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Exploratory Research – Types, Methods and Examples

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Exploratory Research

Definition:

Exploratory research is a type of research design that is used to investigate a research question when the researcher has limited knowledge or understanding of the topic or phenomenon under study.

The primary objective of exploratory research is to gain insights and gather preliminary information that can help the researcher better define the research problem and develop hypotheses or research questions for further investigation.

Exploratory Research Methods

There are several types of exploratory research, including:

Literature Review

This involves conducting a comprehensive review of existing published research, scholarly articles, and other relevant literature on the research topic or problem. It helps to identify the gaps in the existing knowledge and to develop new research questions or hypotheses.

Pilot Study

A pilot study is a small-scale preliminary study that helps the researcher to test research procedures, instruments, and data collection methods. This type of research can be useful in identifying any potential problems or issues with the research design and refining the research procedures for a larger-scale study.

This involves an in-depth analysis of a particular case or situation to gain insights into the underlying causes, processes, and dynamics of the issue under investigation. It can be used to develop a more comprehensive understanding of a complex problem, and to identify potential research questions or hypotheses.

Focus Groups

Focus groups involve a group discussion that is conducted to gather opinions, attitudes, and perceptions from a small group of individuals about a particular topic. This type of research can be useful in exploring the range of opinions and attitudes towards a topic, identifying common themes or patterns, and generating ideas for further research.

Expert Opinion

This involves consulting with experts or professionals in the field to gain their insights, expertise, and opinions on the research topic. This type of research can be useful in identifying the key issues and concerns related to the topic, and in generating ideas for further research.

Observational Research

Observational research involves gathering data by observing people, events, or phenomena in their natural settings to gain insights into behavior and interactions. This type of research can be useful in identifying patterns of behavior and interactions, and in generating hypotheses or research questions for further investigation.

Open-ended Surveys

Open-ended surveys allow respondents to provide detailed and unrestricted responses to questions, providing valuable insights into their attitudes, opinions, and perceptions. This type of research can be useful in identifying common themes or patterns, and in generating ideas for further research.

Data Analysis Methods

Exploratory Research Data Analysis Methods are as follows:

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing text or other forms of data to identify common themes, patterns, and trends. It can be useful in identifying patterns in the data and developing hypotheses or research questions. For example, if the researcher is analyzing social media posts related to a particular topic, content analysis can help identify the most frequently used words, hashtags, and topics.

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying and analyzing patterns or themes in qualitative data such as interviews or focus groups. The researcher identifies recurring themes or patterns in the data and then categorizes them into different themes. This can be helpful in identifying common patterns or themes in the data and developing hypotheses or research questions. For example, a thematic analysis of interviews with healthcare professionals about patient care may identify themes related to communication, patient satisfaction, and quality of care.

Cluster Analysis

This method involves grouping data points into clusters based on their similarities or differences. It can be useful in identifying patterns in large datasets and grouping similar data points together. For example, if the researcher is analyzing customer data to identify different customer segments, cluster analysis can be used to group similar customers together based on their demographic, purchasing behavior, or preferences.

Network Analysis

This method involves analyzing the relationships and connections between data points. It can be useful in identifying patterns in complex datasets with many interrelated variables. For example, if the researcher is analyzing social network data, network analysis can help identify the most influential users and their connections to other users.

Grounded Theory

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected during the exploratory research process. The researcher develops a theory or explanation that is grounded in the data, rather than relying on pre-existing theories or assumptions. This can be helpful in developing new theories or explanations that are supported by the data.

Applications of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research has many practical applications across various fields. Here are a few examples:

• Marketing Research : In marketing research, exploratory research can be used to identify consumer needs, preferences, and behavior. It can also help businesses understand market trends and identify new market opportunities.
• Product Development: In product development, exploratory research can be used to identify customer needs and preferences, as well as potential design flaws or issues. This can help companies improve their product offerings and develop new products that better meet customer needs.
• Social Science Research: In social science research, exploratory research can be used to identify new areas of study, as well as develop new theories and hypotheses. It can also be used to identify potential research methods and approaches.
• Healthcare Research : In healthcare research, exploratory research can be used to identify new treatments, therapies, and interventions. It can also be used to identify potential risk factors or causes of health problems.
• Education Research: In education research, exploratory research can be used to identify new teaching methods and approaches, as well as identify potential areas of study for further research. It can also be used to identify potential barriers to learning or achievement.

Examples of Exploratory Research

Here are some more examples of exploratory research from different fields:

• Social Science : A researcher wants to study the experience of being a refugee, but there is limited existing research on this topic. The researcher conducts exploratory research by conducting in-depth interviews with refugees to better understand their experiences, challenges, and needs.
• Healthcare : A medical researcher wants to identify potential risk factors for a rare disease but there is limited information available. The researcher conducts exploratory research by reviewing medical records and interviewing patients and their families to identify potential risk factors.
• Education : A teacher wants to develop a new teaching method to improve student engagement, but there is limited information on effective teaching methods. The teacher conducts exploratory research by reviewing existing literature and interviewing other teachers to identify potential approaches.
• Technology : A software developer wants to develop a new app, but is unsure about the features that users would find most useful. The developer conducts exploratory research by conducting surveys and focus groups to identify user preferences and needs.
• Environmental Science : An environmental scientist wants to study the impact of a new industrial plant on the surrounding environment, but there is limited existing research. The scientist conducts exploratory research by collecting and analyzing soil and water samples, and conducting interviews with residents to better understand the impact of the plant on the environment and the community.

How to Conduct Exploratory Research

Here are the general steps to conduct exploratory research:

• Define the research problem: Identify the research problem or question that you want to explore. Be clear about the objective and scope of the research.
• Review existing literature: Conduct a review of existing literature and research on the topic to identify what is already known and where gaps in knowledge exist.
• Determine the research design : Decide on the appropriate research design, which will depend on the nature of the research problem and the available resources. Common exploratory research designs include case studies, focus groups, interviews, and surveys.
• Collect data: Collect data using the chosen research design. This may involve conducting interviews, surveys, or observations, or collecting data from existing sources such as archives or databases.
• Analyze data: Analyze the data collected using appropriate qualitative or quantitative techniques. This may include coding and categorizing qualitative data, or running descriptive statistics on quantitative data.
• I nterpret and report findings: Interpret the findings of the analysis and report them in a way that is clear and understandable. The report should summarize the findings, discuss their implications, and make recommendations for further research or action.
• Iterate : If necessary, refine the research question and repeat the process of data collection and analysis to further explore the topic.

