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Human Evolution Progress

Introduction to human evolution.

Over 7 million years of evolution have led to the most prominent species on the planet, Homo sapiens. Fossil records and studies of morphology, physiology, and embryology have been used to trace human evolution.

We are members of the order Primates and belong to the family Hominidae. Hominids are similar to humans in that they also belong to that order. The ancestors of their descendants evolved and became increasingly distinct as time passed.

It is believed that humanity's first ancestors came from Africa, eventually migrating to Europe, Asia and the rest of the world.

A Detailed Look at Human Evolution

Our species is classified as Mammalia, a group that is characterized by the presence of mammary glands to nurture our young. Aside from this characteristic, humans share all other characteristics in common with Vertebrates and Chordates. Mammals were first derived from shrews. Ancestors of primates are believed to have descended from tree shrews. This creature had cone-shaped eyes. Monkeys, apes, and man belong to the order primates. Humans were also believed to have come from apes, however, the truth is that humans and apes shared an ancestor that had characteristics of both. The common ancestor of humans was Dryopithecus, which was more like an ape. It was from this common ancestor that humans and apes evolved in different directions.

Classification of Humans

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Chordata

Subphylum - Vertebrata

Class - Mammalia

Order - Primates

Family - Hominidae

Genus - Homo

Species - Sapiens

Process of Human Evolution

In evolutionary processes, a species either becomes adapted to its environment or becomes extinct through a series of changes. Changes in our genetic material are the result of evolution. This process does not affect one organism, but rather the whole class of organisms that belong to the same family.

A Number of Stages Led to the Evolution of Man

Dryopithecus

Humans descend from it as their earliest ancestors. Africans, Asians and Europeans all possessed one. Through him, mankind evolved. Then there was Australopithecus, followed by Dryopithecus.

Australopithecus

They stood 1.2 meters tall and had the ability to walk upright. They lived on the continent of Africa. Their jaws were large and their teeth were human-like.

Homo Habilis

Their height was five feet and they were able to use tools. Their language is believed to have been spoken.

Homo Erectus

They were more advanced beings. Their heads were larger and upright as well. They spoke clearly. Fire was invented by them, and they were carnivores.

Homo Sapiens

Modern men are like this. Through the development of tools, omnivores, using tools, and producing art, they gained the power of thinking. They lost roughly 1300 cubic centimeters of brain capacity.

Neanderthals

In the past few thousand years, prior to the arrival of Homo sapiens, there were a few other species of hominids besides the modern human species - the Neanderthals, Denisovans, and Homo floresiensis. Rather than treating Neanderthals as separate species, scientists consider them to be subspecies of people.

Difference Between Apes and Man

Faqs on human evolution progress.

1. Explain why evolution should not be equated with progress?

Evolution refers to the creation of many branches from common descent or ancestry. Diversity of organisms is generated and the surviving species is the one that is naturally selected. The parent species from which the new species have come is not eliminated but still remains alive. The only difference is that they now become reproductively isolated. Apes still exist on earth but cannot reproduce with man and it's a clear example.

Progress refers to a single person's development and comparison from the previous state. This definitely cannot be applied to evolution as less developed species are still present on earth with humans. Progress is like climbing a ladder but this can not be considered true for evolution.

2. What are the Different Types of Evolution?

There are three types of Evolution present.

Parallel Evolution

In this type of Evolution, two different species evolve independently of each other. The species are unrelated to each other and it is not necessary that this evolution takes place in the same habitat or niche.

Divergent Evolution

In this, two closely related species evolve from a common ancestor or parent but become different from each other.

Convergent Evolution

In this type of evolution, two unrelated species share common characteristics due to the same habitat. For example, whales and sharks both live in water but their origin is different.

3. What are the three major changes in human evolution?

Human evolution has been marked by the appearance of opposable thumbs, an enlarged brain, and the loss of hair. Humans developed tool-making abilities by developing opposable thumbs and a large brain, which enabled them to engineer the environment in their favor. Since they were able to lose heat more effectively with fewer hairs, they were able to be more effective endurance runners. Humans had become highly successful hunters due to all these changes.

4. What is the average time it would take humans to evolve?

Six million years approximately. People evolved from apelike ancestors through an extensive process of change. According to research, all physical and behavioral traits shared by humans evolved over roughly six million years from apelike ancestors.

5. Is evolution random?

No, evolution is not random. Natural selection works through variations in genetics, but natural selection itself is not random. In a given local environment, an individual's inherited traits work in concert to determine whether it will survive and reproduce. It is dependent on the genes of the individual whether it is well-adapted to its environment so that it will survive and reproduce.

6. In Biology, what is a species?

It is not common in nature for one species to breed with another. In captivity, there is sometimes the possibility of interbreeding between members of different species, such as between lions and tigers. These sorts of closely related animal species are often kept apart by geographical isolation and individual differences in behavior, including habitat choice. Hybridization can also sometimes occur between closely related species of plants, but naturally these hybrids are uncommon. Therefore, a species is described by science as a population that is reproductively isolated from other groups of its kind that are interbreeding.

7. In what way do organisms evolve?

An organism does not evolve on its own. A population evolves. Some individuals in a population are better able to survive and reproduce given certain environmental conditions due to their unique characteristics. Generally, these individuals survive and have more offspring, passing on their advantageous characteristics to succeeding generations. Eventually, populations change.

Biology • Class 10

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Class 10 Biology (India)

Course: class 10 biology (india)   >   unit 4, evolution & natural selection.

• Genetic drift
• Acquired vs inherited traits
• Natural Selection and Genetic drift
• Acquired vs Inherited Traits

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Video transcript

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• Heredity Evolution

Heredity and Evolution

We have heard our relatives saying that we look like our mother, and we have a brain like our father. What do you think they mean while saying this? They talk about heredity and evolution. Heredity is defined as the passing of behavioural traits from parents to off springs that is from one generation to another. Offsprings reproduced can be twins. Twins are formed when two offsprings are produced from the same pregnancy. They talk in their own language and the language developed between them is called Cryptophasia which only twins can understand. Twin formation can be of two types:

• Monozygotic
• Monozygotic: These twins are the ones which are formed from one zygote that splits into two embryos. This kind of twins are identical to each other.
• Dizygotic: In dizygotic twins, the twins are fraternal. These are not identical twins. These twins are reproduced from separate eggs that are released simultaneously from the ovary and are fertilized by separate sperm. There are so many subtypes of twins depending on the placentas shared or not and the combination whether it is boy-boy, boy-girl or girl- girl combination.

Identical twins are exactly the same, and the external appearance is phenotype i.e. they are same. Since the DNA is also same, they are of the same genotype.

Byju’s help students by delivering chapterwise and detailed solutions to the questions of NCERT books so that they can compare their answers with the sample answers given here NCERT Solutions for Heredity and Evolution .

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Heredity and Evolution

Ncert revision notes for chapter 9 heredity and evolutions class 10 science.

→ Genetics deals with the study of Heredity and Variation.

→ The transmission of characters/traits from one generation to the next generation is called Heredity.

→ The differences in the characters/traits between the parent and offspring is called Variation.

→ Variation are of two types:

(i) Somatic Variation

(ii) Gametic Variation

• Somatic Variation

→ It takes place in the body cell.

→ It is neither inherited nor transmitted.

→ It is also known as acquired traits.

→ Examples: cutting of tails in dogs, boring of pinna etc.

• Gametic Variation

→ Takes place in the gametes/Reproductive cells.

→ Inherited as well as transmitted.

→ Also known as inherited traits.

→ Example: human height, skin colour.

→ Variation occurs during reproduction whether organisms multiply sexually or asexually.

Variations in Asexual Reproduction

→ Variations are fewer.

→ Occurs due to small inaccuracies in DNA copying (Mutation).

Variations in Sexual Reproduction

→ Variations are large.

→ Occurs due to crossing over, separation of chromosomes, mutation.

Importance of Variation

→ Depending upon the nature of variations different individuals would have different kinds of advantage. Example, Bacteria that can withstand heat will survive better in a heat wave.

→ Main advantage of variation to species is that it increases the chances of its survival in a changing environment.

→ Free ear lobes and attached ear lobes are two variants found in human populations.

→ Gregor Johann Mendel (1822 & 1884) started his experiments on plant breeding and hybridisation. He proposed the laws of inheritance in living organisms.

→ Mendel was known as Father of Genetics.

→ Plant selected by Mendel: Pisum sativum (garden pea). He used a number of contrasting characters for garden pea.

Seven pairs of contrasting characters in Garden Pea

Medel’s Experimental Material

• He chose Garden Pea (Pisum sativum) as his experiment material because of:

→ Availability of detectable contrasting traits of several characters.

→ Short life span of the plant.

→ Normally allows self-fertilisation but cross-fertilisation can also be carried out.

→ Large no. of seeds produced.

•  Mendel’s Experiments:  Mendel conducted a series of experiments in which he crossed the pollinated plants to study one character (at a time).

→ Cross between two pea plants with one pair of contrasting characters is called a monohybrid cross. Example: Cross between a tall and a dwarf plant (short).

→ First-generation or F1 progeny are no ‘medium-height’ plants. All plants were tall.

