unemployment in urban areas is mainly the result of substantial rural migration to urban areas. This has also resulted in a labour workforce in cities. The lack of technology and proper machinery has also contributed to unemployment.

The present educational system is based on theoretical knowledge instead of practical work. Thus, it lacks the development of aptitude and technical qualifications required for various types of work among job seekers. This has created a mismatch between the need and availability of relevant skills and training. This results in unemployment, especially among the youth and educated people with high degrees and qualifications. Apart from it, the lack of investment and infrastructure has led to inadequate employment opportunities in different sectors.

Steps to Eliminate Unemployment

Various strategies and proposals have been implemented to generate employment. Many Employment programmes and policies have been introduced and undertaken to boost self-employment and help unemployed people engage in public works. The Government of India has taken several policy measures to fight the problem of unemployment. Some of the measures are the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), National Skill Development Mission, Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY), Regional Rural Banks (RRBs).

Despite the measures taken by the government, India remains a country experiencing severe unemployment problems. It can be resolved by imparting education in such a way that youth get the necessary skills so as to get employment easily. Setting up various vocational training and vocational courses for undergraduate and postgraduate students will help in finding employment for youth. The government needs to emphasise these courses at the primary level and make them a compulsory part of the curriculum to make students proficient in their early stages of life. Career counselling should be provided within schools and colleges so that students can choose a better career option based on their interests and ability. Government should create more job opportunities for the youth and graduates.

India is a fast-growing economy. There is an enormous scope for improvement in the unemployment sector. The various measures and steps taken by the government to increase the employment rate have succeeded to a great extent. The widespread skill development programmes have gained popularity across the nation. With better enforcement of the strategies, the employment level can be significantly improved. Although, we have to go a long way before we can say that all the people in India will get employment.

We hope this essay on unemployment must have helped students in boosting their essay-writing skills. Keep learning and visiting the BYJU’S website for more study material.

Frequently Asked Questions on Unemployment Essay

Is unemployment still an existing problem in india.

Yes, unemployment is still a serious issue in our country. Steps need to be taken by the government and also by the youngsters in India to improve this situation.

Is it necessary for schoolchildren to be informed about unemployment?

Students at this young age should definitely be informed about this topic as it will motivate them to study and aim for higher scores in exams.

What points are to be added to an essay topic on Unemployment?

Add details about different age groups of people suffering from this state of employment. You can focus on the fact that poverty is an indirect reason for unemployment and vice-versa. Then, suggest steps that can be taken to bring about an improvement in education and increase the percentage of literacy.

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Essay on Urbanization in India

In this essay we will discuss about Urbanization in India. After reading this essay you will learn about: 1. Meaning of Urbanisation 2. Trends of Urbanisation in India 3. Degree 4. Causes 5. Consequences 6. Role in Economic Development of India.

Essay on the Role of Urbanisation in Economic Development of India

Essay # 1. Meaning of Urbanisation:

Urbanisation is one of the common characteristics of economic development. With the gradual growth of the economy, the process of urbanisation depends on the shift of surplus population from rural to urban areas along-with the growth of some industrialised urban centres.

Due to social and economic pressures, people from backward villages started to move towards urbanised centres in search of job, where newly established industries and ancillary activities continuously offer job opportunities to those people migrating to cities.

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The pace of urbanisation is fast if the industrial growth is fast. The pace of urbanisation gradually declines only when the proportion of urban population to total population of the country becomes too high.

Essay # 2. Trends of Urbanisation of India :

In India, an increasing trend towards urbanisation has been recorded from the very beginning of this present century. The census data on the rural-urban composition reveal a continuous rise in the rate of urbanisation in India and more particularly during the second half of the present 21st century.

The proportion of urban population to total population which was only 11 per cent in 1911 slowly increased to 11.3 per cent in 1921 and then gradually rose to 14 per cent in 1941.

With a liberal definition of urban area adopted in 1951, the proportion of urban population suddenly rose to 17.6 per cent. But with a slightly strict definition, the proportion of urban population recorded a small increase to 18.3 per cent in 1961. In the 1971 census, a new definition of an urban unit was adopted and that definition was continued in 1981 census.