When to use Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is appropriate in situations where there is limited existing knowledge or understanding of a topic, and where the goal is to generate insights and ideas that can guide further research. Here are some specific situations where exploratory research may be particularly useful:

• New product development: When developing a new product, exploratory research can be used to identify consumer needs and preferences, as well as potential design flaws or issues.
• Emerging technologies: When exploring emerging technologies, exploratory research can be used to identify potential uses and applications, as well as potential challenges or limitations.
• Developing research hypotheses: When developing research hypotheses, exploratory research can be used to identify potential relationships or patterns that can be further explored through more rigorous research methods.
• Understanding complex phenomena: When trying to understand complex phenomena, such as human behavior or societal trends, exploratory research can be used to identify underlying patterns or factors that may be influencing the phenomenon.
• Developing research methods : When developing new research methods, exploratory research can be used to identify potential issues or limitations with existing methods, and to develop new methods that better capture the phenomena of interest.

Purpose of Exploratory Research

The purpose of exploratory research is to gain insights and understanding of a research problem or question where there is limited existing knowledge or understanding. The objective is to explore and generate ideas that can guide further research, rather than to test specific hypotheses or make definitive conclusions.

Exploratory research can be used to:

• Identify new research questions: Exploratory research can help to identify new research questions and areas of inquiry, by providing initial insights and understanding of a topic.
• Develop hypotheses: Exploratory research can help to develop hypotheses and testable propositions that can be further explored through more rigorous research methods.
• Identify patterns and trends : Exploratory research can help to identify patterns and trends in data, which can be used to guide further research or decision-making.
• Understand complex phenomena: Exploratory research can help to provide a deeper understanding of complex phenomena, such as human behavior or societal trends, by identifying underlying patterns or factors that may be influencing the phenomena.
• Generate ideas: Exploratory research can help to generate new ideas and insights that can be used to guide further research, innovation, or decision-making.

Characteristics of Exploratory Research

The following are the main characteristics of exploratory research:

• Flexible and open-ended : Exploratory research is characterized by its flexible and open-ended nature, which allows researchers to explore a wide range of ideas and perspectives without being constrained by specific research questions or hypotheses.
• Qualitative in nature : Exploratory research typically relies on qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, or observation, to gather rich and detailed data on the research problem.
• Limited scope: Exploratory research is generally limited in scope, focusing on a specific research problem or question, rather than attempting to provide a comprehensive analysis of a broader phenomenon.
• Preliminary in nature : Exploratory research is preliminary in nature, providing initial insights and understanding of a research problem, rather than testing specific hypotheses or making definitive conclusions.
• I terative process : Exploratory research is often an iterative process, where the research design and methods may be refined and adjusted as new insights and understanding are gained.
• I nductive approach : Exploratory research typically takes an inductive approach to data analysis, seeking to identify patterns and relationships in the data that can guide further research or hypothesis development.

Advantages of Exploratory Research

The following are some advantages of exploratory research:

• Provides initial insights: Exploratory research is useful for providing initial insights and understanding of a research problem or question where there is limited existing knowledge or understanding. It can help to identify patterns, relationships, and potential hypotheses that can guide further research.
• Flexible and adaptable : Exploratory research is flexible and adaptable, allowing researchers to adjust their methods and approach as they gain new insights and understanding of the research problem.
• Qualitative methods : Exploratory research typically relies on qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, which can provide rich and detailed data that is useful for gaining insights into complex phenomena.
• Cost-effective : Exploratory research is often less costly than other research methods, such as large-scale surveys or experiments. It is typically conducted on a smaller scale, using fewer resources and participants.
• Useful for hypothesis generation : Exploratory research can be useful for generating hypotheses and testable propositions that can be further explored through more rigorous research methods.
• Provides a foundation for further research: Exploratory research can provide a foundation for further research by identifying potential research questions and areas of inquiry, as well as providing initial insights and understanding of the research problem.

Limitations of Exploratory Research

The following are some limitations of exploratory research:

• Limited generalizability: Exploratory research is typically conducted on a small scale and uses non-random sampling techniques, which limits the generalizability of the findings to a broader population.
• Subjective nature: Exploratory research relies on qualitative methods and is therefore subject to researcher bias and interpretation. The findings may be influenced by the researcher’s own perceptions, beliefs, and assumptions.
• Lack of rigor: Exploratory research is often less rigorous than other research methods, such as experimental research, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Limited ability to test hypotheses: Exploratory research is not designed to test specific hypotheses, but rather to generate initial insights and understanding of a research problem. It may not be suitable for testing well-defined research questions or hypotheses.
• Time-consuming : Exploratory research can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, particularly if the researcher needs to gather data from multiple sources or conduct multiple rounds of data collection.
• Difficulty in interpretation: The open-ended nature of exploratory research can make it difficult to interpret the findings, particularly if the researcher is unable to identify clear patterns or relationships in the data.

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Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Exploratory Research Design: A Guide for Students

Exploratory Research refers to the research methodology used when researchers have a limited understanding of the topic at hand and want to gain a broader perspective or more insights into the subject.

This type of research is conducted in the initial stages of a study when there is a lack of clarity about the problem. It may lead to subsequent studies that attempt to generate greater clarity on the findings generated in the initial, exploratory, phase, or to test hypotheses that the exploratory phase generated.

Definition of Exploratory Research

If you’re writing a research proposal, methodology, or essay in which you need to discuss exploratory research design , I recommend providing a scholarly definition of the topic.

Here are three solid scholarly definitions you could use:

• “… research used to investigate an issue that is new, a problem which is not clearly defined, a topic on which there is little data” (Gozdziak & Chantavanich, 2022)
• “… initial research conducted to clarify and define the nature of the problem. It is done to help diagnose the situation, allow for screening of alternatives, and discover new ideas.” (Hutchison, Allen & Macy, 2012)
• “… the initial research into a hypothetical or theoretical idea. This is where the researcher has an idea and wishes to research a topic seeking to understand it more deeply. An exploratory research study is an attempt to lay the groundwork that could of will lead to future studies.” (Blecher, 2018)

Objectives of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is generally conducted in order to generate initial data on a relatively unknown topic (Hammond & Wellington, 2013).

