laboratory problem solving quiz

A Guide for Solving Your Lab Math Problems

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Math is an important part of lab life, from making solutions to calculating protein concentrations, and miscalculations can cause mayhem for your experiments. Therefore it is important that your math is right, or you could spend weeks trying to figure out what’s going wrong in your experiments.

I was hopeless at remembering how to do even simple calculations, so I kept a cheat sheet in the back of my lab book that I referred to on a regular basis.

I want to make your life easier too, and that’s why I’ve put together some of the key (in my opinion) calculations important for a molecular biologist.

Making up solutions

The routine chore that everyone avoids until absolutely necessary. There are three key equations that you will need in order to make up simple solutions .

1. Calculating moles. If you need to make up a solution where you know the desired concentration (molarity) and volume then you first need to calculate the number of moles in that solution.

The calculation for this is simple:

n = M x V

That is: moles = Molarity (concentration in molar) x volume ( in litres)

2. Once you’ve got the moles you can then work out the mass required using the following equation:

Where: mass (in grams) = moles x molecular weight ( in g mol -1 ).

3. The two above equations will enable you to make solutions from scratch but what if you want to make a solution where you already have a stock solution of a higher concentration?

Diluting stock solutions is really simple and can be achieve using the following calculation:

V 1 x C 1 = V 2 x C 2

V 1 =Volume of stock solution required

C 1 =Concentration of stock solution

V 2 =Volume of final solution

C 2 =Concentration of final solution

So in the case where we need to find the volume required from our stock solution we rearrange the equation so that:

V 1 = (V 2 x C 2 ) / C 1

The units aren’t important except that the volumes and concentrations must be in the same units.

Calculating concentrations of DNA or RNA

The simplest way to calculate DNA or RNA concentration is using a spectrophotometer. For a 1 cm path length (this is the width of the cuvette – most cuvettes have a standard width of 1 cm) dsDNA at a concentration of 50 µg/mL and RNA at a concentration of 40 µg/mL has an optical density of 1 at 260nm. This means by measuring the optical density of a solution of DNA or RNA at 260nm we can determine the concentration in our sample using the following calculations:

ds DNA concentration (in µg/mL) = 50 x OD 260 x dilution factor

RNA concentration (in µg/mL) = 40 x OD 260 x dilution factor

The dilution factor is the dilution of the solution measured compared to the ‘stock’ solution of your DNA. It’s a good idea to dilute your DNA for measuring the OD for several reasons; firstly so you don’t use up all of your stock; secondly DNA can be quite viscous at high concentrations which can introduce pipetting errors and finally you want to aim for a OD between 0.1 and 1 in order to get the most accurate quantitation (this is the linear range for most spectrophotometers). As 260nm is in the UV spectrum you need to use a specialised UV cuvette.

Calculating purity of DNA or RNA

As much as we all like to feel like perfectionists in the lab, solutions of DNA and RNA contain contaminants that can affect the optical density at 260nm. Therefore it’s a good idea to test the purity of your DNA and RNA by measuring for contaminants. The main contaminant of extracted DNA and RNA is proteins, which also absorb at 280nm. To check for the presence of contaminating proteins in your sample simply measure the OD at 280 nm and calculate the ratio of OD 260 /OD 280 . Pure DNA should have a ratio of ~2 while pure RNA should have a ratio of ~1.8.

There are other contaminates which can also be measured at different optical densities to determine how pure your sample is, but proteins tend to be the main culprits.

Converting units

Sometimes it’s easy to forget how many picograms are in a gram so it is handy to have a simple reference to check just to make sure. The easiest way to remember, is that the difference between most units is 10 3 ; or just check out the handy table below:

So in order to convert picograms to grams you need to multiply by 10 -12 .

Ligation calculations

For an optimal ligation reaction you want a 1:1 ratio of insert to vector, although alternative ratios can be tested (such as 1:3, and 3:1). To calculate the amount of insert required for a 1:1 ratio use the following equation:

(kb insert / kb vector) x ng of vector = ng insert required

Calculating cell concentration using a haemocytometer

Seeding cells at the correct density is important for the consistency of experiments as well as to maintain a healthy stock of cells. Calculating cell concentration is simple with the use of a haemocytometer. Simply apply the cell solution to the haemocytometer and count the number of cell in a 1mm x 1mm square (made up of 5×5 small squares).

Then use the following calculation:

number of cells x dilution factor x 10 4 = Cells per mL

I would usually use a dilution of 1:1 with trypan blue (a vital stain that will stain any dead cells blue), but you can alter this depending on how concentrated your sample is. You want to count roughly between 40 and 70 cells in order to get an accurate reading.

A Guide for Solving Your Lab Math Problems

Haemocytometer grid.

For a quick reference guide download and print out my simple cheat sheet here to ensure all the necessary calculations are easy at hand.

You wrote: “To check for the presence of contaminating proteins in your sample simply measure the OD at 280 nm and calculate the ratio of OD260/OD280. Pure DNA should have a ratio of ~2 while pure RNA should have a ratio of ~1.8.”

But DNA should be around 1.8 and RNA around 2

HI, if I have v1=1ug x 10ul/500ug/ml wht will my final si unit be for the answer? sorry I’m just slow in remembering simple maths protocols Thanks a lot for the above information much helpful.

Thank you for summarizing the important calculations. Could you also add the calculation to determine the number of molecules in a sample of DNA (plasmid and PCR)?

I also noticed a typo in the article above under “Calculating cell concentration using a haemocytometer”. I think that the formula should read 10^4, where as you have it as 10^-4.

Thanks again.

4: Dilution Worksheet and Problems

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Understand how to quantify bacterial cells.
Learn how to solve a dilution problem.

It is a common practice to determine microbial counts for both liquid and solid specimens--suspensions of E. coli in nutrient broth all the way to soil samples and hamburger meat. Most specimens have high enough numbers of microorganisms that the specimen has to be serially diluted to quantitate effectively. The following is a step-by-step procedure to working dilution problems, and includes some practice problems at the end.

The purpose can be determination of bacterial, fungal, or viral counts (indirectly). This protocol is specific for bacterial counts (colony-forming units, CFUs), but can be modified for fungi (CFUs) and viruses (plaque-forming units, PFUs for viral counts). A set of serial dilutions is made, a sample of each is placed into a liquefied agar medium, and the medium poured into a petri dish. The agar solidifies, with the bacterial cells locked inside of the agar. Colonies grow within the agar, as well as on top of the agar and below the agar (between the agar and the lower dish). The procedure described above produces a set of pour plates from many dilutions, but spread plates (sample spread on top of solidified agar) can be used also. The agar plate allows accurate counting of the microorganisms, resulting from the equal distribution across the agar plate. This cannot be done with a fluid solution since 1) one cannot identify purity of the specimen, and 2) there is no way to enumerate the cells in a liquid.

SOLVING DILUTION PROBLEMS

colony count on agar plate

THE STANDARD FORMULA = ___________________________________________________________

total dilution of tube (used to make plate for colony count) X amount plated

To work the problem, you need 3 values---a colony count from the pour or spread plates, a dilution factor for the dilution tube from which the countable agar plate comes, and the amount of the dilution that was plated on the agar plate.

STEP 1:Determine the appropriate plate for counting

Look at all plates and find the one with 30-300 colonies (or plaques), preferably. Greater than 300 and less than 30 is a high degree of error. Air contaminants can contribute significantly to a really low count and a high count can be confounded by error in counting too many small colonies. Use the total dilution for the tube from where the plate count was obtained. If duplicate plates (with same amount plated) have been made from one dilution, average the counts together.

STEP 2:Determine the total dilution for the dilution tubes

Dilution = amount of specimen transferred divided by the [amount of specimen transferred + amount already in tube].

Determine the dilution factor for each tube in the dilution series. Multiply the individual dilution of the tube X previous total dilution. To calculate this dilution series:

amount of sample

Dilution factor for each tube in a set = _______________________________________

amount of sample + amount of diluent in tube

But after the first tube, each tube is a dilution of the previous dilution tube.

Total dilution factor = previous dilution of tube X dilution of next container

Example: FOR THE ABOVE DILUTION SERIES

1 ml added to 9ml = 1/10 for 1st tube

1ml added to 9ml = 1/10 for 2nd tube

previous dilution of 1/10 (1st tube) X 1/10 (2nd tube) = total dilution of 1/100 (=10 -2 =1/10 2 )

STEP 3: Determine the amount plated

The amount plated is the amount of dilution used to make the particular pour plate or spread plate.

There is nothing to calculate here: the value will be stated in the procedure, or it will be given in the problem.

Solving the above problem

The countable plate is the one with 71 colonies.
The total dilution of 3 rd tube from which above pour plate was made = 1/10 X 1/10 X 1/10 = 1/10 3
The amount used to make that pour plate = 1ml

71 colonies

__________ = 71 X 10 3 = 7.1 X 10 4 (scientific notation) OR 71,000/ml

Note: Rules for Scientific Notation

For a number to be in correct scientific notation, the following conditions must be true:

The coefficient must be greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10.
The base must be 10.
The exponent must show the number of decimal places that the decimal needs to be moved to change the number to standard notation. A negative exponent means that the decimal is moved to the left when changing to standard notation.

1. Determine the number of bacteria per ml. of water specimen.

2. Determine the number of bacterial cells per ml. in the original culture.

3. Determine the number of bacterial cells per gram of meat.

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Jackie Reynolds, Professor of Biology ( Richland College )

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1.12: Scientific Problem Solving

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How can we use problem solving in our everyday routines?

One day you wake up and realize your clock radio did not turn on to get you out of bed. You are puzzled, so you decide to find out what happened. You list three possible explanations:

There was a power failure and your radio cannot turn on.
Your little sister turned it off as a joke.
You did not set the alarm last night.

Upon investigation, you find that the clock is on, so there is no power failure. Your little sister was spending the night with a friend and could not have turned the alarm off. You notice that the alarm is not set—your forgetfulness made you late. You have used the scientific method to answer a question.

Scientific Problem Solving

Humans have always wondered about the world around them. One of the questions of interest was (and still is): what is this world made of? Chemistry has been defined in various ways as the study of matter. What matter consists of has been a source of debate over the centuries. One of the key areas for this debate in the Western world was Greek philosophy.

The basic approach of the Greek philosophers was to discuss and debate the questions they had about the world. There was no gathering of information to speak of, just talking. As a result, several ideas about matter were put forth, but never resolved. The first philosopher to carry out the gathering of data was Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). He recorded many observations on the weather, on plant and animal life and behavior, on physical motions, and a number of other topics. Aristotle could probably be considered the first "real" scientist, because he made systematic observations of nature and tried to understand what he was seeing.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Two approaches to logical thinking developed over the centuries. These two methods are inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning . Inductive reasoning involves getting a collection of specific examples and drawing a general conclusion from them. Deductive reasoning takes a general principle and then draws a specific conclusion from the general concept. Both are used in the development of scientific ideas.

Inductive reasoning first involves the collection of data: "If I add sodium metal to water, I observe a very violent reaction. Every time I repeat the process, I see the same thing happen." A general conclusion is drawn from these observations: the addition of sodium to water results in a violent reaction.

In deductive reasoning, a specific prediction is made based on a general principle. One general principle is that acids turn blue litmus paper red. Using the deductive reasoning process, one might predict: "If I have a bottle of liquid labeled 'acid', I expect the litmus paper to turn red when I immerse it in the liquid."

The Idea of the Experiment

Inductive reasoning is at the heart of what is now called the " scientific method ." In European culture, this approach was developed mainly by Francis Bacon (1561-1626), a British scholar. He advocated the use of inductive reasoning in every area of life, not just science. The scientific method, as developed by Bacon and others, involves several steps:

Ask a question - identify the problem to be considered.
Make observations - gather data that pertains to the question.
Propose an explanation (a hypothesis) for the observations.
Make new observations to test the hypothesis further.

Note that this should not be considered a "cookbook" for scientific research. Scientists do not sit down with their daily "to do" list and write down these steps. The steps may not necessarily be followed in order. But this does provide a general idea of how scientific research is usually done.

When a hypothesis is confirmed repeatedly, it eventually becomes a theory—a general principle that is offered to explain natural phenomena. Note a key word— explain , or explanation . A theory offers a description of why something happens. A law, on the other hand, is a statement that is always true, but offers no explanation as to why. The law of gravity says a rock will fall when dropped, but does not explain why (gravitational theory is very complex and incomplete at present). The kinetic molecular theory of gases, on the other hand, states what happens when a gas is heated in a closed container (the pressure increases), but also explains why (the motions of the gas molecules are increased due to the change in temperature). Theories do not get "promoted" to laws, because laws do not answer the "why" question.

The early Greek philosophers spent their time talking about nature, but did little or no actual exploration or investigation.
Inductive reasoning - to develop a general conclusion from a collection of observations.
Deductive reasoning - to make a specific statement based on a general principle.
Scientific method - a process of observation, developing a hypothesis, and testing that hypothesis.
What was the basic shortcoming of the Greek philosophers approach to studying the material world?
How did Aristotle improve the approach?
Define “inductive reasoning” and give an example.
Define “deductive reasoning” and give an example.
What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?
What is the difference between a theory and a law?

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Self-Assessment • 20 min read

How Good Is Your Problem Solving?

Use a systematic approach..

By the Mind Tools Content Team

Good problem solving skills are fundamentally important if you're going to be successful in your career.

But problems are something that we don't particularly like.

They're time-consuming.

They muscle their way into already packed schedules.

They force us to think about an uncertain future.

And they never seem to go away!

That's why, when faced with problems, most of us try to eliminate them as quickly as possible. But have you ever chosen the easiest or most obvious solution – and then realized that you have entirely missed a much better solution? Or have you found yourself fixing just the symptoms of a problem, only for the situation to get much worse?

To be an effective problem-solver, you need to be systematic and logical in your approach. This quiz helps you assess your current approach to problem solving. By improving this, you'll make better overall decisions. And as you increase your confidence with solving problems, you'll be less likely to rush to the first solution – which may not necessarily be the best one.

Once you've completed the quiz, we'll direct you to tools and resources that can help you make the most of your problem-solving skills.

How Good Are You at Solving Problems?

Instructions.

For each statement, click the button in the column that best describes you. Please answer questions as you actually are (rather than how you think you should be), and don't worry if some questions seem to score in the 'wrong direction'. When you are finished, please click the 'Calculate My Total' button at the bottom of the test.

Answering these questions should have helped you recognize the key steps associated with effective problem solving.

This quiz is based on Dr Min Basadur's Simplexity Thinking problem-solving model. This eight-step process follows the circular pattern shown below, within which current problems are solved and new problems are identified on an ongoing basis. This assessment has not been validated and is intended for illustrative purposes only.