This definition was as follows:

(a) All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee etc.

(b) All other places which satisfy the following criteria:

(i) Minimum population of 5,000;

(ii) At least 75 per cent of male working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and

(iii) A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq km (1,000 persons per sq mile).

The definition of an urban unit in 1961 census was also similar to the above mentioned definition. Thus the data on rural-urban distribution during the last three censuses are comparable. The proportion of urban population to total population of India as per this new definition was estimated at 20.2 per cent in 1971 census and then marginally rose to 23.7 per cent in 1981.

Again in 2001, the total size of urban population in India increased to 285 million as compared to that of 217 million in 1991. This shows that the proportion of urban population to total population of India has increased from 25.8 per cent in 1991 to 27.8 per cent in 2001.

The provisional figure of total urban population of India in 2011 is estimated at 377 million which is estimated at 31.16 per cent of the total population of the country. Moreover, the total number of towns in India which was only 1627, gradually rose to 3060 in 1951, 3126 in 1971, 4029 in 1981 and then to 5166 in 2001. Table 6.7 reveals the detailed picture of this trend in urbanisation.

Moreover, urbanisation has an increasing impact on the concentration of population towards relatively higher income categories. Therefore, urban areas have higher percentage of lower middle income, middle income, upper middle income and higher income group of people than that of rural areas. Table 6.8 clarifies this point.

Thus it is found from Table 6.8 that the percentage of households in the lower middle income category was 34.75 per cent in urban areas as compared to that of 23.88 per cent in the rural areas.

Similarly, the percentage of households in the middle income and the upper middle income categories were 17.89 per cent and 6.46 per cent in the urban areas as compared to that of only 7.06 per cent and 1.16 per cent in the rural areas. Again, the percentage of households in the higher income category was 3.75 per cent in the urban areas in comparison to that of only 0.56 per cent in the rural areas.

The size of total urban population increased from about 26 million in 1901 to 62 million in 1951, showing an increase of 36 million in just 50 years.

But during the next three decades (1951-81), the absolute increase was to the extent of 94 million and this shows that the population absorption capacity in urban areas has increased substantially due to industrialisation in the country. The census data shows that the annual growth rate of urban population which was 3.26 per cent during 1961-71, gradually increased to 3.86 per cent during 1971-81.

Essay # 3. Degree of Urbanisation in India:

Measurement of the degree of urbanisation in a country like India is considered very important. Various measures are being used for the purpose. As per the first simple method we observed that the total urban population in India in 1981 was a little less than one fourth of the total population in comparison to that of one-ninth in 1921 and one-sixth in 1951.

The second method, i.e., the urban-rural growth differential (URGD) method also revealed that the growth rates of both rural and urban population are very close to each other at present.

Third method showing the growth of urban population reveals that as the total population of the country rose by about three times since 1921 but the total urban population of the country increased by about six-times. Thus all the methods observed more or less same results.

If we compare degree of urbanisation in India with that of developed countries then we can find that India is lagging far behind the high-income countries. In 1985, the proportion of urban population to total population was 92 per cent in U.K., 86 per cent in Australia, 76 per cent in Japan, and 74 per cent in U.S.A. as against only 25 per cent in India.

In India, towns are classified into six different classes. From the census data, it has been observed that in Class I town (having a population more than 1 lakh) the proportion of urban population concentration has increased from 25.7 per cent in 1901 to 60.4 per cent in 1981. Thus there is an increasing trend towards huge concentration of population in the bigger towns.

In Class II and Class III towns together, the proportion of urban population remained almost constant at the level of 26 to 28 per cent during the period 1901-81. But in the remaining Class IV, Class V and Class VI towns together, the relative proportion of urban population concentration declined sharply from 47.2 per cent in 1901 to only 13.6 per cent in 1981.

Besides continuation of urbanisation process, a number of Class II towns have been transformed into a Class I town and the number of Class I towns has thus increased from 74 in 1951 to 216 in 1981.

Accordingly, the total population of Class I towns also increased from 273 lakhs in 1951 to 943 lakh in 1981 showing an increase of nearly 245 per cent. During the same period, the number of Class II towns has increased from 95 to 270 and that of Class III towns increased from 330 to 739 in 1981.