We could divide this up into a range of more specific objectives that you could state for your research project, including:

• Descriptive Data : Exploratory research often aims to provide a better understanding of a relatively unknown problem, phenomenon, or behavior by generating descriptive data (Cargan, 2007). This helps in establishing a clearer understanding of a topic and, consequently, gives subsequent projects the chance to dig deeper now that they have some baseline data.
• Generation of New Ideas : Through exploratory research, new ideas and perspectives can emerge that were not initially considered (Swedberg, 2020). An exploratory study often begins with an open mind, ready to reveal surprising, remarkable, and unexpected new ideas and insights. For example, researchers may conclude the study with a hypothesis for future research to examine.
• Determining the Most Appropriate Research Method : After getting a clearer idea of the topic, researchers can determine which research methods (e.g., qualitative, quantitative) would be most suitable for a subsequent, more detailed, conclusive research study.
• Clarifying Concepts : In generating descriptive datasets, an exploratory study can help in defining and refining ambiguous or unclear concepts, which can help to start to build foundational definitions and conceptual frameworks for the emerging body of literature on a novel topic (Tan, 2022).
• Establishing Importance: An exploratory study could also serve the purpose of demonstrating that a topic is worthy of larger-scale studies. So, researchers might conduct their exploratory study, and use its results to approach funding bodies. With the exploratory study complete, they will be armed with more data about the topic and informed evidence about the best way to approach it.
• Establishing Priorities for Future Research : By identifying key issues and questions, researchers can prioritize areas that need deeper investigation. Conclusions of exploratory studies usually provide recommendations for future studies, including by proposing hypotheses and prioritizing future projects.

Common Methods for Exploratory Research Designs

There is no one clear set of methods that must be used in exploratory design. A researcher should select the methodologies that would be most effective in meeting your research questions.

However, commonly, exploratory studies are shaped as small-scale qualitative designs. Qualitative research allows researchers to delve deep into a topic to generate high-quality, contextualized, and nuanced descriptive data. Qualitative data generally cannot create generalizable results, but it does help to create hypotheses that can be looked at with larger-scale quantitative studies.

Examples of exploratory research designs can include:

• Expert Interviews : When exploring a relatively new phenomenon, researchers can speak to professionals or experts in the field to gain their perspectives. This perspective-taking, often taking the form of a delphi method focus group , can help researchers to better understand the key factors within a topic that will inform subsequent study designs (Raley et al., 2016).
• Case Studies : Oftentimes, exploratory research looks at novel and rare phenomena. To begin to understand them, researchers need to look at them in depth. To do this, they may employ a case study design, which allows researchers to take a very in-depth examination of one instance (Lee & Saunders, 2017). This will, in turn, inform future studies that may look at a wider corpus that can create statistically relevant results.
• Observational Studies : This involves observing and noting the behavior or situation of interest. There are multiple types of observational research , ranging from non-intrusive ‘fly on the wall’ observations to participant observations such as ethnographic studies .
• Cross-Sectional Research : This is an example of a qualitative exploratory research design. Imagine researchers want to study an emerging health condition among a population. As it’s emergent, there’s no data yet, but researchers need to know how big a problem this is. To do so, they may conduct an initial cross-sectional study , which gathers statistically relevant descriptive data about how prevalent the condition is. This exploratory study won’t be able to determine cause-and-effect between variables, but it could from the basis and justification for subsequent studies.

A Hypothetical Example

Study Title: The relationship between urban green spaces and mental well-being

Explanation: In an exploratory study examining the relationship between urban green spaces and mental well-being, researchers could survey residents from various neighborhoods about their frequency of visiting local parks and their perceived stress levels.

Design: Since, hypothetically, little prior research exists on this specific topic, the team could employ open-ended interviews, allowing participants to share detailed experiences and insights. Preliminary data might indicate a potential positive correlation between regular park visits and lower stress levels. To gain a deeper understanding, focus groups could be conducted next, where participants discuss the therapeutic effects of nature, setting the stage for more structured, quantitative studies in the future.

Recommendations: Exploratory research usually provides recommendations for more focused subsequent studies. The researchers in this study might recommend exploring the supposed positive correlation between park visits and lower stress through a statistical analysis.

See More Exploratory Research Examples

Benefits and Limitations of Exploratory Research Design

Exploratory research design is very useful for providing initial insights into a topic, describing phenomena in detail, and exploring a topic without the predetermined constraints of mere hypothesis testing.

But it’s not the best research design in all situations. For example, it might not be ideal if you were seeking to achieve clarity on well-worn topics, generate generalizable results that add to existing literature, or contribute to a specific set of existing scholarly discourse on a topic.

Below are some strengths and weaknesses of this research design:

Blecher, M. (2018). Israeli Settlements: Land Politics Beyond the Geneva Convention . Hamilton Books.

Cargan, L. (2007). Doing Social Research . Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Gozdziak, E. M., & Chantavanich, S. (2022). Africans in Thailand. In Gozdziak, E. M., & Chantavanich, S. (Eds.). African Migration to Thailand: Race, Mobility, and Integration. Taylor & Francis.

Hammond, M., & Wellington, J. J. (2013).  Research Methods: The Key Concepts . Routledge.

Hutchison, T., Allen, P., & Macy, A. (2012).  Record Label Marketing . Taylor & Francis.

Lee, B., & Saunders, M. N. K. (2017).  Conducting Case Study Research for Business and Management Students.  SAGE Publications.

Morrison, A. M. (2022).  Tourism Marketing: In the Age of the Consumer . Taylor & Francis.

Raley, M. E., Ragona, M., Sijtsema, S. J., Fischer, A. R., & Frewer, L. J. (2016). Barriers to using consumer science information in food technology innovations: An exploratory study using Delphi methodology.  International Journal of Food Studies ,  5 (1). ( Source )

Swedberg, R. (2020). Exploratory Research. In Elman C, Gerring J, & Mahoney J. (Eds.)  The Production of Knowledge: Enhancing Progress in Social Science.  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Tan, W. C. K. (2022).  Research Methods: A Practical Guide For Students And Researchers  (Second Edition). World Scientific Publishing Company.

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Exploratory Research

Exploratory research, as the name implies, intends merely to explore the research questions and does not intend to offer final and conclusive solutions to existing problems. This type of research is usually conducted to study a problem that has not been clearly defined yet. Conducted in order to determine the nature of the problem, exploratory research is not intended to provide conclusive evidence, but helps us to have a better understanding of the problem.

When conducting exploratory research, the researcher ought to be willing to change his/her direction as a result of revelation of new data and new insights. [1] Accordingly, exploratory studies are often conducted using interpretive research methods and they answer to questions such as what, why and how.

Exploratory research design does not aim to provide the final and conclusive answers to the research questions, but merely explores the research topic with varying levels of depth. It has been noted that “exploratory research is the initial research, which forms the basis of more conclusive research. It can even help in determining the research design, sampling methodology and data collection method” [2] . Exploratory research “tends to tackle new problems on which little or no previous research has been done” [3] .

Unstructured interviews are the most popular primary data collection method with exploratory studies. Additionally, surveys , focus groups and observation methods can be used to collect primary data for this type of studies.

