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Secondary research: definition, methods, & examples.

19 min read This ultimate guide to secondary research helps you understand changes in market trends, customers buying patterns and your competition using existing data sources.

In situations where you’re not involved in the data gathering process ( primary research ), you have to rely on existing information and data to arrive at specific research conclusions or outcomes. This approach is known as secondary research.

In this article, we’re going to explain what secondary research is, how it works, and share some examples of it in practice.

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What is secondary research?

Secondary research, also known as desk research, is a research method that involves compiling existing data sourced from a variety of channels . This includes internal sources (e.g.in-house research) or, more commonly, external sources (such as government statistics, organizational bodies, and the internet).

Secondary research comes in several formats, such as published datasets, reports, and survey responses , and can also be sourced from websites, libraries, and museums.

The information is usually free — or available at a limited access cost — and gathered using surveys , telephone interviews, observation, face-to-face interviews, and more.

When using secondary research, researchers collect, verify, analyze and incorporate it to help them confirm research goals for the research period.

As well as the above, it can be used to review previous research into an area of interest. Researchers can look for patterns across data spanning several years and identify trends — or use it to verify early hypothesis statements and establish whether it’s worth continuing research into a prospective area.

How to conduct secondary research

There are five key steps to conducting secondary research effectively and efficiently:

1.    Identify and define the research topic

First, understand what you will be researching and define the topic by thinking about the research questions you want to be answered.

Ask yourself: What is the point of conducting this research? Then, ask: What do we want to achieve?

This may indicate an exploratory reason (why something happened) or confirm a hypothesis. The answers may indicate ideas that need primary or secondary research (or a combination) to investigate them.

2.    Find research and existing data sources

If secondary research is needed, think about where you might find the information. This helps you narrow down your secondary sources to those that help you answer your questions. What keywords do you need to use?

Which organizations are closely working on this topic already? Are there any competitors that you need to be aware of?

Create a list of the data sources, information, and people that could help you with your work.

3.    Begin searching and collecting the existing data

Now that you have the list of data sources, start accessing the data and collect the information into an organized system. This may mean you start setting up research journal accounts or making telephone calls to book meetings with third-party research teams to verify the details around data results.

As you search and access information, remember to check the data’s date, the credibility of the source, the relevance of the material to your research topic, and the methodology used by the third-party researchers. Start small and as you gain results, investigate further in the areas that help your research’s aims.

4.    Combine the data and compare the results

When you have your data in one place, you need to understand, filter, order, and combine it intelligently. Data may come in different formats where some data could be unusable, while other information may need to be deleted.

After this, you can start to look at different data sets to see what they tell you. You may find that you need to compare the same datasets over different periods for changes over time or compare different datasets to notice overlaps or trends. Ask yourself: What does this data mean to my research? Does it help or hinder my research?

5.    Analyze your data and explore further

In this last stage of the process, look at the information you have and ask yourself if this answers your original questions for your research. Are there any gaps? Do you understand the information you’ve found? If you feel there is more to cover, repeat the steps and delve deeper into the topic so that you can get all the information you need.

If secondary research can’t provide these answers, consider supplementing your results with data gained from primary research. As you explore further, add to your knowledge and update your findings. This will help you present clear, credible information.

Primary vs secondary research

Unlike secondary research, primary research involves creating data first-hand by directly working with interviewees, target users, or a target market. Primary research focuses on the method for carrying out research, asking questions, and collecting data using approaches such as:

• Interviews (panel, face-to-face or over the phone)
• Questionnaires or surveys
• Focus groups

Using these methods, researchers can get in-depth, targeted responses to questions, making results more accurate and specific to their research goals. However, it does take time to do and administer.

Unlike primary research, secondary research uses existing data, which also includes published results from primary research. Researchers summarize the existing research and use the results to support their research goals.

Both primary and secondary research have their places. Primary research can support the findings found through secondary research (and fill knowledge gaps), while secondary research can be a starting point for further primary research. Because of this, these research methods are often combined for optimal research results that are accurate at both the micro and macro level.

Sources of Secondary Research

There are two types of secondary research sources: internal and external. Internal data refers to in-house data that can be gathered from the researcher’s organization. External data refers to data published outside of and not owned by the researcher’s organization.

Internal data

Internal data is a good first port of call for insights and knowledge, as you may already have relevant information stored in your systems. Because you own this information — and it won’t be available to other researchers — it can give you a competitive edge . Examples of internal data include:

• Database information on sales history and business goal conversions
• Information from website applications and mobile site data
• Customer-generated data on product and service efficiency and use
• Previous research results or supplemental research areas
• Previous campaign results

External data

External data is useful when you: 1) need information on a new topic, 2) want to fill in gaps in your knowledge, or 3) want data that breaks down a population or market for trend and pattern analysis. Examples of external data include:

• Government, non-government agencies, and trade body statistics
• Company reports and research
• Competitor research
• Public library collections
• Textbooks and research journals
• Media stories in newspapers
• Online journals and research sites

Three examples of secondary research methods in action

How and why might you conduct secondary research? Let’s look at a few examples:

1.    Collecting factual information from the internet on a specific topic or market

There are plenty of sites that hold data for people to view and use in their research. For example, Google Scholar, ResearchGate, or Wiley Online Library all provide previous research on a particular topic. Researchers can create free accounts and use the search facilities to look into a topic by keyword, before following the instructions to download or export results for further analysis.

This can be useful for exploring a new market that your organization wants to consider entering. For instance, by viewing the U.S Census Bureau demographic data for that area, you can see what the demographics of your target audience are , and create compelling marketing campaigns accordingly.

2.    Finding out the views of your target audience on a particular topic

If you’re interested in seeing the historical views on a particular topic, for example, attitudes to women’s rights in the US, you can turn to secondary sources.

Textbooks, news articles, reviews, and journal entries can all provide qualitative reports and interviews covering how people discussed women’s rights. There may be multimedia elements like video or documented posters of propaganda showing biased language usage.

By gathering this information, synthesizing it, and evaluating the language, who created it and when it was shared, you can create a timeline of how a topic was discussed over time.

3.    When you want to know the latest thinking on a topic

Educational institutions, such as schools and colleges, create a lot of research-based reports on younger audiences or their academic specialisms. Dissertations from students also can be submitted to research journals, making these places useful places to see the latest insights from a new generation of academics.

Information can be requested — and sometimes academic institutions may want to collaborate and conduct research on your behalf. This can provide key primary data in areas that you want to research, as well as secondary data sources for your research.

Advantages of secondary research

There are several benefits of using secondary research, which we’ve outlined below:

• Easily and readily available data – There is an abundance of readily accessible data sources that have been pre-collected for use, in person at local libraries and online using the internet. This data is usually sorted by filters or can be exported into spreadsheet format, meaning that little technical expertise is needed to access and use the data.
• Faster research speeds – Since the data is already published and in the public arena, you don’t need to collect this information through primary research. This can make the research easier to do and faster, as you can get started with the data quickly.
• Low financial and time costs – Most secondary data sources can be accessed for free or at a small cost to the researcher, so the overall research costs are kept low. In addition, by saving on preliminary research, the time costs for the researcher are kept down as well.
• Secondary data can drive additional research actions – The insights gained can support future research activities (like conducting a follow-up survey or specifying future detailed research topics) or help add value to these activities.
• Secondary data can be useful pre-research insights – Secondary source data can provide pre-research insights and information on effects that can help resolve whether research should be conducted. It can also help highlight knowledge gaps, so subsequent research can consider this.
• Ability to scale up results – Secondary sources can include large datasets (like Census data results across several states) so research results can be scaled up quickly using large secondary data sources.

Disadvantages of secondary research

The disadvantages of secondary research are worth considering in advance of conducting research :

• Secondary research data can be out of date – Secondary sources can be updated regularly, but if you’re exploring the data between two updates, the data can be out of date. Researchers will need to consider whether the data available provides the right research coverage dates, so that insights are accurate and timely, or if the data needs to be updated. Also, fast-moving markets may find secondary data expires very quickly.
• Secondary research needs to be verified and interpreted – Where there’s a lot of data from one source, a researcher needs to review and analyze it. The data may need to be verified against other data sets or your hypotheses for accuracy and to ensure you’re using the right data for your research.
• The researcher has had no control over the secondary research – As the researcher has not been involved in the secondary research, invalid data can affect the results. It’s therefore vital that the methodology and controls are closely reviewed so that the data is collected in a systematic and error-free way.
• Secondary research data is not exclusive – As data sets are commonly available, there is no exclusivity and many researchers can use the same data. This can be problematic where researchers want to have exclusive rights over the research results and risk duplication of research in the future.

When do we conduct secondary research?

Now that you know the basics of secondary research, when do researchers normally conduct secondary research?

It’s often used at the beginning of research, when the researcher is trying to understand the current landscape . In addition, if the research area is new to the researcher, it can form crucial background context to help them understand what information exists already. This can plug knowledge gaps, supplement the researcher’s own learning or add to the research.

Secondary research can also be used in conjunction with primary research. Secondary research can become the formative research that helps pinpoint where further primary research is needed to find out specific information. It can also support or verify the findings from primary research.

You can use secondary research where high levels of control aren’t needed by the researcher, but a lot of knowledge on a topic is required from different angles.

Secondary research should not be used in place of primary research as both are very different and are used for various circumstances.

Questions to ask before conducting secondary research

Before you start your secondary research, ask yourself these questions:

• Is there similar internal data that we have created for a similar area in the past?

If your organization has past research, it’s best to review this work before starting a new project. The older work may provide you with the answers, and give you a starting dataset and context of how your organization approached the research before. However, be mindful that the work is probably out of date and view it with that note in mind. Read through and look for where this helps your research goals or where more work is needed.

• What am I trying to achieve with this research?

When you have clear goals, and understand what you need to achieve, you can look for the perfect type of secondary or primary research to support the aims. Different secondary research data will provide you with different information – for example, looking at news stories to tell you a breakdown of your market’s buying patterns won’t be as useful as internal or external data e-commerce and sales data sources.

• How credible will my research be?

If you are looking for credibility, you want to consider how accurate the research results will need to be, and if you can sacrifice credibility for speed by using secondary sources to get you started. Bear in mind which sources you choose — low-credibility data sites, like political party websites that are highly biased to favor their own party, would skew your results.

• What is the date of the secondary research?

When you’re looking to conduct research, you want the results to be as useful as possible , so using data that is 10 years old won’t be as accurate as using data that was created a year ago. Since a lot can change in a few years, note the date of your research and look for earlier data sets that can tell you a more recent picture of results. One caveat to this is using data collected over a long-term period for comparisons with earlier periods, which can tell you about the rate and direction of change.

• Can the data sources be verified? Does the information you have check out?

If you can’t verify the data by looking at the research methodology, speaking to the original team or cross-checking the facts with other research, it could be hard to be sure that the data is accurate. Think about whether you can use another source, or if it’s worth doing some supplementary primary research to replicate and verify results to help with this issue.

We created a front-to-back guide on conducting market research, The ultimate guide to conducting market research , so you can understand the research journey with confidence.

In it, you’ll learn more about:

• What effective market research looks like
• The use cases for market research
• The most important steps to conducting market research
• And how to take action on your research findings

Download the free guide for a clearer view on secondary research and other key research types for your business.

Related resources

Market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, qualitative research questions 11 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, request demo.

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Secondary Research: Definition, Methods and Examples.

In the world of research, there are two main types of data sources: primary and secondary. While primary research involves collecting new data directly from individuals or sources, secondary research involves analyzing existing data already collected by someone else. Today we’ll discuss secondary research.

One common source of this research is published research reports and other documents. These materials can often be found in public libraries, on websites, or even as data extracted from previously conducted surveys. In addition, many government and non-government agencies maintain extensive data repositories that can be accessed for research purposes.

LEARN ABOUT: Research Process Steps

While secondary research may not offer the same level of control as primary research, it can be a highly valuable tool for gaining insights and identifying trends. Researchers can save time and resources by leveraging existing data sources while still uncovering important information.

What is Secondary Research: Definition

Secondary research is a research method that involves using already existing data. Existing data is summarized and collated to increase the overall effectiveness of the research.

One of the key advantages of secondary research is that it allows us to gain insights and draw conclusions without having to collect new data ourselves. This can save time and resources and also allow us to build upon existing knowledge and expertise.

When conducting secondary research, it’s important to be thorough and thoughtful in our approach. This means carefully selecting the sources and ensuring that the data we’re analyzing is reliable and relevant to the research question . It also means being critical and analytical in the analysis and recognizing any potential biases or limitations in the data.

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Secondary research is much more cost-effective than primary research , as it uses already existing data, unlike primary research, where data is collected firsthand by organizations or businesses or they can employ a third party to collect data on their behalf.

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Secondary Research Methods with Examples

Secondary research is cost-effective, one of the reasons it is a popular choice among many businesses and organizations. Not every organization is able to pay a huge sum of money to conduct research and gather data. So, rightly secondary research is also termed “ desk research ”, as data can be retrieved from sitting behind a desk.

The following are popularly used secondary research methods and examples:

1. Data Available on The Internet

One of the most popular ways to collect secondary data is the internet. Data is readily available on the internet and can be downloaded at the click of a button.

This data is practically free of cost, or one may have to pay a negligible amount to download the already existing data. Websites have a lot of information that businesses or organizations can use to suit their research needs. However, organizations need to consider only authentic and trusted website to collect information.

2. Government and Non-Government Agencies

Data for secondary research can also be collected from some government and non-government agencies. For example, US Government Printing Office, US Census Bureau, and Small Business Development Centers have valuable and relevant data that businesses or organizations can use.

There is a certain cost applicable to download or use data available with these agencies. Data obtained from these agencies are authentic and trustworthy.

3. Public Libraries

Public libraries are another good source to search for data for this research. Public libraries have copies of important research that were conducted earlier. They are a storehouse of important information and documents from which information can be extracted.

The services provided in these public libraries vary from one library to another. More often, libraries have a huge collection of government publications with market statistics, large collection of business directories and newsletters.

4. Educational Institutions

Importance of collecting data from educational institutions for secondary research is often overlooked. However, more research is conducted in colleges and universities than any other business sector.

The data that is collected by universities is mainly for primary research. However, businesses or organizations can approach educational institutions and request for data from them.

5. Commercial Information Sources

Local newspapers, journals, magazines, radio and TV stations are a great source to obtain data for secondary research. These commercial information sources have first-hand information on economic developments, political agenda, market research, demographic segmentation and similar subjects.

Businesses or organizations can request to obtain data that is most relevant to their study. Businesses not only have the opportunity to identify their prospective clients but can also know about the avenues to promote their products or services through these sources as they have a wider reach.