→ Second-generation or F2 are progeny (descendant )  of the F1 tall plants are not all tall.

→ Both the tallness and shortness traits were inherited in the F1 plants, but only the tallness trait was expressed. Thus, two copies of the trait are inherited in each sexually reproducing organism.

→ These two may be identical or may be different depending on the parentage. 

Pure or homozygous condition

(TT, tt): Both are dominant traits, Both are recessive alleles

Hetrozygous condition (Hybrid)

Tt: One is dominant, one ris ecessive trait

→ Phenotypic ratio → 3 : 1 (Three tall and one short)

→ Genotypic ratio → 1 : 2 : 1 (TT-one, Tt-two, tt-one)

Phenotype means Physical appearance either they are Tall or Short.

Genotype means Genetic make up that are TT, Tt or tt.

Observations of Monohybrid Cross:

(i) All F1 progeny were tall, no medium height plant. (Half way characteristic)

(ii) F2 progeny ¼ were short, ¾ were tall.

(iii) Phenotypic ratio F2 – 3 : 1 (3 tall : 1 short)

Conclusions:

→ TT and Tt both are tall plants while tt is a short plant.

→A single copy of T is enough to make the plant tall, while both copies have to be ‘t’ for the plant to be short.

→ Characters/traits like ‘T’ are called dominant trait (because it express itself) and ‘t’ are recessive trait (because it remains suppressed).

A cross between two plants having two pairs of contrasting characters is called dihybrid cross.

• Parent → Round green × Wrinkled yellow

Phenotypic Ratio:

Round, yellow: 9

Round, green: 3

Wrinkled, yellow: 3

Wrinkled, green: 1

Observations:

(i) When RRyy was crossed with rrYY in F1 generation all were Rr Yy round and yellow seeds.

(ii) Self pollination of F1 plants gave parental phenotype and two mixtures (recombinants round yellow and wrinkled green) seeds plants in the ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1.

→ Round and yellow seeds are Dominant characters.

→ Occurrence of new phenotype combinations show that genes for round and yellow seeds are inherited independently of each other.

How do these traits get expressed?

→ Cellular DNA is the information source for making proteins in the cell.

→ A section of DNA that provides information for one protein is called the gene for that protein.

→ Plant height can thus depend on the amount of a particular plant hormone. The amount of the plant hormone made will depend on the efficiency of the process for making it.

• Cellular DNA (Information source) → For synthesis of Proteins (Enzyme) → Works efficiently → More Hormone → produced Tallness of plant. Therefore, genes control characteristics/traits.

Determination of sex of an offspring is known as Sex Determination.

Factors responsible for Sex Determination are:  Environmental and Genetic factors.

• Environmental

→ In some animals, the temperature at which the fertilized eggs are kept decides the gender. Example: Turtle

In some animals like humans gender or individual is determined by a pair of chromosomes called sex chromosome.

XX – Female

Sex Chromosomes

→ In human beings, there are 23 pairs of chromosome.

→ Out of these 22 chromosomes pairs are called autosomes and the last pair of chromosome that help in deciding gender of that individual is called sex chromosome.

→ This shows that half the children will be boys and half will be girls. All children will inherit an X chromosome from their mother regardless whether they are boys or girls.

→ Thus, sex of children will be determined by what they inherit from their father, and not from their mother.

Evolution is the sequence of gradual changes which takes place in the primitive organisms, over millions of years, in which new species are produced.

Situation I (Group of red and green beetles)

• Colour variation arises during reproduction. All beetles red except one that is green → Crows feed on red beetle → No. of beetles reduces. One beetle green → Progeny beetles green → Crows could not feed on green beetles as they got camouflaged (hide) in green bushes → Number of green beetles increases.

Conclusion:

→ Green beetles got the survival advantage or they were naturally selected as they were not visible in green bushes.

→ This natural selection is exerted by crows resulting in adaptations in the beetles to fit better in their environment.

Situation II (Group of red and blue beetles)

Reproduction in group of red beetles → All beetles are red except one that is blue → Number of red beetles increases as they reproduces → One blue beetle reproduces and no. of blue beetles also increases → Crows can see both blue and red beetles and can eat them → Number reduces but still red beetles are more and blue ones are few → Suddenly elephant comes and stamps on the bushes → Now beetles left are mostly blue

→ Blue beetles did not get survivals advantage. Elephant suddenly caused major havoc in beetles population otherwise their number would have been considerably large.

→ From this we can conclude that accidents can change the frequency of some genes even if they do not get survival advantage. This is called  genetic drift  and it leads to variation.

Situation III (Group of red beetles and Bushes)

Group of red beetles → Habitat of beetles (bushes) suffer from plant disease → Average weight of beetles decreases due to poor nourishment → Number of beetles kept on reducing → Later plant disease gets eliminated → Number and average weight of beetles increases again

No genetic change has occurred in the population of beetle. The population gets affected for a short duration only due to environmental changes.

Speciation takes place when variation is combined with geographical isolation.

(i) Gene flow : Occurs between population that are partly but not completely separated.

(ii) Genetic drift : It is the random change in the frequency of alleles (gene pair) in a population over successive generations.

Genetic drift takes place due to:

→ Severe changes in the DNA

→ Change in number of chromosomes

(iii) Natural selection : The process by which nature selects and consolidate those organisms which are more suitable adapted and possesses favourable variations.

(iv) Geographical isolation : It is caused by mountain ranges, rivers etc. Geographical isolation leads to reproductive isolation due to which there is no flow of genes between separated groups of population.

Both evolution and classification are interlinked.

→ Classification of species is reflection of their evolutionary relationship.

→ The more characteristic two species have in common the more closely they are related.

→ The more closely they are related, the more recently they have a common ancestor.

→ Similarities among organisms allow us to group them together and to study their characteristic.

Evidences of Evolution

(i) Homologous Organs  (Morphological and anatomical evidences).

→ These are the organs that have same basic structural plan and origin but different functions.

→ Homologous organs provides evidence for evolution by telling us that they are derived from the same ancestor.

Forelimb of horse (Running)

Winds of bat (Flying)

Paw of a cat (Walk/scratch/attack)

(ii) Analogous Organs : These are the organs that have different origin and structural plan but same function.

→ Analogous organs provide mechanism for evolution.

Wings of bat →  Elongated fingers with skin folds

Wings of bird → Feathery covering along the arm

→ Different basic structure, but perform similar function i.e., flight.

(iii) Fossils : (Paleontological evidences)

→ The remains and relics of dead organisms of the past.

→ They are preserved traces of living-organisms. 

→ Fossil Archaeopteryx possess features of reptiles as well as birds. This suggests that birds have evolved from reptiles.

Ammonite:  Fossil-invertebrate

Trilobite:  Fossil-invertebrate

Knightia:  Fossil-fish

Rajasaurus: Fossil-dinosaur skull

Age of the fossils

→ Deeper the fossil, older it is.

→ Detecting the ratios of difference of the same element in the fossil material Radio-carbon dating [C-(14) dating].

Evolution by Stages

Evolution takes place in stages i.e. bit by bit generations.

(i) Fitness Advantage

Evolution of Eyes : Evolution of complex organs is not sudden. It occurs due to minor changes in DNA, however takes place bit by bit over generations.

• Flat worm has rudimentary eyes. (Enough to give fitness advantage)

• Insects have compound eyes.

• Humans have binocular eyes.

(ii) Functional Advantage

Evolution of Feathers : Feathers provide insulation in cold weather but later they might become useful for flight.

(i) Dinosaurs had feathers, but could not fly using feathers. 

(ii) Birds seem to have later adapted the feathers to flight.

Humans have been a powerful agent in modifying wild species to suit their own requirement throughout ages by using artificial selection. 

(i) From wild cabbage many varieties like broccoli, cauliflower, red cabbage, kale, cabbage and kohlrabi were obtained by artificial selection.

(ii) Wheat (many varieties obtained due to artificial selection).

Molecular Phylogeny

→ It is based on the idea that changes in DNA during reproduction are the basic events in evolution.

→ Organisms which are most distantly related will accumulate greater differences in their DNA.

Excavating, Time dating, Fossils and Determination of DNA sequences  are the tools to study Human evolutionary relationship.

→ Although there is great diversity of human forms all over the world, yet all humans are a single species.

→ All humans come from Africa. The earliest members of the human species, Homo sapiens, can be traced there. Our genetic footprints can be traced back to our African roots.

→ The residents spread across Africa, the migrants slowly spread across the planet from Africa to West Asia, then to Central Asia, Eurasia, South Asia, East Asia. They travelled down the islands of Indonesia and the Philippines to Australia, and they crossed the Bering land bridge to the Americas.

→ They did not go in a single line.

→ Sometimes came back to mix with each other.

NCERT Solutions for Chapter 4 The Age of Industrialisation Class 10 History

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Human Evolution

Nov 02, 2014

810 likes | 1.5k Views

Human Evolution. A brief history of the past 4 million years. The March of Progress?. Human Evolution is often misunderstood to be a clear development; people often mischaracterize it as “humans descended from monkeys”.

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• stone tools
• human ancestor
• brain 850 1100 cc

Presentation Transcript

Human Evolution A brief history of the past 4 million years

The March of Progress? • Human Evolution is often misunderstood to be a clear development; people often mischaracterize it as “humans descended from monkeys”.