Examples of Exploratory Research Design

The following are some examples for studies with exploratory research design in business studies:

• A study into the role of social networking sites as an effective marketing communication channel
• An investigation into the ways of improvement of quality of customer services within hospitality sector in London
• An assessment of the role of corporate social responsibility on consumer behaviour in pharmaceutical industry in the USA

Differences between Exploratory and Conclusive Research

The difference between exploratory and conclusive research is drawn by Sandhursen (2000) [4] in a way that exploratory studies result in a range of causes and alternative options for a solution of a specific problem, whereas, conclusive studies identify the final information that is the only solution to an existing research problem.

In other words, exploratory research design simply explores the research questions, leaving room for further researches, whereas conclusive research design is aimed to provide final findings for the research.

Moreover, it has been stated that “an exploratory study may not have as rigorous as methodology as it is used in conclusive studies, and sample sizes may be smaller. But it helps to do the exploratory study as methodically as possible, if it is going to be used for major decisions about the way we are going to conduct our next study” [5] (Nargundkar, 2003, p.41).

Exploratory studies usually create scope for future research and the future research may have a conclusive design. For example, ‘a study into the implications of COVID-19 pandemic into the global economy’ is an exploratory research. COVID-19 pandemic is a recent phenomenon and the study can generate an initial knowledge about economic implications of the phenomenon.

A follow-up study, building on the findings of this research ‘a study into the effects of COVID-19 pandemic on tourism revenues in Morocco’ is a causal conclusive research. The second research can produce research findings that can be of a practical use for decision making.

Advantages of Exploratory Research

• Lower costs of conducting the study
• Flexibility and adaptability to change
• Exploratory research is effective in laying the groundwork that will lead to future studies.
• Exploratory studies can potentially save time by determining at the earlier stages the types of research that are worth pursuing

Disadvantages of Exploratory Research

• Inclusive nature of research findings
• Exploratory studies generate qualitative information and interpretation of such type of information is subject to bias
• These types of studies usually make use of a modest number of samples that may not adequately represent the target population. Accordingly, findings of exploratory research cannot be generalized to a wider population.
• Findings of such type of studies are not usually useful in decision making in a practical level.

My e-book,  The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance  contains discussions of theory and application of research designs. The e-book also explains all stages of the  research process  starting from the  selection of the research area  to writing personal reflection. Important elements of dissertations such as  research philosophy ,  research approach ,  methods of data collection ,  data analysis  and  sampling  are explained in this e-book in simple words.

John Dudovskiy

[1] Source: Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) “Research Methods for Business Students” 6 th  edition, Pearson Education Limited

[2] Singh, K. (2007) “Quantitative Social Research Methods” SAGE Publications, p.64

[3] Brown, R.B. (2006) “Doing Your Dissertation in Business and Management: The Reality of Research and Writing” Sage Publications, p.43

[4] Sandhusen, R.L. (2000) “Marketing” Barrons

[5] Nargundkar, R. (2008) “Marketing Research: Text and Cases” 3 rd edition, p.38

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Study designs: Part 1 – An overview and classification

Priya ranganathan.

Department of Anaesthesiology, Tata Memorial Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Rakesh Aggarwal

1 Department of Gastroenterology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

There are several types of research study designs, each with its inherent strengths and flaws. The study design used to answer a particular research question depends on the nature of the question and the availability of resources. In this article, which is the first part of a series on “study designs,” we provide an overview of research study designs and their classification. The subsequent articles will focus on individual designs.

INTRODUCTION

Research study design is a framework, or the set of methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data on variables specified in a particular research problem.

Research study designs are of many types, each with its advantages and limitations. The type of study design used to answer a particular research question is determined by the nature of question, the goal of research, and the availability of resources. Since the design of a study can affect the validity of its results, it is important to understand the different types of study designs and their strengths and limitations.

There are some terms that are used frequently while classifying study designs which are described in the following sections.

A variable represents a measurable attribute that varies across study units, for example, individual participants in a study, or at times even when measured in an individual person over time. Some examples of variables include age, sex, weight, height, health status, alive/dead, diseased/healthy, annual income, smoking yes/no, and treated/untreated.

Exposure (or intervention) and outcome variables

A large proportion of research studies assess the relationship between two variables. Here, the question is whether one variable is associated with or responsible for change in the value of the other variable. Exposure (or intervention) refers to the risk factor whose effect is being studied. It is also referred to as the independent or the predictor variable. The outcome (or predicted or dependent) variable develops as a consequence of the exposure (or intervention). Typically, the term “exposure” is used when the “causative” variable is naturally determined (as in observational studies – examples include age, sex, smoking, and educational status), and the term “intervention” is preferred where the researcher assigns some or all participants to receive a particular treatment for the purpose of the study (experimental studies – e.g., administration of a drug). If a drug had been started in some individuals but not in the others, before the study started, this counts as exposure, and not as intervention – since the drug was not started specifically for the study.

Observational versus interventional (or experimental) studies

Observational studies are those where the researcher is documenting a naturally occurring relationship between the exposure and the outcome that he/she is studying. The researcher does not do any active intervention in any individual, and the exposure has already been decided naturally or by some other factor. For example, looking at the incidence of lung cancer in smokers versus nonsmokers, or comparing the antenatal dietary habits of mothers with normal and low-birth babies. In these studies, the investigator did not play any role in determining the smoking or dietary habit in individuals.

For an exposure to determine the outcome, it must precede the latter. Any variable that occurs simultaneously with or following the outcome cannot be causative, and hence is not considered as an “exposure.”

Observational studies can be either descriptive (nonanalytical) or analytical (inferential) – this is discussed later in this article.

Interventional studies are experiments where the researcher actively performs an intervention in some or all members of a group of participants. This intervention could take many forms – for example, administration of a drug or vaccine, performance of a diagnostic or therapeutic procedure, and introduction of an educational tool. For example, a study could randomly assign persons to receive aspirin or placebo for a specific duration and assess the effect on the risk of developing cerebrovascular events.

Descriptive versus analytical studies

Descriptive (or nonanalytical) studies, as the name suggests, merely try to describe the data on one or more characteristics of a group of individuals. These do not try to answer questions or establish relationships between variables. Examples of descriptive studies include case reports, case series, and cross-sectional surveys (please note that cross-sectional surveys may be analytical studies as well – this will be discussed in the next article in this series). Examples of descriptive studies include a survey of dietary habits among pregnant women or a case series of patients with an unusual reaction to a drug.

Analytical studies attempt to test a hypothesis and establish causal relationships between variables. In these studies, the researcher assesses the effect of an exposure (or intervention) on an outcome. As described earlier, analytical studies can be observational (if the exposure is naturally determined) or interventional (if the researcher actively administers the intervention).