Key Differences between Primary Research and Secondary Research

Understanding the distinction between primary research and secondary research is essential in determining which research method is best for your project. These are the two main types of research methods, each with advantages and disadvantages. In this section, we will explore the critical differences between the two and when it is appropriate to use them.

How to Conduct Secondary Research?

We have already learned about the differences between primary and secondary research. Now, let’s take a closer look at how to conduct it.

Secondary research is an important tool for gathering information already collected and analyzed by others. It can help us save time and money and allow us to gain insights into the subject we are researching. So, in this section, we will discuss some common methods and tips for conducting it effectively.

Here are the steps involved in conducting secondary research:

1. Identify the topic of research: Before beginning secondary research, identify the topic that needs research. Once that’s done, list down the research attributes and its purpose.

2. Identify research sources: Next, narrow down on the information sources that will provide most relevant data and information applicable to your research.

3. Collect existing data: Once the data collection sources are narrowed down, check for any previous data that is available which is closely related to the topic. Data related to research can be obtained from various sources like newspapers, public libraries, government and non-government agencies etc.

4. Combine and compare: Once data is collected, combine and compare the data for any duplication and assemble data into a usable format. Make sure to collect data from authentic sources. Incorrect data can hamper research severely.

4. Analyze data: Analyze collected data and identify if all questions are answered. If not, repeat the process if there is a need to dwell further into actionable insights.

Advantages of Secondary Research

Secondary research offers a number of advantages to researchers, including efficiency, the ability to build upon existing knowledge, and the ability to conduct research in situations where primary research may not be possible or ethical. By carefully selecting their sources and being thoughtful in their approach, researchers can leverage secondary research to drive impact and advance the field. Some key advantages are the following:

1. Most information in this research is readily available. There are many sources from which relevant data can be collected and used, unlike primary research, where data needs to collect from scratch.

2. This is a less expensive and less time-consuming process as data required is easily available and doesn’t cost much if extracted from authentic sources. A minimum expenditure is associated to obtain data.

3. The data that is collected through secondary research gives organizations or businesses an idea about the effectiveness of primary research. Hence, organizations or businesses can form a hypothesis and evaluate cost of conducting primary research.

4. Secondary research is quicker to conduct because of the availability of data. It can be completed within a few weeks depending on the objective of businesses or scale of data needed.

As we can see, this research is the process of analyzing data already collected by someone else, and it can offer a number of benefits to researchers.

Disadvantages of Secondary Research

On the other hand, we have some disadvantages that come with doing secondary research. Some of the most notorious are the following:

1. Although data is readily available, credibility evaluation must be performed to understand the authenticity of the information available.

2. Not all secondary data resources offer the latest reports and statistics. Even when the data is accurate, it may not be updated enough to accommodate recent timelines.

3. Secondary research derives its conclusion from collective primary research data. The success of your research will depend, to a greater extent, on the quality of research already conducted by primary research.

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In conclusion, secondary research is an important tool for researchers exploring various topics. By leveraging existing data sources, researchers can save time and resources, build upon existing knowledge, and conduct research in situations where primary research may not be feasible.

There are a variety of methods and examples of secondary research, from analyzing public data sets to reviewing previously published research papers. As students and aspiring researchers, it’s important to understand the benefits and limitations of this research and to approach it thoughtfully and critically. By doing so, we can continue to advance our understanding of the world around us and contribute to meaningful research that positively impacts society.

QuestionPro can be a useful tool for conducting secondary research in a variety of ways. You can create online surveys that target a specific population, collecting data that can be analyzed to gain insights into consumer behavior, attitudes, and preferences; analyze existing data sets that you have obtained through other means or benchmark your organization against others in your industry or against industry standards. The software provides a range of benchmarking tools that can help you compare your performance on key metrics, such as customer satisfaction, with that of your peers.

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Secondary Sources in Research

Other Academics' Observations on Primary Sources

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• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In contrast to primary sources in  research  activities, secondary sources consist of information that has been gathered and often interpreted by other researchers and recorded in books, articles, and other publications. 

In her "Handbook of Research Methods , "  Natalie L. Sproull points out that secondary sources "are not necessarily worse than primary sources and can be quite valuable. A secondary source may include more information about more aspects of the event than did a primary source ."

Most often though, secondary sources act as a way to keep up with or discuss progress in a field of study, wherein a writer may use another's observations on a topic to summarize his or her own viewpoints on the matter to progress the discourse further.

The Difference Between Primary and Secondary Data

In the hierarchy of the relevance of the evidence to an argument, primary sources like original documents and first-hand accounts of events provide the strongest support to any given claim. By contrast, secondary sources provide a type of back-up to their primary counterparts.

To help explain this difference, Ruth Finnegan distinguishes primary sources as forming the "basic and original material for providing the researcher's raw evidence" in her 2006 article "Using Documents." Secondary sources, while still highly useful, are written by someone else after an event or about a document and can therefore only serve the purpose of furthering an argument if the source has credibility in the field.

Some, therefore, argue that secondary data is neither better nor worse than primary sources—it's simply different. Scot Ober discusses this concept in "Fundamentals of Contemporary Business Communication," saying "the source of the data is not as important as its quality and its relevance for your particular purpose."

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data

Secondary sources also provide advantages unique from primary sources, but Ober posits that the major ones are economic saying that "using secondary data is less costly and time-consuming than collecting primary data."

Still, secondary sources can also provide hindsight to historical events, providing the context and missing pieces of narratives by relating each event to others happening nearby at the same time. In terms of evaluations of documents and texts, secondary sources offer unique perspectives like historians have on the impact of bills such as the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights in the U.S. Constitution.

However, Ober warns researchers that secondary sources also come with their fair share of disadvantages including quality and scarcity of sufficient secondary data, going so far as to say "never use any data before you have evaluated its appropriateness for the intended purpose."

A researcher must, therefore, vet the qualifications of the secondary source as it relates to the topic—for instance, a plumber writing an article about grammar may not be the most credible resource, whereas an English teacher would be more qualified to comment on the subject.

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• Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Published on June 20, 2018 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on May 31, 2023.

When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources.

Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books . Thus, secondary research describes, interprets, or synthesizes primary sources.

Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and secondary sources.

Table of contents

What is a primary source, what is a secondary source, primary and secondary source examples, how to tell if a source is primary or secondary, primary vs secondary sources: which is better, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.

If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers ).

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews , surveys , experiments ) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).

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A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyzes information from primary sources. Common examples include:

• Books , articles and documentaries that synthesize information on a topic
• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyze it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

A secondary source can become a primary source depending on your research question . If the person, context, or technique that produced the source is the main focus of your research, it becomes a primary source.

Documentaries

If you are researching the causes of World War II, a recent documentary about the war is a secondary source . But if you are researching the filmmaking techniques used in historical documentaries, the documentary is a primary source .

Reviews and essays

If your paper is about the novels of Toni Morrison, a magazine review of one of her novels is a secondary source . But if your paper is about the critical reception of Toni Morrison’s work, the review is a primary source .

Newspaper articles

If your aim is to analyze the government’s economic policy, a newspaper article about a new policy is a secondary source . But if your aim is to analyze media coverage of economic issues, the newspaper article is a primary source .

To determine if something can be used as a primary or secondary source in your research, there are some simple questions you can ask yourself:

• Does this source come from someone directly involved in the events I’m studying (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?
• Am I interested in evaluating the source itself (primary) or only using it for background information (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary) or does it comment upon information from other sources (secondary)?

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• Ampersands (&) in narrative citations
• Missing reference entries

Most research uses both primary and secondary sources. They complement each other to help you build a convincing argument. Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but secondary sources show how your work relates to existing research. Tertiary sources are often used in the first, exploratory stage of research.

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

• Make new discoveries
• Provide credible evidence for your arguments
• Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how other researchers have approached it. They often synthesize a large number of primary sources that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

• Gain background information on the topic
• Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
• Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review or meta analysis, you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Remember that all primary and secondary sources must be cited to avoid plagiarism . You can use Scribbr’s free citation generator to do so!

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of source are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analyzing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyze language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analyzing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Streefkerk, R. (2023, May 31). Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 1, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/primary-and-secondary-sources/

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What is secondary research?

Last updated

7 February 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

In this guide, we explain in detail what secondary research is, including the difference between this research method and primary research, the different sources for secondary research, and how you can benefit from this research method.

Analyze your secondary research

Bring your secondary research together inside Dovetail, tag PDFs, and uncover actionable insights

• Overview of secondary research

Secondary research is a method by which the researcher finds existing data, filters it to meet the context of their research question, analyzes it, and then summarizes it to come up with valid research conclusions.

This research method involves searching for information, often via the internet, using keywords or search terms relevant to the research question. The goal is to find data from internal and external sources that are up-to-date and authoritative, and that fully answer the question.

Secondary research reviews existing research and looks for patterns, trends, and insights, which helps determine what further research, if any, is needed.

• Secondary research methods

Secondary research is more economical than primary research, mainly because the methods for this type of research use existing data and do not require the data to be collected first-hand or by a third party that you have to pay.

Secondary research is referred to as ‘desk research’ or ‘desktop research,’ since the data can be retrieved from behind a desk instead of having to host a focus group and create the research from scratch.

Finding existing research is relatively easy since there are numerous accessible sources organizations can use to obtain the information they need. These  include:

The internet:  This data is either free or behind a paywall. Yet, while there are plenty of sites on the internet with information that can be used, businesses need to be careful to collect information from trusted and authentic websites to ensure the data is accurate.

Government agencies: Government agencies are typically known to provide valuable, trustworthy information that companies can use for their research.

The public library: This establishment holds paper-based and online sources of reliable information, including business databases, magazines, newspapers, and government publications. Be mindful of any copyright restrictions that may apply when using these sources.

Commercial information: This source provides first-hand information on politics, demographics, and economic developments through information aggregators, newspapers, magazines, radio, blogs, podcasts, and journals. This information may be free or behind a paywall.

Educational and scientific facilities: Universities, colleges, and specialized research facilities carry out significant amounts of research. As a result, they have data that may be available to the public and businesses for use.

• Key differences between primary research and secondary research

Both primary and secondary research methods provide researchers with vital, complementary information, despite some major differences between the two approaches.

Primary research involves gathering first-hand information by directly working with the target market, users, and interviewees. Researchers ask questions directly using surveys , interviews, and focus groups.

Through the primary research method, researchers obtain targeted responses and accurate results directly related to their overall research goals.

Secondary research uses existing data, such as published reports, that have already been completed through earlier primary and secondary research. Researchers can use this existing data to support their research goals and preliminary research findings.

Other notable differences between primary and secondary research  include:

Relevance: Primary research uses raw data relevant to the investigation's goals. Secondary research may contain irrelevant data or may not neatly fit the parameters of the researcher's goals.

Time: Primary research takes a lot of time. Secondary research can be done relatively quickly.

Researcher bias: Primary research can be subject to researcher bias.

Cost: Primary research can be expensive. Secondary research can be more affordable because the data is often free. However, valuable data is often behind a paywall. The piece of secondary research you want may not exist or be very expensive, so you may have to turn to primary research to fill the information gap.

• When to conduct secondary research

Both primary and secondary research have roles to play in providing a holistic and accurate understanding of a topic. Generally, secondary research is done at the beginning of the research phase, especially if the topic is new.

Secondary research can provide context and critical background information to understand the issue at hand and identify any gaps, that could then be filled by primary research.

• How to conduct secondary research

Researchers usually follow several steps for secondary research.

1. Identify and define the research topic

Before starting either of these research methods, you first need to determine the following:

Topic to be researched

Purpose of this research

For instance, you may want to explore a question, determine why something happened, or confirm whether an issue is true.

At this stage, you also need to consider what search terms or keywords might be the most effective for this topic. You could do this by looking at what synonyms exist for your topic, the use of industry terms and acronyms, as well as the balance between statistical or quantitative data and contextual data to support your research topic.

It’s also essential to define what you don’t want to cover in your secondary research process. This might be choosing only to use recent information or only focusing on research based on a particular country or type of consumer. From there, once you know what you want to know and why you can decide whether you need to use both primary and secondary research to answer your questions.

2. Find research and existing data sources

Once you have determined your research topic , select the information sources that will provide you with the most appropriate and relevant data for your research. If you need secondary research, you want to determine where this information can likely be found, for example:

Trade associations

Government sources

Create a list of the relevant data sources , and other organizations or people that can help you find what you need.

3. Begin searching and collecting the existing data

Once you have narrowed down your sources, you will start gathering this information and putting it into an organized system. This often involves:

Checking the credibility of the source

Setting up meetings with research teams

Signing up for accounts to access certain websites or journals

One search result on the internet often leads to other pieces of helpful information, known as ‘pearl gathering’ or ‘pearl harvesting.’ This is usually a serendipitous activity, which can lead to valuable nuggets of information you may not have been aware of or considered.

4. Combine the data and compare the results

Once you have gathered all the data, start going through it by carefully examining all the information and comparing it to ensure the data is usable and that it isn’t duplicated or corrupted. Contradictory information is useful—just make sure you note the contradiction and the context. Be mindful of copyright and plagiarism when using secondary research and always cite your sources.

Once you have assessed everything, you will begin to look at what this information tells you by checking out the trends and comparing the different datasets. You will also investigate what this information means for your research, whether it helps your overall goal, and any gaps or deficiencies.

5. Analyze your data and explore further

In the final stage of conducting secondary research, you will analyze the data you have gathered and determine if it answers the questions you had before you started researching. Check that you understand the information, whether it fills in all your gaps, and whether it provides you with other insights or actions you should take next.

If you still need further data, repeat these steps to find additional information that can help you explore your topic more deeply. You may also need to supplement what you find with primary research to ensure that your data is complete, accurate, transparent, and credible.

• The advantages of secondary research

There are numerous advantages to performing secondary research. Some key benefits are:

Quicker than primary research: Because the data is already available, you can usually find the information you need fairly quickly. Not only will secondary research help you research faster, but you will also start optimizing the data more quickly.

Plenty of available data: There are countless sources for you to choose from, making research more accessible. This data may be already compiled and arranged, such as statistical information,  so you can quickly make use of it.

Lower costs:  Since you will not have to carry out the research from scratch, secondary research tends to be much more affordable than primary research.

Opens doors to further research:  Existing research usually identifies whether more research needs to be done. This could mean follow-up surveys or telephone interviews with subject matter experts (SME) to add value to your own research.

• The disadvantages of secondary research

While there are plenty of benefits to secondary research are plenty, there are some issues you should be aware of. These include:

Credibility issues: It is important to verify the sources used. Some information may be biased and not reflect or hide, relevant issues or challenges. It could also be inaccurate.

No recent information:  Even if data may seem accurate, it may not be up to date, so the information you gather may no longer be correct. Outdated research can distort your overall findings.