Below, we outline the tools and strategies you can use for each stage of the problem-solving process. Enjoy exploring these stages!

Step 1: Find the Problem (Questions 7, 12)

Some problems are very obvious, however others are not so easily identified. As part of an effective problem-solving process, you need to look actively for problems – even when things seem to be running fine. Proactive problem solving helps you avoid emergencies and allows you to be calm and in control when issues arise.

These techniques can help you do this:

PEST Analysis helps you pick up changes to your environment that you should be paying attention to. Make sure too that you're watching changes in customer needs and market dynamics, and that you're monitoring trends that are relevant to your industry.

Risk Analysis helps you identify significant business risks.

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis helps you identify possible points of failure in your business process, so that you can fix these before problems arise.

After Action Reviews help you scan recent performance to identify things that can be done better in the future.

Where you have several problems to solve, our articles on Prioritization and Pareto Analysis help you think about which ones you should focus on first.

Step 2: Find the Facts (Questions 10, 14)

After identifying a potential problem, you need information. What factors contribute to the problem? Who is involved with it? What solutions have been tried before? What do others think about the problem?

If you move forward to find a solution too quickly, you risk relying on imperfect information that's based on assumptions and limited perspectives, so make sure that you research the problem thoroughly.

Step 3: Define the Problem (Questions 3, 9)

Now that you understand the problem, define it clearly and completely. Writing a clear problem definition forces you to establish specific boundaries for the problem. This keeps the scope from growing too large, and it helps you stay focused on the main issues.

A great tool to use at this stage is CATWOE . With this process, you analyze potential problems by looking at them from six perspectives, those of its Customers; Actors (people within the organization); the Transformation, or business process; the World-view, or top-down view of what's going on; the Owner; and the wider organizational Environment. By looking at a situation from these perspectives, you can open your mind and come to a much sharper and more comprehensive definition of the problem.

Cause and Effect Analysis is another good tool to use here, as it helps you think about the many different factors that can contribute to a problem. This helps you separate the symptoms of a problem from its fundamental causes.

Step 4: Find Ideas (Questions 4, 13)

With a clear problem definition, start generating ideas for a solution. The key here is to be flexible in the way you approach a problem. You want to be able to see it from as many perspectives as possible. Looking for patterns or common elements in different parts of the problem can sometimes help. You can also use metaphors and analogies to help analyze the problem, discover similarities to other issues, and think of solutions based on those similarities.

Traditional brainstorming and reverse brainstorming are very useful here. By taking the time to generate a range of creative solutions to the problem, you'll significantly increase the likelihood that you'll find the best possible solution, not just a semi-adequate one. Where appropriate, involve people with different viewpoints to expand the volume of ideas generated.

Tip: Don't evaluate your ideas until step 5. If you do, this will limit your creativity at too early a stage.

Step 5: Select and Evaluate (Questions 6, 15)

After finding ideas, you'll have many options that must be evaluated. It's tempting at this stage to charge in and start discarding ideas immediately. However, if you do this without first determining the criteria for a good solution, you risk rejecting an alternative that has real potential.

Decide what elements are needed for a realistic and practical solution, and think about the criteria you'll use to choose between potential solutions.

Paired Comparison Analysis , Decision Matrix Analysis and Risk Analysis are useful techniques here, as are many of the specialist resources available within our Decision-Making section . Enjoy exploring these!

Step 6: Plan (Questions 1, 16)

You might think that choosing a solution is the end of a problem-solving process. In fact, it's simply the start of the next phase in problem solving: implementation. This involves lots of planning and preparation. If you haven't already developed a full Risk Analysis in the evaluation phase, do so now. It's important to know what to be prepared for as you begin to roll out your proposed solution.

The type of planning that you need to do depends on the size of the implementation project that you need to set up. For small projects, all you'll often need are Action Plans that outline who will do what, when, and how. Larger projects need more sophisticated approaches – you'll find out more about these in the article What is Project Management? And for projects that affect many other people, you'll need to think about Change Management as well.

Here, it can be useful to conduct an Impact Analysis to help you identify potential resistance as well as alert you to problems you may not have anticipated. Force Field Analysis will also help you uncover the various pressures for and against your proposed solution. Once you've done the detailed planning, it can also be useful at this stage to make a final Go/No-Go Decision , making sure that it's actually worth going ahead with the selected option.

Step 7: Sell the Idea (Questions 5, 8)

As part of the planning process, you must convince other stakeholders that your solution is the best one. You'll likely meet with resistance, so before you try to “sell” your idea, make sure you've considered all the consequences.

As you begin communicating your plan, listen to what people say, and make changes as necessary. The better the overall solution meets everyone's needs, the greater its positive impact will be! For more tips on selling your idea, read our article on Creating a Value Proposition and use our Sell Your Idea Skillbook.

Step 8: Act (Questions 2, 11)

Finally, once you've convinced your key stakeholders that your proposed solution is worth running with, you can move on to the implementation stage. This is the exciting and rewarding part of problem solving, which makes the whole process seem worthwhile.

This action stage is an end, but it's also a beginning: once you've completed your implementation, it's time to move into the next cycle of problem solving by returning to the scanning stage. By doing this, you'll continue improving your organization as you move into the future.

Problem solving is an exceptionally important workplace skill.

Being a competent and confident problem solver will create many opportunities for you. By using a well-developed model like Simplexity Thinking for solving problems, you can approach the process systematically, and be comfortable that the decisions you make are solid.

Given the unpredictable nature of problems, it's very reassuring to know that, by following a structured plan, you've done everything you can to resolve the problem to the best of your ability.

This assessment has not been validated and is intended for illustrative purposes only. It is just one of many Mind Tool quizzes that can help you to evaluate your abilities in a wide range of important career skills.

If you want to reproduce this quiz, you can purchase downloadable copies in our Store .

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Drug Dosage Calculations NCLEX Practice Questions (100+ Items)

Drug Dosage Calculations Nursing Test Banks for NCLEX RN

Welcome to your NCLEX reviewer for nursing drug calculations! In this nursing test bank , practice dosage calculation problems to measure your competence in nursing math. As a nurse , you must accurately and precisely calculate medication dosages to provide safe and effective nursing care. This quiz aims to help students and registered nurses alike grasp and master the concepts of medication calculation.

Drug Dosage Calculation Practice Quiz

In this section are the practice problems and questions for nursing dosage calculations. This nursing test bank set includes 100+ questions. Included topics are dosage calculation, metric conversions, unit conversions, parenteral medications, and fluid input and output. As you can tell, this NCLEX practice exam requires tons of calculations, so get your calculators ready!

Remember to answer these questions at your own pace, and don’t forget to read the rationales! Don’t be discouraged if you have incorrect answers. You are here to learn! Make sense of the rationales and review the drug dosage calculations study guide below.

Quiz Guidelines

Before you start, here are some examination guidelines and reminders you must read:

Practice Exams : Engage with our Practice Exams to hone your skills in a supportive, low-pressure environment. These exams provide immediate feedback and explanations, helping you grasp core concepts, identify improvement areas, and build confidence in your knowledge and abilities.
You’re given 2 minutes per item.
For Challenge Exams, click on the “Start Quiz” button to start the quiz.
Complete the quiz : Ensure that you answer the entire quiz. Only after you’ve answered every item will the score and rationales be shown.
Learn from the rationales : After each quiz, click on the “View Questions” button to understand the explanation for each answer.
Free access : Guess what? Our test banks are 100% FREE. Skip the hassle – no sign-ups or registrations here. A sincere promise from Nurseslabs: we have not and won’t ever request your credit card details or personal info for our practice questions. We’re dedicated to keeping this service accessible and cost-free, especially for our amazing students and nurses. So, take the leap and elevate your career hassle-free!
Share your thoughts : We’d love your feedback, scores, and questions! Please share them in the comments below.

Quizzes included in this guide are:

Drug Calculations Reviewer for Nurses

This is your study guide to help you refresh or review what you know about drug dosage calculations, including tips on answering them.

NCLEX Tips for Dosage Calculation Questions

The fill-in-the-blank question format is usually used for medication calculation, IV flow rate calculation, or determining the intake-output of a client. In this question format, you’ll be asked to perform a calculation and type in your answer in the blank space provided.
Always follow the specific directions as noted on the screen.
The unit of measure you need for your final answer is always given.
There will be an on-screen calculator on the computer for you to use.
Do not put any words, units of measurements, commas, or spaces with your answer, type only the number. Only the number goes into the box. Rounding an answer should be done at the end of the calculation or as what the question specified, and if necessary, type in the decimal point.

Nursing Responsibilities for Medication Administration

Right Drug. The first right of drug administration is to check and verify if it’s the right name and form. Beware of look-alike and sound-alike medication names. Misreading medication names that look similar is a common mistake. These look-alike medication names may also sound alike and can lead to errors associated with verbal prescriptions. Check out The Joint Commission’s list of look-alike/sound-alike drugs .
Right Patient . Ask the name of the client and check his/her ID band before giving the medication. Even if you know that patient’s name, you still need to ask just to verify.
Right Dose . Check the medication sheet and the doctor’s order before medicating. Be aware of the difference between an adult and a pediatric dose.
Right Route . Check and verify the order (i.e., per orem, IV, SQ, IM)
Right Time and Frequency. Check the order for when it would be given and when was the last time it was given.
Right Documentation . Make sure to write the time and any remarks on the chart correctly.
Right History and Assessment. Secure a copy of the client’s history to drug interactions and allergies.
Right Drug Approach and Right to Refuse . Give the client enough autonomy to refuse the medication after thoroughly explaining the effects.
Right Drug-Drug Interaction and Evaluation. Review any medications previously given or the diet of the patient that can yield a bad interaction to the drug to be given. Check also the expiry date of the medication being given.
Right Education and Information. Provide enough knowledge to the patient of what drug he/she would be taking and what are the expected therapeutic and side effects.

Systems of Measurement

There are three systems of measurement used in nursing: the metric system, the apothecaries’ system, and household system.
The most widely used international system of measurement.
The basic units of metric measures are the gram (weight) , meter (length or distance) , and liter (volume) .
It is a decimal-based system that is logically organized into units of 10. Basic units are multiplied or divided by 10 to form secondary units.
The apothecaries’ system is one of the oldest systems of measurement, older than the metric system and is considered to be out of date.
The basic units used in this system are the grain (gr) for weight, minim for volume, ounce, and pound. All of which are seldomly used in the clinical setting.
Quantities in the apothecaries’ system are often expressed by lowercase Roman numerals when the unit of measure is abbreviated. And the unit of measure precedes the quantity. Quantities less than 1 are expressed as fractions. Examples: “gr ii”, “gr ¼ ”
And yes, it can be confusing therefore use the metric system instead to avoid medication errors .
Household system measures may be used when more accurate systems of measure are not required.
Included units are drops, teaspoons, tablespoons, cups, pint, and glasses.
The milliequivalent is an expression of the number of grams of a medication contained in 1 milligram of a solution.
Examples: the measure of serum sodium , serum potassium , and sodium bicarbonate is given in milliequivalents.
Unit measures a medication in terms of its action, not its physical weight.
When documenting, do not write “U” for unit, rather spell it as “unit” as it is often mistaken as “0”.
Examples: Insulin , penicillin , and heparin sodium are measured in units.

Converting Units of Weight and Measure

For drug dosages, the metric units used are the gram (g), milligram (mg), and microgram (mcg) . For volume units milliliters (mL) and liters (L).
It is simple to compute for equivalents using the metric system. It can be done by dividing or multiplying; or by moving the decimal point three places to the left or right.
Do not use a “trailing zero” after the decimal point when the dosage is expressed as a whole number. For example, if the dosage is 2m mg, do not insert a decimal point or the trailing zero as this could be mistaken for “20” if the decimal point is not seen.
On the other hand, do not leave a “naked” decimal point. If a number begins with a decimal, it should be written with a zero and a decimal point before it. For example, if the dosage is 2/10 of a milligram, it should be written as 0.2 mg. It could be mistaken for 2 instead of 0.2.
Household and metric measures are equivalent and not equal measures.
Conversions to equivalent measures between systems is necessary when a medication prescription is written in one system but the medication label is stated in another.
Medications are not always prescribed and prepared in the same system of measurement; therefore conversion of units from one system to another is necessary.
Common conversions in the healthcare setting include pound to kilograms, milligrams to grains, minims to drops.

Methods for Drug Dosage Calculations

The commonly used formula for calculating drug dosages.
D = Desired dose or dose ordered by the primary care provider.
H = dose on hand or dose on the label of bottle, vial, ampule.
V = vehicle or the form in which the drug comes (i.e., tablet or liquid).

STANDARD FORMULA Formula = \frac{Desired (D) \times Vehicle (V) }{On\ Hand (H)} = amount \ to \ administer

Considered as the oldest method used for drug calcluation problems.
For the equation, the known quantities are on the left side, while the desired dose and the unknown amount to administer are on the right side.
X = amount to administer
Once the equation is set up, multiply the extremes (H and x ) and the means (V and D). Then solve for x .

RATIO AND PROPORTION METHOD H : V = D : x

A method similar to ratio and proportion but expressed as fractions.

FRACTIONAL EQUATION METHOD \frac{H}{V}= \frac{D}{x}

Intake and output (I&O) measurement and recording is usually done to monitor a client’s fluid and electrolyte balance during a 24-hour period.
Intake and output is done for patients with increased risk for fluid and electrolyte imbalance (e.g., heart failure , kidney failure).
Unit used in measurement of I&O is milliliter (mL) .
Oral fluids (e.g., water, juice, milk, soup, water taken with medication).
Liquid foods at room temperature (e.g., ice cream, gelatin, custard).
Tube feedings including the water used for flushes.
Parenteral fluids
Blood products
IV medications
Urinary output
Liquid feces
Tube drainage
Wound and fistula drainage
Measurement of fluid input and output are totaled at the end of the shift and documented in the patient’s chart.
Determine if fluid intake and fluid output are proportional. When there is a significant discrepancy between intake and output, report to the primary care provider.

Recommended Resources

Recommended books and resources for your NCLEX success:

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30 thoughts on “Drug Dosage Calculations NCLEX Practice Questions (100+ Items)”

Part 1: 13/15 Part 2: 33/40 Part 3: 43/50 Part 4: 9/10

Challenging but fun!

Let’s elevate the discourse. Petty, negative remarks are unnecessary.

I agree, negative remarks are unnecessary, especially when the time has been taken to make this information available to us.

Hey, you can always correct/point out people’s mistakes politely, no need to be an ass about it. Being a nurse and having a bachelors degree does not mean one has to be perfect (unless you’re perfect? lol). I can imagine what kind of ‘nurse’ you are/will be. Your lack of manners makes me cringe.