Directionality of study designs

Based on the direction of inquiry, study designs may be classified as forward-direction or backward-direction. In forward-direction studies, the researcher starts with determining the exposure to a risk factor and then assesses whether the outcome occurs at a future time point. This design is known as a cohort study. For example, a researcher can follow a group of smokers and a group of nonsmokers to determine the incidence of lung cancer in each. In backward-direction studies, the researcher begins by determining whether the outcome is present (cases vs. noncases [also called controls]) and then traces the presence of prior exposure to a risk factor. These are known as case–control studies. For example, a researcher identifies a group of normal-weight babies and a group of low-birth weight babies and then asks the mothers about their dietary habits during the index pregnancy.

Prospective versus retrospective study designs

The terms “prospective” and “retrospective” refer to the timing of the research in relation to the development of the outcome. In retrospective studies, the outcome of interest has already occurred (or not occurred – e.g., in controls) in each individual by the time s/he is enrolled, and the data are collected either from records or by asking participants to recall exposures. There is no follow-up of participants. By contrast, in prospective studies, the outcome (and sometimes even the exposure or intervention) has not occurred when the study starts and participants are followed up over a period of time to determine the occurrence of outcomes. Typically, most cohort studies are prospective studies (though there may be retrospective cohorts), whereas case–control studies are retrospective studies. An interventional study has to be, by definition, a prospective study since the investigator determines the exposure for each study participant and then follows them to observe outcomes.

The terms “prospective” versus “retrospective” studies can be confusing. Let us think of an investigator who starts a case–control study. To him/her, the process of enrolling cases and controls over a period of several months appears prospective. Hence, the use of these terms is best avoided. Or, at the very least, one must be clear that the terms relate to work flow for each individual study participant, and not to the study as a whole.

Classification of study designs

Figure 1 depicts a simple classification of research study designs. The Centre for Evidence-based Medicine has put forward a useful three-point algorithm which can help determine the design of a research study from its methods section:[ 1 ]

Classification of research study designs

• Does the study describe the characteristics of a sample or does it attempt to analyze (or draw inferences about) the relationship between two variables? – If no, then it is a descriptive study, and if yes, it is an analytical (inferential) study
• If analytical, did the investigator determine the exposure? – If no, it is an observational study, and if yes, it is an experimental study
• If observational, when was the outcome determined? – at the start of the study (case–control study), at the end of a period of follow-up (cohort study), or simultaneously (cross sectional).

In the next few pieces in the series, we will discuss various study designs in greater detail.

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A guide to exploratory research design

Last updated

9 March 2023

Reviewed by

Jean Kaluza

Knowledge is power, especially when designing a new product or improving an existing one. You may have questions like who will use your product. What niche market needs this product? How will customers respond to the product? Where does the product need improving?

Analyze exploratory research

Finds answers to questions asked in your exploratory research faster when you analyze it in Dovetail

• What is exploratory research?

When you're blazing a trail for a new concept, you need questions answered and problems solved. Exploratory research will help you better understand the problems and offer solutions you could focus on to transform the idea into reality.

What is an exploratory research design example?

When you have an idea about a new product, you're excited about the prospect that customers will be lining up at the door to purchase it. Before spending money on design and development, determine if customers will love it as much as you do.

You will want to conduct exploratory research to determine how people will respond to your product. Your data may show that your potential customers have a different opinion than you expected. Once you receive the data, your perception of how to proceed with the product's design will become more apparent.

• Methods and types of exploratory research

Understanding the methods of exploratory research and how to reach potential customers can provide valuable data for product conception. There are two primary methods of conducting exploratory research: primary research and secondary research.

Primary research

Primary research involves direct interactions with your customer base. This could include conducting surveys , hosting focus groups , or one-on-one interviews. 

Primary research aims to gather first-hand information about your customers' needs, preferences, and opinions. You can gain valuable insights into their behaviors and decision-making processes by interacting directly with your target audience.

Secondary research

Secondary research involves gathering information that others have already collected. This could include conducting online searches, reviewing industry reports, or visiting the library to read books and journals. Secondary research aims to gather information that can help you better understand your target market and industry trends.

• Exploratory research data collection

Gathering data about a new subject can be difficult. But exploratory research can make it easier by helping you focus on a specific topic and creating a clear hypothesis and problem statement. It also gives you an overview of the subject.

Exploratory research involves two types of data collection methods: primary and secondary research. Both methods follow the same model for data analysis.

Primary research methods

This research method involves communicating with people in different ways to gather information, including:

Observations

Interviews 

Focus groups

You might have your product's models, drawings, or prototypes ready for testing. Then, you can gather a target sample group to interact with it. By observing their interactions and listening to their questions, answers, and comments, you can identify necessary changes to the product. This process will also give you insights into how customers will respond to it when it launches.

Exploratory research questions

Once you establish which primary research method you will use, tailor those methods to retrieve data that will answer questions about moving forward with your product. 

These questions can include the following:

Who will get the most benefit from using the product?

What features of the product will customers most likely use or not use?

Is the product easy to use or too complicated?

How can the product be improved?

Secondary research methods

This research method is limited in providing a detailed understanding of product performance among potential customers. Nevertheless, it can help you explore whether similar concepts have been tried before and their success rates. To gather such data, you can refer to these sources:

Case studies

Existing literature

Online sources

• Characteristics of exploratory research

When exploring what type of data you require for your project, consider the characteristics of exploratory research. Check whether the following features align with your project's needs.

Difficult to quantify

It’s extremely difficult to quantify unstructured data. This data type does not typically contain common variables to compare corresponding data points to. However, quantitative data points can be pulled if studies are conducted with a large enough sample size. It just takes significantly longer to analyze. Still, unstructured data is more valuable because it's open-ended qualitative feedback that will help direct your project.

Low-cost, interactive, open-ended

Taking the time to budget for exploratory research has excellent cost-saving significance. The cost of designing and developing a product that may not do well on the market can be higher than what you spend when doing exploratory research.

And the research doesn't have to stop after one survey or one focus group. You can continue this type of interactive research with your target group or customer base throughout all phases of product development. This includes the design, manufacturing, market introduction, and customer experience phases.

Time-consuming

Although it is time-consuming to perform exploratory research, this is nothing compared to the time you could waste producing a product that the public might not receive well. Take the time to construct exploratory research designs that will reap high-quality data with steps that include: 

Addressing the problems that you will need to solve

Identifying the target sample group

Designing the data collection format

Collecting the data

Categorizing the data into useful information

Incorporating the information into the design process

Depending on how extensive your target sample group is and what formats you use to collect the data, this also may impact how long it takes to get the information you need. 

For example, a survey format may take less time than an interview structure. And if you're surveying 15,000 people rather than just 1,000, this can take a while to receive and examine the results.