Poor quality: Because secondary research tends to make conclusions from primary research data, the success of secondary research will depend on the quality and context of the research that has already been completed. If the research you are using is of poor quality, this will bring down the quality of your own findings.

Research doesn’t exist or is not easily accessible, or is expensive: Sometimes the information you need is confidential or proprietary, such as sales or earnings figures. Many information-based businesses attach value to the information they hold or publish, so the costs to access this information can be prohibitive.

Should you complete secondary research or primary research first?

Due to the costs and time involved in primary research, it may be more beneficial to conduct secondary market research first. This will save you time and provide a picture of what issues you may come across in your research. This allows you to focus on using more expensive primary research to get the specific answers you want.

What should you ask yourself before using secondary research data?

Check the date of the research to make sure it is still relevant. Also, determine the data source so you can assess how credible and trustworthy it is likely to be. For example, data from known brands, professional organizations, and even government agencies are usually excellent sources to use in your secondary research, as it tends to be trustworthy.

Be careful when using some websites and personal blogs as they may be based on opinions rather than facts. However, these sources can be useful for determining sentiment about a product or service, and help direct any primary research.

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What is Secondary Research? Types, Methods, Examples

Appinio Research · 20.09.2023 · 13min read

Have you ever wondered how researchers gather valuable insights without conducting new experiments or surveys? That's where secondary research steps in—a powerful approach that allows us to explore existing data and information others collect.

Whether you're a student, a professional, or someone seeking to make informed decisions, understanding the art of secondary research opens doors to a wealth of knowledge.

What is Secondary Research?

Secondary Research refers to the process of gathering and analyzing existing data, information, and knowledge that has been previously collected and compiled by others. This approach allows researchers to leverage available sources, such as articles, reports, and databases, to gain insights, validate hypotheses, and make informed decisions without collecting new data.

Benefits of Secondary Research

Secondary research offers a range of advantages that can significantly enhance your research process and the quality of your findings.

• Time and Cost Efficiency: Secondary research saves time and resources by utilizing existing data sources, eliminating the need for data collection from scratch.
• Wide Range of Data: Secondary research provides access to vast information from various sources, allowing for comprehensive analysis.
• Historical Perspective: Examining past research helps identify trends, changes, and long-term patterns that might not be immediately apparent.
• Reduced Bias: As data is collected by others, there's often less inherent bias than in conducting primary research, where biases might affect data collection.
• Support for Primary Research: Secondary research can lay the foundation for primary research by providing context and insights into gaps in existing knowledge.
• Comparative Analysis : By integrating data from multiple sources, you can conduct robust comparative analyses for more accurate conclusions.
• Benchmarking and Validation: Secondary research aids in benchmarking performance against industry standards and validating hypotheses.

Primary Research vs. Secondary Research

When it comes to research methodologies, primary and secondary research each have their distinct characteristics and advantages. Here's a brief comparison to help you understand the differences.

Primary Research

• Data Source: Involves collecting new data directly from original sources.
• Data Collection: Researchers design and conduct surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations.
• Time and Resources: Typically requires more time, effort, and resources due to data collection.
• Fresh Insights: Provides firsthand, up-to-date information tailored to specific research questions.
• Control: Researchers control the data collection process and can shape methodologies.

Secondary Research

• Data Source: Involves utilizing existing data and information collected by others.
• Data Collection: Researchers search, select, and analyze data from published sources, reports, and databases.
• Time and Resources: Generally more time-efficient and cost-effective as data is already available.
• Existing Knowledge: Utilizes data that has been previously compiled, often providing broader context.
• Less Control: Researchers have limited control over how data was collected originally, if any.

Choosing between primary and secondary research depends on your research objectives, available resources, and the depth of insights you require.

Types of Secondary Research

Secondary research encompasses various types of existing data sources that can provide valuable insights for your research endeavors. Understanding these types can help you choose the most relevant sources for your objectives.

Here are the primary types of secondary research:

Internal Sources

Internal sources consist of data generated within your organization or entity. These sources provide valuable insights into your own operations and performance.

• Company Records and Data: Internal reports, documents, and databases that house information about sales, operations, and customer interactions.
• Sales Reports and Customer Data: Analysis of past sales trends, customer demographics, and purchasing behavior.
• Financial Statements and Annual Reports: Financial data, such as balance sheets and income statements, offer insights into the organization's financial health.

External Sources

External sources encompass data collected and published by entities outside your organization.

These sources offer a broader perspective on various subjects.

• Published Literature and Journals: Scholarly articles, research papers, and academic studies available in journals or online databases.
• Market Research Reports: Reports from market research firms that provide insights into industry trends, consumer behavior, and market forecasts.
• Government and NGO Databases: Data collected and maintained by government agencies and non-governmental organizations, offering demographic, economic, and social information.
• Online Media and News Articles: News outlets and online publications that cover current events, trends, and societal developments.

Each type of secondary research source holds its value and relevance, depending on the nature of your research objectives. Combining these sources lets you understand the subject matter and make informed decisions.

How to Conduct Secondary Research?

Effective secondary research involves a thoughtful and systematic approach that enables you to extract valuable insights from existing data sources. Here's a step-by-step guide on how to navigate the process:

1. Define Your Research Objectives

Before delving into secondary research, clearly define what you aim to achieve. Identify the specific questions you want to answer, the insights you're seeking, and the scope of your research.

2. Identify Relevant Sources

Begin by identifying the most appropriate sources for your research. Consider the nature of your research objectives and the data type you require. Seek out sources such as academic journals, market research reports, official government databases, and reputable news outlets.

3. Evaluate Source Credibility

Ensuring the credibility of your sources is crucial. Evaluate the reliability of each source by assessing factors such as the author's expertise, the publication's reputation, and the objectivity of the information provided. Choose sources that align with your research goals and are free from bias.

4. Extract and Analyze Information

Once you've gathered your sources, carefully extract the relevant information. Take thorough notes, capturing key data points, insights, and any supporting evidence. As you accumulate information, start identifying patterns, trends, and connections across different sources.

5. Synthesize Findings

As you analyze the data, synthesize your findings to draw meaningful conclusions. Compare and contrast information from various sources to identify common themes and discrepancies. This synthesis process allows you to construct a coherent narrative that addresses your research objectives.

6. Address Limitations and Gaps

Acknowledge the limitations and potential gaps in your secondary research. Recognize that secondary data might have inherent biases or be outdated. Where necessary, address these limitations by cross-referencing information or finding additional sources to fill in gaps.

7. Contextualize Your Findings

Contextualization is crucial in deriving actionable insights from your secondary research. Consider the broader context within which the data was collected. How does the information relate to current trends, societal changes, or industry shifts? This contextual understanding enhances the relevance and applicability of your findings.

8. Cite Your Sources

Maintain academic integrity by properly citing the sources you've used for your secondary research. Accurate citations not only give credit to the original authors but also provide a clear trail for readers to access the information themselves.

9. Integrate Secondary and Primary Research (If Applicable)

In some cases, combining secondary and primary research can yield more robust insights. If you've also conducted primary research, consider integrating your secondary findings with your primary data to provide a well-rounded perspective on your research topic.

You can use a market research platform like Appinio to conduct primary research with real-time insights in minutes!

10. Communicate Your Findings

Finally, communicate your findings effectively. Whether it's in an academic paper, a business report, or any other format, present your insights clearly and concisely. Provide context for your conclusions and use visual aids like charts and graphs to enhance understanding.

Remember that conducting secondary research is not just about gathering information—it's about critically analyzing, interpreting, and deriving valuable insights from existing data. By following these steps, you'll navigate the process successfully and contribute to the body of knowledge in your field.

Secondary Research Examples

To better understand how secondary research is applied in various contexts, let's explore a few real-world examples that showcase its versatility and value.

Market Analysis and Trend Forecasting

Imagine you're a marketing strategist tasked with launching a new product in the smartphone industry. By conducting secondary research, you can:

• Access Market Reports: Utilize market research reports to understand consumer preferences, competitive landscape, and growth projections.
• Analyze Trends: Examine past sales data and industry reports to identify trends in smartphone features, design, and user preferences.
• Benchmark Competitors: Compare market share, customer satisfaction, and pricing strategies of key competitors to develop a strategic advantage.
• Forecast Demand: Use historical sales data and market growth predictions to estimate demand for your new product.

Academic Research and Literature Reviews

Suppose you're a student researching climate change's effects on marine ecosystems. Secondary research aids your academic endeavors by:

• Reviewing Existing Studies: Analyze peer-reviewed articles and scientific papers to understand the current state of knowledge on the topic.
• Identifying Knowledge Gaps: Identify areas where further research is needed based on what existing studies still need to cover.
• Comparing Methodologies: Compare research methodologies used by different studies to assess the strengths and limitations of their approaches.
• Synthesizing Insights: Synthesize findings from various studies to form a comprehensive overview of the topic's implications on marine life.

Competitive Landscape Assessment for Business Strategy

Consider you're a business owner looking to expand your restaurant chain to a new location. Secondary research aids your strategic decision-making by:

• Analyzing Demographics: Utilize demographic data from government databases to understand the local population's age, income, and preferences.
• Studying Local Trends: Examine restaurant industry reports to identify the types of cuisines and dining experiences currently popular in the area.
• Understanding Consumer Behavior: Analyze online reviews and social media discussions to gauge customer sentiment towards existing restaurants in the vicinity.
• Assessing Economic Conditions: Access economic reports to evaluate the local economy's stability and potential purchasing power.

These examples illustrate the practical applications of secondary research across various fields to provide a foundation for informed decision-making, deeper understanding, and innovation.

Secondary Research Limitations

While secondary research offers many benefits, it's essential to be aware of its limitations to ensure the validity and reliability of your findings.

• Data Quality and Validity: The accuracy and reliability of secondary data can vary, affecting the credibility of your research.
• Limited Contextual Information: Secondary sources might lack detailed contextual information, making it important to interpret findings within the appropriate context.
• Data Suitability: Existing data might not align perfectly with your research objectives, leading to compromises or incomplete insights.
• Outdated Information: Some sources might provide obsolete information that doesn't accurately reflect current trends or situations.
• Potential Bias: While secondary data is often less biased, biases might still exist in the original data sources, influencing your findings.
• Incompatibility of Data: Combining data from different sources might pose challenges due to variations in definitions, methodologies, or units of measurement.
• Lack of Control: Unlike primary research, you have no control over how data was collected or its quality, potentially affecting your analysis. Understanding these limitations will help you navigate secondary research effectively and make informed decisions based on a well-rounded understanding of its strengths and weaknesses.

Secondary research is a valuable tool that businesses can use to their advantage. By tapping into existing data and insights, companies can save time, resources, and effort that would otherwise be spent on primary research. This approach equips decision-makers with a broader understanding of market trends, consumer behaviors, and competitive landscapes. Additionally, benchmarking against industry standards and validating hypotheses empowers businesses to make informed choices that lead to growth and success.

As you navigate the world of secondary research, remember that it's not just about data retrieval—it's about strategic utilization. With a clear grasp of how to access, analyze, and interpret existing information, businesses can stay ahead of the curve, adapt to changing landscapes, and make decisions that are grounded in reliable knowledge.

How to Conduct Secondary Research in Minutes?

In the world of decision-making, having access to real-time consumer insights is no longer a luxury—it's a necessity. That's where Appinio comes in, revolutionizing how businesses gather valuable data for better decision-making. As a real-time market research platform, Appinio empowers companies to tap into the pulse of consumer opinions swiftly and seamlessly.

• Fast Insights: Say goodbye to lengthy research processes. With Appinio, you can transform questions into actionable insights in minutes.
• Data-Driven Decisions: Harness the power of real-time consumer insights to drive your business strategies, allowing you to make informed choices on the fly.
• Seamless Integration: Appinio handles the research and technical complexities, freeing you to focus on what truly matters: making rapid data-driven decisions that propel your business forward.

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Situational Analysis: Definition, Methods, Process, Examples

• What is Secondary Research? + [Methods & Examples]

In some situations, the researcher may not be directly involved in the data gathering process and instead, would rely on already existing data in order to arrive at research outcomes. This approach to systematic investigation is known as secondary research. 

There are many reasons a researcher may want to make use of already existing data instead of collecting data samples, first-hand. In this article, we will share some of these reasons with you and show you how to conduct secondary research with Formplus. 

What is Secondary  Research?

Secondary research is a common approach to a systematic investigation in which the researcher depends solely on existing data in the course of the research process. This research design involves organizing, collating and analyzing these data samples for valid research conclusions. 

Secondary research is also known as desk research since it involves synthesizing existing data that can be sourced from the internet, peer-reviewed journals , textbooks, government archives, and libraries. What the secondary researcher does is to study already established patterns in previous researches and apply this information to the specific research context. 

Interestingly, secondary research often relies on data provided by primary research and this is why some researches combine both methods of investigation. In this sense, the researcher begins by evaluating and identifying gaps in existing knowledge before adopting primary research to gather new information that will serve his or her research. 

What are Secondary Research Methods?

As already highlighted, secondary research involves data assimilation from different sources, that is, using available research materials instead of creating a new pool of data using primary research methods. Common secondary research methods include data collection through the internet, libraries, archives, schools and organizational reports. 

• Online Data

Online data is data that is gathered via the internet. In recent times, this method has become popular because the internet provides a large pool of both free and paid research resources that can be easily accessed with the click of a button. 

While this method simplifies the data gathering process , the researcher must take care to depend solely on authentic sites when collecting information. In some way, the internet is a virtual aggregation for all other sources of secondary research data. 

• Data from Government and Non-government Archives

You can also gather useful research materials from government and non-government archives and these archives usually contain verifiable information that provides useful insights on varying research contexts. In many cases, you would need to pay a sum to gain access to these data. 

The challenge, however, is that such data is not always readily available due to a number of factors. For instance, some of these materials are described as classified information as such, it would be difficult for researchers to have access to them. 

• Data from Libraries

Research materials can also be accessed through public and private libraries. Think of a library as an information storehouse that contains an aggregation of important information that can serve as valid data in different research contexts. 

Typically, researchers donate several copies of dissertations to public and private libraries; especially in cases of academic research. Also, business directories, newsletters, annual reports and other similar documents that can serve as research data, are gathered and stored in libraries, in both soft and hard copies. 

• Data from Institutions of Learning

Educational facilities like schools, faculties, and colleges are also a great source of secondary data; especially in academic research. This is because a lot of research is carried out in educational institutions more than in other sectors. 

It is relatively easier to obtain research data from educational institutions because these institutions are committed to solving problems and expanding the body of knowledge. You can easily request research materials from educational facilities for the purpose of a literature review. 

Secondary research methods can also be categorized into qualitative and quantitative data collection methods . Quantitative data gathering methods include online questionnaires and surveys, reports about trends plus statistics about different areas of a business or industry.  