I had my first experience working with RNs through the covid times and the person I worked with and trained me was like that he wanted or expected me to think like him and do everything like him and if I would ask him a question to confirm he would say things like “didn’t I explain that already or something like a smart allic ” trust me I am very proud not to have punched him all of these times but he was harmless in nursing there are just those people that don’t think about others and just expect you’re like them or if your not your below them which is unfortunate!

I learned how not to be and how to act I would even help the new RNs once I was concerned not new and I would be determined not to treat anyone how I was treated I don’t think it was A RN thing it was either you on his level or not so after I was comfortable I started going off on him bickering back and forth but he had to know I am not the one and I was new so I let it slide but don’t make those mistake anymore! he would sabotage me I have to admit he did it a way that no one knew very smart which means he’s a sneaky snake and worst everyone loved him that’s why I didn’t say anything day one I knew this and It worked and I was fired!

it was a temp job so no big deal but I learned how to deal with co-workers like this are out there and look out and management I knew would be no help but I did tell them but they cared less just like I thought how do you take reports on my training from the person who is training me is not training me so if I don’t know how to do something I get blamed for it?! wtf 2+2 is=4 so why don’t they get that and blame me not him! bs

With that said as nurses let us pull each other up we have enough to deal with that can make us feel we can be at our lowest we don’t need a coworker to speed up the process let’s do better

Don’t dwell on it, especially on people not worthy of your heart or mind. Resiliency is key. Also justifying your reason doesn’t take away from the point that other people might not ever understand your reasons for your actions, especially if they don’t understand why you did it in the first place.

awsome thanks for the advise

I can’t get the questions when I click the button ”start quiz”. What shall I do?

Hi, You need to enable javascript on your browser.

The review was very useful to me. As a student of pharmacy technician, I kindly need more of you.

Question #9 on Part 3 is not correct. I keep getting 1.0281 as the answer

Hi LS, the question also asks to “Record your answer using one decimal place.” so 1.0281 will be 1.1 mL.

1.0281 does not round to 1.1. the second decimal (2) is below 5. It would not round the 1.0 to 1.1. It would stay 1.0 if rounded to the first decimal place

The answer is correct. It’s easy if you set it up like order/on hand then multiply it by the mL.

Desired (D) = 223,500 units Vehicle (V) = 2.5 mL Amount on hand (H) = 500,000 units

Amount to administer (only rounding final answer) = D x V / H = 1.1 mL

Question 19 has be ripping out my hair and maybe someone can explain it to me further. The question states: First, you need to convert 100 mcg/min to mg by moving the decimal point three digits to the left – alternatively, you can divide 100 mcg with 1000 – to get 0.1 mg/min. Why am I dividing by 1000? I thought if we were trying to get a smaller unit of measure to a larger unit of measure we multiply and if we were trying to get a larger unit of measure to a smaller unit we divide. Well MCG if small the MG… wouldn’t we multiply then??

Use unit cancellation method it is much more easier. I got the right answer on my first try. :)

Thanks very much for sharing with us! May the Almighty God bless and protect you in all your undertakings.

I got 95% (1 mistake) which I only forgot to round off. Very nice!

This is very helpful. I get to follow solutions in here. Thank you so much! More power!

Very helpful practice questions.

Was helpful Got only one question but though I haven’t entered school yet but I think I need to learn more on mathematics

We have mcg/min, and we need to get to mL/hour.

First, let’s convert from mcg to mg: 100 mcg/min x 1 mg/1000 mcg = 0.1 mg/min

Next, let’s convert from min to hr: 0.1 mg/min x 60 min/hr = 6 mg/hr

Finally, let’s convert from mg to mL: 6 mg/hr x 500 mL/75 mg = 40 mL/hr

Hope this helps!

The Drug Dosage Calculation Practice Quiz, Question 14: The stated order is for 20mg over an hour. The answer provided and the rationale for the answer reflect a 2mg order.

If possible please correct the answer or the order. I spent some time trying to figure out where I was going wrong. – James

question 14. I’m confused where 2mg came from whilst order stated furosemide (Lasix) 20 mg

2mg/min x 250ml/400mg x 60/hr= 75 ml/hr

Sorry about that, it should be 2mg not 20mg. Item fixed.

please help how to solve 1tabletx0.25\0.125

Awesome ! May ALMIGHTY GOD bless you !

These practice questions help me so much, thank you!

Is question # 24 the right answer?

Question: A health care provider orders diphenhydramine hcl (Benadryl) 180 mg/m2/day to a 12 year old child. The child’s weight is 93 pounds and is 5 feet 2 inches tall. The medication label shows the normal adult dose of 25 mg t.i.d. How many mg of benadryl will the child receive at each dose?

Answer: 19.26 mg/day

If you are wanting to find how much per DOSE, should you divide by 3 doses (t.i.d)?

Error evaluation in the laboratory testing process and laboratory information systems

Procena greške u laboratorijskom procesu i u laboratorijskom informacionom sistemu, azila arifin.

1 University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Maryati Mohd.-Yusof

The laboratory testing process consist of five analysis phases featuring the total testing process framework. Activities in laboratory process, including those of testing are error-prone and affect the use of laboratory information systems. This study seeks to identify error factors related to system use and the first and last phases of the laboratory testing process using a proposed framework known as total testing process-laboratory information systems.

We conducted a qualitative case study evaluation in two private hospitals and a medical laboratory. We collected data using interviews, observations, and document analysis methods involving physicians, nurses, an information technology officer, and the laboratory staff. We employed the proposed framework and Lean problem solving tools namely Value Stream Mapping and A3 for data analysis.

Errors in laboratory information systems and the laboratory testing process were attributed to failure to fulfill user requirements, poor cooperation between the information technology unit and laboratory, inconsistency of software design in system integration, errors during inter-system data transmission, and lack of motivation in system use. The error factors are related to system development elements, namely, latent failures that considerably affected the information quality and system use. Errors in system development were also attributed to poor service quality.

Conclusions

Complex laboratory testing process and laboratory information systems require rigorous evaluation in minimizing errors and ensuring patient safety. The proposed framework and Lean approach are applicable for evaluating the laboratory testing process and laboratory information systems in a rigorous, comprehensive, and structured manner.

Proces laboratorijskog ispitivanja sastoji se iz pet analitičkih faza u ukupnom procesu analiziranja. Aktivnosti u laboratorijskom procesu uključuju i one koje se odnose na utvrđivanje grešaka i utiču na laboratorijski informacioni sistem. Ovo izučavanje ima za cilj identifikaciju grešaka u odnosu na primenu sistema od prve do poslednje faze ispitivanja u laboratorijskom procesu primenom poznatog informacionog sistema za celokupni proces ispitivanja.

Primenili smo kvalitativno izučavanje procesa u dve privatne bolnice i medicinske laboratorije. Podatke smo sakupljali putem intervijua, na osnovu posmatranja i dokumentovanih metoda analiziranja uključuju i lekare, sestre, informacionog stručnjaka i laboratorijsko osoblje. Primenili smo poznati LEAN proces za rešavanje problema koji je poznat kao Value Stream Mapping i A3 za analizu podataka.

Greške u laboratorijskom informacionom sistemu i laboratorijskom procesu ispitivanja javljaju se uglavnom zbog loše saradnje između jedinice za informacione tehnologije i laboratorije, zbog lošeg informacionog sistema, prenosa podataka i motivacije za primenu sistema. Greške nastaju i zbog problema u razvoju samog kvaliteta informacionog sistema. Takođe greške su posledica lošeg servisiranja sistema.

Zaključak

Kompleksan laboratorijski proces ispitivanja i laboratorijski informacioni sistem iziskuju rigoroznu procenu i kontrolu grašaka i osgiranje sigurnosti pacijenata. Predloženi okvir i primena LEAN postupka su neohodni za procenu procesa laboratorijskog ispitivanja i laboratorijskog informacionog sistema koji moraju da budu rigorozni i sveobuvatni.

Introduction

A mistake or inefficiency in one of the stages of the laboratory testing chain can affect the overall process implementation and management, and subsequently physician diagnosis [1] [2] . A laboratory information systems (LIS) expedites and facilitates interactions during the laboratory testing process [3] . Involvement of multiple units in testing workflow requires effective use of LIS to monitor task performance, ensure a smooth process, and readily identify errors. Many errors identified in laboratory test results were caused by a complex, error prone, unreliable, and poorly designed LIS [4] [5] . These outcomes are aggravated when the LIS linked patient and test data to other units and institutions and involved data exchange because of complex inter system interaction [6] . Errors were also attributed to human factors, including patient misidentification and an erroneous test request [7] .

Total testing process (TTP) [8] is a unique framework that guides the testing process as well as analyzing and minimizing testing error risk not only in the laboratory center, but also in other clinical units [7] [9] . The TTP includes internal and external laboratory activities that involve one or more procedures requiring staff interaction. We proposed a TTP-LIS posed framework on the basis of a combination of TTP and human, organization, technology and fit (HOT-fit) frameworks [10] [11] . The HOT aspects are crucial elements that complement the evaluation of the LIS and lab testing process. The proposed framework aims to illustrate a systematic, coordinated, and optimized laboratory testing process and LIS flow to facilitate a rigorous error evaluation [12] . The evaluation factors, dimensions, measures and their relationships are depicted in Figure 1 .

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Error evaluation can benefit from Lean, a quality improvement method that emphasizes on removing process waste, including error. Various Lean tools, such as value stream mapping (VSM), 5Why, and A3 problem-solving methods, have been widely used for process improvement [13] . A3 is a structured approach to problem solving that uses a report tool to summarize the definition, scope, discovery process, findings, proposed action steps, and results from the problem analysis. A3 can be combined with other Lean tools, such as VSM and 5Why, to visualize and identify the root cause of problems. VSM is used to illustrate the overall process to identify waste/problems and the appropriate solutions in the current and future state map, respectively. The problem can be scrutinized using the 5Why tool to identify its root cause and mitigation strategy by asking a series of question, either five times or any appropriate range. The study focused only on pre-pre-analytic and postpost-analytic phases of the TTP framework, given their high error rates [14] [15] , compared to other phases.

Material and Methods

We conducted a subjectivist case study strategy employing qualitative methods in this summative evaluation to examine errors related to the LIS and the first and last phases of the lab testing process. A subjectivist approach enabled a comprehensive understanding of the healthcare context surrounding the management of LIS-induced error by generating detailed, insightful explanations [16] [17] . We performed evaluation by applying the TTP-LIS framework at two premier private hospitals in Malaysia. These cutting-edge hospitals have been leading the national health care and are recognized by accreditation bodies such as the Malaysian Society for Quality in Health, Joint Commission International (XI), and Quality Management System (MS ISO 9001: 2015). The local Institutional Review Board deemed this study exempt from review. Author AA, a trained qualitative researcher, collected the data through interviews, non-participant observations, and document/artifact analysis methods.

A purposeful snowball sampling method provided in-depth information from key informants. We identified participants from our initial contact with the lab director. We discussed the appropriateness of selected informants with the lab head based on their respective expertise, job scope and abilities in providing the required information. Finally, we recruited 15 participants, including clinicians and management, lab, and IT staff ( Table 1 ).

Data collection and analysis methods

The face-to-face, one-on-one interview lasted for one to two hours for each informant who we queried on lab testing process, LIS use, error and mistake incidents, their causes, and the strategies for mitigation and LIS improvement. We audio recorded and transcribed interviews. Observation took place in a medical lab for over a day on lab testing processes, from clinical requests to the production of lab results, to identify potential LIS-induced errors. We analyzed documents related to LIS' overall development, operation and management, process owner, backup system handling, and software and hardware management. We analyzed data thematically using the initial TTP-LIS evaluation framework [12] . In addition, we employed three Lean tools, namely VSM, A3 Problem Solving , and 5Why to visualize the current process, its problems and root cause, and the desired (future) state of the first and last phases of lab testing [13] . We validated and refined the TTP framework with an expert who reviewed and acknowledged the said framework as a comprehensive evaluation tool for the lab testing process and LIS.

The hospitals PHA and PHB were established in the mid-1990s. They collaborated with a private laboratory, Lab C, which has managed most lab operations at all PH branches since 2000. The hospitals provide services to 3000 to 4000 patients at a time and provide educational services to medical and nursing students. Evaluation of the overall system used in the hospitals and laboratories involved the LIS, lab testing process and other health information systems (HISs). The LIS evolved from a stand-alone system that only supports internal laboratory operations to a system with extended functions that are connected to HISs. The LIS was also developed by the IT unit of Lab C whereas the HIS was outsourced and operated by the hospital IT unit. Both systems are integrated in a new platform. The IT staff in Lab C provide training to LIS users Figure 2 . illustrates the overall findings according to the proposed TTP-LIS framework.

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Human factors

Overall, the LIS was optimized by the lab staff compared to the hospital staff. Many clinicians did not attend training because of time constraints and their heavy workload. Lack of training and exposure to LIS result in low system use. Users, particularly senior physicians and nurses, are reluctant to use the LIS to request lab tests and access its results for various reasons such as »wasting time, hassles to remember password, patient name or id« (Lab Head). According to a physician, »system use disrupted my task. Sometimes the LIS processes data slowly and requires time consuming access, while the network is disrupted during lab test request. The manual form saved more time.« A nurse stated that although »system use eased our task, our competency is low«.

LIS use is mandatory only in some PH branches, while others still operated manually. The LIS use started from the laboratory and expanded to clinical units. However, poor synergy and discrepancies between management and IT in planning and strategizing the LIS affect system development and the subsequent non-optimized LIS use in clinical units. Poor system development is also attributed to poor service quality in terms of responsiveness, assurance (service providers' skills, consideration and ability to provide trust and confidence [18] ), and empathy from the service provider and hospital management. Decisions for system development were made according to individual or other interest including politics, such as conflict of interest and business profit, instead of system use. The integration of heterogeneous, outsourced, and in-house developed systems with different platforms, hardware, and software resulted in many system problems, such as unreadable information, unclear images (blurred, inappropriate pixel sizes, and display of system coding), and inaccessible information. These problems pose challenges to the clinical unit and the physicians' decision making pertinent to patient diagnosis or treatment because of inaccurate data. Subsequently, these issues affect system use, user satisfaction, and the lab test process. Physicians and nurses preferred the manual method in requesting lab tests and obtaining lab test results as they perceived as faster than those of LIS. Instead of increasing process efficiency, LIS use delayed tasks and disrupted the decision-making process. In short, system development outcomes significantly affect the system and information quality, and service quality determines the fulfillment of user requirements.

Technology factors

System quality influenced other factors including system development, system use, the lab testing process, and user satisfaction. We identified errors that stemmed from poor LIS functions, including the number of lab test results that are less than the actual number of applied tests. Moreover »[some] lab test results accessed from LIS showed unexpected analysis when the results are linked to diagnosis results from the CIS« (Dr. B).