Human evolution is NOT a clean continuum – we do not have a full picture of every species and how they all interact. • Current understanding is how different genera and species are generally connected, and the relative timelines, but this understanding changes as more discoveries are made, and with advances in dating techniques and DNA testing.

Human Evolution as a Tree

King Philip Came Over For Ginger Snaps (or Good Soup or Good Spaghetti, or…) • Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species • For our purposes, we will generally be focusing on genus and species. So, assume… • Kingdom – Animalia • Phylum – Chordata • Class – Mamalia • Order – Primate • Family – Hominidae

Signs of “Progress” • Traditionally, when discussing human evolution and the concept of progress, certain features have been emphasized. • These features are the ones that made these groups look more like AMH, or any movement towards behavioral modernity (BMH). • Brain size • Height • Diet • Tool creation and use • Bipedalism • Signs of creativity or abstract thought • Awareness of mortality

The VERY Distant Past • 85-65 ma – First speciation into primates (order) • 63-25 ma – Primates continue to split into various • 15 ma – Hominidae (Family) splits off from lesser primates • 13 ma – human ancestors split off from orangutan ancestors • 10 ma – human ancestors split off from gorilla ancestors • 7 ma – human ancestors split off from chimpanzee ancestors

4.4 ma – Ardipithecus (genus) • Facultative biped – bipedal on ground, quadripedal in trees • Could not run/walk long distances, but much better adapted than ancestors/other primates • Northeast Africa (Ethiopia) • Brain – 300-350 cc • 3’11” tall

3.9-2.9 ma – Australopithecus Afarensis • Arms adapted for trees/climbing, but well adapted for bipedalism over short distances • Northeast Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania) • Brain – 380-430 cc • Males – 4’11” • Females – 3’5” • Chimp-like social structure

3.3-2.1 ma – A. Africanus • Much doubt if this is a human ancestor. Many believed they evolved into a different, now extinct, genus. • Anatomically similar to A. afarensis, with slightly more developed bipedalism • Southern Africa (South Africa) • Brain – 400-500 cc • Males – 4’6” • Females 3’9”

2.33 – 1.44 ma – Homo Habilis • First in the Genus Homo (“human”) • AKA the Tool Man • Short with long arms, but bipedal • Eastern Africa (Kenya, Tanzania) and Southern Africa • Brain – 550-687 cc • Height range 3’4” – 4’5” tall • Unknown if a human ancestor – experts disagree. Possibly an ancestor of H. Ergaster

Made stone tools by shaping rocks • Used for cutting scavenged meat, but not defense or hunting • More sophisticated social organization than previous species. • Believed to have intelligence about equivalent to a 12 year old today

1.8 – 1.3 ma – H. Ergaster • AKA Working Man • Generally considered to be a direct ancestor of later hominids, including H. sapiens, but some consider them to be only the African H. erectus • Eastern and southern Africa • Brain 700-900 cc in earlier, 900-1100 in later individuals • Males - 6’3”

More diverse and sophisticated stone tools • First use of bifacial hand axes 1.6 ma • May be the first to use fire • Limited vocal communications, mixed with hand gestures • Reduced competition for mating • May have cared for weak/ill members

1.9 ma -143 kya – H. Erectus • AKA Upright Man • Originated in Africa, but spread to Georgia, Sri Lanka, India, China, Java • Spread out more than any previous species • Slender, with long arms and legs • Height range – 4’9” – 6’1” • Brain 850-1100 cc

Due to darker skin pigmentation, so were not prone to overheating; could run/ walk/ forage for long periods of time • Stone tools less advanced than those of H. ergaster • Used rafts to travel across oceans

Used fire, but no evidence of using it for cooking • Ate mostly meat, but also nuts, berries, fruits • May have hunted in co-ordinated groups • Evidence they cared for the weak and ill • Capable of producing sounds similar to modern speech • Did not have advanced language, though there is debate about how developed their verbal communication was.

1.2 ma – 800 kya – H. Antecessor • Spain • Height range 5’6”- 6’0” • Brain 1000-1150 cc • Possibly cannibalistic – flensed bones found in Spain • Much debated; there is very little evidence for this species • Some consider the fossils to be members of H. heidelbergensis

1.3 ma (?), 600 – 200 kya – H. Heidelbergensis • Eastern and southern Africa, Europe, western Asia • Probably descended from H. ergaster • Possible common ancestor of Neanderthal and H. sapiens • Males – 5’9” • Females – 5’2” • *One small group in Africa had males routinely 7 feet tall) • Brain 1100-1400 cc

The first group to bury its dead • Right handed • Language was more developed than H. ergaster • Sophisticated handaxes • Hunted in organized groups, with stone-tipped spears • Control of fire • First to build shelters

Conclusions? • For millennia, progress was measured by small changes, such as increased brain size, advances in stone tools, use of fire, and other signs of intelligence. • This will be followed by a period of rapid change over a comparatively short period of time with the development of behavioral modernity.

Paragraph – Towards Modernity • Based on your understanding of the concept of behavioral modernity, how behavioral modernity and “progress” are measured, and on the evolution of the genus Homo, make an argument for what we should consider to be the most important indicator(s) of evolutionary improvement and intelligence. Explain your answer.

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Human Evolution. Archaeopteryx. SKULL ORDER. Modern Man Neanderthal (32,000-150,000) Cro magnon ( 100,000 ) Homo Erectus Pekinensis Broken Hill (200,000- 1.6 million) Australopithicus Boisei (1.3-2.5 million) Australopithicus Africanus (2.3 – 3 million).

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Human evolution .

Human evolution . Kudzai Deketeke Teddy Chocos English 101. Human’s physical progression. Human achievement or progress is illustrated in the image, as the ape evolves steadily into becoming a human.

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Human Evolution. Van Roekel IB BIO II 4/14/14. How to date rocks and fossils. Use radioisotopes 14 C, 40 K, or 238 U Living organisms and rocks contain radioisotopes in small quantities Stop taking in new carbon products when dead Over time, radioisotopes decay to stable isotopes

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Human Evolution. BIO 1114 Oklahoma City Community College Dennis Anderson. Animal Connection. Humans share many traits with animals We are most similar to apes Same 206 bones All but 3 of 650 muscles the same DNA is 98% the same Same blood types. Albino Gorilla.

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Human Evolution. Chapter 19. Early Primates - Prosimians. Lived in trees (arboreal) Exhibits brachiation (swinging from tree to tree) Opposable toes and thumbs Short snout Eyes set close together. Anthropoids. Includes monkeys, apes, and humans.

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Human Evolution. Outline. Evolution of Primates Mobile Limbs Binocular Vision Evolution of Hominids Early Homo Modern Humans Human Variation. Evolution of Primates.

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Human Evolution. Neanderthals and Us. 350 – 30 kya – H. Neanderthalensis. AKA Neanderthals Europe, central and northern Asia Shorter limbs, wide ribcage, larger noses Height 5’7” Brain 1200-1900 cc ( l arger than AMH). Very closely related to AMH

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Maharashtra Board Class 10 Science Solutions Part 2 Chapter 1 Heredity and Evolution

Balbharti Maharashtra State Board Class 10 Science Solutions Part 2 Chapter 1 Heredity and Evolution Notes, Textbook Exercise Important Questions and Answers.

Maharashtra State Board Class 10 Science Solutions Part 2 Chapter 1 Heredity and Evolution

Question 2. Read the following statements and justify same in your own words with the help of suituble examples. a. Human evolution began approximately 7 crore years ago. Answer:

• Approximately around 7 crore years back the ice age began on the earth. In such conditions, dinosaurs became extinct. The evolution and diversity of mammals started during this time. Due to change in climate the forest cover also declined rapidly.
• Ancestors of monkey-like animals were Lemur like animals which evolved during this time period.
• The tails of these monkey-like creatures started vanishing very gradually around 4 crore years ago.
• The body and brain both increased in volume forming first ape like animals. The monkey like ancestors gave rise to two evolutionary links to apes and human like animals.
• Later, the human evolution took place by changes in the brain volume, the ability to walk upright, excessive use of hand for manipulations.
• This journey of human evolution began 7 crore years ago. But the true wise and intelligent man arose around 50,000 years ago.

b. Geographical and reproductive isolation of organisms gradually leads to speciation. Answer:

• Every species survives in specific geographical conditions. The requirements of food and habitat, is specific for each species. Their reproductive ability and period is also different.
• Therefore, the individuals from one species cannot reproduce with individuals from other species.
• When they are separated by a distance or geographical barriers they are said to be isolated geographically.
• When they cannot reproduce with each other, they are said to be isolated reproductively.
• The ancestor species of both these subspecies may be the same but due to isolation over a very long-time duration, there is genetic variation between the two. Therefore, the isolation leads to speciation.

c. Study of fossils is an important aspect of study of evolution. Answer: Answer:

• Fossils offer palaeontological evidence for the evolutionary process.
• Due to some natural calamities the organisms get buried during ancient times.
• The impressions and remnants of such organisms remain preserved underground. The hot lava also traps some organisms or their impressions. All such formations form fossils.
• Study of fossils help the researcher to understand the characteristics of the organisms that existed in the past.
• Carbon dating method also helps in finding out exact age of the fossil. According to the structure of earth’s crust the fossils are obtained at specific depths.
• The oldest ones are obtained at the depth while the relatively recent ones occupy the upper surface. Thus fossils of invertebrates were seen in very old Palaeozoic era. Later were seen fossils of Pisces, Amphibia and Reptilia. The Mesozoic era was dominated by reptiles while Coenozoic era showed presence of mammals.
• In this way, study of fossils unfold the evolutionary secrets.

d. There is evidences of fatal Science among chordates. [Please read the above question as: Among different chordates there are embryological evidences.] Answer:

• Very young embryos of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals show quite similar structure in the early stages.
• As the further growth takes place, they acquire different patterns.
• The initial similarity between the vertebrate embryos is an evidence that during evolution, there was a common ancestor for all the vertebrate classes.
• This is called embryological evidence for vertebrate evolution.