• When to use exploratory research

Exploratory research can be used not only for product design issues but also to determine the ideal market target and improve customer experience with your product or service.

For example, suppose your business has a website or app. In that case, you can use exploratory research to determine user experience when customers use them. 

• How to conduct exploratory research

In conducting exploratory research, here are the steps you can follow:

Step 1: Identify your problem

Regarding product design, the first step is identifying what obstacles, challenges, or motivations your product will solve for your customers to become viable in the market.

Step 2: Hypothesize a solution

Conducting secondary research on products similar to yours can provide valuable insights that can help you develop a successful solution. By examining the launch and performance of these products, you can generate hypotheses about what may work for your own product.

You may want to add features to your product that were considered successful or remove features that weren't.

Step 3: Design your methodology or process

Next, determine at what points and how you want to collect feedback on your product as you design and iterate it. Perhaps, surveys adequately produce the data you need at the conceptual phase, and running a focus group could be better before the alpha release.

The processes and methodology depend on your resources, team strengths, and at which points in the development process you need direction the most.

Step 4: Collect and analyze data

Analyzing the data collected is how we make our findings actionable. Techniques such as content analysis , thematic analysis , or grounded theory help identify patterns and themes in the data.

If we identify a theme where potential customers are consistently choosing our competitor over us, it may indicate a specific feature that they prefer. To address this, we should conduct further exploration and analysis to determine the reason for this preference. Based on our findings, we may need to build and design similar features to better compete with our rivals.

Step 5: Avenues for future research

If the research that you did helps the design process of your product, you now have a proven avenue for future research in product design, manufacturing, market introduction, and customer experiences for your business. 

• Advantages of exploratory research

Exploratory research provides significant cost-effectiveness and time-savings on projects. If a project is unsuccessful because you did not conduct exploratory research, it will lead to much more cost and time expenditures in the future. And once you have a proven exploratory research process established, it will be easier to do further research when needed.

• Challenges of exploratory research

When doing exploratory research, flexibility is key. If you're unwilling to be open to the results, bias can factor into data interpretation, rendering the data useless. Also, if you haphazardly assemble a quick study with a small sample, the sample size may not represent the target audience.

• The extra effort of exploratory research is worth it

Now that you know the significance of exploratory research and its impact on successful product development and customer experience , it's time to initiate your exploratory research design. And to organize your exploratory research efforts, find a platform that helps you store customer research , feedback, and insights all in one place.

What is exploratory research vs. descriptive?

Exploratory research studies unexamined topics or problems. Descriptive research describes the characteristics of a subject to compare and contrast with other subjects observed in the same study.

Which exploratory research is the quickest and least costly?

Secondary research methods are the quickest and less costly. However, they do not offer comprehensive or specified information that will help develop a product design. Primary research methods can be more expensive than secondary ones but still possible to conduct on a budget.

Which type of research design takes the longest?

Primary research takes the longest because of the necessary steps to collect the information you need. It also depends on how wide of a net you cast to collect the data. The more people involved in surveys, focus groups, and interviews, the more time it will take to extract and analyze the data.

What is the sample size of exploratory research?

The sample size is the number of people participating in your exploratory research design. The sample size should be representative of the target audience for your product.

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Exploratory Research: Types & Characteristics

Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels that increasing the variety of juices will enable an increase in customers. However, he is not sure and needs more information. The owner intends to conduct exploratory research to find out; hence, he decides to do exploratory research to find out if expanding their juices selection will enable him to get more customers or if there is a better idea.

Another example of exploratory research is a podcast survey template that can be used to collect feedback about the podcast consumption metrics both from existing listeners as well as other podcast listeners that are currently not subscribed to this channel. This helps the author of the podcast create curated content that will gain a larger audience. Let’s explore this topic.

LEARN ABOUT: Research Process Steps

Content Index

Exploratory research: Definition

Primary research methods, secondary research methods, exploratory research: steps to conduct a research, characteristics of exploratory research, advantages of exploratory research, disadvantages of exploratory research, importance of exploratory research.

Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing research problem , but will not provide conclusive results. For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses this research as a medium to identify issues, that can be the focus for future research. An important aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data or insight. Such a research is usually carried out when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is often referred to as grounded theory approach or interpretive research as it used to answer questions like what, why and how.

Types and methodologies of Exploratory research

While it may sound difficult to research something that has very little information about it, there are several methods which can help a researcher figure out the best research design, data collection methods and choice of subjects. There are two ways in which research can be conducted namely primary and secondary.. Under these two types, there are multiple methods which can used by a researcher. The data gathered from these research can be qualitative or quantitative . Some of the most widely used research designs include the following:

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

Primary research is information gathered directly from the subject.  It can be through a group of people or even an individual. Such a research can be carried out directly by the researcher himself or can employ a third party to conduct it on their behalf. Primary research is specifically carried out to explore a certain problem which requires an in-depth study.

• Surveys/polls : Surveys /polls are used to gather information from a predefined group of respondents. It is one of the most important quantitative method. Various types of surveys  or polls can be used to explore opinions, trends, etc. With the advancement in technology, surveys can now be sent online and can be very easy to access. For instance, use of a survey app through tablets, laptops or even mobile phones. This information is also available to the researcher in real time as well. Nowadays, most organizations offer short length surveys and rewards to respondents, in order to achieve higher response rates.

LEARN ABOUT: Live polls for Classroom Experience

For example: A survey is sent to a given set of audience to understand their opinions about the size of mobile phones when they purchase one. Based on such information organization can dig deeper into the topic and make business related decision.

• Interviews: While you may get a lot of information from public sources, but sometimes an in person interview can give in-depth information on the subject being studied. Such a research is a qualitative research method . An interview with a subject matter expert can give you meaningful insights that a generalized public source won’t be able to provide. Interviews are carried out in person or on telephone which have open-ended questions to get meaningful information about the topic.

For example: An interview with an employee can give you more insights to find out the degree of job satisfaction, or an interview with a subject matter expert of quantum theory can give you in-depth information on that topic.

• Focus groups: Focus group is yet another widely used method in exploratory research. In such a method a group of people is chosen and are allowed to express their insights on the topic that is being studied. Although, it is important to make sure that while choosing the individuals in a focus group they should have a common background and have comparable experiences.

For example: A focus group helps a research identify the opinions of consumers if they were to buy a phone. Such a research can help the researcher understand what the consumer value while buying a phone. It may be screen size, brand value or even the dimensions. Based on which the organization can understand what are consumer buying attitudes, consumer opinions, etc.

• Observations: Observational research can be qualitative observation or quantitative observation . Such a research is done to observe a person and draw the finding from their reaction to certain parameters. In such a research, there is no direct interaction with the subject.