Organizational factors

The whole lab testing process takes around 15-20 minutes, if there is no disruption, to paste bar code on specimen tubes and application form, entering request information in LIS, testing specimen and verifying lab test results. We chose to analyze four process scenarios that were recommended by the informants according to their error impact on the overall workflow in terms of additional time, increased workload, material waste, and (most importantly) delay in patient treatment. Scenario 1 (manual request of the lab test process and printing lab testresults) became problematic as it resulted in extra workload for lab staff to routinely check or request missing information on the manual form, file, print documents, and »...the patient code on manual forms need to be individually scanned and checked to ensure its consistency with the system« (lab head). Then, the lab test results must be printed and sent tophysicians or nurses. Missing or lost results required another print out and the same goes for physicians who request patient lab test histories. Increased burden arises from the error chain, whereas a physician’s error rippled to the lab unit and the prescribing process that involves lab test results.

Erroneous test request (Scenario 2) occurred due to several reasons, as claimed by the informants. »We must perform the test upon receiving the sample and request form. We would not able to identify the request as a mistake when the request information is consistent with those of the system« (lab staff). »Choosing the wrong test commonly happened in critical situations where [the] physician does not have time to check [the] test requested by the nurse« and the nurse »forgets to verify it with the physician.« A mistake is usually realized upon test completion. Non accessed/delayed lab test results (Scenario 3) recurred because of non-scrutinized processes or hasty decisions. According to the lab head, the situation affects staff efficiency, particularly when they must prioritize other urgent lab tests. Lab staff were puzzled when »a requested test results were not accessed upon its completion, [thereby] indicating that the test is not needed, [a situation] which wasted our time and resources to conduct the test.«

In Scenario 4, the repeated lab testing process is attributable to the inefficiency of the clinical unit and sample testing process. Lab testing is repeated when the laboratory or physician identified test results that are abnormal or fall outside the reference range lab test or unidentified errors were present in the test request. Upon realizing these abnormalities and erroneous request during results validation, the lab head ordered a second and correct test request, respectively. If the first and second test results are consistent, they are categorized as a critical case and the physician is contacted immediately. Result abnormalities are entailed for the second test, whereas erroneous request attributable to staff carelessness or inefficiency should be avoided. Similar to Scenario 2, the prescriber's verification is imperative before submitting the test request.

According to the four scenarios of the two lab testing processes for pre-pre-analysis and post-post-analysis ( Figure 1 ), A3 diagrams are used to illustrate and elaborate upon the as-is and to-be processed elements as demonstrated in Scenario 2 ( Figure 2 ). The process is related to lab test request by a nurse or clinical assistant using the LIS. A nurse was instructed by a physician to request for a lab test using a CIS. The nurse labelled sample tubes and stored them while waiting for a lab staff member to collect them. Then, the nurse directly entered the related information for requesting the lab test in the computer unit. However, the test type that she chose differed from that desired by the physician.

Normally, neither the nurse nor the lab head would realize the mistake until the physician checks the order before submitting it to the LIS. Therefore, the test was processed normally according to the requested test type. Upon the test completion, the results were generated, checked, and verified by lab head. Then, the results were submitted to the CIS via the LIS. A physician accessed the lab test results, only to realize that they are irrelevant. At this point, the charge was already forwarded to the finance unit for patient billing. This mistake required the physician to report the occurrence to the management and finance, and the charge must be paid by the hospital. Therefore, double checking and verifying test requests are critical to avoid a chain of problems. The physician is responsible for rechecking requests, and the nurse must remind the physician about it before submission. We illustrated the problems to aid in identifying the root cause and planning for mitigation as follows.

A3 Problem Solving report for Scenario 2

Mistake in selecting lab test type during the request through the LIS.

The nurse received instruction from the physician to request for a lab test via the LIS. The nurse did not realize that she had mistakenly chose the wrong test type during the request process.

Future State

The to-be processed flow diagram is similar with that of the as-is process ( Figure 3 ), except for the replacement of the two problems with the following two solutions.

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Solution Steps

Detailed discussion among the medical team of a mitigation plan to avoid recurring mistakes and resources waste. ( Table 2 ) ( Table 3 ) ( Table 4 )

We went through a relatively challenging, iterative process of constructing structured and comprehensive socio-technical factors in the TTP-LIS framework [12] . This study contributes to the existing knowledge by proposing a new framework based on the HOT-fit and TTP frameworks, as well as concepts in error management and process improvement, namely the Lean methods. The TTP-LIS framework features a comprehensive evaluation method of sociotechnical factors that can be applied flexibly in other processes and systems in a similar or different clinical settings. The findings showed the practicality of the TTP-LIS framework as an evaluation tool in identifying errors and their causal factors. The use of Lean tools, namely, A3 report, VSM, and 5Why, enabled us to analyze and visualize the root cause of problems in an objective and structured manner [13] [19] . The evaluation of LIS-induced error enabled the IT staff in both laboratory and hospital to collaborate in improving LIS quality by synchronizing system development to reduce system integration problems and considering system functions according to user requirements. Human, lab testing process, organization and technology factors are intertwined. Errors caused by human [4] [7] technology [5] , and processes [3] [9] disrupted the lab testing process workflow. Human factors mainly contribute to errors in the lab testing process and LIS, as proven in other studies [7] . Errors in system development and use that are attributed to human factors require continuous evaluation and monitoring to ensure quality. The LIS supports user needs [3] [20] and routine tasks and reduces problems [21] . Mandatory use of the LIS among physicians and nurses is meant to increase the efficiency of routine tasks in the lab testing process. However, LIS use among clinicians is very low. In general, the findings can be categorized as follows: latent failure in system development, poor error management, and unsatisfactory lab testing process and LIS use.

Latent failure in system development

System development highly contributed to error occurrence in the LIS and HIS use in terms of introduction of new technology, heterogeneous software, human-computer interaction, and communication issues within the system developer team. These factors are consistent with other findings [3] [5] [6] . These latent failures hinder the optimized potentials of the LIS. The case LIS developers really understand the requirements of the lab testing process and featured them as the main functions in LIS. In contrast, the HIS was outsourced; the hospital management team identified more general user requirements. This resulted in integration conflict and subsequent errors, including unclear data requirement and inappropriate graph generation that that affect physician decision making.

Latent failure is a major challenge for management and organizational decision makers. Strong collaboration between management with both hospital and laboratory units can aid in solving latent failure [22] . During the system development, risk factors should also be considered apart from the cost. Heterogeneous system development methods increased error risk and cost. On the contrary, a unified system development method that considered user requirement reduced error risk. The study can be extended to further understand latent failure factors and identify optimum strategies to address them.

Poor error management

In general, LIS-induced errors require tackling the problems at their root cause and employing a basic solution method from the socio-technical perspectives, before quality improvement and automation [3] [23] [24] [25] [26] , as proposed in our error management approach. Most identified errors can be mitigated through a joint, multi discipline collaboration from all staff. However, monitoring is imperative at the outset [27] to ensure guideline compliance. An error management method serves as a tool to mitigate errors identified by the system or through routine error checking at the end of a task completion. The absence of an error management system led to recurring errors [28] [29] that waste time, resources, and cost in terms of service or materials. Recurring errors also indicate ineffective and inefficient workflow and system use that negatively affects work motivation. Many error management strategies have been successfully proven in other industries and can be adopted in laboratory and clinical settings. These strategies include 1) reducing cognitive load through automated record, notes, and process (e.g., verification and checking); 2) enhanced information access; 3) imposing an error-proofing function for critical tasks such as preventing fatal drug instruction according to the dosage for certain patients; 4) checking error at its source (individual process step); 5) coordination of similar tasks; and 6) minimizing individual involvement in a single task [30] [31] [32] [19] .

Lab testing process and LIS use

User acceptance and sufficient training increase LIS use in lab testing workflow and subsequently ensure smooth flow and enhanced work quality [3] [7] [21] [33] . However, a lean workflow is imperative prior to optimizing the process automation to improve the core issues in the workflow itself [3] [13] . Various efforts have been made to reduce errors in routine monitoring, particularly in the early and final phases of the lab testing process, given that both phases involve clinical instead of lab staff who are more familiar with the related process. Therefore, inter departmental cooperation is crucial for avoiding recurring errors.

In short, although all scenarios involved simple errors and mistakes, they posed various possible implications, such as inefficiency, high workload, adverse events, and patient safety issues. Inappropriate testing is not only wasteful and costly, but also risky to patients [32] . However, the processes can be streamlined and optimized through management and mitigation of process and error. Automated interventions such as an ordering system that alerts prescribers can educate them about requesting inappropriate or repeated testing [32] . Moreover, auto verification is widely reported to have potential for facilitating safe, efficient, and reliable tools [31] [34] . We proposed a comprehensive plan to avoid errors in the early and final lab testing process. The steps include

analyzing and redesigning workflow according to Lean methods;
establishing clear, written, and digital procedures;
improving system training for users;
outlining indicators for quality monitoring;and
improving communication and synergy amonghealthcare and laboratory professionals.

The procedure for lab testing workflow must clarify patient identification; gathering, labelling, and transferring specimens; and analysis preparation. The responsible individual must understand and acknowledge the procedure and its importance, the potential risk, and effect on the sample and subsequently to the patient because of procedure noncompliance. All steps required ongoing training and efficient assessment.

Study limitations

The short duration of the observation limited the detail evaluation of possible error incident during the lab test process but this situation was offset with a briefing from the lab head. Moreover, documents related to LIS use and the lab testing process are restricted as they are regarded as private and confidential. Furthermore, manual requests for laboratory tests limit the evaluation of LIS use in clinical units, particularly in the pre-pre-analysis phase. Nevertheless, the rich interview data compensate for this constraint.

Author contributions:

All authors accept responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and have approved its submission.

Informed consent:

We obtained informed consent from all individuals involved in this study.

Acknowledgements:

This work was supported by the Ministry of Higher Learning Malaysia (Grant no.s FRGS/1/2018/ICT04/UKM/02/5 and ERGS/1/2011/STG/UKM/02/46).

Conflict of interest statement

All the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest in this work.

Conflict of Interest: The authors stated that they have no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.

30 Lab Analyst Interview Questions and Answers

Common Lab Analyst interview questions, how to answer them, and example answers from a certified career coach.

In the world of laboratory analysis, precision and attention to detail are critical. As a lab analyst, you play an essential role in ensuring that tests are carried out accurately, data is interpreted correctly, and results are communicated effectively. Now, with an interview for a new position on the horizon, it’s time to prepare yourself for the questions aimed at assessing your proficiency and passion for this highly specialized field.

To help you showcase your expertise and dedication during your upcoming interview, we’ve put together a collection of common lab analyst interview questions along with tips on how to approach them, giving you the confidence needed to succeed in securing your next professional opportunity.

1. What is your experience with analytical techniques such as HPLC, GC-MS, and NMR?

As a lab analyst, having hands-on experience with analytical techniques is essential for performing your job effectively. These techniques, such as High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, are widely used in various industries to analyze and identify chemical compounds. Interviewers ask this question to assess your familiarity and experience with these techniques, ensuring you have the necessary skills to contribute to their organization’s success.

Example: “Throughout my academic and professional career, I have gained extensive experience with various analytical techniques, including HPLC, GC-MS, and NMR. During my time at university, I had the opportunity to work on several research projects that required the use of these methods for compound identification and quantification.

As a lab analyst in my previous role, I regularly employed HPLC for the separation and analysis of complex mixtures, optimizing parameters such as mobile phase composition and flow rate to achieve optimal resolution. Additionally, I utilized GC-MS for volatile organic compound analysis, which involved sample preparation, instrument calibration, and data interpretation. My experience with NMR spectroscopy primarily focused on structural elucidation of small molecules, where I analyzed both 1D and 2D spectra to determine molecular structures and confirm synthesis outcomes.

These experiences have allowed me to develop a strong foundation in analytical chemistry and a deep understanding of the principles behind each technique. This expertise enables me to efficiently troubleshoot issues, optimize methods, and ensure accurate results in any laboratory setting.”

2. Describe a time when you had to troubleshoot an issue with laboratory equipment.

As a lab analyst, your ability to troubleshoot equipment issues is paramount to maintaining efficient operations and accurate results. Interviewers want to know you can think critically, problem-solve effectively, and handle the pressure that comes with equipment malfunctions. Sharing a real-life example demonstrates your resourcefulness and adaptability in a laboratory setting.

Example: “There was an instance when I encountered a problem with our high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system, which is essential for analyzing samples in our lab. The issue arose when the baseline of the chromatogram became unstable and noisy, making it difficult to obtain accurate results.

To troubleshoot this issue, I first checked the most common causes such as mobile phase composition, column temperature, and detector settings. After confirming that these factors were not causing the problem, I proceeded to examine the HPLC pump seals and tubing connections for any leaks or wear. Upon closer inspection, I discovered a small leak in one of the pump seals, which was introducing air bubbles into the system and causing the erratic baseline.

I promptly replaced the faulty seal and re-ran the analysis, ensuring that the equipment was functioning correctly before resuming regular operations. This experience reinforced the importance of routine maintenance checks and being proactive in addressing potential issues with laboratory equipment to ensure accurate and reliable results.”

3. How do you ensure the accuracy and precision of your results in the lab?

Accuracy and precision are critical components of any lab work, as they directly impact the validity and reliability of the results. By asking this question, interviewers want to gauge your understanding of quality control measures and your ability to consistently produce reliable data. They’re also looking for evidence of your attention to detail, commitment to following protocols, and your problem-solving skills when faced with discrepancies or unexpected outcomes.

Example: “To ensure accuracy and precision in the lab, I follow strict protocols and adhere to good laboratory practices. First, I make sure that all equipment is calibrated and maintained regularly according to the manufacturer’s guidelines. This helps minimize errors due to faulty or improperly functioning instruments.

When conducting experiments, I use standardized procedures and techniques to reduce variability in my results. For instance, I always perform multiple replicates of each experiment and calculate the mean and standard deviation to assess the consistency of my data. Additionally, I maintain detailed records of my work, including any deviations from the protocol, which allows me to identify potential sources of error and address them accordingly.

Collaboration with colleagues also plays a vital role in ensuring accurate and precise results. Regularly discussing findings with peers and seeking their input can help identify discrepancies and improve overall data quality. Ultimately, by combining these strategies, I am able to deliver reliable and consistent results that contribute to the success of our research projects.”

4. Can you explain the difference between qualitative and quantitative analysis?

Understanding the difference between qualitative and quantitative analysis is key for a lab analyst, as it demonstrates your grasp on essential analytical approaches. These two methods are often used in tandem to provide a comprehensive understanding of the data you’re working with. Interviewers want to know that you can not only distinguish between the two but also appropriately apply each method when necessary, ensuring accurate and meaningful results in your work.