Question 3. complete the statements by choosing correct options from bracket. (Genes, Mutation, Translocation, Transcription, Gradual development, Appendix) a. The causality behind the sudden changes was understood due to ………… principle of Hugo de Vries. Answer: Mutation

b. The proof for the fact that protein synthesis occurs through ……….. was given by George Beadle and Edward Tatum. Answer: Genes

c. Transfer of information from molecule of DNA to mRNA is called as …………… process. Answer: Transcription

d. Evolution means …………. Answer: Gradual development

e. Vestigial organ ……….. present in human body is proof of evolution. Answer: Appendix

Question 4. Write short notes based upon the information known to you. a. Lamarckism. Answer: (1) Lamarckism consists of two theories which were proposed by Jean Baptiste Lamarck. These are as follows: (a) Use and disuse of the organs (b) Inheritance of acquired characters. (2) In theory of use and disuse of organs, Lamarck says : The characters of organs develop because specific activities that the organisms perform. If such organ is not used it gets degenerated. Thus the morphological changes take place due to activities or inactivity of a particular organism. (3) To emphasise this theory, he quoted following examples. Due to constant extension of neck to eat foliage from the top of the trees, giraffe’s neck became long. Similarly blacksmith has strong arms due to constant work. Flightless ostrich and emu did not fly and hence their wings became useless. Aquatic birds like swan and duck made their feet suitable for swimming by living in water. Snake lost limbs as it tried burrowing mode. (4) Such acquired characters are passed from one parental generation to the offspring. This is called inheritance of acquired characters. (5) The theory of inheritance of acquired characters is not accepted as such transmission of acquired character does not take place. Only genetic characters are transmitted.

b. Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Answer:

• Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection after making many observations on different specimens. He published a concept ‘Survival of the fittest’.
• Darwin explains this concept as follows: All the organisms reproduce prolifically. Therefore, there is always a competition for food, mate, etc. Only adaptations for sustaining this struggle.
• Natural selection plays important role by selecting only those organisms which are fit to live. Those that do not have better adaptations, perish. Selected sustaining organisms then perform reproduction and form new species in a very long period of time.
• Darwin published his views in the book titled ‘Origin of Species’.

c. Embryology. Answer:

• Embryology is the study of developing embryos.
• These embryos in their initial stages are very similar to each other.
• These similarities decrease later in the development.
• This similarity in initial stages indicate that these vertebrates have originated from a common ancestor.
• In evolutionary science, comparative study of embryos of various vertebrates provide evidence for evolution.

d. Evolution. Answer:

• The sequential changes in the groups of living organisms that take place very gradually is called evolution.
• Evolution is also described as the formation of new species due to natural selection.
• The process of evolution takes millions of years for development and speciation of different organisms.
• Changes in stars and planets in space and the changes in biosphere occurring on the Earth are all included under study of evolution.
• Due to evolution organisms become fit, biodiversity is increased, and new species are created.
• Different scientists have put forth theories to explain the process of evolution. Among these Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection and speciation is accepted worldwide.

e. Connecting link. Answer: Some living organisms possess some characters in them which are the distinctive features of different groups or phyla. Such individuals connect these two groups by sharing the characters of both and hence they are known as connective links.

Examples: (1) Peripatus: Peripatus is the connecting link between Annelida and Arthropoda. It shows characters of both animal phyla. Like annelid worm, it shows segmented body, thin cuticle and parapodia. Like an arthropod, it shows open circulatory system and tracheal system for respiration. (2) Duck Billed platypus: This is a connecting link between reptiles and mammals. Like reptiles it lays eggs but like mammals it has mammary glands and hairy skin. (3) Lung fish: Lung fish is a connecting link between fishes and amphibians. Though a fish, it shows lungs for respiration as in amphibian animals. (4) Connecting links indicate the direction and hierarchy of evolution.

Question 5. Define heredity. Explain the mechanism of hereditary changes. Answer: (1) Heredity: Heredity is the process by which the biological characters from parental generation are transmitted to the next generation through genes.

(2) The mechanism of hereditary changes:

• Mutation: Sudden change in the parental DNA can cause mutations. This results into changes in the hereditary characters.
• At the time of meiosis, the crossing over takes place. This creates new recombination of the genetic information. Therefore, the haploid gametes produced carry changed hereditary characters.

Question 6. Define vestigial organs. Write names of some vestigial organs in human body and write the names of those animals in whom same organs are functional. Answer:

• Vestigial organs are degenerated or underdeveloped organs of organisms which do not perform any function.
• According to the principle of natural selection, such organs are on the verge of disappearance. But it takes many millions of years for its complete vanishing.
• The vestigial organs in one animal may be of use but to other kind of the animal as they still perform regular functions.
• Appendix is vestigial for humans, it does not perform any function but in ruminant animals it is concerned with digestion.
• Ear muscles are vestigial for us but in monkeys and cattle they are functional.
• Names of vestigial organs in human body-Appendix, tail-bone or coccyx, wisdom teeth and body hair.

Question 7. Answer the following questions. a. How are the hereditary changes responsible for evolution? Answer: Hereditary characters are transmitted from parental generation to the offspring. These characters are maintained through inheritance. But the genes which are beneficial for the organisms in helping them to adapt to the environment are transmitted to the next generations in a greater proportion. This happens due to natural selection.

The process of evolution happens at a very slow pace. The favourable genes are preserved in the species as they bring about better survival of the individuals. Such individual reproduces more efficiently and evolve. The individuals with unfavourable genes are not selected by nature and are thus removed from the population through natural death. The fuel for evolution is thus truly supplied by the hereditary changes.

b. Explain the process of formation of complex proteins. Answer: The proteins are synthesised in following steps, viz. transcription, translation and translocation. Protein synthesis takes place according to the sequence of nucleotides present on the DNA molecule with the help of RNA molecules. This is known as central dogma of protein synthesis.

1. Transcription: In the process of transcription, mRNA is produced as per the nucleotide sequence on the DNA. For this the two strands DNA are separated. Only one strand participates in the formation of mRNA. The sequence of nucleotides which is complementary to that of present on DNA is copied on mRNA. Instead of thymine present in DNA, uracil is added on the mRNA. Transcription takes place in nucleus but the mRNA leaves nucleus, carries the genetic code and enters the cytoplasm. This genetic code is always in triplet form arid hence is known as triplet codon. The code for each amino acid always consists of three nucleotides.

2. Translation: Each mRNA may carry thousands of codons. But each codon is specific for only one amino acid. The tRNA molecule brings the required amino acid as per the code present on mRNA. There is anticodon on each tRNA which is complementary to the codon on mRNA. This process is known as translation.

3. Translocation: In translocation, the ribosome keeps on moving from one end of mRNA molecule to other end by distance of one triplet codon. While this process is taking place, rRNA, helps in joining the amino acids together by peptide bonds. The peptide chains later come together to form complex protein molecules.

c. Explain the theory of evolution and mention the proof supporting it. Answer: 1. Theory of evolution:

• According to the theory of evolution, first living material was in the form of protoplasm which was formed in ocean.
• Gradually, it gave rise to unicellular organisms. Changes took place in these unicellular organisms which made them evolve into larger and more complex organisms.
• All evolutionary changes were very slow and gradual taking about 300 crore years to happen.
• Different types of organisms were developed as the changes and development that occurred in living organisms wefts all round and multi-dimensional.
• Hence, this overall process of evolution is called organizational and progressive.
• Variety of plants and animals developed from the ancestors having different structural and functional organization during the process of evolution.