For example: An FMCG company wants to know how it’s consumer react to the new shape of their product. The researcher observes the customers first reaction and collects the data, which is then used to draw inferences from the collective information.

LEARN ABOUT: Causal Research

Secondary research is gathering information from previously published primary research. In such a research you gather information from sources likes case studies, magazines, newspapers, books, etc.

• Online research: In today’s world, this is one of the fastest way to gather information on any topic. A lot of data is readily available on the internet and the researcher can download it whenever he needs it. An important aspect to be noted for such a research is the genuineness and authenticity of the source websites that the researcher is gathering the information from.

For example: A researcher needs to find out what is the percentage of people that prefer a specific brand phone. The researcher just enters the information he needs in a search engine and gets multiple links with related information and statistics.

• Literature research : Literature research is one of the most inexpensive method used for discovering a hypothesis. There is tremendous amount of information available in libraries, online sources, or even commercial databases. Sources can include newspapers, magazines, books from library, documents from government agencies, specific topic related articles, literature, Annual reports, published statistics from research organizations and so on.

However, a few things have to be kept in mind while researching from these sources. Government agencies have authentic information but sometimes may come with a nominal cost. Also, research from educational institutions is generally overlooked, but in fact educational institutions carry out more number of research than any other entities.

Furthermore, commercial sources provide information on major topics like political agendas, demographics, financial information, market trends and information, etc.

For example: A company has low sales. It can be easily explored from available statistics and market literature if the problem is market related or organization related or if the topic being studied is regarding financial situation of the country, then research data can be accessed through government documents or commercial sources.

• Case study research: Case study research can help a researcher with finding more information through carefully analyzing existing cases which have gone through a similar problem. Such exploratory data analysis are very important and critical especially in today’s business world. The researcher just needs to make sure he analyses the case carefully in regards to all the variables present in the previous case against his own case. It is very commonly used by business organizations or social sciences sector or even in the health sector.

LEARN ABOUT: Level of Analysis

For example: A particular orthopedic surgeon has the highest success rate for performing knee surgeries. A lot of other hospitals or doctors have taken up this case to understand and benchmark the method in which this surgeon does the procedure to increase their success rate.

• Identify the problem : A researcher identifies the subject of research and the problem is addressed by carrying out multiple methods to answer the questions.
• Create the hypothesis : When the researcher has found out that there are no prior studies and the problem is not precisely resolved, the researcher will create a hypothesis based on the questions obtained while identifying the problem.
• Further research : Once the data has been obtained, the researcher will continue his study through descriptive investigation. Qualitative methods are used to further study the subject in detail and find out if the information is true or not.

LEARN ABOUT: Descriptive Analysis

• They are not structured studies
• It is usually low cost, interactive and open ended.
• It will enable a researcher answer questions like what is the problem? What is the purpose of the study? And what topics could be studied?
• To carry out exploratory research, generally there is no prior research done or the existing ones do not answer the problem precisely enough.
• It is a time consuming research and it needs patience and has risks associated with it.
• The researcher will have to go through all the information available for the particular study he is doing.
• There are no set of rules to carry out the research per se, as they are flexible, broad and scattered.
• The research needs to have importance or value. If the problem is not important in the industry the research carried out is ineffective.
• The research should also have a few theories which can support its findings as that will make it easier for the researcher to assess it and move ahead in his study
• Such a research usually produces qualitative data , however in certain cases quantitative data can be generalized for a larger sample through use of surveys and experiments.

LEARN ABOUT: Action Research

• The researcher has a lot of flexibility and can adapt to changes as the research progresses.
• It is usually low cost.
• It helps lay the foundation of a research, which can lead to further research.
• It enables the researcher understand at an early stage, if the topic is worth investing the time and resources  and if it is worth pursuing.
• It can assist other researchers to find out possible causes for the problem, which can be further studied in detail to find out, which of them is the most likely cause for the problem.
• Even though it can point you in the right direction towards what is the answer, it is usually inconclusive.
• The main disadvantage of exploratory research is that they provide qualitative data. Interpretation of such information can be judgmental and biased.
• Most of the times, exploratory research involves a smaller sample , hence the results cannot be accurately interpreted for a generalized population.
• Many a times, if the data is being collected through secondary research, then there is a chance of that data being old and is not updated.

LEARN ABOUT: Projective Techniques & Conformity Bias

Exploratory research is carried out when a topic needs to be understood in depth, especially if it hasn’t been done before. The goal of such a research is to explore the problem and around it and not actually derive a conclusion from it. Such kind of research will enable a researcher to  set a strong foundation for exploring his ideas, choosing the right research design and finding variables that actually are important for the in-depth analysis . Most importantly, such a research can help organizations or researchers save up a lot of time and resources, as it will enable the researcher to know if it worth pursuing.

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• Exploratory Research | Definition, Guide, & Examples

Exploratory Research | Definition, Guide, & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on 20 January 2023.

Exploratory research is a methodology approach that investigates topics and research questions that have not previously been studied in depth.

Exploratory research is often qualitative in nature. However, a study with a large sample conducted in an exploratory manner can be quantitative as well. It is also often referred to as interpretive research or a grounded theory approach due to its flexible and open-ended nature.

Table of contents

When to use exploratory research, exploratory research questions, exploratory research data collection, step-by-step example of exploratory research, exploratory vs explanatory research, advantages and disadvantages of exploratory research, frequently asked questions about exploratory research.

Exploratory research is often used when the issue you’re studying is new or when the data collection process is challenging for some reason.

You can use this type of research if you have a general idea or a specific question that you want to study but there is no preexisting knowledge or paradigm with which to study it.

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Exploratory research questions are designed to help you understand more about a particular topic of interest. They can help you connect ideas to understand the groundwork of your analysis without adding any preconceived notions or assumptions yet.

Here are some examples:

• What effect does using a digital notebook have on the attention span of primary schoolers?
• What factors influence mental health in undergraduates?
• What outcomes are associated with an authoritative parenting style?
• In what ways does the presence of a non-native accent affect intelligibility?
• How can the use of a grocery delivery service reduce food waste in single-person households?

Collecting information on a previously unexplored topic can be challenging. Exploratory research can help you narrow down your topic and formulate a clear hypothesis , as well as giving you the ‘lay of the land’ on your topic.

Data collection using exploratory research is often divided into primary and secondary research methods, with data analysis following the same model.

Primary research

In primary research, your data is collected directly from primary sources : your participants. There is a variety of ways to collect primary data.

Some examples include:

• Survey methodology: Sending a survey out to the student body asking them if they would eat vegan meals
• Focus groups: Compiling groups of 8–10 students and discussing what they think of vegan options for dining hall food
• Interviews: Interviewing students entering and exiting the dining hall, asking if they would eat vegan meals

Secondary research

In secondary research, your data is collected from preexisting primary research, such as experiments or surveys.