Example: “Qualitative analysis focuses on identifying the presence or absence of specific substances in a sample, without necessarily determining their exact amounts. This type of analysis is often used to determine the composition of unknown samples or to confirm the presence of certain elements or compounds. Techniques commonly employed for qualitative analysis include chromatography, spectroscopy, and visual observations.

On the other hand, quantitative analysis aims to measure the precise concentration or amount of a substance within a sample. It provides numerical data that can be used for comparison, statistical analysis, and quality control purposes. Common techniques for quantitative analysis include titration, gravimetric analysis, and spectrophotometry. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses are essential tools in a lab analyst’s arsenal, as they provide complementary information about the samples being studied.”

5. Have you ever worked with hazardous materials? If so, how did you handle them safely?

Safety is paramount in any laboratory setting, and handling hazardous materials requires a high level of responsibility and care. Interviewers want to gauge your experience and knowledge in dealing with potentially dangerous substances, as well as your commitment to following safety protocols. This question allows them to assess your ability to minimize risks and ensure a secure working environment for yourself and your colleagues.

Example: “Yes, I have worked with hazardous materials during my time as a lab analyst in the pharmaceutical industry. Safety has always been my top priority when handling such substances. To ensure safe handling, I strictly adhere to the laboratory’s standard operating procedures (SOPs) and follow all safety guidelines provided by the material safety data sheets (MSDS).

Before working with any hazardous material, I make sure to wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), such as gloves, goggles, and lab coats. Additionally, I use fume hoods or other containment devices when necessary to minimize exposure to harmful vapors or airborne particles. Proper storage and disposal of these materials are also essential to maintain a safe work environment. I am diligent about segregating incompatible chemicals and disposing of waste according to established protocols. This careful approach helps me protect both myself and my colleagues while ensuring accurate results in our analyses.”

6. What steps do you take to maintain a clean and organized laboratory workspace?

A well-organized and clean laboratory is essential for ensuring accuracy, efficiency, and safety in your work. Interviewers want to know if you have the discipline and the understanding of the importance of maintaining a proper workspace. Your answer will give them insight into your attention to detail, commitment to best practices, and ability to follow protocols that directly impact the quality of your work and the overall success of the lab.

Example: “Maintaining a clean and organized laboratory workspace is essential for ensuring accurate results and preventing contamination. To achieve this, I follow a systematic approach that includes routine cleaning and proper storage of materials.

At the beginning and end of each workday, I perform a thorough cleaning of my workstation, including wiping down surfaces with appropriate disinfectants and sterilizing equipment as needed. This helps minimize the risk of cross-contamination between samples or experiments. Additionally, I make sure to properly dispose of any waste materials in designated containers to maintain a clutter-free environment.

For organization, I label all reagents, chemicals, and samples clearly with relevant information such as concentration, date, and expiration. I also store them according to their specific requirements, such as temperature or light sensitivity. Furthermore, I keep an updated inventory system to track supplies and ensure timely replenishment when necessary. These steps not only contribute to a safe and efficient laboratory but also promote accuracy and reliability in my work as a lab analyst.”

7. Explain the importance of calibration in analytical instruments.

Calibration is essential in analytical instruments to ensure the accuracy and reliability of results. By asking this question, interviewers want to gauge your understanding of the importance of maintaining high standards in the laboratory and your commitment to producing precise, consistent, and dependable data. Furthermore, it demonstrates your knowledge of laboratory practices and protocols, which is vital for a Lab Analyst role.

Example: “Calibration is essential in analytical instruments to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the measurements obtained. As a lab analyst, I understand that even minor deviations in instrument readings can significantly impact the results and conclusions drawn from experiments or analyses.

Regular calibration helps maintain the integrity of data by adjusting the instrument’s response to match known standards. This process not only corrects any potential drifts in the instrument’s performance but also provides traceability to national or international measurement standards. Consequently, it ensures that the data generated is consistent, comparable, and valid across different laboratories and over time. In essence, proper calibration is vital for maintaining quality control, ensuring regulatory compliance, and building trust in the results produced by the laboratory.”

8. Describe your experience working with standard operating procedures (SOPs) in a laboratory setting.

Standard operating procedures are critical to maintaining a safe and efficient laboratory environment. Adherence to these procedures ensures accurate and consistent results, as well as compliance with industry and regulatory standards. As a lab analyst, you’ll be expected to follow SOPs closely and understand their importance. Interviewers ask this question to gauge your familiarity with and commitment to these practices, as well as your ability to adapt to new protocols and contribute to a well-functioning lab environment.

Example: “Throughout my career as a lab analyst, I have consistently adhered to standard operating procedures (SOPs) in various laboratory settings. These SOPs are essential for maintaining the quality and consistency of results while ensuring safety and compliance with regulatory requirements.

One specific example is when I worked in a pharmaceutical testing lab where we followed strict SOPs for sample preparation, instrument calibration, and data analysis. This involved carefully following written protocols, documenting each step, and verifying that all equipment was functioning correctly before starting any experiment. Additionally, I participated in regular audits and reviews of our SOPs to identify areas for improvement and ensure they remained up-to-date with industry standards. My experience working with SOPs has reinforced their importance in achieving accurate, reliable results and maintaining a safe work environment.”

9. How do you prioritize multiple tasks or projects in the lab?

Time management and effective prioritization are essential skills for any lab analyst, given the nature of the work that often involves handling multiple tasks or projects simultaneously. Interviewers ask this question to assess your ability to manage your workload, meet deadlines, and ensure the quality of your work remains high despite competing demands. They want to ensure you can handle the pressures of the job while maintaining efficiency and accuracy.

Example: “Prioritizing multiple tasks or projects in the lab is essential for maintaining efficiency and meeting deadlines. I start by assessing each task’s urgency, importance, and potential impact on other ongoing projects. This helps me create a priority list that aligns with both short-term and long-term goals.

Once I have established priorities, I allocate my time accordingly, ensuring that high-priority tasks receive more attention without neglecting lower-priority ones. Additionally, I maintain open communication with my team members and supervisors to stay informed about any changes in project requirements or timelines. This allows me to adjust my priorities as needed and ensures that we collectively meet our objectives while maintaining a well-organized and productive lab environment.”

10. What is your experience with data management software, such as LIMS or ELN?

A key aspect of being a lab analyst is working with data management software to ensure that data is accurately recorded, stored, and analyzed. Familiarity with Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS) or Electronic Lab Notebooks (ELN) demonstrates that you have the technical skills and experience needed to efficiently manage lab data. Interviewers ask this question to gauge your competency with these tools and your ability to adapt to new software as needed.

Example: “During my time as a lab analyst, I have gained extensive experience with both Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS) and Electronic Lab Notebooks (ELN). In my previous role at XYZ Labs, we used LIMS to manage sample tracking, workflow automation, and reporting. I was responsible for entering sample data, updating test results, and generating reports for clients. This system allowed us to maintain accurate records and streamline our processes, ensuring timely delivery of results.

At my current position, we utilize an ELN platform for documenting experiments, managing protocols, and sharing information among team members. I am well-versed in using the software to create detailed experiment notes, attach relevant files, and collaborate with colleagues on research projects. My proficiency with these data management tools has enabled me to contribute effectively to my team’s productivity and maintain high standards of data integrity within the laboratory environment.”

11. Can you provide an example of a complex analytical problem you have solved?

Complex analytical problems are a part of everyday life for a lab analyst. Interviewers want to know if you have the ability to think critically, troubleshoot, and find solutions in the face of challenging situations. By asking for a specific example, they are looking for evidence of your problem-solving skills, technical expertise, and how you approach obstacles in a real-world laboratory setting.

Example: “During my time as a lab analyst at a pharmaceutical company, I was tasked with identifying the cause of inconsistencies in the purity levels of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) during its production process. This issue had significant implications for product quality and regulatory compliance.

I began by reviewing the analytical data from multiple batches to identify any patterns or trends. After thorough analysis, I noticed that the inconsistencies were more prevalent when specific equipment was used during the purification stage. To further investigate, I collaborated with the production team to understand the maintenance history and usage patterns of the equipment in question.

Upon discovering that the problematic equipment had recently undergone maintenance involving the replacement of certain components, I suspected that these new parts might be causing contamination. I designed a series of controlled experiments to test this hypothesis, comparing the results obtained using the suspect equipment with those from other unaffected equipment. The experiment confirmed my suspicion, and we were able to resolve the issue by replacing the faulty components and implementing stricter quality control measures for future maintenance work.

This experience highlights the importance of systematic problem-solving, cross-functional collaboration, and attention to detail in ensuring the highest standards of quality in a laboratory setting.”

12. How do you stay up-to-date on new developments and technologies in your field?

As a lab analyst, you’re expected to be knowledgeable and adaptable in a constantly evolving scientific landscape. Staying current on new developments and technologies is essential for maintaining the accuracy and efficiency of your work, as well as contributing to the overall success of the organization. By asking this question, interviewers seek to gauge your commitment to professional growth, your resourcefulness in gathering information, and your ability to apply new knowledge and techniques to your job.

Example: “Staying up-to-date on new developments and technologies in the field of lab analysis is essential for maintaining a high level of expertise. One way I achieve this is by regularly reading scientific journals, such as Analytical Chemistry and Lab Manager, which provide insights into recent advancements and best practices. Additionally, I follow industry news through websites and newsletters to stay informed about emerging trends and innovations.

Another important aspect of staying current is participating in professional development opportunities. I attend conferences and workshops whenever possible, which allows me to learn from experts in the field and network with other professionals. These events often showcase cutting-edge techniques and equipment that can be applied in my own work. Furthermore, I engage in online courses and webinars to continuously expand my knowledge and skills, ensuring that I remain an effective and well-informed lab analyst.”

13. Describe your experience with sample preparation techniques, such as extraction, digestion, or filtration.

Interviewers ask this question to gauge your hands-on experience and expertise in sample preparation methods. As a lab analyst, you’ll be working with various samples that require specific preparation techniques to ensure accurate results. Your familiarity with these methods demonstrates your understanding of the importance of proper sample handling and your ability to successfully perform tasks in a laboratory setting.

Example: “During my time as a lab analyst, I have gained extensive experience in various sample preparation techniques. For instance, while working on a project involving water quality analysis, I frequently employed filtration methods to separate suspended particles from the liquid samples. This involved using vacuum filtration with appropriate filter paper and glassware to ensure accurate results.

Another technique I’ve used is digestion, particularly when analyzing soil samples for heavy metal content. In this process, I carefully weighed the samples and subjected them to acid digestion using concentrated nitric and hydrochloric acids. This step was essential for breaking down complex organic matter and releasing the metals into solution, allowing us to accurately quantify their concentrations using analytical instruments such as atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS).

These experiences have taught me the importance of selecting the most suitable sample preparation method based on the specific requirements of each analysis, ensuring that the subsequent measurements are both accurate and reliable.”

14. What are some common sources of error in analytical measurements, and how can they be minimized?

Understanding the potential sources of error in analytical measurements is essential for a lab analyst to ensure the accuracy and reliability of results. By asking this question, interviewers want to gauge your knowledge of these sources and your ability to implement strategies to minimize them. This demonstrates your commitment to producing high-quality data and your understanding of the importance of accuracy in decision-making processes based on the lab’s analyses.

Example: “Common sources of error in analytical measurements include instrument errors, sample contamination, and human errors. To minimize these errors, a systematic approach can be employed.

Instrument errors can arise from calibration issues or equipment malfunction. Regular maintenance and calibration checks are essential to ensure the accuracy and reliability of instruments. Additionally, using high-quality equipment with appropriate specifications for the task at hand is important.

Sample contamination can occur during collection, storage, or analysis. To prevent this, it’s vital to follow proper sampling techniques, use clean and suitable containers, and store samples under appropriate conditions. During analysis, maintaining a clean laboratory environment and using dedicated glassware and tools for specific analyses can help reduce cross-contamination.

Human errors may result from misinterpretation of data, calculation mistakes, or procedural deviations. Implementing standard operating procedures (SOPs), providing regular training, and promoting a culture of attention to detail can help mitigate such errors. Moreover, having a system for double-checking calculations and peer-reviewing results can further enhance the accuracy and reliability of analytical measurements.”

15. Have you ever been involved in method development or validation? If so, please describe the process.

Analytical methods are essential to a lab’s success, ensuring accurate and reliable results. As a lab analyst, you may be responsible for developing new methods or validating existing ones. This question helps interviewers gauge your experience and understanding of method development and validation processes, showcasing your ability to contribute to the lab’s ongoing improvement and adapt to new techniques or technologies.

Example: “Yes, I have been involved in method development and validation during my time at XYZ Labs. We were tasked with developing a new analytical method for detecting trace levels of a specific compound in water samples. The process began with an extensive literature review to understand the existing methods and identify potential improvements or modifications.

Once we had a solid foundation, we designed experiments to test various parameters such as sample preparation techniques, extraction solvents, and instrumental settings. This iterative process allowed us to optimize each step and ensure that our method was both sensitive and selective for the target compound.

After finalizing the method, we proceeded with validation to demonstrate its reliability and reproducibility. This included assessing linearity, accuracy, precision, limit of detection (LOD), and limit of quantification (LOQ). We performed multiple tests under varying conditions and analyzed spiked samples to confirm the method’s performance. Upon successful validation, we documented the entire process and shared it with relevant stakeholders, ensuring that the newly developed method could be confidently applied in routine analysis.”

16. Explain the concept of limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LOQ).

As an analytical scientist, it’s essential to understand the concepts of LOD and LOQ, as they represent the sensitivity of a given analytical method. These terms help determine the lowest concentration of an analyte that can be detected or accurately measured. Interviewers ask this question to assess your technical knowledge and to ensure that you can accurately interpret and communicate the results of your analyses within the context of these limitations.

Example: “The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LOQ) are essential parameters in analytical chemistry, as they help define the sensitivity and reliability of an analytical method.

LOD refers to the lowest concentration of an analyte that can be detected by a specific analytical method. It is the point at which the signal generated by the presence of the analyte can be distinguished from the background noise with reasonable certainty. LOD is important because it helps analysts determine whether a sample contains trace amounts of a substance or if it’s truly absent.

On the other hand, LOQ represents the lowest concentration of an analyte that can be accurately measured and reported with acceptable precision and accuracy using a given analytical method. In other words, it is the minimum level at which quantitative results can be obtained with an acceptable degree of confidence. The LOQ is typically higher than the LOD, as it takes into account not only the ability to detect the analyte but also the capability to provide reliable quantitative data.

Both LOD and LOQ are critical for ensuring the validity of analytical results, especially when dealing with low-concentration samples or regulatory compliance requirements.”