Qualitative research methods include relying on previous interviews and data gathered through focus groups which helps an organization to understand the needs of its customers and plan to fulfill these needs. It also helps businesses to measure the level of employee satisfaction with organizational policies. 

When Do We Conduct Secondary Research?

Typically, secondary research is the first step in any systematic investigation. This is because it helps the researcher to understand what research efforts have been made so far and to utilize this knowledge in mapping out a novel direction for his or her investigation. 

For instance, you may want to carry out research into the nature of a respiratory condition with the aim of developing a vaccine. The best place to start is to gather existing research material about the condition which would help to point your research in the right direction. 

When sifting through these pieces of information, you would gain insights into methods and findings from previous researches which would help you define your own research process. Secondary research also helps you to identify knowledge gaps that can serve as the name of your own research. 

Questions to ask before conducting Secondary Research

Since secondary research relies on already existing data, the researcher must take extra care to ensure that he or she utilizes authentic data samples for the research. Falsified data can have a negative impact on the research outcomes; hence, it is important to always carry out resource evaluation by asking a number of questions as highlighted below:

• What is the purpose of the research? Again, it is important for every researcher to clearly define the purpose of the research before proceeding with it. Usually, the research purpose determines the approach that would be adopted. 
• What is my research methodology? After identifying the purpose of the research, the next thing to do is outline the research methodology. This is the point where the researcher chooses to gather data using secondary research methods. 
• What are my expected research outcomes? 
• Who collected the data to be analyzed? Before going on to use secondary data for your research, it is necessary to ascertain the authenticity of the information. This usually affects the data reliability and determines if the researcher can trust the materials.  For instance, data gathered from personal blogs and websites may not be as credible as information obtained from an organization’s website. 
• When was the data collected? Data recency is another factor that must be considered since the recency of data can affect research outcomes. For instance, if you are carrying out research into the number of women who smoke in London, it would not be appropriate for you to make use of information that was gathered 5 years ago unless you plan to do some sort of data comparison. 
• Is the data consistent with other data available from other sources? Always compare and contrast your data with other available research materials as this would help you to identify inconsistencies if any.
• What type of data was collected? Take care to determine if the secondary data aligns with your research goals and objectives. 
• How was the data collected? 

Advantages of Secondary Research

• Easily Accessible With secondary research, data can easily be accessed in no time; especially with the use of the internet. Apart from the internet, there are different data sources available in secondary research like public libraries and archives which are relatively easy to access too. 
• Secondary research is cost-effective and it is not time-consuming. The researcher can cut down on costs because he or she is not directly involved in the data collection process which is also time-consuming. 
• Secondary research helps researchers to identify knowledge gaps which can serve as the basis of further systematic investigation. 
• It is useful for mapping out the scope of research thereby setting the stage for field investigations. When carrying out secondary research, the researchers may find that the exact information they were looking for is already available, thus eliminating the need and expense incurred in carrying out primary research in these areas. 

Disadvantages of Secondary Research  

• Questionable Data: With secondary research, it is hard to determine the authenticity of the data because the researcher is not directly involved in the research process. Invalid data can affect research outcomes negatively hence, it is important for the researcher to take extra care by evaluating the data before making use of it. 
• Generalization: Secondary data is unspecific in nature and may not directly cater to the needs of the researcher. There may not be correlations between the existing data and the research process. 
• Common Data: Research materials in secondary research are not exclusive to an individual or group. This means that everyone has access to the data and there is little or no “information advantage” gained by those who obtain the research.
• It has the risk of outdated research materials. Outdated information may offer little value especially for organizations competing in fast-changing markets.

How to Conduct Online Surveys with Formplus 

Follow these 5 steps to create and administer online surveys for secondary research: 

• Sign into Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create an online survey for secondary research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on “Create Form ” to begin. 

• Edit Form Title

Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Secondary Research Survey”.

• Click on the edit button to edit the form.

• Add Fields: Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for questionnaires in the Formplus builder. 
• Edit fields
• Click on “Save”
• Preview form. 
• Customize your Form

With the form customization options in the form builder, you can easily change the outlook of your form and make it more unique and personalized. Formplus allows you to change your form theme, add background images and even change the font according to your needs. 

• Multiple Sharing Options

Formplus offers multiple form sharing options which enables you to easily share your questionnaire with respondents. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your organization’s social media pages. 

You can send out your survey form as email invitations to your research subjects too. If you wish, you can share your form’s QR code or embed it on your organization’s website for easy access. 

Why Use Formplus as a Secondary Research Tool?

• Simple Form Builder Solution

The Formplus form builder is easy to use and does not require you to have any knowledge in computer programming, unlike other form builders. For instance, you can easily add form fields to your form by dragging and dropping them from the inputs section in the builder. 

In the form builder, you can also modify your fields to be hidden or read-only and you can create smart forms with save and resume options, form lookup, and conditional logic. Formplus also allows you to customize your form by adding preferred background images and your organization’s logo. 

• Over 25 Form Fields

With over 25 versatile form fields available in the form builder, you can easily collect data the way you like. You can receive payments directly in your form by adding payment fields and you can also add file upload fields to allow you receive files in your form too. 

• Offline Form feature

With Formplus, you can collect data from respondents even without internet connectivity . Formplus automatically detects when there is no or poor internet access and allows forms to be filled out and submitted in offline mode. 

Offline form responses are automatically synced with the servers when the internet connection is restored. This feature is extremely useful for field research that may involve sourcing for data in remote and rural areas plus it allows you to scale up on your audience reach. 

• Team and Collaboration

 You can add important collaborators and team members to your shared account so that you all can work on forms and responses together. With the multiple users options, you can assign different roles to team members and you can also grant and limit access to forms and folders. 

This feature works with an audit trail that enables you to track changes and suggestions made to your form as the administrator of the shared account. You can set up permissions to limit access to the account while organizing and monitoring your form(s) effectively. 

• Embeddable Form

Formplus allows you to easily add your form with respondents with the click of a button. For instance, you can directly embed your form in your organization’s web pages by adding Its unique shortcode to your site’s HTML. 

You can also share your form to your social media pages using the social media direct sharing buttons available in the form builder. You can choose to embed the form as an iframe or web pop-up that is easy to fill. 

With Formplus, you can share your form with numerous form respondents in no time. You can invite respondents to fill out your form via email invitation which allows you to also track responses and prevent multiple submissions in your form. 

In addition, you can also share your form link as a QR code so that respondents only need to scan the code to access your form. Our forms have a unique QR code that you can add to your website or print in banners, business cards and the like. 

While secondary research can be cost-effective and time-efficient, it requires the researcher to take extra care in ensuring that the data is authentic and valid. As highlighted earlier, data in secondary research can be sourced through the internet, archives, and libraries, amongst other methods. 

Secondary research is usually the starting point of systematic investigation because it provides the researcher with a background of existing research efforts while identifying knowledge gaps to be filled. This type of research is typically used in science and education. 

It is, however, important to note that secondary research relies on the outcomes of collective primary research data in carrying out its systematic investigation. Hence, the success of your research will depend, to a greater extent, on the quality of data provided by primary research in relation to the research context.

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4 Chapter 5 Secondary Research

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students must be able to:

• Explain the concept of secondary research
• Highlight the key benefits and limitations of secondary research
• Evaluate different sources of secondary data

What is Secondary Research?

In situations where the researcher has not been involved in the data gathering process (primary research), one may have to rely on existing information and data to arrive at specific research conclusions or outcomes. Secondary research, also known as desk research, is a research method that involves the use of information previously collected for another research purpose.

In this chapter, we are going to explain what secondary research is, how it works, and share some examples of it in practice.

Marketing textbook © 2022  Western Sydney University taken by   Sally Tsoutas Western Sydney University Photographer  is licensed under an   Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International

Sources of secondary data.

The two main sources of secondary data are:

• Internal sources
• External sources

Internal sources of secondary data exist within the organization. There could be reports, previous research findings, or old documents which may still be used to understand a particular phenomenon. This information may only be available to the organization’s members and could be a valuable asset.

External sources of secondary data lie outside the organization and refer to information held at the public library, government departments, council offices, various associations as well as in newspapers or journal articles.

Benefits of using Secondary Data

It is only logical for researchers to look for secondary information thoroughly before investing their time and resources in collecting primary data.  In academic research, scholars are not permitted to move to the next stage till they demonstrate they have undertaken a review of all previous studies. Suppose a researcher would like to examine the characteristics of a migrant population in the Western Sydney region. The following pieces of information are already available in various reports generated from the Australian Bureau of Statistics’ census data:

• Birthplace of residents
• Language spoken at home by residents
• Family size
• Income levels
• Level of education

By accessing such readily available secondary data, the researcher is able to save time, money, and effort. When the data comes from a reputable source, it further adds to the researchers’ credibility of identifying a trustworthy source of information.

Evaluation of Secondary Data

[1] Assessing secondary data is important. It may not always be available free of cost. The following factors must be considered as these relate to the reliability and validity of research results, such as whether:

• the source is trusted
• the sample characteristics, time of collection, and response rate (if relevant) of the data are appropriate
• the methods of data collection are appropriate and acceptable in your discipline
• the data were collected in a consistent way
• any data coding or modification is appropriate and sufficient
• the documentation of the original study in which the data were collected is detailed enough for you to assess its quality
• there is enough information in the metadata or data to properly cite the original source.

In addition to the above-mentioned points, some practical issues which need to be evaluated include the cost of accessing and the time frame involved in getting access to the data is relevant.

The infographic Secondary Sources created by Shonn M. Haren, 2015 is licensed under  a  Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence [2]

Table 2: differences between primary and secondary research.

• Griffith University n.d., Research data: get started, viewed 28 February 2022,<https://libraryguides.griffith.edu.au/finddata>. ↵
• Shonnmaren n.d., Secondary sources, viewed 28 February 2020, Wikimedia Commons, <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Secondary_Sources.png> ↵
• Qualtrics XM n.d., S econdary research: definition, methods and examples , viewed 28 February 2022,  <https://www.qualtrics.com/au/experience-management/research/secondary-research/#:~:text=Unlike%20primary%20research%2C%20secondary%20research,secondary%20research%20have%20their%20places>. ↵

About the Author

name: Aila Khan

institution: Western Sydney University

Chapter 5 Secondary Research Copyright © by Aila Khan is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Research Methods

Secondary research.

• Primary Research

What is Secondary Research?

Advantages and disadvantages of secondary research, secondary research in literature reviews, secondary research - going beyond literature reviews, main stages of secondary research, useful resources, using material on this page.

• Quantitative Research This link opens in a new window
• Qualitative Research This link opens in a new window
• Being Critical This link opens in a new window
• Subject LibGuides This link opens in a new window

Secondary research

Secondary research uses research and data that has already been carried out. It is sometimes referred to as desk research. It is a good starting point for any type of research as it enables you to analyse what research has already been undertaken and identify any gaps. 

You may only need to carry out secondary research for your assessment or you may need to use secondary research as a starting point, before undertaking your own primary research .

Searching for both primary and secondary sources can help to ensure that you are up to date with what research has already been carried out in your area of interest and to identify the key researchers in the field.

"Secondary sources are the books, articles, papers and similar materials written or produced by others that help you to form your background understanding of the subject. You would use these to find out about experts’ findings, analyses or perspectives on the issue and decide whether to draw upon these explicitly in your research." (Cottrell, 2014, p. 123).

Examples of secondary research sources include:.

• journal articles
• official statistics, such as government reports or organisations which have collected and published data

Primary research  involves gathering data which has not been collected before. Methods to collect it can include interviews, focus groups, controlled trials and case studies. Secondary research often comments on and analyses this primary research.

Gopalakrishnan and Ganeshkumar (2013, p. 10) explain the difference between primary and secondary research:

"Primary research is collecting data directly from patients or population, while secondary research is the analysis of data already collected through primary research. A review is an article that summarizes a number of primary studies and may draw conclusions on the topic of interest which can be traditional (unsystematic) or systematic".

Secondary Data

As secondary data has already been collected by someone else for their research purposes, it may not cover all of the areas of interest for your research topic. This research will need to be analysed alongside other research sources and data in the same subject area in order to confirm, dispute or discuss the findings in a wider context.

"Secondary source data, as the name infers, provides second-hand information. The data come ‘pre-packaged’, their form and content reflecting the fact that they have been produced by someone other than the researcher and will not have been produced specifically for the purpose of the research project. The data, none the less, will have some relevance for the research in terms of the information they contain, and the task for the researcher is to extract that information and re-use it in the context of his/her own research project." (Denscombe, 2021, p. 268)

In the video below Dr. Benedict Wheeler (Senior Research Fellow at the European Center for Environment and Human Health at the University of Exeter Medical School) discusses secondary data analysis. Secondary data was used for his research on how the environment affects health and well-being and utilising this secondary data gave access to a larger data set.

As with all research, an important part of the process is to critically evaluate any sources you use. There are tools to help with this in the  Being Critical  section of the guide.

Louise Corti, from the UK Data Archive, discusses using secondary data  in the video below. T he importance of evaluating secondary research is discussed - this is to ensure the data is appropriate for your research and to investigate how the data was collected.

There are advantages and disadvantages to secondary research:

Advantages:

• Usually low cost
• Easily accessible
• Provides background information to clarify / refine research areas
• Increases breadth of knowledge
• Shows different examples of research methods
• Can highlight gaps in the research and potentially outline areas of difficulty
• Can incorporate a wide range of data
• Allows you to identify opposing views and supporting arguments for your research topic
• Highlights the key researchers and work which is being undertaken within the subject area
• Helps to put your research topic into perspective

Disadvantages

• Can be out of date
• Might be unreliable if it is not clear where or how the research has been collected - remember to think critically
• May not be applicable to your specific research question as the aims will have had a different focus

Literature reviews 

Secondary research for your major project may take the form of a literature review . this is where you will outline the main research which has already been written on your topic. this might include theories and concepts connected with your topic and it should also look to see if there are any gaps in the research., as the criteria and guidance will differ for each school, it is important that you check the guidance which you have been given for your assessment. this may be in blackboard and you can also check with your supervisor..

The videos below include some insights from academics regarding the importance of literature reviews.

Secondary research which goes beyond literature reviews

For some dissertations/major projects there might only be a literature review (discussed above ). For others there could be a literature review followed by primary research and for others the literature review might be followed by further secondary research. 

You may be asked to write a literature review which will form a background chapter to give context to your project and provide the necessary history for the research topic. However, you may then also be expected to produce the rest of your project using additional secondary research methods, which will need to produce results and findings which are distinct from the background chapter t o avoid repetition .

Remember, as the criteria and guidance will differ for each School, it is important that you check the guidance which you have been given for your assessment. This may be in Blackboard and you can also check with your supervisor.