Some other examples include:

• Case studies : Health of an all-vegan diet
• Literature reviews : Preexisting research about students’ eating habits and how they have changed over time
• Online polls, surveys, blog posts, or interviews; social media: Have other universities done something similar?

For some subjects, it’s possible to use large- n government data, such as the decennial census or yearly American Community Survey (ACS) open-source data.

How you proceed with your exploratory research design depends on the research method you choose to collect your data. In most cases, you will follow five steps.

We’ll walk you through the steps using the following example.

Therefore, you would like to focus on improving intelligibility instead of reducing the learner’s accent.

Step 1: Identify your problem

The first step in conducting exploratory research is identifying what the problem is and whether this type of research is the right avenue for you to pursue. Remember that exploratory research is most advantageous when you are investigating a previously unexplored problem.

Step 2: Hypothesise a solution

The next step is to come up with a solution to the problem you’re investigating. Formulate a hypothetical statement to guide your research.

Step 3. Design your methodology

Next, conceptualise your data collection and data analysis methods and write them up in a research design.

Step 4: Collect and analyse data

Next, you proceed with collecting and analysing your data so you can determine whether your preliminary results are in line with your hypothesis.

In most types of research, you should formulate your hypotheses a priori and refrain from changing them due to the increased risk of Type I errors and data integrity issues. However, in exploratory research, you are allowed to change your hypothesis based on your findings, since you are exploring a previously unexplained phenomenon that could have many explanations.

Step 5: Avenues for future research

Decide if you would like to continue studying your topic. If so, it is likely that you will need to change to another type of research. As exploratory research is often qualitative in nature, you may need to conduct quantitative research with a larger sample size to achieve more generalisable results.

It can be easy to confuse exploratory research with explanatory research. To understand the relationship, it can help to remember that exploratory research lays the groundwork for later explanatory research.

Exploratory research investigates research questions that have not been studied in depth. The preliminary results often lay the groundwork for future analysis.

Explanatory research questions tend to start with ‘why’ or ‘how’, and the goal is to explain why or how a previously studied phenomenon takes place.

Like any other research design , exploratory research has its trade-offs: it provides a unique set of benefits but also comes with downsides.

• It can be very helpful in narrowing down a challenging or nebulous problem that has not been previously studied.
• It can serve as a great guide for future research, whether your own or another researcher’s. With new and challenging research problems, adding to the body of research in the early stages can be very fulfilling.
• It is very flexible, cost-effective, and open-ended. You are free to proceed however you think is best.

Disadvantages

• It usually lacks conclusive results, and results can be biased or subjective due to a lack of preexisting knowledge on your topic.
• It’s typically not externally valid and generalisable, and it suffers from many of the challenges of qualitative research .
• Since you are not operating within an existing research paradigm, this type of research can be very labour-intensive.

Exploratory research is a methodology approach that explores research questions that have not previously been studied in depth. It is often used when the issue you’re studying is new, or the data collection process is challenging in some way.

You can use exploratory research if you have a general idea or a specific question that you want to study but there is no preexisting knowledge or paradigm with which to study it.

Exploratory research explores the main aspects of a new or barely researched question.

Explanatory research explains the causes and effects of an already widely researched question.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

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Informal Social Protection and Poverty pp 73–83 Cite as

Research Design, Methodology, and Data Collection

• Zahid Mumtaz 2  
• First Online: 05 October 2022

118 Accesses

The chapter justifies the use of an exploratory research design and data source (madrassas) to answer the two research questions. It outlines an original household survey and a semi-structured interviews data collection approach based on MPI adopted for the study to recognize households facing uncertainties who are recipients of informal social protection. The methodology is unique because it captures the features of poor and vulnerable populations and institutional arrangements responsible for welfare outcomes in Pakistan. The approach also facilitated documentation of the characteristics of middle- and high-income households because, in some cases, middle- and high-income families send their children to madrassas to attain religious education. However, such families are not dependent on madrassa welfare. The necessary ethics approval was obtained from the university because the study involved vulnerable human subjects. The chapter provides a detailed explanation of the management of the ethical concerns related to the study, which helped ensure data quality. Such strategies can be valuable in ensuring the quality of data collection concerning similar situations elsewhere. Lastly, in its annexures, the chapter furnishes the participation information sheet, survey instrument and semi-structured interview questions delivered to households and madrassa heads in English and the local language.

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A detailed explanation about the history of madrassa development and an overview of studies on madrassas is provided in Chap. 5 .

For example, please see Evans et al. ( 2022 ), Evans 2022 , Nawaz and Iqbal ( 2020 ), Iqbal and Nawaz ( 2021 ), Mustafa and Ali ( 2018 ), Ghorpade ( 2017 ), Khan and Arif ( 2016 ).

Triangulation is defined as looking at one research object from different perspectives.

Several studies indicate that probability sampling can be used to select interview participants (see, for example, Tashakkori et al., 1998 ; Robinson 2014 ). In addition, many surveys using probability sampling techniques conducted at the national level include sections requiring responses in qualitative form. As I intend to generalize the data findings, I used the same methodology of participant identification, i.e. probability sampling for semi structured interviews.

The global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) measures the complexities of the lives of the poor, individually and collectively. A low MPI indicates good social outcomes in a city and a high MPI indicates high levels of deprivation and poverty. One city was selected from the remote tribal areas where the MPI survey had not been conducted.

The list of madrassas present within each city was obtained from the district administration and local police department during the field work. The researcher appreciates the valuable contribution of each district administration and police department in providing the details of madrassas within their jurisdiction as well as administrative and logistic support for conducting the field work. In Pakistan, both rural and urban areas are located within the geographical boundaries of a city. Fifty per cent of madrassas were selected from rural areas and 50 per cent from urban areas to have an even spread. Eight madrassas were selected when there was only one city in a cluster. However, five madrassas were selected from each city if there were two cities in a cluster. This was done so that in case any madrassa refused to participate, then there would be other madrassas still remaining in the survey. 50 percent of madrassas selected from each city were providing boarding facilities, and 50 percent had no boarding facilities. The study was undertaken in compliance with the Australian National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research.

Zakat/Bait-ul-mal, BISP, and free food and shelter programs are social assistance programs.

Retirement pension (public and private), health insurance (Sehat card), and youth loans are social insurance programs.

Free technical education received from a government vocational training institute is included in labor market measures.

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Mumtaz, Z. (2022). Research Design, Methodology, and Data Collection. In: Informal Social Protection and Poverty. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6474-9_4

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