17. How do you handle unexpected results or discrepancies in your data?

Employers want to ensure that you can approach unexpected results or data discrepancies with a critical and methodical mindset. As a lab analyst, it’s essential to maintain accuracy, reliability, and integrity in your work. Demonstrating your ability to identify errors, troubleshoot, and find solutions showcases your commitment to quality assurance and your adaptability in the face of challenges.

Example: “When I encounter unexpected results or discrepancies in my data, the first step I take is to thoroughly review my methodology and ensure that all protocols were followed correctly. This includes checking for any errors in sample preparation, instrument calibration, and data entry.

If no procedural issues are identified, I then consult with colleagues to gain their insights and perspectives on the findings. Collaborative discussions can often reveal potential explanations for the discrepancies or suggest additional tests that may help clarify the situation. In some cases, repeating the experiment might be necessary to confirm the validity of the initial results.

Throughout this process, it’s essential to maintain detailed documentation of all observations, actions taken, and conclusions drawn. This not only helps me keep track of my progress but also ensures transparency and accountability when presenting the final results to stakeholders.”

18. Describe any experience you have with quality control and quality assurance processes in a laboratory setting.

The laboratory environment is one where accuracy, precision, and consistency are vital to producing reliable results. By asking this question, interviewers want to gauge your understanding of quality control and quality assurance processes, as well as your ability to implement and adhere to them. This showcases your commitment to maintaining high standards of work and ensuring the data produced is trustworthy and reproducible.

Example: “During my time as a lab analyst at XYZ Pharmaceuticals, I was actively involved in both quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) processes. My role required me to perform routine QC tests on raw materials, in-process samples, and finished products to ensure they met the established specifications. This included conducting various analytical techniques such as HPLC, GC, and UV-Vis spectroscopy.

As part of our QA process, I participated in internal audits to assess compliance with Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) and standard operating procedures (SOPs). Additionally, I contributed to the continuous improvement of laboratory practices by reviewing and updating SOPs based on audit findings and new industry guidelines. This experience has given me a strong understanding of the importance of maintaining high-quality standards in a laboratory setting and how it directly impacts the reliability and integrity of the results generated.”

19. What is your experience with statistical analysis of laboratory data?

In the fast-paced, data-driven world of laboratory work, statistical analysis plays an essential role in making sense of the vast amount of data generated through various experiments and tests. Interviewers ask this question to gauge your understanding of statistical methods and your ability to interpret and draw conclusions from the data. This skill is critical to ensure accurate, reliable results that support the overall goals of the lab and contribute to scientific advancements or decision-making processes.

Example: “During my time as a lab analyst, I have gained extensive experience in statistical analysis of laboratory data. In one particular project, I was responsible for analyzing the results of various chemical tests to determine the effectiveness of a new drug formulation. This involved using descriptive statistics to summarize the data and inferential statistics to draw conclusions about the population from our sample.

I utilized software tools such as Excel and R for data organization, visualization, and performing statistical tests like t-tests, ANOVA, and regression analysis. These analyses allowed me to identify trends, correlations, and significant differences between experimental groups. My findings were then used to inform further research and development decisions, ultimately contributing to the optimization of the drug formulation. This experience has equipped me with the skills necessary to effectively analyze and interpret complex laboratory data in a variety of contexts.”

20. How do you manage your time effectively while working on multiple projects simultaneously?

Time management is a critical skill for a lab analyst, as they often juggle multiple projects and deadlines, all while maintaining accuracy and quality. Interviewers want to know if you can handle the demands of the job, prioritize tasks, and adapt to changes in project requirements. Demonstrating your ability to manage your time effectively will showcase your efficiency, organization, and reliability in a fast-paced lab environment.

Example: “Effective time management is essential when working on multiple projects simultaneously. To achieve this, I prioritize tasks based on their deadlines and importance. I start by creating a list of all the tasks for each project and then categorize them into high, medium, or low priority. This helps me allocate my time and resources accordingly.

Another key aspect of managing my time effectively is breaking down complex tasks into smaller, manageable steps. This allows me to focus on one step at a time and track my progress more efficiently. Additionally, I use productivity tools like calendars and task management software to set reminders and monitor deadlines, ensuring that I stay on top of my workload.

To maintain flexibility, I also regularly reassess my priorities as new information becomes available or if unexpected issues arise. This adaptability enables me to adjust my schedule and ensure that all projects are completed accurately and within the required timeframe.”

21. Are you familiar with any regulatory guidelines, such as GLP or GMP, that apply to laboratory work?

Understanding regulatory guidelines is essential to maintaining safety, quality, and compliance in a lab setting. By asking about your familiarity with guidelines like GLP (Good Laboratory Practice) or GMP (Good Manufacturing Practice), interviewers want to gauge your awareness of these standards and your ability to apply them in your work. This knowledge can help ensure that your laboratory’s operations align with industry best practices and meet the necessary regulatory requirements.

Example: “Yes, I am familiar with both Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) and Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) guidelines. In my previous role as a lab analyst in the pharmaceutical industry, I worked under GLP regulations to ensure the quality and reliability of our test data. This involved adhering to standardized procedures, maintaining accurate documentation, and ensuring proper calibration and maintenance of equipment.

I also have experience working in a GMP-regulated environment, where we focused on producing safe and effective products for consumers. This required strict adherence to established manufacturing processes, rigorous quality control measures, and thorough documentation practices. My familiarity with these regulatory guidelines has been essential in maintaining compliance and ensuring the highest level of quality in laboratory work.”

22. Describe a situation where you had to collaborate with colleagues to solve a problem in the lab.

Collaboration is key in a laboratory environment, where multiple perspectives and expertise are often needed to solve complex problems or troubleshoot experiments. Interviewers want to know if you have experience working in a team setting, can effectively communicate with colleagues, and are willing to contribute your skills and knowledge to find a solution. Demonstrating your ability to collaborate in a lab setting will show that you can contribute to a positive and productive work environment.

Example: “During my time as a lab analyst, we were working on a project that required the analysis of multiple samples within a tight deadline. One day, our primary analytical instrument malfunctioned, causing delays in processing and potentially jeopardizing our ability to meet the deadline.

To address this issue, I collaborated with my colleagues to develop an action plan. We first identified the root cause of the problem by troubleshooting the instrument and consulting its user manual. Once we pinpointed the issue, we divided tasks among ourselves: one colleague contacted the instrument’s manufacturer for technical support, another researched alternative methods for sample analysis, and I coordinated with other departments to secure temporary access to a similar instrument.

Through effective communication and teamwork, we managed to resolve the instrument issue promptly and implement backup solutions to ensure minimal disruption to our workflow. As a result, we successfully completed the project within the given timeframe, demonstrating the importance of collaboration in overcoming challenges in the lab environment.”

23. What is your experience with laboratory safety procedures and protocols?

Safety is paramount in a laboratory setting. Accidents and mishaps can have serious consequences for both individuals and the organization. By asking this question, interviewers want to assess your knowledge of safety procedures and protocols, as well as your commitment to maintaining a secure working environment. They’re looking for candidates who can minimize risk, ensure compliance with regulations, and contribute to a culture of safety within the lab.

Example: “As a lab analyst with over five years of experience, I have always prioritized safety in the laboratory. My familiarity with safety procedures and protocols began during my academic studies, where I was trained to handle chemicals, biological samples, and equipment safely.

Throughout my career, I have consistently adhered to established guidelines such as wearing appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), following proper waste disposal methods, and maintaining a clean and organized workspace. Additionally, I am well-versed in Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) and ensure that all team members are aware of the potential hazards associated with specific chemicals or substances.

Furthermore, I have participated in regular safety audits and inspections, identifying areas for improvement and implementing corrective actions when necessary. This proactive approach has contributed to creating a safe working environment for myself and my colleagues while ensuring the accuracy and reliability of our analytical results.”

24. Have you ever had to train or mentor new employees or interns in the lab? If so, how did you approach this responsibility?

Mentoring and training are key aspects of a Lab Analyst’s role, as new employees or interns need guidance to ensure that they follow the correct procedures and adhere to safety protocols. Interviewers want to know if you have experience in this area and how you approach it, as it reflects your ability to communicate effectively, share your expertise, and contribute to a positive working environment within the lab.

Example: “Yes, I have had the opportunity to train and mentor new employees and interns in our lab. My approach to this responsibility begins with understanding their educational background and any prior experience they may have. This helps me tailor my training methods to suit their individual needs and ensure a smooth learning process.

I start by introducing them to the lab’s safety protocols and standard operating procedures, emphasizing the importance of adhering to these guidelines at all times. Next, I demonstrate various techniques and equipment used in the lab, allowing them to observe before gradually involving them in hands-on tasks under my supervision. Throughout the training period, I encourage open communication and provide constructive feedback on their performance, addressing any questions or concerns they might have.

My goal is not only to teach them the technical aspects of the job but also to instill a sense of teamwork and collaboration, as these are essential qualities for success in a laboratory environment.”

25. Can you explain the principle of chromatography and its applications in analytical chemistry?

The interviewer wants to assess your fundamental knowledge of a key technique used in many analytical laboratories. Chromatography is a versatile separation method used to separate complex mixtures into their individual components. By demonstrating your understanding of chromatography principles and applications, you show your potential employer that you possess the technical skills and scientific knowledge necessary to excel in a lab analyst role.

Example: “Chromatography is a separation technique used in analytical chemistry to separate the components of a mixture based on their different affinities for a stationary phase and a mobile phase. The principle behind chromatography is that each component in the mixture has varying degrees of interaction with the stationary phase, which can be a solid or liquid, and the mobile phase, typically a gas or liquid solvent. As the mobile phase moves through the stationary phase, the components with stronger affinity for the stationary phase will move more slowly, while those with weaker affinity will travel faster, resulting in separation.

Chromatography has numerous applications in analytical chemistry, including identifying and quantifying compounds in complex mixtures, purifying substances, and monitoring chemical reactions. Some common types of chromatography are gas chromatography (GC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and thin-layer chromatography (TLC). These techniques are widely employed in various industries such as pharmaceuticals, environmental testing, food analysis, and forensics, making chromatography an essential tool for lab analysts.”

26. Describe any experience you have working with environmental samples, such as water, soil, or air.

Lab analysts are often required to handle and analyze various types of environmental samples. By asking this question, employers want to assess your knowledge, experience, and familiarity with these sample types. This helps them gauge your ability to carry out relevant tests and analyses, ensuring you can contribute effectively to the organization’s objectives in environmental monitoring, research, or compliance.

Example: “During my time as a lab analyst at an environmental testing laboratory, I gained extensive experience working with various environmental samples. One of the primary projects I was involved in focused on water quality analysis for both surface and groundwater sources. My responsibilities included collecting samples from designated sites, preserving them according to standard protocols, and performing tests such as pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, and turbidity measurements.

Another project I worked on involved soil sample analysis for potential contamination by heavy metals and organic pollutants. In this capacity, I prepared samples using appropriate extraction methods, followed by analysis using techniques like atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). This hands-on experience with diverse environmental samples has equipped me with the skills necessary to contribute effectively to any related projects in my future role as a lab analyst.”

27. How do you handle situations where you need to meet tight deadlines for completing analyses?

Deadlines are a reality in any workplace, and lab environments are no exception. Employers want to know that you can handle the pressure of completing accurate and thorough analyses within the given time frame. Your ability to stay organized, prioritize tasks, and work efficiently under deadline constraints directly impacts the success of the lab’s operations and the reliability of the results produced.

Example: “When faced with tight deadlines for completing analyses, I prioritize effective time management and clear communication. First, I assess the tasks at hand and determine which ones are most critical to meet the deadline. Then, I create a structured plan outlining the necessary steps and allocate sufficient time for each task while considering any potential challenges that may arise.

If the workload is overwhelming or requires additional expertise, I communicate proactively with my supervisor or colleagues to seek assistance or delegate tasks as needed. This collaborative approach ensures that we can efficiently complete the analyses without compromising on quality. Additionally, I maintain open lines of communication with relevant stakeholders to keep them informed about progress and address any concerns promptly. This way, I can effectively manage tight deadlines while maintaining accuracy and reliability in my work.”

28. Are you familiar with any industry-specific standards or guidelines that apply to your field of expertise?

Knowledge of industry-specific standards is essential for a lab analyst to maintain compliance and ensure the quality and safety of processes and outcomes. By asking this question, interviewers want to gauge your familiarity with these standards and your ability to implement them in your work, ensuring that you can maintain the integrity of the lab environment and contribute to the organization’s success in a responsible way.

Example: “Yes, as a lab analyst, I am well-versed in several industry-specific standards and guidelines that are essential for maintaining quality control and ensuring accurate results. One of the most important sets of guidelines I adhere to is Good Laboratory Practice (GLP), which provides a framework for conducting non-clinical laboratory studies with consistency, reliability, and integrity.

Another key standard I follow is the International Organization for Standardization’s ISO/IEC 17025, which outlines general requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories. This standard ensures that our lab maintains proper management systems, technical competence, and generates valid results.

These guidelines not only help maintain the credibility of our work but also ensure compliance with regulatory requirements and promote confidence among clients and stakeholders in the accuracy and reliability of our analytical data.”

29. Explain the importance of proper sample storage and handling in maintaining data integrity.

Accuracy and precision are critical in the world of lab analysis. When interviewers ask about the importance of proper sample storage and handling, they want to ensure that you recognize the potential consequences of mishandling samples, such as contamination, degradation, or loss. Your response should demonstrate your understanding of best practices and your commitment to maintaining the highest level of data integrity in your work.

Example: “Proper sample storage and handling are critical in maintaining data integrity because they directly impact the accuracy and reliability of analytical results. If samples are not stored or handled correctly, their properties may change due to factors such as contamination, degradation, or chemical reactions, leading to inaccurate test outcomes.

As a lab analyst, it is essential to follow established protocols for sample collection, labeling, transportation, and storage to minimize any potential alterations to the sample’s original state. This includes using appropriate containers, maintaining optimal temperature and humidity conditions, and preventing cross-contamination between samples. Additionally, proper documentation and tracking systems must be in place to ensure that samples can be easily identified and traced throughout the entire analysis process. Adhering to these best practices helps guarantee that the data generated from the samples remains accurate, reliable, and representative of the true characteristics being studied, ultimately supporting sound decision-making based on the laboratory findings.”

30. Describe a challenging situation you encountered in the lab and how you overcame it.

In a laboratory setting, challenges are bound to arise, whether it’s related to equipment malfunctions, complex procedures, or unexpected results. Interviewers ask this question to gauge your critical thinking skills, adaptability, and ability to troubleshoot issues in a methodical and efficient manner. They want to see that you can not only identify problems but also devise creative solutions while maintaining the integrity of your work.

Example: “During my time as a lab analyst, I encountered a challenging situation when we were working on a project that required the analysis of multiple samples within a tight deadline. One day, our primary analytical instrument malfunctioned, which threatened to delay our progress significantly.