Although this type of secondary research will go beyond a literature review, it will still rely on research which has already been undertaken. And,  "just as in primary research, secondary research designs can be either quantitative, qualitative, or a mixture of both strategies of inquiry" (Manu and Akotia, 2021, p. 4) .

Your secondary research may use the literature review to focus on a specific theme, which is then discussed further in the main project. Or it may use an alternative approach. Some examples are included below.  Remember to speak with your supervisor if you are struggling to define these areas.

Some approaches of how to conduct secondary research include:

• A systematic review is a structured literature review that involves identifying all of the relevant primary research using a rigorous search strategy to answer a focused research question.
• This involves comprehensive searching which is used to identify themes or concepts across a number of relevant studies. 
• The review will assess the q uality of the research and provide a summary and synthesis of all relevant available research on the topic.
• The systematic review  LibGuide goes into more detail about this process (The guide is aimed a PhD/Researcher students. However, students on other levels of study may find parts of the guide helpful too).
• Scoping reviews aim to identify and assess available research on a specific topic (which can include ongoing research). 
• They are "particularly useful when a body of literature has not yet been comprehensively reviewed, or exhibits a complex or heterogeneous nature not amenable to a more precise systematic review of the evidence. While scoping reviews may be conducted to determine the value and probable scope of a full systematic review, they may also be undertaken as exercises in and of themselves to summarize and disseminate research findings, to identify research gaps, and to make recommendations for the future research."  (Peters et al., 2015) .
• This is designed to  summarise the current knowledge and provide priorities for future research.
• "A state-of-the-art review will often highlight new ideas or gaps in research with no official quality assessment." (Baguss, 2020) .
• "Bibliometric analysis is a popular and rigorous method for exploring and analyzing large volumes of scientific data." (Donthu et al., 2021)
• Quantitative methods and statistics are used to analyse the bibliographic data of published literature. This can be used to measure the impact of authors, publications, or topics within a subject area.

The bibliometric analysis often uses the data from a citation source such as Scopus or Web of Science .

• This is a technique used to combine the statistic results of prior quantitative studies in order to increase precision and validity.
• "It goes beyond the parameters of a literature review, which assesses existing literature, to actually perform calculations based on the results collated, thereby coming up with new results" (Curtis and Curtis, 2011, p. 220)

(Adapted from: Grant and Booth, 2009, cited in Sarhan and Manu, 2021, p. 72 )

• Grounded Theory is used to create explanatory theory from data which has been collected.
• "Grounded theory data analysis strategies can be used with different types of data, including secondary data." ( Whiteside, Mills and McCalman, 2012 )
• This allows you to use a specific theory or theories which can then be applied to your chosen topic/research area.
• You could focus on one case study which is analysed in depth, or you could examine more than one in order to compare and contrast the important aspects of your research question.
• "Good case studies often begin with a predicament that is poorly comprehended and is inadequately explained or traditionally rationalised by numerous conflicting accounts. Therefore, the aim is to comprehend an existent problem and to use the acquired understandings to develop new theoretical outlooks or explanations."  ( Papachroni and Lochrie, 2015, p. 81 )

Main stages of secondary research for a dissertation/major project

In general, the main stages for conducting secondary research for your dissertation or major project will include:

Click on the image below to access the reading list which includes resources used in this guide as well as some additional useful resources.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License .

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Secondary Research: Methods, Examples, and Strategic Insights

Kate williams.

16 October 2023

Table Of Contents

Secondary Research

• An Overview
• Primary vs Secondary

Sources and References

• Conducting Research
• Pros and Cons

Secondary research involves the analysis and interpretation of existing data and information collected by others. It provides valuable insights for informed decision-making without conducting new surveys or experiments. But, why is it important for businesses? Successful enterprises attribute their strategic decisions to comprehensive secondary research. In this blog, we will look into its importance, pros and cons, and all that you need to know.

What is Secondary Research?

Secondary research is not just about compiling data. It’s about synthesizing information to draw meaningful conclusions. Analysts sift through vast datasets, identifying patterns, trends, and correlations. This methodical approach transforms raw data into actionable insights, guiding businesses in their strategic endeavors.

Simply put, it involves the analysis and interpretation of existing data and information collected by others. This data can come from a variety of sources, such as academic papers, industry reports, market studies, government publications, and online databases. By tapping into pre-existing data, businesses can gain valuable insights without the time and resource-intensive process of conducting primary research, making it a cost-effective and efficient approach.

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Primary vs Secondary Research

Now, before we delve into the details, we need to be very clear about what primary research is. Why? Because the former builds upon the latter. Secondary research can only be done upon the existence of data. And, what better way than a comparison of the two to get a better grasp?

Primary Research:

Direct Data Collection: It involves gathering data directly from the source. Researchers use methods like surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations to collect specific information tailored to their study.

Specific to Study: The data collected in primary research is exclusive to the research question at hand. It is designed to address specific inquiries and provide detailed, targeted insights into the topic of interest.

Time-Consuming: Moreover, it can be time-intensive as it requires planning, conducting surveys or interviews, and analyzing the collected data. Researchers invest significant time to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information gathered.

Tailored Questions: Researchers formulate precise and tailored questions to extract relevant information from participants. These questions are carefully designed to elicit specific responses, contributing to the depth of the research findings.

Costly: Implementing primary research methods often involves expenses related to participant recruitment, survey administration, and data analysis. The costs can vary based on the complexity and scope of the research.

Fresh Information: It provides fresh, firsthand information directly from the participants. It offers unique perspectives and insights, making it valuable for studies requiring original data.

Read More: How To Do Primary Research: An Ultimate Guide

Existing Data Analysis: It involves the analysis and interpretation of pre-existing data. Researchers explore reports, articles, studies, and other pre-existing information to draw conclusions or generate insights.

Broad Overview: It provides a comprehensive overview of a subject matter. It encompasses a wide range of data, allowing researchers to explore multiple facets of a topic without the need for new data collection.

Time-Efficient: Researchers utilize information readily available from various sources. This approach saves time compared to the process of collecting new data through primary research methods.

General Insights: The insights gained are general. They offer a broad understanding of a topic without the specificity that primary research can provide. Basically, it forms a foundation for initial exploration.

Cost-Effective: Compared to primary research, it is cost-effective as it utilizes existing data sources. Researchers do not incur the costs associated with participant recruitment and data collection, making it a budget-friendly option.

Historical Data: Secondary research often involves historical data, which can provide trends and patterns over time. Researchers can analyze past information to identify changes, making it valuable for longitudinal studies.

When conducting secondary research for a company, the focus narrows down to specific sources that offer relevant insights into market trends, consumer behaviors, industry competition, and other business-related aspects.

Here’s a tailored list of key sources and references:

1. Industry Reports and Market Research Firms

Market research is key! Industry-specific reports from reputable market research firms offer detailed analyses, market forecasts, and competitor landscapes, aiding businesses in understanding market trends and customer demands.

2. Competitor Websites and Annual Reports

Your competitor’s website and annual reports are like their personal diary. Analyzing them provides valuable information on their products, strategies, financial performance, and market positioning, helping businesses identify competitive advantages and market gaps.

3. Trade Publications and Business Magazines

They provide industry-specific news, expert opinions, and case studies. This in turn provides insights into merging trends, best practices, and successful business strategies.

4. Government Economic Data and Regulatory Publications

Governments share economic data and regulations. For instance, you get data on GDP growth, employment rates, and industry regulations. You’ll know what’s changing and how it might affect your business.

5. Academic Journals and Research Papers

These are like textbooks. They provide in-depth information about theories and analyses. With it, you can understand the “whys” behind market behaviors.

How to Conduct Secondary Research

1. define your research questions.

Clearly outline what you want to know. Define specific research questions to guide your search and keep your focus sharp. Also, remember to make the questions to the point to provide a clear direction for your study.

2. Identify Your Sources

Don’t just stick to one source. Explore all the options available to get a broad view of the subject. Later, narrow down your findings to get to the precise point you have been deducing.

3. Use Online Databases Wisely

Develop a robust set of keywords related to your topic. Utilize Boolean operators ( AND, OR, NOT ) to refine your search. Experiment with various combinations to obtain the most relevant results.

4. Evaluate Your Sources

Assess the credibility of each source. Check the author’s credentials, publication date, and publisher. Peer-reviewed journals and academic institutions are usually trustworthy.

5. Take Thorough Notes

Record key points, statistics, and quotes. Note the publication details for proper citation. Organize your notes by topic for easy reference.

6. Synthesize Information

Analyze the gathered data. Identify patterns, trends, and discrepancies. Compare and contrast information from different sources to gain comprehensive insights. By doing this, you can see how different sources complement or contradict each other.

7. Validate the Information

Once you have all the information needed, properly source and add references. Any unauthorized data can cause huge differences in the decisions you make based on the insights. In the case of academic research, create a comprehensive bibliography listing all your sources.

8. Stay Curious and Keep Exploring

Research does not end with a single project. Stay curious about new developments, theories, and research findings. Continue learning to broaden your knowledge base and refine your research skills.

Types of Secondary Research

1. literature reviews.

Literature reviews involve analyzing existing academic publications, research papers, books, and articles related to the topic of study. Through literature reviews, scholars gain insights into the evolution of ideas, theories, and methodologies, providing a solid foundation for their research endeavors.

2. Content Analysis

Content analysis is a methodical examination of various media forms, such as articles, advertisements, social media posts, or documents, to extract meaningful insights. Researchers scrutinize the content to identify patterns, themes, attitudes, or trends within the material. This method is widely used in media studies, communication, and social sciences.

 3. Historical Analysis

This method allows researchers to explore the social, cultural, and political factors that have shaped societies, providing valuable context for contemporary studies. It is the meticulous study of historical documents, records, artifacts, or events to gain insights into past behaviors or trends.

4. Case Studies

Case studies delve into specific instances, organizations, or events, offering an in-depth exploration of real-life situations. Researchers analyze existing reports, documents, or publications related to the chosen case to extract valuable insights. It is widely used in business, social sciences, and medical research.

5. Surveys and Polls

Surveys and polls involve the analysis of data that is collected from diverse populations. Researchers explore data sets generated by organizations or research institutions through survey administration. They provide the quantitative data you need to make informed decisions. Moreover, they make it easy to gain insights into public opinions, attitudes, behaviors, or trends across various demographics.

Read More: How to Conduct a Survey

Pros and Cons of Secondary Research

Cost-Effectiveness: Utilizes existing data, saving on research costs. Time Efficiency: Quick access to a wide range of data. Broad Scope: Covers diverse topics and historical data. In-Depth Analysis: Enables detailed examination and exploration.

Disadvantages

Data Quality Concerns: Varied quality and potential biases in existing data. Limited Control: No control over data collection, limiting specific variables. Data Relevance: Data might not precisely align with research questions. Outdated Information: Data can become obsolete in rapidly changing fields.

Alright, before we end this, let’s talk timing! Secondary research guides you through different points of your research process. Imagine you are at the beginning, trying to go deeper into the topic. This is where it comes of use. It gives you foundational knowledge and helps you refine your questions. Then, later, when you’re digging into scholarly articles, research shows you where others have tread and where unexplored territories lie.

So, before you conduct primary research make sure you make a quick secondary research pitstop. It will not only save you time and effort but also help you understand the trends that matter, whether you’re at the beginning, middle, or even near the end of your research.

And, while you’re at it, make sure you stop by SurveySparrow and give it a try! This pitstop might be your ultimate solution.

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Dissertations 4: methodology: methods.

• Introduction & Philosophy
• Methodology

Primary & Secondary Sources, Primary & Secondary Data

When describing your research methods, you can start by stating what kind of secondary and, if applicable, primary sources you used in your research. Explain why you chose such sources, how well they served your research, and identify possible issues encountered using these sources.  

Definitions  

There is some confusion on the use of the terms primary and secondary sources, and primary and secondary data. The confusion is also due to disciplinary differences (Lombard 2010). Whilst you are advised to consult the research methods literature in your field, we can generalise as follows:  

Secondary sources 

Secondary sources normally include the literature (books and articles) with the experts' findings, analysis and discussions on a certain topic (Cottrell, 2014, p123). Secondary sources often interpret primary sources.  

Primary sources 

Primary sources are "first-hand" information such as raw data, statistics, interviews, surveys, law statutes and law cases. Even literary texts, pictures and films can be primary sources if they are the object of research (rather than, for example, documentaries reporting on something else, in which case they would be secondary sources). The distinction between primary and secondary sources sometimes lies on the use you make of them (Cottrell, 2014, p123). 

Primary data 

Primary data are data (primary sources) you directly obtained through your empirical work (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill 2015, p316). 

Secondary data 

Secondary data are data (primary sources) that were originally collected by someone else (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill 2015, p316).   

Comparison between primary and secondary data   

Use  

Virtually all research will use secondary sources, at least as background information. 

Often, especially at the postgraduate level, it will also use primary sources - secondary and/or primary data. The engagement with primary sources is generally appreciated, as less reliant on others' interpretations, and closer to 'facts'. 

The use of primary data, as opposed to secondary data, demonstrates the researcher's effort to do empirical work and find evidence to answer her specific research question and fulfill her specific research objectives. Thus, primary data contribute to the originality of the research.    

Ultimately, you should state in this section of the methodology: 

What sources and data you are using and why (how are they going to help you answer the research question and/or test the hypothesis. 

If using primary data, why you employed certain strategies to collect them. 

What the advantages and disadvantages of your strategies to collect the data (also refer to the research in you field and research methods literature). 

Quantitative, Qualitative & Mixed Methods

The methodology chapter should reference your use of quantitative research, qualitative research and/or mixed methods. The following is a description of each along with their advantages and disadvantages. 

Quantitative research 

Quantitative research uses numerical data (quantities) deriving, for example, from experiments, closed questions in surveys, questionnaires, structured interviews or published data sets (Cottrell, 2014, p93). It normally processes and analyses this data using quantitative analysis techniques like tables, graphs and statistics to explore, present and examine relationships and trends within the data (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2015, p496). 

Qualitative research  

Qualitative research is generally undertaken to study human behaviour and psyche. It uses methods like in-depth case studies, open-ended survey questions, unstructured interviews, focus groups, or unstructured observations (Cottrell, 2014, p93). The nature of the data is subjective, and also the analysis of the researcher involves a degree of subjective interpretation. Subjectivity can be controlled for in the research design, or has to be acknowledged as a feature of the research. Subject-specific books on (qualitative) research methods offer guidance on such research designs.  

Mixed methods 

Mixed-method approaches combine both qualitative and quantitative methods, and therefore combine the strengths of both types of research. Mixed methods have gained popularity in recent years.  

When undertaking mixed-methods research you can collect the qualitative and quantitative data either concurrently or sequentially. If sequentially, you can for example, start with a few semi-structured interviews, providing qualitative insights, and then design a questionnaire to obtain quantitative evidence that your qualitative findings can also apply to a wider population (Specht, 2019, p138). 