Total population of Class II and Class III towns increased from 330 to 739 in 1981. Total population of Class II and Class III towns increased by 130 per cent, i.e., from 97 lakh in 1951 to 224 lakh in 1981. While the number of class IV towns has increased from 85 lakh to 149 lakh, the number of Class V and class VI towns and their total population declined sharply during the same period.

Again the number of big cities with million plus population has increased from 12 in 1981 to 27 in 2001 and their total population also increased from 42.1 million in 1981 to 73.0 million in 2001. As per 2001 census the size of population of four-cities of India are 11.9 million for Mumbai, 4.58 million for Kolkata, 9.8 million for Delhi and 4.2 million in Chennai.

Essay # 4. Causes of Rapid Urbanisation in India:

Rapid urbanisation is taking place in different parts of the country in and around some big cities and towns of the country. The growing trend of urbanisation as reflected in growing concentration of major proportion of urban population in some big cities.

The factors which are largely responsible for such rapid urbanisations are mentioned below:

(i) Natural Increase in Population:

Rapid unbanisation is taking place as a result of high rate of natural increase in population. Natural increase is taking place when the birth rate in urban areas exceeds the death rate. The natural growth rate of urban population is higher than that of rural due to higher net survival rate arising out of better health and medical facilities.

Improvement in health and medical facilities, drinking water supply and sanitation facilities have reduced the incidence of water-borne diseases, communicable diseases etc.

Accordingly, the birth rate in urban areas in 1971 was estimated at 30.1 per thousand as compared to the death rate of 9.7 per thousand which subsequently reduced to 24.3 and 7.1 per thousand in 1991. Thus the natural growth rate is stated too high because of large difference between birth and death rates.

The death rate in urban areas declined considerably due to better availability of medical and health service, safe drinking water supply and improved sanitation facilities.

This natural increase in population is largely responsible for phenomenal growth of population in urban areas i.e. 46 per cent in 1971-81 and 36 per cent in 1980-91 decade as compared to that of 19 per cent and 20 per cent growth rate attained in rural areas of India during these two decades.

(ii) Migrations:

Rural-urban migration is considered another important factor responsible for rapid urbanisation in India. The rural to urban migrations have been resulted due to many factors during the post independence period. Creation of many activities of manufacturing and trading as a result of industrial development has resulted migration of rural people to urban areas for seeking jobs and higher incomes as well.

After the partition of the country in 1947 rural uprooted people started to settle down in urban areas. Poor living conditions and negligible arrangement in respect of education and health have also attracted large number of rural people to migrate and settle in urban areas in search of good education, health facilities, better living conditions and securities of life.

As a result of heavy public investments in industry and mining, huge industrial development and sustained agricultural development urbanisation takes place. Thus due to these “pull factors”, large number of rural people migrate to urban areas.

However there are certain “push factors” where due to worse economic conditions a number of rural people are pushed out of villages due to economic compulsions. Thus in the current phase of urbanisation both the “pull factor” and “push factor” are very much operational.

(iii) Expansion of Industry and Trade:

In recent years, urbanisation takes place with the growing expansion of industry and trade in a particular state of region. Growth of an industry with its ancillaries along with localisation of industry would always create a favourable situation for the growth of an urban set up.

Similarly, growth of business and trade along with establishment of an active market always provides adequate support toward growing urbanisation in those places related to the development of industry and trade.

(iv) Boundary Changes of Towns:

With the extension of the boundaries of cities and towns, more and more rural areas are gradually being included in rural areas. Although life in these newly extended areas remains rural initially but the inclusion of these areas into these towns and cities necessarily increases the number of urban population.

Essay # 5. Consequences of Rapid Urbanisation:

The rapid urbanisation is subjected to both healthy and unhealthy consequences and aspects.

(i) Healthy Aspects:

Rapid industrialisation results the development and setting up of many industrial cities. Along with manufacturing units, ancillaries and service sector started to grow in those urban areas. Secondly, new and additional employment opportunities are created in the urban areas in its newly expanding manufacturing and service sector units.

This would result rural-urban migration and “industrialisation- urbanisation process” to set in. Thirdly, growth of cities can give rise to external economies so as to reap the benefit of economies of scale for various services and activities.