To overcome this challenge, I first contacted the instrument manufacturer’s technical support team to troubleshoot the issue. While waiting for their response, I collaborated with my colleagues to develop an alternative plan using other available instruments in the lab. We redistributed the workload and adjusted our schedules to accommodate the change. This proactive approach allowed us to continue processing samples without compromising the quality of our results.

Eventually, the technical support team provided guidance on resolving the instrument issue, and we were able to get it back up and running. Despite the setback, our teamwork and adaptability enabled us to meet the project deadline and deliver accurate results to our client.”

30 Infrastructure Manager Interview Questions and Answers

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BrainTwister #15: Domino strips

Can you solve this week’s logic puzzle? Plus our quick quiz and the answer to last week’s problem

By Peter Rowlett

10 April 2024

#15 Domino strips

Set by Peter Rowlett

There are three ways to cover a 3 × 2 grid with dominoes.

How many ways are there to cover a 4 × 2 grid? What about a 6 × 2 grid?

Can you find a pattern that would help you work out the number of different ways dominoes can be used to cover any n × 2 rectangle?

Solution next week

#14 Factor graphs

Here’s a factor graph of 1-10:

You can connect every number up to 14, but adding 15 requires drawing lines to 3 and 5, which leads to crossing. If we exclude…

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Do You Understand the Problem You’re Trying to Solve?

To solve tough problems at work, first ask these questions.

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Problem solving skills are invaluable in any job. But all too often, we jump to find solutions to a problem without taking time to really understand the dilemma we face, according to Thomas Wedell-Wedellsborg , an expert in innovation and the author of the book, What’s Your Problem?: To Solve Your Toughest Problems, Change the Problems You Solve .

In this episode, you’ll learn how to reframe tough problems by asking questions that reveal all the factors and assumptions that contribute to the situation. You’ll also learn why searching for just one root cause can be misleading.

Key episode topics include: leadership, decision making and problem solving, power and influence, business management.

HBR On Leadership curates the best case studies and conversations with the world’s top business and management experts, to help you unlock the best in those around you. New episodes every week.

Listen to the original HBR IdeaCast episode: The Secret to Better Problem Solving (2016)
Find more episodes of HBR IdeaCast
Discover 100 years of Harvard Business Review articles, case studies, podcasts, and more at HBR.org .

HANNAH BATES: Welcome to HBR on Leadership , case studies and conversations with the world’s top business and management experts, hand-selected to help you unlock the best in those around you.

Problem solving skills are invaluable in any job. But even the most experienced among us can fall into the trap of solving the wrong problem.

Thomas Wedell-Wedellsborg says that all too often, we jump to find solutions to a problem – without taking time to really understand what we’re facing.

He’s an expert in innovation, and he’s the author of the book, What’s Your Problem?: To Solve Your Toughest Problems, Change the Problems You Solve .

In this episode, you’ll learn how to reframe tough problems, by asking questions that reveal all the factors and assumptions that contribute to the situation. You’ll also learn why searching for one root cause can be misleading. And you’ll learn how to use experimentation and rapid prototyping as problem-solving tools.

This episode originally aired on HBR IdeaCast in December 2016. Here it is.

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: Welcome to the HBR IdeaCast from Harvard Business Review. I’m Sarah Green Carmichael.

Problem solving is popular. People put it on their resumes. Managers believe they excel at it. Companies count it as a key proficiency. We solve customers’ problems.

The problem is we often solve the wrong problems. Albert Einstein and Peter Drucker alike have discussed the difficulty of effective diagnosis. There are great frameworks for getting teams to attack true problems, but they’re often hard to do daily and on the fly. That’s where our guest comes in.

Thomas Wedell-Wedellsborg is a consultant who helps companies and managers reframe their problems so they can come up with an effective solution faster. He asks the question “Are You Solving The Right Problems?” in the January-February 2017 issue of Harvard Business Review. Thomas, thank you so much for coming on the HBR IdeaCast .

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: Thanks for inviting me.

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: So, I thought maybe we could start by talking about the problem of talking about problem reframing. What is that exactly?

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: Basically, when people face a problem, they tend to jump into solution mode to rapidly, and very often that means that they don’t really understand, necessarily, the problem they’re trying to solve. And so, reframing is really a– at heart, it’s a method that helps you avoid that by taking a second to go in and ask two questions, basically saying, first of all, wait. What is the problem we’re trying to solve? And then crucially asking, is there a different way to think about what the problem actually is?

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: So, I feel like so often when this comes up in meetings, you know, someone says that, and maybe they throw out the Einstein quote about you spend an hour of problem solving, you spend 55 minutes to find the problem. And then everyone else in the room kind of gets irritated. So, maybe just give us an example of maybe how this would work in practice in a way that would not, sort of, set people’s teeth on edge, like oh, here Sarah goes again, reframing the whole problem instead of just solving it.

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: I mean, you’re bringing up something that’s, I think is crucial, which is to create legitimacy for the method. So, one of the reasons why I put out the article is to give people a tool to say actually, this thing is still important, and we need to do it. But I think the really critical thing in order to make this work in a meeting is actually to learn how to do it fast, because if you have the idea that you need to spend 30 minutes in a meeting delving deeply into the problem, I mean, that’s going to be uphill for most problems. So, the critical thing here is really to try to make it a practice you can implement very, very rapidly.

There’s an example that I would suggest memorizing. This is the example that I use to explain very rapidly what it is. And it’s basically, I call it the slow elevator problem. You imagine that you are the owner of an office building, and that your tenants are complaining that the elevator’s slow.

Now, if you take that problem framing for granted, you’re going to start thinking creatively around how do we make the elevator faster. Do we install a new motor? Do we have to buy a new lift somewhere?

The thing is, though, if you ask people who actually work with facilities management, well, they’re going to have a different solution for you, which is put up a mirror next to the elevator. That’s what happens is, of course, that people go oh, I’m busy. I’m busy. I’m– oh, a mirror. Oh, that’s beautiful.

And then they forget time. What’s interesting about that example is that the idea with a mirror is actually a solution to a different problem than the one you first proposed. And so, the whole idea here is once you get good at using reframing, you can quickly identify other aspects of the problem that might be much better to try to solve than the original one you found. It’s not necessarily that the first one is wrong. It’s just that there might be better problems out there to attack that we can, means we can do things much faster, cheaper, or better.

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: So, in that example, I can understand how A, it’s probably expensive to make the elevator faster, so it’s much cheaper just to put up a mirror. And B, maybe the real problem people are actually feeling, even though they’re not articulating it right, is like, I hate waiting for the elevator. But if you let them sort of fix their hair or check their teeth, they’re suddenly distracted and don’t notice.

But if you have, this is sort of a pedestrian example, but say you have a roommate or a spouse who doesn’t clean up the kitchen. Facing that problem and not having your elegant solution already there to highlight the contrast between the perceived problem and the real problem, how would you take a problem like that and attack it using this method so that you can see what some of the other options might be?

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: Right. So, I mean, let’s say it’s you who have that problem. I would go in and say, first of all, what would you say the problem is? Like, if you were to describe your view of the problem, what would that be?

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: I hate cleaning the kitchen, and I want someone else to clean it up.

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: OK. So, my first observation, you know, that somebody else might not necessarily be your spouse. So, already there, there’s an inbuilt assumption in your question around oh, it has to be my husband who does the cleaning. So, it might actually be worth, already there to say, is that really the only problem you have? That you hate cleaning the kitchen, and you want to avoid it? Or might there be something around, as well, getting a better relationship in terms of how you solve problems in general or establishing a better way to handle small problems when dealing with your spouse?

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: Or maybe, now that I’m thinking that, maybe the problem is that you just can’t find the stuff in the kitchen when you need to find it.

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: Right, and so that’s an example of a reframing, that actually why is it a problem that the kitchen is not clean? Is it only because you hate the act of cleaning, or does it actually mean that it just takes you a lot longer and gets a lot messier to actually use the kitchen, which is a different problem. The way you describe this problem now, is there anything that’s missing from that description?

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: That is a really good question.

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: Other, basically asking other factors that we are not talking about right now, and I say those because people tend to, when given a problem, they tend to delve deeper into the detail. What often is missing is actually an element outside of the initial description of the problem that might be really relevant to what’s going on. Like, why does the kitchen get messy in the first place? Is it something about the way you use it or your cooking habits? Is it because the neighbor’s kids, kind of, use it all the time?

There might, very often, there might be issues that you’re not really thinking about when you first describe the problem that actually has a big effect on it.

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: I think at this point it would be helpful to maybe get another business example, and I’m wondering if you could tell us the story of the dog adoption problem.

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: Yeah. This is a big problem in the US. If you work in the shelter industry, basically because dogs are so popular, more than 3 million dogs every year enter a shelter, and currently only about half of those actually find a new home and get adopted. And so, this is a problem that has persisted. It’s been, like, a structural problem for decades in this space. In the last three years, where people found new ways to address it.

So a woman called Lori Weise who runs a rescue organization in South LA, and she actually went in and challenged the very idea of what we were trying to do. She said, no, no. The problem we’re trying to solve is not about how to get more people to adopt dogs. It is about keeping the dogs with their first family so they never enter the shelter system in the first place.

In 2013, she started what’s called a Shelter Intervention Program that basically works like this. If a family comes and wants to hand over their dog, these are called owner surrenders. It’s about 30% of all dogs that come into a shelter. All they would do is go up and ask, if you could, would you like to keep your animal? And if they said yes, they would try to fix whatever helped them fix the problem, but that made them turn over this.

And sometimes that might be that they moved into a new building. The landlord required a deposit, and they simply didn’t have the money to put down a deposit. Or the dog might need a $10 rabies shot, but they didn’t know how to get access to a vet.

And so, by instigating that program, just in the first year, she took her, basically the amount of dollars they spent per animal they helped went from something like $85 down to around $60. Just an immediate impact, and her program now is being rolled out, is being supported by the ASPCA, which is one of the big animal welfare stations, and it’s being rolled out to various other places.

And I think what really struck me with that example was this was not dependent on having the internet. This was not, oh, we needed to have everybody mobile before we could come up with this. This, conceivably, we could have done 20 years ago. Only, it only happened when somebody, like in this case Lori, went in and actually rethought what the problem they were trying to solve was in the first place.

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: So, what I also think is so interesting about that example is that when you talk about it, it doesn’t sound like the kind of thing that would have been thought of through other kinds of problem solving methods. There wasn’t necessarily an After Action Review or a 5 Whys exercise or a Six Sigma type intervention. I don’t want to throw those other methods under the bus, but how can you get such powerful results with such a very simple way of thinking about something?

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: That was something that struck me as well. This, in a way, reframing and the idea of the problem diagnosis is important is something we’ve known for a long, long time. And we’ve actually have built some tools to help out. If you worked with us professionally, you are familiar with, like, Six Sigma, TRIZ, and so on. You mentioned 5 Whys. A root cause analysis is another one that a lot of people are familiar with.

Those are our good tools, and they’re definitely better than nothing. But what I notice when I work with the companies applying those was those tools tend to make you dig deeper into the first understanding of the problem we have. If it’s the elevator example, people start asking, well, is that the cable strength, or is the capacity of the elevator? That they kind of get caught by the details.

That, in a way, is a bad way to work on problems because it really assumes that there’s like a, you can almost hear it, a root cause. That you have to dig down and find the one true problem, and everything else was just symptoms. That’s a bad way to think about problems because problems tend to be multicausal.

There tend to be lots of causes or levers you can potentially press to address a problem. And if you think there’s only one, if that’s the right problem, that’s actually a dangerous way. And so I think that’s why, that this is a method I’ve worked with over the last five years, trying to basically refine how to make people better at this, and the key tends to be this thing about shifting out and saying, is there a totally different way of thinking about the problem versus getting too caught up in the mechanistic details of what happens.

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: What about experimentation? Because that’s another method that’s become really popular with the rise of Lean Startup and lots of other innovation methodologies. Why wouldn’t it have worked to, say, experiment with many different types of fixing the dog adoption problem, and then just pick the one that works the best?

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: You could say in the dog space, that’s what’s been going on. I mean, there is, in this industry and a lot of, it’s largely volunteer driven. People have experimented, and they found different ways of trying to cope. And that has definitely made the problem better. So, I wouldn’t say that experimentation is bad, quite the contrary. Rapid prototyping, quickly putting something out into the world and learning from it, that’s a fantastic way to learn more and to move forward.

My point is, though, that I feel we’ve come to rely too much on that. There’s like, if you look at the start up space, the wisdom is now just to put something quickly into the market, and then if it doesn’t work, pivot and just do more stuff. What reframing really is, I think of it as the cognitive counterpoint to prototyping. So, this is really a way of seeing very quickly, like not just working on the solution, but also working on our understanding of the problem and trying to see is there a different way to think about that.

If you only stick with experimentation, again, you tend to sometimes stay too much in the same space trying minute variations of something instead of taking a step back and saying, wait a minute. What is this telling us about what the real issue is?

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: So, to go back to something that we touched on earlier, when we were talking about the completely hypothetical example of a spouse who does not clean the kitchen–

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: Completely, completely hypothetical.

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: Yes. For the record, my husband is a great kitchen cleaner.

You started asking me some questions that I could see immediately were helping me rethink that problem. Is that kind of the key, just having a checklist of questions to ask yourself? How do you really start to put this into practice?

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: I think there are two steps in that. The first one is just to make yourself better at the method. Yes, you should kind of work with a checklist. In the article, I kind of outlined seven practices that you can use to do this.

But importantly, I would say you have to consider that as, basically, a set of training wheels. I think there’s a big, big danger in getting caught in a checklist. This is something I work with.

My co-author Paddy Miller, it’s one of his insights. That if you start giving people a checklist for things like this, they start following it. And that’s actually a problem, because what you really want them to do is start challenging their thinking.

So the way to handle this is to get some practice using it. Do use the checklist initially, but then try to step away from it and try to see if you can organically make– it’s almost a habit of mind. When you run into a colleague in the hallway and she has a problem and you have five minutes, like, delving in and just starting asking some of those questions and using your intuition to say, wait, how is she talking about this problem? And is there a question or two I can ask her about the problem that can help her rethink it?

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: Well, that is also just a very different approach, because I think in that situation, most of us can’t go 30 seconds without jumping in and offering solutions.

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: Very true. The drive toward solutions is very strong. And to be clear, I mean, there’s nothing wrong with that if the solutions work. So, many problems are just solved by oh, you know, oh, here’s the way to do that. Great.

But this is really a powerful method for those problems where either it’s something we’ve been banging our heads against tons of times without making progress, or when you need to come up with a really creative solution. When you’re facing a competitor with a much bigger budget, and you know, if you solve the same problem later, you’re not going to win. So, that basic idea of taking that approach to problems can often help you move forward in a different way than just like, oh, I have a solution.