Ultimately, your methodology chapter should state: 

Whether you used quantitative research, qualitative research or mixed methods. 

Why you chose such methods (and refer to research method sources). 

Why you rejected other methods. 

How well the method served your research. 

The problems or limitations you encountered. 

Doug Specht, Senior Lecturer at the Westminster School of Media and Communication, explains mixed methods research in the following video:

LinkedIn Learning Video on Academic Research Foundations: Quantitative

The video covers the characteristics of quantitative research, and explains how to approach different parts of the research process, such as creating a solid research question and developing a literature review. He goes over the elements of a study, explains how to collect and analyze data, and shows how to present your data in written and numeric form.

Link to quantitative research video

Some Types of Methods

There are several methods you can use to get primary data. To reiterate, the choice of the methods should depend on your research question/hypothesis. 

Whatever methods you will use, you will need to consider: 

why did you choose one technique over another? What were the advantages and disadvantages of the technique you chose? 

what was the size of your sample? Who made up your sample? How did you select your sample population? Why did you choose that particular sampling strategy?) 

ethical considerations (see also tab...)  

safety considerations  

validity  

feasibility  

recording  

procedure of the research (see box procedural method...).  

Check Stella Cottrell's book  Dissertations and Project Reports: A Step by Step Guide  for some succinct yet comprehensive information on most methods (the following account draws mostly on her work). Check a research methods book in your discipline for more specific guidance.  

Experiments 

Experiments are useful to investigate cause and effect, when the variables can be tightly controlled. They can test a theory or hypothesis in controlled conditions. Experiments do not prove or disprove an hypothesis, instead they support or not support an hypothesis. When using the empirical and inductive method it is not possible to achieve conclusive results. The results may only be valid until falsified by other experiments and observations. 

For more information on Scientific Method, click here . 

Observations 

Observational methods are useful for in-depth analyses of behaviours in people, animals, organisations, events or phenomena. They can test a theory or products in real life or simulated settings. They generally a qualitative research method.  

Questionnaires and surveys 

Questionnaires and surveys are useful to gain opinions, attitudes, preferences, understandings on certain matters. They can provide quantitative data that can be collated systematically; qualitative data, if they include opportunities for open-ended responses; or both qualitative and quantitative elements. 

Interviews  

Interviews are useful to gain rich, qualitative information about individuals' experiences, attitudes or perspectives. With interviews you can follow up immediately on responses for clarification or further details. There are three main types of interviews: structured (following a strict pattern of questions, which expect short answers), semi-structured (following a list of questions, with the opportunity to follow up the answers with improvised questions), and unstructured (following a short list of broad questions, where the respondent can lead more the conversation) (Specht, 2019, p142). 

This short video on qualitative interviews discusses best practices and covers qualitative interview design, preparation and data collection methods. 

Focus groups   

In this case, a group of people (normally, 4-12) is gathered for an interview where the interviewer asks questions to such group of participants. Group interactions and discussions can be highly productive, but the researcher has to beware of the group effect, whereby certain participants and views dominate the interview (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill 2015, p419). The researcher can try to minimise this by encouraging involvement of all participants and promoting a multiplicity of views. 

This video focuses on strategies for conducting research using focus groups.  

Check out the guidance on online focus groups by Aliaksandr Herasimenka, which is attached at the bottom of this text box. 

Case study 

Case studies are often a convenient way to narrow the focus of your research by studying how a theory or literature fares with regard to a specific person, group, organisation, event or other type of entity or phenomenon you identify. Case studies can be researched using other methods, including those described in this section. Case studies give in-depth insights on the particular reality that has been examined, but may not be representative of what happens in general, they may not be generalisable, and may not be relevant to other contexts. These limitations have to be acknowledged by the researcher.     

Content analysis 

Content analysis consists in the study of words or images within a text. In its broad definition, texts include books, articles, essays, historical documents, speeches, conversations, advertising, interviews, social media posts, films, theatre, paintings or other visuals. Content analysis can be quantitative (e.g. word frequency) or qualitative (e.g. analysing intention and implications of the communication). It can detect propaganda, identify intentions of writers, and can see differences in types of communication (Specht, 2019, p146). Check this page on collecting, cleaning and visualising Twitter data.

Extra links and resources:  

Research Methods  

A clear and comprehensive overview of research methods by Emerald Publishing. It includes: crowdsourcing as a research tool; mixed methods research; case study; discourse analysis; ground theory; repertory grid; ethnographic method and participant observation; interviews; focus group; action research; analysis of qualitative data; survey design; questionnaires; statistics; experiments; empirical research; literature review; secondary data and archival materials; data collection. 

Doing your dissertation during the COVID-19 pandemic  

Resources providing guidance on doing dissertation research during the pandemic: Online research methods; Secondary data sources; Webinars, conferences and podcasts; 

• Virtual Focus Groups Guidance on managing virtual focus groups

5 Minute Methods Videos

The following are a series of useful videos that introduce research methods in five minutes. These resources have been produced by lecturers and students with the University of Westminster's School of Media and Communication. 

Case Study Research

Research Ethics

Quantitative Content Analysis 

Sequential Analysis 

Qualitative Content Analysis 

Thematic Analysis 

Social Media Research 

Mixed Method Research 

Procedural Method

In this part, provide an accurate, detailed account of the methods and procedures that were used in the study or the experiment (if applicable!). 

Include specifics about participants, sample, materials, design and methods. 

If the research involves human subjects, then include a detailed description of who and how many participated along with how the participants were selected.  

Describe all materials used for the study, including equipment, written materials and testing instruments. 

Identify the study's design and any variables or controls employed. 

Write out the steps in the order that they were completed. 

Indicate what participants were asked to do, how measurements were taken and any calculations made to raw data collected. 

Specify statistical techniques applied to the data to reach your conclusions. 

Provide evidence that you incorporated rigor into your research. This is the quality of being thorough and accurate and considers the logic behind your research design. 

Highlight any drawbacks that may have limited your ability to conduct your research thoroughly. 

You have to provide details to allow others to replicate the experiment and/or verify the data, to test the validity of the research. 

Bibliography

Cottrell, S. (2014). Dissertations and project reports: a step by step guide. Hampshire, England: Palgrave Macmillan.

Lombard, E. (2010). Primary and secondary sources.  The Journal of Academic Librarianship , 36(3), 250-253

Saunders, M.N.K., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2015).  Research Methods for Business Students.  New York: Pearson Education. 

Specht, D. (2019).  The Media And Communications Study Skills Student Guide . London: University of Westminster Press.  

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• Last Updated: Sep 14, 2022 12:58 PM
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What is Secondary Research?

Secondary research, also known as a literature review , preliminary research , historical research , background research , desk research , or library research , is research that analyzes or describes prior research. Rather than generating and analyzing new data, secondary research analyzes existing research results to establish the boundaries of knowledge on a topic, to identify trends or new practices, to test mathematical models or train machine learning systems, or to verify facts and figures. Secondary research is also used to justify the need for primary research as well as to justify and support other activities. For example, secondary research may be used to support a proposal to modernize a manufacturing plant, to justify the use of newly a developed treatment for cancer, to strengthen a business proposal, or to validate points made in a speech.

Why Is Secondary Research Important?

Because secondary research is used for so many purposes in so many settings, all professionals will be required to perform it at some point in their careers. For managers and entrepreneurs, regardless of the industry or profession, secondary research is a regular part of worklife, although parts of the research, such as finding the supporting documents, are often delegated to juniors in the organization. For all these reasons, it is essential to learn how to conduct secondary research, even if you are unlikely to ever conduct primary research.

Secondary research is also essential if your main goal is primary research. Research funding is obtained only by using secondary research to show the need for the primary research you want to conduct. In fact, primary research depends on secondary research to prove that it is indeed new and original research and not just a rehash or replication of somebody else’s work.

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Secondary Research

• Edited by: David W. Stewart & Michael A. Kamins
• Publisher: SAGE Publications, Inc.
• Series: Applied Social Research Methods
• Publication year: 1993
• Online pub date: January 01, 2011
• Discipline: Anthropology
• Methods: Response rates , Census data , Secondary research
• DOI: https:// doi. org/10.4135/9781412985802
• Keywords: CD-ROM , government , information services , information sources , information use , organizations , publications Show all Show less
• Print ISBN: 9780803950375
• Online ISBN: 9781412985802
• Buy the book icon link

Subject index

Popular in its first edition as a guide for readers to finding secondary sources, obtaining the sources, and evaluating and integrating the information from various sources to answer specific research questions, Secondary Research has been revised to give the latest information on computer-based storage and retrieval systems. The second edition features expanded coverage of computer-based information, including a new chapter on CD-ROM products and updated coverage of on-line information search services. In addition, the book includes how to do secondary analysis, information on specific sources such as commercial and government sources and examples of information searches.

Front Matter

• Preface to Second Edition
• Introduction
• Evaluating Secondary Sources
• Government Information, Part I: Census Data
• Government Information, Part II: Other Government Documents
• Syndicated Commercial and Other Nongovernment Sources of Information
• Computer-Assisted Information Acquisition
• CD-ROM Technology
• Secondary Research in Practice
• Using and Integrating Secondary Information

Back Matter

• Author Index
• About the Authors

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Home » Secondary Data – Types, Methods and Examples

Secondary Data – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Secondary Data

Definition:

Secondary data refers to information that has been collected, processed, and published by someone else, rather than the researcher gathering the data firsthand. This can include data from sources such as government publications, academic journals, market research reports, and other existing datasets.

Secondary Data Types

Types of secondary data are as follows:

• Published data: Published data refers to data that has been published in books, magazines, newspapers, and other print media. Examples include statistical reports, market research reports, and scholarly articles.
• Government data: Government data refers to data collected by government agencies and departments. This can include data on demographics, economic trends, crime rates, and health statistics.
• Commercial data: Commercial data is data collected by businesses for their own purposes. This can include sales data, customer feedback, and market research data.
• Academic data: Academic data refers to data collected by researchers for academic purposes. This can include data from experiments, surveys, and observational studies.
• Online data: Online data refers to data that is available on the internet. This can include social media posts, website analytics, and online customer reviews.
• Organizational data: Organizational data is data collected by businesses or organizations for their own purposes. This can include data on employee performance, financial records, and customer satisfaction.
• Historical data : Historical data refers to data that was collected in the past and is still available for research purposes. This can include census data, historical documents, and archival records.
• International data: International data refers to data collected from other countries for research purposes. This can include data on international trade, health statistics, and demographic trends.
• Public data : Public data refers to data that is available to the general public. This can include data from government agencies, non-profit organizations, and other sources.
• Private data: Private data refers to data that is not available to the general public. This can include confidential business data, personal medical records, and financial data.
• Big data: Big data refers to large, complex datasets that are difficult to manage and analyze using traditional data processing methods. This can include social media data, sensor data, and other types of data generated by digital devices.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary Data Collection Methods are as follows:

• Published sources: Researchers can gather secondary data from published sources such as books, journals, reports, and newspapers. These sources often provide comprehensive information on a variety of topics.
• Online sources: With the growth of the internet, researchers can now access a vast amount of secondary data online. This includes websites, databases, and online archives.
• Government sources : Government agencies often collect and publish a wide range of secondary data on topics such as demographics, crime rates, and health statistics. Researchers can obtain this data through government websites, publications, or data portals.
• Commercial sources: Businesses often collect and analyze data for marketing research or customer profiling. Researchers can obtain this data through commercial data providers or by purchasing market research reports.
• Academic sources: Researchers can also obtain secondary data from academic sources such as published research studies, academic journals, and dissertations.
• Personal contacts: Researchers can also obtain secondary data from personal contacts, such as experts in a particular field or individuals with specialized knowledge.

Secondary Data Formats

Secondary data can come in various formats depending on the source from which it is obtained. Here are some common formats of secondary data:

• Numeric Data: Numeric data is often in the form of statistics and numerical figures that have been compiled and reported by organizations such as government agencies, research institutions, and commercial enterprises. This can include data such as population figures, GDP, sales figures, and market share.
• Textual Data: Textual data is often in the form of written documents, such as reports, articles, and books. This can include qualitative data such as descriptions, opinions, and narratives.
• Audiovisual Data : Audiovisual data is often in the form of recordings, videos, and photographs. This can include data such as interviews, focus group discussions, and other types of qualitative data.
• Geospatial Data: Geospatial data is often in the form of maps, satellite images, and geographic information systems (GIS) data. This can include data such as demographic information, land use patterns, and transportation networks.
• Transactional Data : Transactional data is often in the form of digital records of financial and business transactions. This can include data such as purchase histories, customer behavior, and financial transactions.
• Social Media Data: Social media data is often in the form of user-generated content from social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. This can include data such as user demographics, content trends, and sentiment analysis.

Secondary Data Analysis Methods

Secondary data analysis involves the use of pre-existing data for research purposes. Here are some common methods of secondary data analysis:

• Descriptive Analysis: This method involves describing the characteristics of a dataset, such as the mean, standard deviation, and range of the data. Descriptive analysis can be used to summarize data and provide an overview of trends.
• Inferential Analysis: This method involves making inferences and drawing conclusions about a population based on a sample of data. Inferential analysis can be used to test hypotheses and determine the statistical significance of relationships between variables.
• Content Analysis: This method involves analyzing textual or visual data to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to study the content of documents, media coverage, and social media posts.
• Time-Series Analysis : This method involves analyzing data over time to identify trends and patterns. Time-series analysis can be used to study economic trends, climate change, and other phenomena that change over time.
• Spatial Analysis : This method involves analyzing data in relation to geographic location. Spatial analysis can be used to study patterns of disease spread, land use patterns, and the effects of environmental factors on health outcomes.
• Meta-Analysis: This method involves combining data from multiple studies to draw conclusions about a particular phenomenon. Meta-analysis can be used to synthesize the results of previous research and provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.

Secondary Data Gathering Guide

Here are some steps to follow when gathering secondary data:

• Define your research question: Start by defining your research question and identifying the specific information you need to answer it. This will help you identify the type of secondary data you need and where to find it.
• Identify relevant sources: Identify potential sources of secondary data, including published sources, online databases, government sources, and commercial data providers. Consider the reliability and validity of each source.
• Evaluate the quality of the data: Evaluate the quality and reliability of the data you plan to use. Consider the data collection methods, sample size, and potential biases. Make sure the data is relevant to your research question and is suitable for the type of analysis you plan to conduct.
• Collect the data: Collect the relevant data from the identified sources. Use a consistent method to record and organize the data to make analysis easier.
• Validate the data: Validate the data to ensure that it is accurate and reliable. Check for inconsistencies, missing data, and errors. Address any issues before analyzing the data.
• Analyze the data: Analyze the data using appropriate statistical and analytical methods. Use descriptive and inferential statistics to summarize and draw conclusions from the data.
• Interpret the results: Interpret the results of your analysis and draw conclusions based on the data. Make sure your conclusions are supported by the data and are relevant to your research question.
• Communicate the findings : Communicate your findings clearly and concisely. Use appropriate visual aids such as graphs and charts to help explain your results.