Finally, urbanisation results changes in attitudes and mind set of the urban people resulting modernisation in behaviour and proper motivation which indirectly helps the country to attain faster economic development.

(ii) Unhealthy Aspects:

Although development of the economy are very much associated with urbanisaition but it has resulted some serious problems. Firstly, growing urbanisation is largely responsible for increasing congestion in the urban areas. Too much congestion has resulted problems like traffic jams, too much concentration of population, the management of which is gradually becoming very difficult and costly.

Secondly, too much of population is another unhealthy aspect of urbanisation which creates urban chaos related to housing, education, medical facilities, growth of slums, unemployment, violence, overcrowding etc. All these would result in deterioration in the quality of human life.

Finally, as a result of urbanisation, large scale migration takes place from rural to urban areas. Such large scale migration of active population from rural areas would result loss of productivity in rural areas, leading to poor conditions in village economy. Thus urbanisation, beyond a certain point, would result in unhealthy consequences.

(iii) Urban Policy Measures:

Considering unhealthy consequences of rapid urbanisation, it is quite important to formulate an urban policy which can provide urban development with minimum undesirable effects.

The measures which can be largely followed include:

(i) Integrating urbanisation process with the development plans of the country for developing non-agricultural activities like manufacturing services and infrastructure leading to attainment of external economies,

(ii) Making arrangement for selective urban development so as to minimise the disadvantages of these large sized towns,

(iii) To develop rural districts, by developing towns in highly rural districts,

(iv) To develop satellite townships in and around large cities; and

(v) Relieving pressure on large urban centres by developing urban amenities in adequate quantities so as to make urban living peaceful.

Essay # 6. Role of Urbanisation in Economic Development of India:

Urbanisation and economic development are closely associated. Economic development of a country indicates increase in the level of per capita income and standard of living along-with the enlargement of employment opportunities for its growing population. With the attainment of economic development and growing industrialisation, the process of urbanisation starts at a rapid scale.

Some areas emerge as a large urbanised centre with large scale industrial and trading activities. These areas started to offer increasing number of employment opportunities leading to a shift of population from rural areas to these urbanized centres. Thus economic development of a country assists in its process of urbanization.

Growing industrialisation raises the rate of economic development along-with the pace of urbanization in the country. Increase in the rate of economic development raises the level of per capita income and standard of living of the people which in turn enlarges the demand for various goods and services.

This increase in aggregate demand expands the production system leading to a large scale production of various goods and services.

All these lead to increase in the pace of urbanization in the country. Thus there is a good correlation between the level of per capita income and the pace of urbanization. In India, the coefficient of correlation between the proportion of urban population to total population and the level of per capita income is estimated at 0.5, which is significant.

Moreover, economic development paves way for growth of cities and towns. Thus with the increase in the number of cities and towns the proportion of urban population to total population is also increasing.

But higher degree of urbanisation cannot reduce the degree of unemployment in India significantly through the absorption of increasing number of surplus labour force from rural areas as the scope for raising urban employment is also limited. In India there is an insignificant positive correlation (0.18) between the proportion of urban population and the rate of daily status of unemployment.

Moreover, there is a mild negative correlation, i.e., 0.22, between the proportion of urban population and the percentage of population below the poverty line in India.

Factors which are responsible for this typical situation are:

(a) neglect of urban slums in our planning coverage;

(b) growing exploitation of unorganised sectors by capitalists, contractors, landlords etc. and

Thus in comparison to the degree of urbanisation achieved in India, the absorptive capacity of the urban centres is very low. This shows the reason why urbanised centres in India could not make much headway in reducing the degree of unemployment in the country.

Thus, in conclusions, it can be observed that the attainment of high rate of economic development paves the way for growing urbanization along-with the increase in the level of per capita income and the development of various urbanized infra-structural facilities like transportation and communication, housing, education, health, trade, banking etc.

But this growing urbanisation has also led to huge concentration of population in urban areas, resulting in various evils side by side such as growth of slums, increasing congestion and pollution, problems of transportation, housing, water supply, health services, unemployment and poverty.