I would say there’s also, there’s some interesting psychological stuff going on, right? Where you may have tried this, but if somebody tries to serve up a solution to a problem I have, I’m often resistant towards them. Kind if like, no, no, no, no, no, no. That solution is not going to work in my world. Whereas if you get them to discuss and analyze what the problem really is, you might actually dig something up.

Let’s go back to the kitchen example. One powerful question is just to say, what’s your own part in creating this problem? It’s very often, like, people, they describe problems as if it’s something that’s inflicted upon them from the external world, and they are innocent bystanders in that.

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: Right, or crazy customers with unreasonable demands.

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: Exactly, right. I don’t think I’ve ever met an agency or consultancy that didn’t, like, gossip about their customers. Oh, my god, they’re horrible. That, you know, classic thing, why don’t they want to take more risk? Well, risk is bad.

It’s their business that’s on the line, not the consultancy’s, right? So, absolutely, that’s one of the things when you step into a different mindset and kind of, wait. Oh yeah, maybe I actually am part of creating this problem in a sense, as well. That tends to open some new doors for you to move forward, in a way, with stuff that you may have been struggling with for years.

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: So, we’ve surfaced a couple of questions that are useful. I’m curious to know, what are some of the other questions that you find yourself asking in these situations, given that you have made this sort of mental habit that you do? What are the questions that people seem to find really useful?

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: One easy one is just to ask if there are any positive exceptions to the problem. So, was there day where your kitchen was actually spotlessly clean? And then asking, what was different about that day? Like, what happened there that didn’t happen the other days? That can very often point people towards a factor that they hadn’t considered previously.

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: We got take-out.

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: S,o that is your solution. Take-out from [INAUDIBLE]. That might have other problems.

Another good question, and this is a little bit more high level. It’s actually more making an observation about labeling how that person thinks about the problem. And what I mean with that is, we have problem categories in our head. So, if I say, let’s say that you describe a problem to me and say, well, we have a really great product and are, it’s much better than our previous product, but people aren’t buying it. I think we need to put more marketing dollars into this.

Now you can go in and say, that’s interesting. This sounds like you’re thinking of this as a communications problem. Is there a different way of thinking about that? Because you can almost tell how, when the second you say communications, there are some ideas about how do you solve a communications problem. Typically with more communication.

And what you might do is go in and suggest, well, have you considered that it might be, say, an incentive problem? Are there incentives on behalf of the purchasing manager at your clients that are obstructing you? Might there be incentive issues with your own sales force that makes them want to sell the old product instead of the new one?

So literally, just identifying what type of problem does this person think about, and is there different potential way of thinking about it? Might it be an emotional problem, a timing problem, an expectations management problem? Thinking about what label of what type of problem that person is kind of thinking as it of.

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: That’s really interesting, too, because I think so many of us get requests for advice that we’re really not qualified to give. So, maybe the next time that happens, instead of muddying my way through, I will just ask some of those questions that we talked about instead.

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: That sounds like a good idea.

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: So, Thomas, this has really helped me reframe the way I think about a couple of problems in my own life, and I’m just wondering. I know you do this professionally, but is there a problem in your life that thinking this way has helped you solve?

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: I’ve, of course, I’ve been swallowing my own medicine on this, too, and I think I have, well, maybe two different examples, and in one case somebody else did the reframing for me. But in one case, when I was younger, I often kind of struggled a little bit. I mean, this is my teenage years, kind of hanging out with my parents. I thought they were pretty annoying people. That’s not really fair, because they’re quite wonderful, but that’s what life is when you’re a teenager.

And one of the things that struck me, suddenly, and this was kind of the positive exception was, there was actually an evening where we really had a good time, and there wasn’t a conflict. And the core thing was, I wasn’t just seeing them in their old house where I grew up. It was, actually, we were at a restaurant. And it suddenly struck me that so much of the sometimes, kind of, a little bit, you love them but they’re annoying kind of dynamic, is tied to the place, is tied to the setting you are in.

And of course, if– you know, I live abroad now, if I visit my parents and I stay in my old bedroom, you know, my mother comes in and wants to wake me up in the morning. Stuff like that, right? And it just struck me so, so clearly that it’s– when I change this setting, if I go out and have dinner with them at a different place, that the dynamic, just that dynamic disappears.

SARAH GREEN CARMICHAEL: Well, Thomas, this has been really, really helpful. Thank you for talking with me today.

THOMAS WEDELL-WEDELLSBORG: Thank you, Sarah.

HANNAH BATES: That was Thomas Wedell-Wedellsborg in conversation with Sarah Green Carmichael on the HBR IdeaCast. He’s an expert in problem solving and innovation, and he’s the author of the book, What’s Your Problem?: To Solve Your Toughest Problems, Change the Problems You Solve .

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What is causing MLB’s rash of pitching injuries? Analyzing the data on all the biggest questions

ARLINGTON, TEXAS - OCTOBER 20: Justin Verlander #35 of the Houston Astros reacts against the Texas Rangers during the sixth inning in Game Five of the American League Championship Series at Globe Life Field on October 20, 2023 in Arlington, Texas. (Photo by Carmen Mandato/Getty Images)

There might not be a solution to the pitching injury problem in baseball. If you sort the research and data on the subject to answer the questions most asked about the subject, you don’t end up in a place where there’s an easy way forward.

But that exercise, of answering what we think we can answer the best way possible, seems like a worthy enterprise either way.

What is the main source of pitcher injury ?

Velocity. Throwing hard is a direct stressor on the elbow , and throwing hard has been shown to lead to injury by multiple studies over the years . One study found that fastball velocity was the most predictive factor of needing elbow surgery in pro pitchers. Every additional tick is more stress on the elbow ligament.

Are pitchers getting hurt because they are throwers, not pitchers now?

Although this has an element of shaking a fist at clouds, there’s also an element of truth in this. Glenn Fleisig, Jonathan Slowik, et al. found that the closer a pitcher pitches to their maximum velocity, the more stress they put on their elbow, and other studies have found similar answers . The bad news is that baseball, as a sport, is throwing closer to its maximum with every year. And yes, this is keeping the method of measuring that velocity constant, it has nothing to do with radar technology changes.

The hardest tracked throw remains Aroldis Chapman ’s 105.7 mph in 2016, and the league’s maximum has settled in around 105 mph most seasons. But the average fastball just keeps climbing, meaning as a league, pitchers are throwing closer to their maximum. And this is true on the individual level — according to STATS Perform, the difference between the average starting pitcher’s sitting and max fastball velocity (minimum 500 thrown in a season) was down to a pitch-tracking low of 3.2 mph in 2023, and that’s more than a full tick less than where it started when pitch tracking began. Today’s baseball is a max-effort game. Unfortunately, while varying the velocity on the fastball may help a pitcher “save bullets” and reduce stress, it does not help them perform better .

Are analytics to blame?

There’s an obvious bias here between the author and the answer, but this line of questioning does not reflect well on professional pitchers’ ability to understand the risks and rewards in their own sport. In other words, yes, there have been all sorts of studies that link fastball velocity to better outcomes, starting with Atlanta Braves executive Mike Fast’s seminal piece on the subject and culminating most recently in things like Stuff+ , but does a pitcher really need an analyst to tell them they need to get strikeouts, and that throwing hard will get them there? Listen to Justin Verlander on the subject. He’s smart, but he also captures the feeling of most pitchers when faced with the reality of getting outs in today’s game — especially given the rules changes that have favored offense.

Justin Verlander on the rash of pithcer injuries: "…I think the game has changed a lot, it would be easiest to blame the pitch clock, in reality everything has a little bit of influence, the biggest thing is the style of pitching has changed so much, everyone is throwing as… pic.twitter.com/rzmvwhB27R — Ari Alexander (@AriA1exander) April 7, 2024

Pitchers organize their talents to get outs, and pitchers know velocity is good for that. The role of the analyst, as it always has been, is to support the players in getting as many wins as possible. Don’t hate the players (or the analysts), they’re just trying to win games.

Are the injuries because of all the breaking balls?

One of the studies that looked at direct stress on the elbow for different pitch types did find that, although overall velocity was the biggest source of stress, once you adjusted for velocity, breaking balls provided more stress at any given mph . Eighty-five mph is a bit of a magic spot for breaking balls — they get better above that velocity, at least. In 2023, pitchers threw nearly 44,000 more breaking balls over 85 mph than they did when we started tracking pitches in 2008. But this is a distinction without a difference, probably: Whether it’s fastball velocity or breaking ball velocity, it’s still velocity.

What role does the pitch clock have in injury?

Theoretically, if you ask an athlete to do the same amount of work in less time, you’re increasing their fatigue. That’s something so basic it shouldn’t require supporting research, but before Dr. Mike Sonne went to work for the Cubs , he wrote for The Athletic about how that works. And how that fatigue should lead to more injuries .

The weird thing is… it hasn’t. Yet. Not at the major-league level.

Despite an early surge in injuries in the first year of the clock , once the year finished, there was no real discernible difference in injury rates . And because March and April are the biggest months for injury list placements, it wouldn’t make much sense to report this year’s injury rates as a big predictor, not until we sum it all up in the end again. The increase in injuries on the major-league level has been a slow burn, not a big spike. The one caveat is that minor-league UCL injuries have exploded since the pitch clock was first introduced in 2018, going from 152 in 2017 to consistently over 200 in each of the past three seasons. (Then again, there were only 86 UCL injuries in the minors in 2011, so there’s more happening here.)

It’s probably most accurate to say that the clock has some role, but that role is undefined as of now, and there’s a longer trend at play, so it can’t all be the clock.

Does sticky stuff (and its ban) have any role in the injury increase?

Tyler Glasnow famously felt that banning sticky stuff led to him having to grip the ball harder, which led to his injury.

Tyler Glasnow made it very clear why pitchers were getting injured 2 years ago. It’s not the pitch clock Nor even joking, this is all Trevor Bauer’s fault pic.twitter.com/Tr0XN8y4En — Nate (@notNate99) April 7, 2024

Research on grip strength isn’t conclusive. Grip strength probably doesn’t lead to more spin , but could lead to better health outcomes , and doesn’t seem to stress the elbow — but these are all studies about grip strength relative to other players. There may not be a study out there that looks at what happens when a pitcher grips the ball harder than he normally does.

But, again, there’s no real spike in injuries after enforcement. There were 243 pitcher injuries in 2021, 226 in 2022 and 233 last year. Sticky stuff enforcement happened in mid-2021.

Could year-round throwing be the problem?

“You have to build up your fitness,” said Sonne, who is a data scientist for the Cubs now. “If you’re running a marathon, you don’t not run for months so you can run on race day. The April spike in injuries happens because people STOP throwing and then try to build up.”

There might be a difference here between adult professionals and kids, though.

On pitching injuries, I'll say this: start with rigorous adherence to basic protective guidelines before tackling advanced physics/sports medicine challenges. >100 IP/yr is associated with a 350% increased risk of injury in youth arms. If you can count, you can prevent injuries. — Eric Cressey (@EricCressey) April 8, 2024

Throwing 100 innings as your body is still developing looks like it increases injury risk. But that might also be because of the shape of those innings, the effort the young person is putting into those pitches, the amount of rest they get and how their workload was monitored. If those things are inconsistent in MLB , they’re probably near nonexistent on a concise level across youth leagues. Throwing less has been put out there as a solution … except that it doesn’t prepare them all that well for throwing more in the future. Pitchers are throwing less, everywhere, and they’re injured more.

Are there better mechanics out there that could solve the problem?

There have been findings that have come out of the emergent study of biomechanics . Certain relationships between your landing foot, your trunk rotation and your shoulder movement have been deemed better than others. Some think they’ve got the perfect mechanics that will ensure a way out of this problem. But Casey Mulholland, who runs Kinetic Pro, a private player development lab, outlined a problem with blaming it all on mechanics.

“Let’s say you’ve got a pitcher with a three-quarter arm slot — that means more stress, more valgus torque,” Mulholland said. “He comes to Tampa and I magically change his arm action to produce the same velo more over the top, and now he throws with less torque. Well, with the cleaned-up arm action, he can now throw harder. And the one thing we know that increases stress is velo, sooooo.

“Our brain passes messages to our muscles, forearm flexors in this case, via the central nervous system to contract at just the right moment to offload the stress applied to the UCL. When we become fatigued our brain doesn’t pass this message as well, the muscles don’t contract at the ‘optimal time’ or the ‘optimal amount’ and we end up not being able to offload this stress. The UCL then wears more of a direct stress. Over time, under fatigue, the load of throwing eventually overcomes the tissue tolerance and boom, UCL tear.

“This is why workload management is the only logical answer to slow the injury rate,” thinks Mulholland. “Workload management predicts the possible time at which an athlete might experience too much load.”

What rule changes could incentivize different injury outcomes?

Some proposed rule changes are just not going to happen. Every pitch over 94 is a ball? Just can’t see it. Similarly, the idea that we will limit the number of pitchers on the roster might work to prod teams into getting more innings from each pitching slot. But the players’ union would assuredly be against any reduction in major-league jobs.

Jayson Stark’s proposed “Double Hook” — in which the pitching team loses their designated hitter once the starting pitcher leaves the game — would incentivize teams to acquire players who can go deeper into games. But there’s a little bit of a gap there that will be funky for the pitchers themselves. Until the market shows that it will value lesser quality with more quantity (it hasn’t), the pitcher’s incentives may be misaligned with those of the team as a whole. They’d rather be the guy with better stuff and cleaner numbers if they know that’s what free agency has rewarded in the past.

Limiting the number of active pitchers for a single game seems like a bland rule change that might not mean much. But, in light of Mulholland’s and Sonne’s feelings about the importance of workload monitoring, maybe asking teams to fully rule out some number of pitchers every game could nudge teams into the era of more precise workload management.

In the end, there’s no telling pitchers to throw softer if it isn’t going to help their bottom line — and that’s sort of the simplest way to state the problem. The best we can do as a sport is to provide players with the best possible mechanics that analysis can provide, and be as precise as possible with monitoring their fatigue. At the very top of any game, injuries will happen.

From revision surgery to internal brace procedures, understanding Tommy John surgery today

(Photo of Justin Verlander: Carmen Mandato / Getty Images)

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Eno Sarris is a senior writer covering baseball analytics at The Athletic. Eno has written for FanGraphs, ESPN, Fox, MLB.com, SB Nation and others. Submit mailbag questions to [email protected] . Follow Eno on Twitter @ enosarris

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But, again, there's no real spike in injuries after enforcement. There were 243 pitcher injuries in 2021, 226 in 2022 and 233 last year. Sticky stuff enforcement happened in mid-2021.