2. Proof here means evidences of evolution. These evidences are as follows:

• Morphological evidences
• Anatomical evidences
• Vestigial organs
• Palaentological evidences
• Connecting links
• Embryological evidences.

d. Explain with suitable examples importance of anatomical evidences in evolution. (July 2019) Answer:

• There are similarities in the structure and anatomy of different animal groups. E.g. human hand, forelimb of bull, patagium of bat and flipper of whale are all similar in their internal anatomy. There is similarity in the bones and joints of all these specimens.
• External morphology does not show any similarity. Use of each of the organ is also different in different animals. Structurally, they may not be related.
• However, the similarities in the anatomy is an evidence that they may have a common ancestor.
• In this way, the anatomical evidence throws light on the process of evolution.

e. Define fossil. Explain importance of fossils as proof of evolution. Answer:

• Study of fossils help the researcher to understand the characteristics of the organisms that existed in the.past.

f. Write evolutionary history of modern man. Answer: (1) Ancestors of humans developed from animals which resembled lemur like animals. (2) Around seven crore years ago, monkey-like animals evolved from some of these lemur like animals. (3) Then after about 4 crore years ago, in Africa the tails of these monkey like creatures very gradually disappeared. (4) Simultaneously, there was enlargement in their body and brain volume too. The hands also improved and were provided with opposable thumb. In this way, ape-like animals were evolved. (5) These ape-like animals independently gave rise to two lines of evolution, one giving rise to apes like gibbon and orangutan in the South and North-East Asia and gorilla and chimpanzee which stayed in Africa around 2.5 crores of years ago. (6) The other line of evolution gave rise to human like animals around 2 crore years ago. (7) The climate became dry and this resulted into reduction of forest cover. This made arboreal apes to descend on the land and start terrestrial mode. (8) Due to this, there were changes in the pefvic girdle and vertebral column. The hands were also freed from locomotion and thus they became more manipulative. (9) Later, journey of hominoid species started from around 2 crores years ago. The first record of human like animal is ‘Ramapithecus’ ape from East Africa. (10) Ramapithecus → Australopithecus → Neanderthal man → Cro-Magnon are the important steps in human evolution. (11) Neanderthal man was said to be the first wise man. The increasing growth of brain made man more and more intelligent and thinking animal. (12) Later, more than biological evolution, it was cultural evolution, when man started agriculture, animal , rearing. There was development of civilizations, arts and science etc. About 200 years ago there were industrial inventions and thus man now rules the earth.

Project 1. Make a presentation on human evolution using various computer softwares and arrange a group disscussion over it in the class room.

Project 2. Read the book – ‘Pruthvivur Manus Uparcich’ written by Late Dr. Sureshchandra Nadkarni and note your opinion on evolution.

Can you recall? (Text Book Page No. 1)

Question 1. Which component of the cellular nucleus of living organisms carries hereditary characters? Answer: The chromosomes made up of nucleic acids and proteins, present in the nucleus of the cell are the components that carry hereditary characters in living organisms.

Question 2. What do we call the process of transfer of physical and mental characters from parents to the progeny? Answer: The process of transfer of physical and mental characters from parents to the progeny is called inheritance or heredity.

Question 3. Which are the components of the DNA molecule? Answer: DNA molecule is made up of two helical strands consisting of deoxyribose sugar, phosphoric acid and pairs of nitrogenous bases. These three together is called a nucleotide.

Choose the correct alternative and write its alphabet against the sub-question number:

Question 1. Darwin has published a book titled ………….. (a) Natural selection (b) Mutation (c) Fall of a sparrow (d) Origin of species Answer: (d) Origin of species

Question 2. The …………. man evolved about 50 thousand years ago. (a) Cro Magnon (b) Neanderthal (c) Java man (d) Ramapithecus Answer: (a) Cro Magnon

Question 3. About 10 thousand years ago, ………….. started to practise agriculture. (a) Gorilla (b) wise man (c) Ramapithecus (d) Australopithecus Answer: (b) wise man

Question 4. ………………. can be considered as the first example of wise-man. (a) Australopithecus (b) Ramapithecus (c) Cro Magnon (d) Neanderthal man Answer: (d) Neanderthal man

Question 5. ………. is a connecting link between Annelida and Arthropoda. (March 2019) (a) Duck-billed platypus (b) Peripatus (c) Lung fish (d) Whale Answer: (b) Peripatus

Question 6. ………… years ago human brain was sufficiently evolved to call him wise man. (a) 50,000 (b) 30,000 (c) 20,000 (d) 10,000 Answer: (a) 50,000

Question 7. The process by which the gene in the nucleotide suddenly changes its position is called ………. (Board’s Model Activity Sheet) (a) translation (b) translocation (c) mutation (d) transcription Answer: (c) mutation

Question 8. …………. is not the vestigial organ in the human body. (Board’s Model Activity Sheet) (a) appendix (b) Coccyx (c) Canine (d) Wisdom teeth Answer: (c) Canine

Write whether the following statements are true or false with proper justification for your answer:

Question 1. It takes thousands of years for a useful structure to disappear. Answer: False. (The useful structures of the body do not disappear. The functioning of the body is easier due to such organs. It takes thousands of years for a functionless organ to disappear.)

Question 2. Dr. Har Govind Khorana was awarded Nobel prize for his invention and publication in the journal Radio carbon. Answer: False. (Willard Libby was awarded Nobel prize for his invention and publication in the journal Radio carbon.)

Question 3. Mesozoic era was dominated by variety of mammals. Answer: False. (Mesozoic era dominated by variety of reptiles.)

Question 4. It seems that invertebrates have been slowly originated from vertebrates. Answer: False. (Vertebrates have been slowly originated from invertebrates in course of evolution. The primitive type of organisms always give rise to complex life forms. The invertebrates from Palaeozoic era gradually gave rise to vertebrates.)

Question 5. The decaying process of C-12 occurs continuously from the dead remains of living organisms. Answer: False. (The decaying process of C-14 occurs continuously from the dead remains of living organisms. C-12 is not radioactive and hence it does not show decaying process.)

Question 6. The theory of natural selection which mentions ‘Survival of fittest’ is given by Lamarck. Answer: False. (The theory of natural selection which mentions ‘Survival of fittest’ is given by Darwin.)

Question 7. Changes acquired during life time are transferred to next generation. Answer: False. (Changes acquired during life time are not heritable. They are not transferred to next generation. Only the genes are transferred to the next generation.)

Question 8. Each species grows in specific geographical conditions and has specific food, habitat, reproductive ability and period. Answer: True. (Each species has specifically evolved characters due to evolution and speciation.)

Question 9. Humans walking with upright posture were confined to Africa only during prehistoric period. Answer: False. (Humans walking upright existed in Africa and China, Indonesia of Asian continent too.)

Question 10. Industrial society was established about 200 years ago. Answer: True. (After the development and specialization of human brain, he started indulging in science and technology. Before; this period the idea of industrialization was not existing.)

Match the columns:

Question 1.

Answer: (1) Johann Gregor Mendel – Pioneer of the modern genetics. (2) Hugo de Vries – Mutational theory.

Question 2.

Answer: (1) Walter, Sutton – Chromosomes of grasshopper. (2) Mclyn McCarthy – DNA is genetic material.

Question 3.

Answer: (1) Morphological evidences – Shape and venation of leaf. (2) Anatomical evidences – Human hand and fore limb of bull.

Question 4.

Answer: (1) Palaeontological evidences – Remnants and impressions. (2) Connecting links – Duck billed Platypus and Peripatus.

Find the odd one out:

Question 1. Transcription, Translation, Translocation, Mutation Answer: Mutation. (All others are stages of protein synthesis.)

Question 2. Bones of the hands, structure of nostrils, position of eyes, structure of ear pinnae Answer: Bones of the hands. (All the others are morphological evidences.)

Question 3. Venation, Shape of seeds, Leaf petiole, Leaf shape Answer: Shape of seeds. (All the others are morphological evidences in plants.)

Question 4. Human hand, wing of cockroach, forelimb of bull, flipper of whale Answer: Wing of cockroach. (All others are anatomical evidences, they are homologous organs.)

Identify the correlation between the first two words and suggest the suitable words in the fourth place:

Question 1. mRNA : Transcription :: tRNA :………… Answer: Translation

Question 2. Peripatus : Connecting link :: Appendix :………. Answer: Vestigial organs

Question 3. Open circulatory system : Arthropods :: Thin cuticle and parapodia :……….. Answer: Annelida

Question 4. Between Annelida and Arthropoda : Peripatus ::……….: Lungfish Answer: Pisces/Fish and Amphibia

Question 5. Theory of natural selection : Charles Robert Darwin :: Theory of inheritance of acquired characters :………… Answer: Jean Baptiste Lamarck

Question 6. Survival of fittest : Darwin :: Acquired characters :………. Answer: Lamark

Question 7. Wisdom teeth : Vestigial organs :: Lungfish :……….. Answer: Connecting link.

Define the following:

Question 1. Heredity. Answer: The transfer of biological characters from one generation to another through genes is called heredity.

Question 2. Transcription. Answer:

Question 3. Translation. Answer: The process of bringing tRNA possessing anticodon that is complementary to the codon on mRNA for protein synthesis is called translation.

Question 4. Translocation. Answer: The process of movement of the ribosome from one end of mRNA to other end by the distance of one triplet codon is called translocation.

Question 5. Mutation. Answer: Sudden and drastic change that occurs in the genetic material is called mutation.

Question 6. Species. Answer: The group of organisms that cap produce fertile individuals through natural reproduction is called a species.

Name the following:

Question 1. Three Scientists who proved that except viruses, all living organisms have DNA as genetic material. Answer: Oswald Avery, Mclyn McCarthy and Colin MacLeod.

Question 2. Genetic disorder caused due to mutation: Answer: Sickle cell anaemia.

Question 3. Fish that can breathe with help of lungs: Answer: Lung fish.