Demographic Profile in India
Work Force Participation in India
Main Features of India’s Population
8 Main Features of Occupational Structure in India

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Essay on Unemployment: 100 to 300 Words

Updated on
Sep 7, 2023

Writing an essay on unemployment provides an opportunity to explore a critical issue affecting societies worldwide. Unemployment, a multifaceted problem, has far-reaching consequences that touch upon various aspects of individuals, families, and nations. In this essay, we will delve into the complexities of unemployment, examine its causes and consequences, discuss government initiatives, and shed light on potential solutions.

This Blog Includes:

Essay on unemployment in 100 words, essay on unemployment in 200 words, essay on unemployment in 300 words, tips to ace in writing an essay.

Must Read: The Beginner’s Guide to Writing an Essay

Unemployment refers to the condition when individuals, capable and willing to work, are unable to secure gainful employment. It is a pervasive issue across the globe, with varying degrees of impact on societies. Unemployment results in financial instability, and emotional distress, and hampers individual growth. Governments and organizations must collaborate to create opportunities for employment through skill development and policy implementation.

Unemployment, a pressing concern globally, stems from multiple factors that hinder the workforce’s engagement in productive activities. It affects both developed and developing nations, contributing to economic imbalances and social disparities. The consequences of unemployment include reduced income levels, increased poverty rates, and strained government resources. Moreover, the psychological toll it takes on individuals and families can be severe, leading to stress, depression, and strained relationships.

The intricate web of unemployment is spun from a mix of causes, ranging from economic fluctuations to structural shifts in industries. Cyclical unemployment, driven by economic downturns, and structural unemployment, resulting from a mismatch between skills and job openings, are widespread forms. Additionally, technological advancements lead to technological unemployment as machines replace human labour.

Unemployment has cascading effects on societies. Diminished purchasing power affects market demand, thereby impacting economic growth. As unemployment rates rise, so does the burden on social welfare programs and the healthcare system. The phenomenon also fuels social unrest and political instability, making it a challenge governments cannot ignore.

Governments worldwide have initiated strategies to tackle unemployment. Skill development programs, vocational training, and entrepreneurship initiatives are designed to equip individuals with market-relevant skills. Furthermore, promoting labour-intensive industries and investing in sectors with growth potential can generate employment opportunities.

In conclusion, unemployment is a complex issue that necessitates a multi-pronged approach. Governments, industries, and individuals must collaborate to alleviate its impact. Effective policy implementation, education reforms, and the cultivation of entrepreneurial spirit can pave the way towards reducing unemployment rates and fostering a more stable and prosperous society.

Before we dive into the specifics of unemployment, let’s briefly discuss some tips to enhance your essay-writing skills:

Understand the Prompt: Ensure a clear understanding of the essay prompt to address all its components effectively.
Research Thoroughly: Gather relevant information from credible sources to build a comprehensive and informed essay.
Organize Your Thoughts: Create an outline to structure your essay logically, allowing your ideas to flow coherently.
Introduction and Conclusion: Craft a compelling introduction to engage your readers, and a succinct conclusion to summarize your key points.
Use Clear Language: Express your ideas using clear and concise language, avoiding jargon or overly complex vocabulary.
Provide Examples: Illustrate your points with real-life examples to enhance understanding and credibility.
Edit and Proofread: Revise your essay for grammar, punctuation, and coherence to ensure a polished final draft.

Also Read: Unemployment v/s Underemployment – What’s Worse?

Unemployment refers to the state in which individuals who are willing and able to work are without gainful employment opportunities. It is a condition where individuals seek jobs but are unable to secure them, leading to financial instability and societal challenges.

Unemployment, as discussed in the essay, is a multifaceted issue encompassing the lack of employment opportunities for willing and capable individuals. It explores various forms of unemployment, its causes, far-reaching consequences on economies and societies, and the role of governments in implementing solutions to mitigate its impact.

Unemployment is the term used to describe the situation where individuals of working age are actively seeking employment but are unable to find suitable job opportunities. It signifies a gap between the available workforce and available jobs, often leading to economic and social challenges within a society.