Examples of Secondary Data

Here are some examples of secondary data from different fields:

• Healthcare : Hospital records, medical journals, clinical trial data, and disease registries are examples of secondary data sources in healthcare. These sources can provide researchers with information on patient demographics, disease prevalence, and treatment outcomes.
• Marketing : Market research reports, customer surveys, and sales data are examples of secondary data sources in marketing. These sources can provide marketers with information on consumer preferences, market trends, and competitor activity.
• Education : Student test scores, graduation rates, and enrollment statistics are examples of secondary data sources in education. These sources can provide researchers with information on student achievement, teacher effectiveness, and educational disparities.
• Finance : Stock market data, financial statements, and credit reports are examples of secondary data sources in finance. These sources can provide investors with information on market trends, company performance, and creditworthiness.
• Social Science : Government statistics, census data, and survey data are examples of secondary data sources in social science. These sources can provide researchers with information on population demographics, social trends, and political attitudes.
• Environmental Science : Climate data, remote sensing data, and ecological monitoring data are examples of secondary data sources in environmental science. These sources can provide researchers with information on weather patterns, land use, and biodiversity.

Purpose of Secondary Data

The purpose of secondary data is to provide researchers with information that has already been collected by others for other purposes. Secondary data can be used to support research questions, test hypotheses, and answer research objectives. Some of the key purposes of secondary data are:

• To gain a better understanding of the research topic : Secondary data can be used to provide context and background information on a research topic. This can help researchers understand the historical and social context of their research and gain insights into relevant variables and relationships.
• To save time and resources: Collecting new primary data can be time-consuming and expensive. Using existing secondary data sources can save researchers time and resources by providing access to pre-existing data that has already been collected and organized.
• To provide comparative data : Secondary data can be used to compare and contrast findings across different studies or datasets. This can help researchers identify trends, patterns, and relationships that may not have been apparent from individual studies.
• To support triangulation: Triangulation is the process of using multiple sources of data to confirm or refute research findings. Secondary data can be used to support triangulation by providing additional sources of data to support or refute primary research findings.
• To supplement primary data : Secondary data can be used to supplement primary data by providing additional information or insights that were not captured by the primary research. This can help researchers gain a more complete understanding of the research topic and draw more robust conclusions.

When to use Secondary Data

Secondary data can be useful in a variety of research contexts, and there are several situations in which it may be appropriate to use secondary data. Some common situations in which secondary data may be used include:

• When primary data collection is not feasible : Collecting primary data can be time-consuming and expensive, and in some cases, it may not be feasible to collect primary data. In these situations, secondary data can provide valuable insights and information.
• When exploring a new research area : Secondary data can be a useful starting point for researchers who are exploring a new research area. Secondary data can provide context and background information on a research topic, and can help researchers identify key variables and relationships to explore further.
• When comparing and contrasting research findings: Secondary data can be used to compare and contrast findings across different studies or datasets. This can help researchers identify trends, patterns, and relationships that may not have been apparent from individual studies.
• When triangulating research findings: Triangulation is the process of using multiple sources of data to confirm or refute research findings. Secondary data can be used to support triangulation by providing additional sources of data to support or refute primary research findings.
• When validating research findings : Secondary data can be used to validate primary research findings by providing additional sources of data that support or refute the primary findings.

Characteristics of Secondary Data

Secondary data have several characteristics that distinguish them from primary data. Here are some of the key characteristics of secondary data:

• Non-reactive: Secondary data are non-reactive, meaning that they are not collected for the specific purpose of the research study. This means that the researcher has no control over the data collection process, and cannot influence how the data were collected.
• Time-saving: Secondary data are pre-existing, meaning that they have already been collected and organized by someone else. This can save the researcher time and resources, as they do not need to collect the data themselves.
• Wide-ranging : Secondary data sources can provide a wide range of information on a variety of topics. This can be useful for researchers who are exploring a new research area or seeking to compare and contrast research findings.
• Less expensive: Secondary data are generally less expensive than primary data, as they do not require the researcher to incur the costs associated with data collection.
• Potential for bias : Secondary data may be subject to biases that were present in the original data collection process. For example, data may have been collected using a biased sampling method or the data may be incomplete or inaccurate.
• Lack of control: The researcher has no control over the data collection process and cannot ensure that the data were collected using appropriate methods or measures.
• Requires careful evaluation : Secondary data sources must be evaluated carefully to ensure that they are appropriate for the research question and analysis. This includes assessing the quality, reliability, and validity of the data sources.

Advantages of Secondary Data

There are several advantages to using secondary data in research, including:

• Time-saving : Collecting primary data can be time-consuming and expensive. Secondary data can be accessed quickly and easily, which can save researchers time and resources.
• Cost-effective: Secondary data are generally less expensive than primary data, as they do not require the researcher to incur the costs associated with data collection.
• Large sample size : Secondary data sources often have larger sample sizes than primary data sources, which can increase the statistical power of the research.
• Access to historical data : Secondary data sources can provide access to historical data, which can be useful for researchers who are studying trends over time.
• No ethical concerns: Secondary data are already in existence, so there are no ethical concerns related to collecting data from human subjects.
• May be more objective : Secondary data may be more objective than primary data, as the data were not collected for the specific purpose of the research study.

Limitations of Secondary Data

While there are many advantages to using secondary data in research, there are also some limitations that should be considered. Some of the main limitations of secondary data include:

• Lack of control over data quality : Researchers do not have control over the data collection process, which means they cannot ensure the accuracy or completeness of the data.
• Limited availability: Secondary data may not be available for the specific research question or study design.
• Lack of information on sampling and data collection methods: Researchers may not have access to information on the sampling and data collection methods used to gather the secondary data. This can make it difficult to evaluate the quality of the data.
• Data may not be up-to-date: Secondary data may not be up-to-date or relevant to the current research question.
• Data may be incomplete or inaccurate : Secondary data may be incomplete or inaccurate due to missing or incorrect data points, data entry errors, or other factors.
• Biases in data collection: The data may have been collected using biased sampling or data collection methods, which can limit the validity of the data.
• Lack of control over variables: Researchers have limited control over the variables that were measured in the original data collection process, which can limit the ability to draw conclusions about causality.

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Muhammad Hassan

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Primary vs Secondary Research: Differences, Methods, Sources, and More

Table of Contents

Primary vs Secondary Research – What’s the Difference?

In the search for knowledge and data to inform decisions, researchers and analysts rely on a blend of research sources. These sources are broadly categorized into primary and secondary research, each serving unique purposes and offering different insights into the subject matter at hand. But what exactly sets them apart?

Primary research is the process of gathering fresh data directly from its source. This approach offers real-time insights and specific information tailored to specific objectives set by stakeholders. Examples include surveys, interviews, and observational studies.

Secondary research , on the other hand, involves the analysis of existing data, most often collected and presented by others. This type of research is invaluable for understanding broader trends, providing context, or validating hypotheses. Common sources include scholarly articles, industry reports, and data compilations.

The crux of the difference lies in the origin of the information: primary research yields firsthand data which can be tailored to a specific business question, whilst secondary research synthesizes what's already out there. In essence, primary research listens directly to the voice of the subject, whereas secondary research hears it secondhand .

When to Use Primary and Secondary Research

Selecting the appropriate research method is pivotal and should be aligned with your research objectives. The choice between primary and secondary research is not merely procedural but strategic, influencing the depth and breadth of insights you can uncover.

Primary research shines when you need up-to-date, specific information directly relevant to your study. It's the go-to for fresh insights, understanding consumer behavior, or testing new theories. Its bespoke nature makes it indispensable for tailoring questions to get the exact answers you need.

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Secondary research is your first step into the research world. It helps set the stage by offering a broad understanding of the topic. Before diving into costly primary research, secondary research can validate the need for further investigation or provide a solid background to build upon. It's especially useful for identifying trends, benchmarking, and situating your research within the existing body of knowledge.

Combining both methods can significantly enhance your research. Starting with secondary research lays the groundwork and narrows the focus, whilst subsequent primary research delves deep into specific areas of interest, providing a well-rounded, comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Primary vs Secondary Research Methods

In the landscape of market research, the methodologies employed can significantly influence the insights and conclusions drawn. Let's delve deeper into the various methods underpinning both primary and secondary research, shedding light on their unique applications and the distinct insights they offer.

Primary Research Methods:

• Surveys: Surveys are a cornerstone of primary research, offering a quantitative approach to gathering data directly from the target audience. By employing structured questionnaires, researchers can collect a vast array of data ranging from customer preferences to behavioral patterns. This method is particularly valuable for acquiring statistically significant data that can inform decision-making processes and strategy development. The application of statistical approaches for analysing this data, such as key drivers analysis, MaxDiff or conjoint analysis can also further enhance any collected data.
• One on One Interviews: Interviews provide a qualitative depth to primary research, allowing for a nuanced exploration of participants' attitudes, experiences, and motivations. Conducted either face-to-face or remotely, interviews enable researchers to delve into the complexities of human behavior, offering rich insights that surveys alone may not uncover. This method is instrumental in exploring new areas of research or obtaining detailed information on specific topics.
• Focus Groups: Focus groups bring together a small, diverse group of participants to discuss and provide feedback on a particular subject, product, or idea. This interactive setting fosters a dynamic exchange of ideas, revealing consumers' perceptions, experiences, and preferences. Focus groups are invaluable for testing concepts, exploring market trends, and understanding the factors that influence consumer decisions.
• Ethnographic Studies: Ethnographic studies involve the systematic watching, recording, and analysis of behaviors and events in their natural setting. This method offers an unobtrusive way to gather authentic data on how people interact with products, services, or environments, providing insights that can lead to more user-centered design and marketing strategies.

Secondary Research Methods:

• Literature Reviews: Literature reviews involve the comprehensive examination of existing research and publications on a given topic. This method enables researchers to synthesize findings from a range of sources, providing a broad understanding of what is already known about a subject and identifying gaps in current knowledge.
• Meta-Analysis: Meta-analysis is a statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to arrive at a comprehensive conclusion. This method is particularly useful in secondary research for aggregating findings across different studies, offering a more robust understanding of the evidence on a particular topic.
• Content Analysis: Content analysis is a method for systematically analyzing texts, media, or other content to quantify patterns, themes, or biases . This approach allows researchers to assess the presence of certain words, concepts, or sentiments within a body of work, providing insights into trends, representations, and societal norms. This can be performed across a range of sources including social media, customer forums or review sites.
• Historical Research: Historical research involves the study of past events, trends, and behaviors through the examination of relevant documents and records. This method can provide context and understanding of current trends and inform future predictions, offering a unique perspective that enriches secondary research.

Each of these methods, whether primary or secondary, plays a crucial role in the mosaic of market research, offering distinct pathways to uncovering the insights necessary to drive informed decisions and strategies.

Primary vs Secondary Sources in Research

Both primary and secondary sources of research form the backbone of the insight generation process, when both are utilized in tandem it can provide the perfect steppingstone for the generation of real insights. Let’s explore how each category serves its unique purpose in the research ecosystem.

Primary Research Data Sources

Primary research data sources are the lifeblood of firsthand research, providing raw, unfiltered insights directly from the source. These include:

• Customer Satisfaction Survey Results: Direct feedback from customers about their satisfaction with a product or service. This data is invaluable for identifying strengths to build on and areas for improvement and typically renews each month or quarter so that metrics can be tracked over time.
• NPS Rating Scores from Customers: Net Promoter Score (NPS) provides a straightforward metric to gauge customer loyalty and satisfaction. This quantitative data can reveal much about customer sentiment and the likelihood of referrals.
• Ad-hoc Surveys: Ad-hoc surveys can be about any topic which requires investigation, they are typically one off surveys which zero in on one particular business objective. Ad-hoc projects are useful for situations such as investigating issues identified in other tracking surveys, new product development, ad testing, brand messaging, and many other kinds of projects.
• A Field Researcher’s Notes: Detailed observations from fieldwork can offer nuanced insights into user behaviors, interactions, and environmental factors that influence those interactions. These notes are a goldmine for understanding the context and complexities of user experiences.
• Recordings Made During Focus Groups: Audio or video recordings of focus group discussions capture the dynamics of conversation, including reactions, emotions, and the interplay of ideas. Analyzing these recordings can uncover nuanced consumer attitudes and perceptions that might not be evident in survey data alone.

These primary data sources are characterized by their immediacy and specificity, offering a direct line to the subject of study. They enable researchers to gather data that is specifically tailored to their research objectives, providing a solid foundation for insightful analysis and strategic decision-making.

Secondary Research Data Sources

In contrast, secondary research data sources offer a broader perspective, compiling and synthesizing information from various origins. These sources include:

• Books, Magazines, Scholarly Journals: Published works provide comprehensive overviews, detailed analyses, and theoretical frameworks that can inform research topics, offering depth and context that enriches primary data.
• Market Research Reports: These reports aggregate data and analyses on industry trends, consumer behavior, and market dynamics, providing a macro-level view that can guide primary research directions and validate findings.
• Government Reports: Official statistics and reports from government agencies offer authoritative data on a wide range of topics, from economic indicators to demographic trends, providing a reliable basis for secondary analysis.
• White Papers, Private Company Data: White papers and reports from businesses and consultancies offer insights into industry-specific research, best practices, and market analyses. These sources can be invaluable for understanding the competitive landscape and identifying emerging trends.

Secondary data sources serve as a compass, guiding researchers through the vast landscape of information to identify relevant trends, benchmark against existing data, and build upon the foundation of existing knowledge. They can significantly expedite the research process by leveraging the collective wisdom and research efforts of others.

By adeptly navigating both primary and secondary sources, researchers can construct a well-rounded research project that combines the depth of firsthand data with the breadth of existing knowledge. This holistic approach ensures a comprehensive understanding of the research topic, fostering informed decisions and strategic insights.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Research in Marketing

In the realm of marketing, both primary and secondary research methods play critical roles in understanding market dynamics, consumer behavior, and competitive landscapes. By comparing examples across both methodologies, we can appreciate their unique contributions to strategic decision-making.

Example 1: New Product Development

Primary Research: Direct Consumer Feedback through Surveys and Focus Groups

• Objective: To gauge consumer interest in a new product concept and identify preferred features.
• Process: Surveys distributed to a target demographic to collect quantitative data on consumer preferences, and focus groups conducted to dive deeper into consumer attitudes and desires.
• Insights: Direct insights into consumer needs, preferences for specific features, and willingness to pay. These insights help in refining product design and developing a targeted marketing strategy.