Question 4. Vestigial organs in human beings: Answer: Appendix, tail-bone or coccyx, wisdom teeth and body hair.

Question 5. Important stages in the journey of human evolution: Answer:

• Animals like Lemur
• Egyptopithecus
• Dryopithecus
• Ramapithecus
• Australopithecus
• Skilled Human
• Homo erectus i.e. Man with erect posture
• Neanderthal man
• Cro-Magnon man.

Distinguish between the following:

Question 1. Transcription and Translation. Answer: Transcription:

• In the process of transcription, the sequence of nucleotides present on the DNA molecule is copied and carried to the cytoplasm by mRNA.
• The process of transcription takes place in nucleus.
• During transcription, RNA is produced from DNA.
• Only mRNA takes part in transcription.

Translation:

• In the process of translation, the specific amino acids are picked up according to the codons brought by mRNA.
• The process of translation takes place in ribosomes located in cytoplasm.
• During translation, proteins are produced with the help of RNA.
• mRNA, tRNA and rRNA take part in translation.

Question 2. Ape and Human. Answer: Ape:

• Brain of the apes is smaller in size.
• Ape cannot walk upright.
• Ape is less intelligent as compared to human.
• Apes are arboreal in their habitat and they spend more time on the trees.
• The forelimbs of ape are longer than the hind limbs.
• Brain of humans is larger in size.
• Humans can walk upright.
• Human is considered to be the most intelligent animal.
• Humans are terrestrial in their habitat. They cannot stay on the trees.
• The forelimbs of humans are shorter than the hind limbs.

Give scientific reasons:

Question 1. Some of the characters of parents are seen in their offspring. Answer:

• The parental genes are transferred to their progeny through male and female gametes.
• These genes carry hereditary characters.
• Since they are transmitted from the parents to their offspring, one can see the parental characters in their offspring.

Question 2. Darwin’s work on evolution has been a milestone. Answer: (1) Darwin has proposed two very important theories of evolution, viz. Theory of natural selection and Theory of origin of species. (2) The evolution has taken place on the earth for last many crores of years. (3) The exact nature and process of these evolutionary changes become clear after studying Darwinism. (4) The observations made by Darwin at that time are now tested according to the modern development in science and are found to be correct. Thus, his work is said to be a milestone.

Question 3. Peripatus is said to be a connecting link between Annelida and Arthropoda. Answer:

• Peripatus shows segmented body, thin cuticle, and parapodia-like organs.
• These characters are typical of Annelids.
• Similarly, it also shows tracheal respiration and open circulatory system which is a characteristic feature of Arthropods.
• Since Peripatus shares both these characters, it is said to be a connecting link between j Annelida and Arthropoda.

Question 4. Vertebrates have been slowly originated from invertebrates. Answer:

• When the carbon dating method was used to assess the age of fossils, it was understood that invertebrates were present on the earth much before the vertebrates.
• The fossils of invertebrates are present in lower layers of earth’s strata.
• They were seen in Palaeozoic era of geological time period. Vertebrates dominated during Coenozoic era.
• Their fossils are seen in the upper strata of the earth’s crust.
• The structural complexity also increased in vertebrates. All these facts indicate that Vertebrates have slowly originated from invertebrates.

Question 5. During human evolution the hands became available for use. Answer:

• During human evolution, the climate of earth started becoming dry.
• This resulted in loss of forest cover.
• The apes which were arboreal on the trees thus descended and started walking on land.
• The lumbar bones underwent change and the apes started walking upright on the grasslands.
• The vertebral column also underwent change. Due to upright posture the forelimbs were freed from locomotion.
• The legs started bearing the weight of the body and the hands became available for use.

Read the following statements and justify the same in your own words with the help of suitable examples:

Question 1. Geographical and reproductive isolation of organisms gradually leads to speciation. Answer:

Question 2. Study of fossils is an important aspect of study of evolution. Answer: (1) Fossils offer palaeontological evidence for the evolutionary process. (2) Due to some natural calamities the organisms get buried during ancient times. (3) The impressions and remnants of such organisms remain preserved underground. The hot lava also traps some organisms or their impressions. All such formations form fossils. (4) Study of fossils help the researcher to understand the characteristics of the organisms that existed in the.past. (5) Carbon dating method also helps in finding out exact age of the fossil. According to the structure of earth’s crust the fossils are obtained at specific depths. (6) The oldest ones are obtained at the depth while the relatively recent ones occupy the upper surface. Thus fossils of invertebrates were seen in very old Palaeozoic era. Later were seen fossils of Pisces, Amphibia and Reptilia. The Mesozoic era was dominated by reptiles while Coenozoic era showed presence of mammals. (7) In this way, study of fossils unfold the evolutionary secrets.

Question 3. There is evidences of fatal Science among chordates. [Please read the above question as: Among different chordates there are embryological evidences.] Answer:

Question 4. Human evolution began approximately 7 crore years ago. Answer:

Answer the following questions:

Question 1. Answer the following questions: (March 2019) (a) What do you mean by central dogma? Answer: Information about protein synthesis is present in DNA. As per this information, proteins are produced by DNA through RNA molecules. This is called central dogma.

(b) What is transcription? Answer: The process of synthesis of mRNA as per the nucleotide sequence present in DNA is called transcription. The nucleotide sequence on mRNA is complimentary to that of the single DNA strand used in synthesis. Instead of thymine, mRNA possesses uracil.

(c) What is meant by triplet codon? Answer: The code for each amino acids always consists of three nucleotides which is known as triplet codon.

Question 2. Which animal is called a connecting link between Reptiles and Mammals? (Board’s Model Activity Sheet) Answer: Duck billed platypus is called a connecting link between Reptiles and Mammals.

Question 3. In which way is science of heredity useful these days? Answer: The science of heredity is useful in the following ways:

• For diagnosis of hereditary disorders.
• For treatment of hereditary disorders
• For prevention of hereditary disorders
• For production of hybrid varieties of animals and plants
• For using microbes in the industrial processes.

Question 4. What is meant by carbon dating method? Answer: (1) Carbon dating method is technique used for determining the age of fossils. (2) After the death of the organisms, their consumption of carbon stops. But right from that moment the decaying process of C-14 occurs continuously. (3) This results in change in the ratio between C-14 and C-12. C-12 is not radioactive as C-14. (4) Thus the time passed since the death of a plant or animal is calculated by measuring the radioactivity of C-14 and ratio of C-14 to C-12 present in their body. (5) The points noted during carbon dating are:

• The period after the organism has been dead.
• The activity of C-14 in the dead organism.
• Ratio between C-14 and C-12.

Question 5. Answer the following questions: (a) Describe briefly the Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Answer: Charles Darwin (1809-1882) proposed the theory of natural selection. Theory of natural selection: ‘The survival of fittest’, i.e., organisms which are fit for survival, evolve while those that are not, perish. The natural selection thus acts to produce new species.

(b) What were the objections raised against Darwinism? Answer: Objections raised against Darwinism:

• There are other factors too for evolution and just not the Natural Selection.
• Arrival of useful and useless modifications were not explained by Darwin, though he said about the survival of the fittest.
• He has not given any explanation about slow changes and abrupt changes occurring during evolution.

(c) Which book was published by Darwin to explain this theory? (Board’s Model Activity Sheet) Answer: Charles Darwin wrote the book ‘Origin of Species’.

Question 6. What were the objections raised against Darwinism? Answer: Some of the main objections raised against Darwinism are as follows:

Question 7. Answer the following questions: (a) Explain in brief-Lamarck’s principle of ‘use or disuse of organs’. Answer: The theory of use and disuse of organs says that the morphological characters of organism develop because of specific activities that the organisms perform. If some organ is not used it gets degenerated. If excessively, used, it develops. Thus, the morphological changes take place due to activities or non-working of a particular body parts in an organism.

(b) Give two examples. Answer: Due to constant extension of neck to eat foliage from the top of the trees, giraffe’s neck became long. Similarly, blacksmith has strong arms due to constant work. The flightless ostrich and emu did not fly and hence their wings became useless. Aquatic birds like swan and duck made their feet suitable for swimming by living in water. Snake lost limbs as it tried burrowing mode.

(c) What are acquired characters? Answer: Acquired characters are those characters which are obtained during the life time by any organism and passed on to next generations.

Write short notes: (OR) Write short notes based upon the information known to you:

Question 1. Theory of evolution. Answer:

• Different types of organisms were developed as the changes and development that occurred in living organisms was all round and multi-dimensional.

By choosing appropriate words given in the bracket, complete the paragraph:

Question 1. (translation, anticodon, tRNA, mRNA, amino acids, triplet codon, transcription, DNA) The …….. formed in nucleus comes in cytoplasm. It brings in the coded message from DNA. The message contains the codes for amino acids. The code for each amino acid consists of three nucleotides. It is called as ‘………..’. Each mRNA is made up of thousands of triplet codons. As per the message on mRNA, ……… are supplied by the ………. For this purpose, tRNA has ‘…………’ having complementary sequence to the codon on mRNA. This is called ‘………..’. Answer: The mRNA formed in nucleus comes in cytoplasm. It brings in the coded message from DNA. The message contains the codes for amino acids. The code for each amino acid consists of three nucleotides. It is called as ‘ triplet codon ’. Each mRNA is made up of thousands of triplet codons. As per the message on mRNA, amino acids are supplied by the tRNA . For this purpose, tRNA has ‘ anticodon ’ having complementary sequence to the codon on mRNA. This is called ‘ translation ’.