Unemployment emerges as a prominent thread, influencing economic, social, and psychological realms. As we’ve explored in this essay, comprehending the causes and consequences of unemployment is pivotal in devising solutions. Governments, institutions, and individuals must strive collectively to unravel this issue’s complexities and weave a fabric of employment opportunities, stability, and progress. We hope that this essay blog on Unemployment helps. For more amazing daily reads related to essay writing , stay tuned with Leverage Edu .

Manasvi Kotwal

Manasvi's flair in writing abilities is derived from her past experience of working with bootstrap start-ups, Advertisement and PR agencies as well as freelancing. She's currently working as a Content Marketing Associate at Leverage Edu to be a part of its thriving ecosystem.

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Department of Labor & Workforce Development

New jersey unemployment rate holds steady; job losses recorded in february following six months of gains, for immediate release.

March 21, 2024

TRENTON – Preliminary estimates produced by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics indicate that total nonfarm employment in the state declined for the first time in seven months, decreasing by 5,300 jobs in February to reach a seasonally adjusted level of 4,370,700. Several sectors reported job gains for the month, and the unemployment rate remained steady at 4.8 percent for the sixth straight month.

Estimates of total nonfarm employment for January were adjusted downward for a gain of 9,700 jobs for the month. The unemployment rate remained unchanged for January.

In February, five out of nine major private industry sectors recorded gains: private education and health services (+2,400), leisure and hospitality (+1,000), information (+500), financial activities (+200), and manufacturing (+100). Four major private industry sectors recorded losses: professional and business services (-4,200), construction (-3,400), other services (-1,600), and trade, transportation, and utilities (-1,000). The public sector recorded a seasonally adjusted gain of 700 jobs.

Over the past twelve months, New Jersey has added 73,000 nonfarm jobs; about 90 percent of the gains were in the private sector. Seven out of nine private sector industries recorded year-over-year gains from February 2023 to February 2024. These industries are education and health services (+38,100), leisure and hospitality (+13,500), trade, transportation, and utilities (+8,300), other services (+5,700), financial activities (+1,200), construction (+1,000), and manufacturing (+700). Professional and business services (-1,400) and information (-1,100) recorded losses. Year-over-year, the state’s public sector recorded an increase of 7,100 jobs.

Preliminary BLS data for March 2024, will be released on April 18, 2024.

PRESS TABLES

Technical Notes: Estimates of industry employment and unemployment levels are arrived at through the use of two different monthly surveys.

Industry employment data are derived through the Current Employment Statistics (CES) survey, a monthly survey of approximately 4,000 business establishments conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) of the U.S. Department of Labor, which provides estimates of employment, hours, and earnings data broken down by industry for the nation as a whole, all states and most major metropolitan areas (often referred to as the “establishment” survey).

Resident employment and unemployment data are mainly derived from the New Jersey portion of the national Current Population Survey (CPS), a household survey conducted each month by the U.S. Census Bureau under contract with BLS, which provides input to the Local Area Unemployment Statistics (LAUS) program (often referred to as the “household” survey).

Both industry and household estimates are revised each month based on additional information from updated survey reports compiled by the BLS. In addition, these estimates are benchmarked (revised) annually based on actual counts from New Jersey’s Unemployment Compensation Law administrative records and more complete data from all New Jersey employers.

Effective with the release of January 2018 estimates, the Current Employment Statistics (CES) program has converted to concurrent seasonal adjustment, which uses all available estimates, including those for the current month, in developing seasonal factors. Previously, the CES program developed seasonal factors once a year during the annual benchmark process. For more information on concurrent seasonal adjustment in the CES State and Area program, see https://www.bls.gov/sae/seasonal-adjustment/ .

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Essay on Urbanization in India

Essay # 1. Meaning of Urbanisation:

Essay # 2. Trends of Urbanisation of India :

Essay # 3. Degree of Urbanisation in India:

Essay # 4. Causes of Rapid Urbanisation in India:

(i) Natural Increase in Population:

(ii) Migrations:

(iii) Expansion of Industry and Trade:

(iv) Boundary Changes of Towns:

Essay # 5. Consequences of Rapid Urbanisation:

(i) Healthy Aspects:

(ii) Unhealthy Aspects:

(iii) Urban Policy Measures:

Essay # 6. Role of Urbanisation in Economic Development of India:

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