Question 2. (Cultural, agriculture, fire, brain, Cro-Magnon, Homo sapiens, Neanderthal) Evolution of upright man continued in the direction of developing its ………. for the period of about 1 lakh years and meanwhile he discovered the ………. Brain of man, 50 thousand years ago had been sufficiently evolved to the extent that it could be considered as member of the species ………… Neanderthal man can be considered as the first example of wise-man. The ……….. man evolved about 50 thousand years ago and afterwards, this evolution had been faster than the earlier. About 10 thousand years ago, wise-man started to practise the ………. It started to rear the cattle-herds and established the cities. ………..development took place later. Answer: Evolution of upright man continued in the direction of developing its brain for the period of about 1 lakh years and meanwhile he discovered the fire . Brain of man 50 thousand years ago had been sufficiently evolved to the extent that it could be considered as member of the species Homo sapiens . Neanderthal man can be considered as the first example of wise-man. The Cro-Magnon man eyolved about 50 thousand years ago and afterwards, this evolution had been faster than the earlier. About 10 thousand years ago, wise-man started-to practise the agriculture . It started to rear the cattle-herds and established the cities. Cultural development took place later.

Read the paragraph and answer the questions given below:

With the help of RNA, the genes present in the form of DNA participate in the functioning of cell and thereby control the structure and functioning of the body. Information about protein synthesis is stored in the DNA and synthesis of appropriate proteins as per requirement is necessary for body. These proteins are synthesized by DNA through the RNA. This is called ‘Central Dogma’. mRNA is produced as per the sequence of nucleotides on DNA. Only one of the two strands of DNA is used in this process. The sequence of nucleotides in mRNA being produced is always complementary to the DNA strand used for synthesis. Besides, there is uracil in RNA instead of thymine of DNA. This process of RNA synthesis is called ‘transcription’.

Questions and Answers:

Question 1. Which part of the cell control the structure and functioning of the body? Answer: Genes present in the form of DNA along with RNA control the structure and functioning of the body.

Question 2. How is a specific protein synthesised in the cell? Answer: The information of protein synthesis is stored in the DNA which is utilised as per the requirement of the body. Later the proteins are synthesised by DNA through the RNA.

Question3. What is the similarity between mRNA and DNA? Answer: The sequence of nucleotides on DNA is copied on mRNA. The nucleotide sequence on mRNA is thus complementary to DNA.

Question 4. Give one difference between RNA and DNA. Answer: RNA has uracil instead of thymine which is present in DNA.

Question 5. Define central dogma. Answer: Central dogma is the concept that proteins are synthesised by DNA through the RNA.

Diagram-based questions:

(2) According to the above sequence on DNA, what will be the transcribed sequence on the mRNA molecule? Answer: U A C G U U A A

(3) Which enzyme is taking part in the above process of transcription? Answer: RNA polymerase takes part in the process of transcription.

(2) What are the types of RNA present inside the ribosome? Which triplet codon is present on it? Answer: There are two molecules of tRNA present inside the ribosome. The triplet codons present on them are UAC and AAG respectively.

(3) Which genetic code is present on mRNA that is leaving the nucleus? What must be the sequence on the DNA to have such code on mRNA? Answer: The mRNA that leaves the nucleus has genetic code: A U G U U C A A A The genetic code on DNA therefore should be as follows: T A C A A G T T T

This will result in the change in genes and then changing the hereditary characters. Due to such change in genes, the evolution proceeds. The mutation so formed can be minor or major. The greater the impact of the change, the evolution takes place rapidly. The mutation thereby produce recombinations leading to diversity.

(2) What can be proven with this proof? Answer: The similarities in the initial embryonic stages of different vertebrates shows that there was a common origin of all of them. Thus embryological evidences prove that there was common vertebrate ancestor.

(3) Give one more example of evidence of evolution. Answer: Palaeontological evidences such as vestigial organs and connecting links are another examples of evolutionary evidences.

• The picture is based on the Lamarck’s principle of ‘use and disuse of organs’.
• The morphological characters of organism develop because of specific activities that the organisms perform.
• If some organ is not used it gets degenerated. If excessively used, it develops further.
• Thus, the morphological changes take place due to activities or non-working of a particular body parts in an organism. Due to constant extension of neck to eat foliage from the top of the trees, giraffe’s neck became long.

Activity-based Questions:

Observe and Discuss:

Project: (Do it your self)

Project 1. Internet is my friend: (Text Book Page No. 3) Collect the information from the internet about Big-Bang theory related with the formation of stars and planets and present it in your class.

Project 2. Use of ICT: (Text Book Page No. 4) Collect the information of geological dating and present it in the classroom.

Project 3. Use of ICT: (Text Book Page No. 5) Find how the vestigial organs in certain animals are functional in others. Present the information in your class and send it to others.

Project 4. Internet is my friend: (Text Book Page No. 8) Collect the pictures and information of various species of monkeys from internet.

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Human Evolution

Class 10 - selina concise biology solutions, multiple choice type.

Which of the following is not a vestigial organ ?

• Vermiform appendix
• Wisdom teeth

Reason — Caecum is not a vestigial organ as it absorbs fluid and salt from the digested food.

The selective agent that was responsible for causing the change in peppered moth was :

Reason — Earlier the light colour winged moths outnumbered dark winged moths as they could escape the predators but after industrialisation the dark winged moths were able to escape the predators while light colour winged moths were preyed upon. Therefore, the smoke acted as selective agent.

The first scientist who proposed his theory for evolution was ;

Reason — Lamarck was the first scientist to propose his theory of evolution.

The theory proposed by Lamarck is :

• Autogenesis theory
• Germplasm theory

Theory of inheritance of acquired characters

• Theory of abiogenesis

Reason — According to the theory of inheritance of acquired characters organisms can pass on traits acquired during their lifetime to their offspring.

Charles Darwin explained the origin of species through:

• Natural selection
• Acquired characters
• Hybridization

Reason — Charles Darwin explained the origin of species using the idea of natural selection.

Which one of the following was not explained by Darwinism?

• Struggle for existence

Use and disuse

• Survival of the fittest

Reason — Use and disuse was discussed by Lamarck.

Which of the following human ancestral stages came just before the modern man ?

• Ramapithecus
• Homo habilis
• Neanderthal man

Reason — Cro-magnon came just before the modern man.

The scientist who is regarded as the "Father of Evolution" is :

• Walther Flemming

Reason — Darwin is known as father of evolution because his theory of evolution by natural selection became the foundation of modern evolution studies.

Industrial melanism was highlighted by :

Peppered moth

Reason — Peppered moth showed natural selection of dark winged moths after industrial revolution.

Question 10

The famous book “The Origin of Species” was written by :

• Carl Linnaeus

Reason — "The Origin of Species" was written by Charles Darwin.

Short Answer Type

Mention four postulates of Darwin's theory.

Four postulates of Darwin's theory were:

• Overproduction : more offsprings are produced than can survive
• Variation : Individuals within a species show variation

The range of cranial capacities in the following ancestral forms were

(a) Australopithecus

(b) Homo habilis

(c) Homo erectus

(d) Cro-magnon

(e) Homo sapiens sapiens

(a) Australopithecus → 450 to 600 cm 3

(b) Homo habilis → 680 to 735 cm 3

(c) Homo erectus → 800 to 1125 cm 3

(d) Cro-magnon → 1450 to 1600 cm 3

(e) Homo sapiens sapiens → 1450 to 1600 cm 3

Mention the two principles through which Lamarck explained his ideas.

Lamarck was the first scientist to propose his theory of use and disuse and inheritance of acquired characters to explain evolutionary process.

• Use and disuse — Parts of the body which are used extensively become larger and stronger, while those which are not used deteriorate.
• Inheritance of acquired characters — An organism could pass its modifications to its offspring.

Name any three vestigial organs found in humans.

Three vestigial organs found in humans are:

Give the scientific name of the organism which is cited as the classical example of 'natural selection'.

Biston betularia is a classical example of 'natural selection'.

Tick mark (√) the correct option in the following statements.

(a) The fossil history of humans is complete/fragmentary.

(b) The first remarkable human fossil was that of H. habilis/H.africanus.

(c) Evolution is an ever continuing/promptly ending process.

(a) The fossil history of humans is fragmentary .

(b) The first remarkable human fossil was that of Homo habilis .

(c) Evolution is an ever continuing process.

Descriptive Type

Define the following terms:

(a) Evolution

(b) Vestigial organs

(c) Speciation

(d) Bipedalism

(e) Natural selection

(a) Evolution — Evolution is a slow and continuous process whereby complex forms of life have emerged from simpler forms through millions of years.

(b) Vestigial organs — Vestigial organs are remnants of once-functional structures in the organism's ancestors that have lost their original purpose through evolution in the present-day species.

(c) Speciation — Origin of new species by gradual modification is called 'speciation'.

(d) Bipedalism — Walking straight on hind limbs and freeing of forelimbs from ground is called bipedalism.

(e) Natural selection — Natural selection is the process by which certain heritable traits become more or less common in a population over generations based on their impact on an organism's survival and reproduction in a specific environment.

Distinguish between:

(a) Australopithecus and Cro-magnon (Chin)

(b) Australopithecus and Modern man (Body hair)

(c) Homo habilis and Homo sapiens sapiens (Posture)

(a) Difference between Australopithecus and Cro-magnon (Chin) —

(b) Difference between Australopithecus and Modern man (Body hair) —

(c) Difference between Homo habilis and Homo sapiens (Posture) —

Differentiate between Lamarck's Theory and Darwin's Theory.

Main differences between the theories of Lamarck and Darwin —

Structured / Application / Skill Type

Given below are two figures (A and B) representing the two stages of evolution of human beings.

Answer the following:

(a) Mention any two contrasting characters between the two stages.

(b) Write all the stages of human evolution in their correct sequence.

(c) State any two characteristic features of stage B.

Stage A → Australopithecus

Stage B → Homo sapiens sapiens (modern man)

(a) Contrasting characters between Australopithecus and Homo sapiens sapiens :

(b) Stages of human evolution in their correct sequence:

Australopithecus → Homo habilis → Homo erectus → Neanderthal man → Cro-Magnon man → Homo sapiens sapiens (modern man)

(c) Characteristic features of stage B (Homo sapiens sapiens):

• Bipedal locomotion with four reversed curves in the spine.
• Thoracic region flattened into a broad chest by flattening of sternum.

Given below are two figures (A and B) showing a phenomenon that was first observed in Manchester before and after the year 1850.

Answer the following.

(a) What name has been given to this phenomenon?

(b) Give the common name and the scientific name of the insect involved in this phenomenon.

(c) Briefly mention why the changes shown in the two figures appeared.

(d) The following phenomenon provides a classical explanation of a scientific theory given by a certain scientist.

(i) Name and explain the said theory.

(ii) Give the name of the scientist who gave this theory.

(a) Industrial Melanism

(b) Common name — Peppered moth

Scientific name — Biston betularia

(c) Biston betularia, this moth with its light coloured wings dotted with spots blended well with the lichens growing on the houses and tree trunks on which it rested. After the Industrial Revolution, pollution resulted in a decline in the growth of lichens. The tree bark got exposed due to the absence of lichens. As a result, dark-coloured moths now got an advantage of a dark background, were camouflaged and survived, while the light-coloured moths were easily picked by predators. This showed that in a mixed population, those moths which could adapt to the changing environment after the Industrial Revolution survived and increased in number, while the ones which could not adapt were slowly wiped out from the population.

(d) The theory explaining Industrial Melanism and the name of the scientist who gave it is given below:

• Natural selection — During the struggle for existence, only those individuals which have advantageous variations survive while the ones which lack these variations are wiped out. Nature selects only those variations which are suitable for existence. This process is called natural selection.
• Charles Darwin

Observe the figure given below and answer the questions that follow:

(a) What is the figure depicting ?

(b) What was the reason that the giraffe stretched their neck and forelimbs ?

(c) What is the name of the theory that is being depicted in the figure ?

(d) Who explained the theory ?

(e) What is the conclusion of this theory ?

(a) The figure depicts evolution in Giraffe due to extensive use of neck and forelimbs.

(b) The area where giraffe fed on grasses, fell short of its ground level vegetation and therefore they had to stretch their neck and forelimbs to reach leaves of trees.

(c) Lamarck's theory of inheritance of acquired characters

(d) Lamarck

(e) According to this theory, variations are seen in organisms due to less or overuse of organs. These variations are passed on to the offsprings. After many generation these variations become permanent feature of the organism.

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Science Subject for Elementary School: Human Evolution

Science subject for elementary school: human evolution presentation, free google slides theme and powerpoint template.

Throughout history, humans have undergone a fascinating process of evolution, gradually transforming from our earliest ape-like ancestors into the complex beings we are today. It's a fascinating lesson on history and science that your students will sure appreciate and enjoy. You know what to do now, right? Download this Google Slides and PowerPoint template and make good use of it, that is, turn it into visual material for the lesson! It's illustrated, contains editable elements and comes with examples of exercises.

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Project On Heredity And Evolution For Class 10

Table of Contents

Introduction

Heredity and evolution are the bedrock of biological knowledge, enabling us to grasp the unbroken thread of life and the ever-changing tapestry it weaves. Heredity ensures the seamless transfer of genetic information from one generation to the next, while evolution accounts for the gradual metamorphosis of species. These principles underpin the rich biodiversity on our planet and the intricate mechanisms that govern the continuum of life.

The mission of this project is to embark on a deep dive into heredity and evolution, with a keen focus on their profound importance in the realm of biology. Our all-encompassing approach, blending meticulous research, engaging presentations, insights from experts, and the option for hands-on experiments, guarantees a holistic grasp of these fundamental concepts.

Materials and Methods: Our methods are as diverse as the subject matter itself. We’ve cast a wide net, drawing information from textbooks, online sources, and the latest scientific journals to ensure our findings are both robust and up-to-date. Interviews with experts bring real-world perspectives to our work, while the inclusion of experiments, such as the use of Punnett squares to explore genetic inheritance, offers a tangible, accessible understanding of complex concepts.

Definition: Heredity encapsulates the intricate process by which genetic traits and information flow from one generation to the next. Role of DNA: DNA, the guardian of genetic data, plays a pivotal role, carrying the legacy of our ancestors and transmitting it through the ages. Mendel’s Laws: The groundbreaking laws of inheritance, as elucidated by Gregor Mendel and illustrated with the aid of Punnett squares, provide a structured framework for understanding the mechanics of genetic transmission. Genetic Traits and Variations: We delve into genetic traits and the myriad variations that arise within populations, underscoring the diverse tapestry that fuels the engine of evolution.

Definition: Evolution is the dynamic dance of species transformation over time, choreographed by natural selection and environmental forces. Natural Selection: The concept of natural selection, articulated by Charles Darwin, stands as a cornerstone in deciphering the choreography of evolutionary change. Evidence of Evolution: The rich tapestry of evidence, from the fossil record to comparative anatomy and molecular biology, paints a vivid portrait of evolution as a fundamental biological tenet. Examples of Evolution: Real-world stories, such as the adaptation of the peppered moth and the ever-changing beaks of Galapagos finches, breathe life into the concept of evolution in action.

Interconnection

Relationship Between Heredity and Evolution: We explore how heredity acts as the bridge linking genetic variation, serving as the raw material essential for the ongoing evolutionary symphony. Role of Mutations: This section sheds light on how genetic mutations introduce variations, propelling the process of evolution and turning each generation into a repository of potential change. Adaptation and Survival: By highlighting how variations within species lead to adaptation and enhance survival prospects in shifting environments, we celebrate the dynamic and responsive nature of life.

Case Studies

Species Evolution: Through captivating case studies of specific species that have evolved due to environmental shifts or genetic variations, we offer concrete evidence of life’s perpetual transformation. Fossil Records: We unearth the importance of the fossil record in reconstructing the ancient history of life on Earth, a story of eons in the making.

Human Evolution

Human Origins: We trace the evolutionary odyssey of humans, from early hominids to modern Homo sapiens, spotlighting our place in the grand narrative of evolution. Cultural and Biological Evolution: The interplay between cultural and biological evolution in shaping the human species reveals the intricate interweaving of factors that have shaped our present form.

This section serves as a compass, guiding us through the project’s findings. It reinforces the paramount importance of comprehending heredity and evolution and emphasizes their inextricable interplay in shaping life’s intricate web.

In conclusion, we seamlessly weave together the twin pillars of heredity and evolution, accentuating their indivisible bond. Heredity ensures the unbroken transmission of genetic information, while evolution represents the ever-evolving tale of species. These concepts are intrinsically connected, with heredity laying the foundation for the genetic diversity that propels the grand narrative of evolution.

The understanding of heredity and evolution is key to unraveling the complexity and diversity of life on our planet, as well as the intricate mechanisms governing the development and adaptation of species. Through this project, we’ve illuminated these foundational biological concepts, laying a sturdy groundwork for further exploration and understanding.

Certificate of Completion

This is to certify that I, [Student’s Name], a [Class/Grade Level] student, have successfully completed the project on “Heredity And Evolution For Class 10.” The project explores the fundamental principles and key aspects of the chosen topic, providing a comprehensive understanding of its significance and implications.

In this project, I delved into in-depth research and analysis, investigating various facets and relevant theories related to the chosen topic. I demonstrated dedication, diligence, and a high level of sincerity throughout the project’s completion.

Key Achievements:

Thoroughly researched and analyzed Project On Heredity And Evolution For Class 10. Examined the historical background and evolution of the subject matter. Explored the contributions of notable figures in the field. Investigated the key theories and principles associated with the topic. Discussed practical applications and real-world implications. Considered critical viewpoints and alternative theories, fostering a well-rounded understanding. This project has significantly enhanced my knowledge and critical thinking skills in the chosen field of study. It reflects my commitment to academic excellence and the pursuit of knowledge.

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