Secondary Research: Market Analysis Reports

• Objective: To understand the existing market landscape, including competitor products and market trends.
• Process: Analyzing published market analysis reports and industry studies to gather data on market size, growth trends, and competitive offerings.
• Insights: Provides a broader understanding of the market, helping to position the new product strategically against competitors and align it with current trends.

Example 2: Brand Positioning

Primary Research: Brand Perception Analysis through Surveys

• Objective: To understand how the brand is perceived by consumers and identify potential areas for repositioning.
• Process: Conducting surveys that ask consumers to describe the brand in their own words, rate it against various attributes, and compare it to competitors.
• Insights: Direct feedback on brand strengths and weaknesses from the consumer's perspective, offering actionable data for adjusting brand messaging and positioning.

Secondary Research: Social Media Sentiment Analysis

• Objective: To analyze public sentiment towards the brand and its competitors.
• Process: Utilizing software tools to analyze mentions, hashtags, and discussions related to the brand and its competitors across social media platforms.
• Insights: Offers an overview of public perception and emerging trends in consumer sentiment, which can validate findings from primary research or highlight areas needing further investigation.

Example 3: Market Expansion Strategy

Primary Research: Consumer Demand Studies in New Markets

• Objective: To assess demand and consumer preferences in a new geographic market.
• Process: Conducting surveys and interviews with potential consumers in the target market to understand their needs, preferences, and cultural nuances.
• Insights: Provides specific insights into the new market’s consumer behavior, preferences, and potential barriers to entry, guiding market entry strategies.

Secondary Research: Economic and Demographic Analysis

• Objective: To evaluate the economic viability and demographic appeal of the new market.
• Process: Reviewing existing economic reports, demographic data, and industry trends relevant to the target market.
• Insights: Offers a macro view of the market's potential, including economic conditions, demographic trends, and consumer spending patterns, which can complement insights gained from primary research.

By leveraging both primary and secondary research, marketers can form a comprehensive understanding of their market, consumers, and competitors, facilitating informed decision-making and strategic planning. Each method brings its strengths to the table, with primary research offering direct consumer insights and secondary research providing a broader context within which to interpret those insights.

What Are the Pros and Cons of Primary and Secondary Research?

When it comes to market research, both primary and secondary research offer unique advantages and face certain limitations. Understanding these can help researchers and businesses make informed decisions on which approach to utilize for their specific needs. Below is a comparative table highlighting the pros and cons of each research type.

Navigating the Pros and Cons

• Balance Your Research Needs: Consider starting with secondary research to gain a broad understanding of the subject matter, then delve into primary research for specific, targeted insights that are tailored to your precise needs.
• Resource Allocation: Evaluate your budget, time, and resource availability. Primary research can offer more specific and actionable data but requires more resources. Secondary research is more accessible but may lack the specificity or recency you need.
• Quality and Relevance: Assess the quality and relevance of available secondary sources before deciding if primary research is necessary. Sometimes, the existing data might suffice, especially for preliminary market understanding or trend analysis.
• Combining Both for Comprehensive Insights: Often, the most effective research strategy involves a combination of both primary and secondary research. This approach allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the market, leveraging the broad perspective provided by secondary sources and the depth and specificity of primary data.

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Secondary Research Advantages, Limitations, and Sources

Summary: secondary research should be a prerequisite to the collection of primary data, but it rarely provides all the answers you need. a thorough evaluation of the secondary data is needed to assess its relevance and accuracy..

5 minutes to read. By author Michaela Mora on January 25, 2022 Topics: Relevant Methods & Tips , Business Strategy , Market Research

Secondary research is based on data already collected for purposes other than the specific problem you have. Secondary research is usually part of exploratory market research designs.

The connection between the specific purpose that originates the research is what differentiates secondary research from primary research. Primary research is designed to address specific problems. However, analysis of available secondary data should be a prerequisite to the collection of primary data.

Advantages of Secondary Research

Secondary data can be faster and cheaper to obtain, depending on the sources you use.

Secondary research can help to:

• Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses.
• Formulate an appropriate research design (e.g., identify key variables).
• Interpret data from primary research as it can provide some insights into general trends in an industry or product category.
• Understand the competitive landscape.

Limitations of Secondary Research

The usefulness of secondary research tends to be limited often for two main reasons:

Lack of relevance

Secondary research rarely provides all the answers you need. The objectives and methodology used to collect the secondary data may not be appropriate for the problem at hand.

Given that it was designed to find answers to a different problem than yours, you will likely find gaps in answers to your problem. Furthermore, the data collection methods used may not provide the data type needed to support the business decisions you have to make (e.g., qualitative research methods are not appropriate for go/no-go decisions).

Lack of Accuracy

Secondary data may be incomplete and lack accuracy depending on;

• The research design (exploratory, descriptive, causal, primary vs. repackaged secondary data, the analytical plan, etc.)
• Sampling design and sources (target audiences, recruitment methods)
• Data collection method (qualitative and quantitative techniques)
• Analysis point of view (focus and omissions)
• Reporting stages (preliminary, final, peer-reviewed)
• Rate of change in the studied topic (slowly vs. rapidly evolving phenomenon, e.g., adoption of specific technologies).
• Lack of agreement between data sources.

Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Research Data

Before taking the information at face value, you should conduct a thorough evaluation of the secondary data you find using the following criteria:

• Purpose : Understanding why the data was collected and what questions it was trying to answer will tell us how relevant and useful it is since it may or may not be appropriate for your objectives.
• Methodology used to collect the data : Important to understand sources of bias.
• Accuracy of data: Sources of errors may include research design, sampling, data collection, analysis, and reporting.
• When the data was collected : Secondary data may not be current or updated frequently enough for the purpose that you need.
• Content of the data : Understanding the key variables, units of measurement, categories used and analyzed relationships may reveal how useful and relevant it is for your purposes.
• Source reputation : In the era of purposeful misinformation on the Internet, it is important to check the expertise, credibility, reputation, and trustworthiness of the data source.

Secondary Research Data Sources

Compared to primary research, the collection of secondary data can be faster and cheaper to obtain, depending on the sources you use.

Secondary data can come from internal or external sources.

Internal sources of secondary data include ready-to-use data or data that requires further processing available in internal management support systems your company may be using (e.g., invoices, sales transactions, Google Analytics for your website, etc.).

Prior primary qualitative and quantitative research conducted by the company are also common sources of secondary data. They often generate more questions and help formulate new primary research needed.

However, if there are no internal data collection systems yet or prior research, you probably won’t have much usable secondary data at your disposal.

External sources of secondary data include:

• Published materials
• External databases
• Syndicated services.

Published Materials

Published materials can be classified as:

• General business sources: Guides, directories, indexes, and statistical data.
• Government sources: Census data and other government publications.

External Databases

In many industries across a variety of topics, there are private and public databases that can bed accessed online or by downloading data for free, a fixed fee, or a subscription.

These databases can include bibliographic, numeric, full-text, directory, and special-purpose databases. Some public institutions make data collected through various methods, including surveys, available for others to analyze.

Syndicated Services

These services are offered by companies that collect and sell pools of data that have a commercial value and meet shared needs by a number of clients, even if the data is not collected for specific purposes those clients may have.

Syndicated services can be classified based on specific units of measurements (e.g., consumers, households, organizations, etc.).

The data collection methods for these data may include:

• Surveys (Psychographic and Lifestyle, advertising evaluations, general topics)
• Household panels (Purchase and media use)
• Electronic scanner services (volume tracking data, scanner panels, scanner panels with Cable TV)
• Audits (retailers, wholesalers)
• Direct inquiries to institutions
• Clipping services tracking PR for institutions
• Corporate reports

You can spend hours doing research on Google in search of external sources, but this is likely to yield limited insights. Books, articles journals, reports, blogs posts, and videos you may find online are usually analyses and summaries of data from a particular perspective. They may be useful and give you an indication of the type of data used, but they are not the actual data. Whenever possible, you should look at the actual raw data used to draw your own conclusion on its value for your research objectives. You should check professionally gathered secondary research.

Here are some external secondary data sources often used in market research that you may find useful as starting points in your research. Some are free, while others require payment.

• Pew Research Center : Reports about the issues, attitudes, and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis, and other empirical social science research.
• Data.Census.gov : Data dissemination platform to access demographic and economic data from the U.S. Census Bureau.
• Data.gov : The US. government’s open data source with almost 200,00 datasets ranges in topics from health, agriculture, climate, ecosystems, public safety, finance, energy, manufacturing, education, and business.
• Google Scholar : A web search engine that indexes the full text or metadata of scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats and disciplines.
• Google Public Data Explorer : Makes large, public-interest datasets easy to explore, visualize and communicate.
• Google News Archive : Allows users to search historical newspapers and retrieve scanned images of their pages.
• Mckinsey & Company : Articles based on analyses of various industries.
• Statista : Business data platform with data across 170+ industries and 150+ countries.
• Claritas : Syndicated reports on various market segments.
• Mintel : Consumer reports combining exclusive consumer research with other market data and expert analysis.
• MarketResearch.com : Data aggregator with over 350 publishers covering every sector of the economy as well as emerging industries.
• Packaged Facts : Reports based on market research on consumer goods and services industries.
• Dun & Bradstreet : Company directory with business information.

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Qualitative Secondary Analysis: A Case Exemplar

Judith ann tate.

The Ohio State University, College of Nursing

Mary Beth Happ

Qualitative secondary analysis (QSA) is the use of qualitative data collected by someone else or to answer a different research question. Secondary analysis of qualitative data provides an opportunity to maximize data utility particularly with difficult to reach patient populations. However, QSA methods require careful consideration and explicit description to best understand, contextualize, and evaluate the research results. In this paper, we describe methodologic considerations using a case exemplar to illustrate challenges specific to QSA and strategies to overcome them.

Health care research requires significant time and resources. Secondary analysis of existing data provides an efficient alternative to collecting data from new groups or the same subjects. Secondary analysis, defined as the reuse of existing data to investigate a different research question ( Heaton, 2004 ), has a similar purpose whether the data are quantitative or qualitative. Common goals include to (1) perform additional analyses on the original dataset, (2) analyze a subset of the original data, (3) apply a new perspective or focus to the original data, or (4) validate or expand findings from the original analysis ( Hinds, Vogel, & Clarke-Steffen, 1997 ). Synthesis of knowledge from meta-analysis or aggregation may be viewed as an additional purpose of secondary analysis ( Heaton, 2004 ).

Qualitative studies utilize several different data sources, such as interviews, observations, field notes, archival meeting minutes or clinical record notes, to produce rich descriptions of human experiences within a social context. The work typically requires significant resources (e.g., personnel effort/time) for data collection and analysis. When feasible, qualitative secondary analysis (QSA) can be a useful and cost-effective alternative to designing and conducting redundant primary studies. With advances in computerized data storage and analysis programs, sharing qualitative datasets has become easier. However, little guidance is available for conducting, structuring procedures, or evaluating QSA ( Szabo & Strang, 1997 ).

QSA has been described as “an almost invisible enterprise in social research” ( Fielding, 2004 ). Primary data is often re-used; however, descriptions of this practice are embedded within the methods section of qualitative research reports rather than explicitly identified as QSA. Moreover, searching or classifying reports as QSA is difficult because many researchers refrain from identifying their work as secondary analyses ( Hinds et al., 1997 ; Thorne, 1998a ). In this paper, we provide an overview of QSA, the purposes, and modes of data sharing and approaches. A unique, expanded QSA approach is presented as a methodological exemplar to illustrate considerations.

QSA Typology

Heaton (2004) classified QSA studies based on the relationship between the secondary and primary questions and the scope of data analyzed. Types of QSA included studies that (1) investigated questions different from the primary study, (2) applied a unique theoretical perspective, or (3) extended the primary work. Heaton’s literature review (2004) showed that studies varied in the choice of data used, from selected portions to entire or combined datasets.

Modes of Data Sharing

Heaton (2004) identified three modes of data sharing: formal, informal and auto-data. Formal data sharing involves accessing and analyzing deposited or archived qualitative data by an independent group of researchers. Historical research often uses formal data sharing. Informal data sharing refers to requests for direct access to an investigator’s data for use alone or to pool with other data, usually as a result of informal networking. In some instances, the primary researchers may be invited to collaborate. The most common mode of data sharing is auto-data, defined as further exploration of a qualitative data set by the primary research team. Due to the iterative nature of qualitative research, when using auto-data, it may be difficult to determine where the original study questions end and discrete, distinct analysis begins ( Heaton, 1998 ).

An Exemplar QSA

Below we describe a QSA exemplar conducted by the primary author of this paper (JT), a member of the original research team, who used a supplementary approach to examine concepts revealed but not fully investigated in the primary study. First, we describe an overview of the original study on which the QSA was based. Then, the exemplar QSA is presented to illustrate: (1) the use of auto-data when the new research questions are closely related to or extend the original study aims ( Table 1 ), (2) the collection of additional clinical record data to supplement the original dataset and (3) the performance of separate member checking in the form of expert review and opinion. Considerations and recommendations for use of QSA are reviewed with illustrations taken from the exemplar study ( Table 2 ). Finally, discussion of conclusions and implications is included to assist with planning and implementation of QSA studies.

Research question comparison

Application of the Exemplar Qualitative Secondary Analysis (QSA)

Aitken, L. M., Marshall, A. P., Elliott, R., & McKinley, S. (2009). Critical care nurses' decision making: sedation assessment and management in intensive care. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 18 (1), 36–45.

Morse, J., & Field, P. (1995). Qualitative research methods for health professionals. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing.

Patel, R. P., Gambrell, M., Speroff, T.,…Strength, C. (2009). Delirium and sedation in the intensive care unit: Survey of behaviors and attitudes of 1384 healthcare professionals. Critical Care Medicine, 37 (3), 825–832.

Shehabi, Y., Botha, J. A., Boyle, M. S., Ernest, D., Freebairn, R. C., Jenkins, I. R., … Seppelt, I. M. (2008). Sedation and delirium in the intensive care unit: an Australian and New Zealand perspective. Anaesthesia & Intensive Care, 36 (4), 570–578.

Tanios, M. A., de Wit, M., Epstein, S. K., & Devlin, J. W. (2009). Perceived barriers to the use of sedation protocols and daily sedation interruption: a multidisciplinary survey. Journal of Critical Care, 24 (1), 66–73.

Weinert, C. R., & Calvin, A. D. (2007). Epidemiology of sedation and sedation adequacy for mechanically ventilated patients in a medical and surgical intensive care unit. Critical Care Medicine , 35(2), 393–401.

The Primary Study

Briefly, the original study was a micro-level ethnography designed to describe the processes of care and communication with patients weaning from prolonged mechanical ventilation (PMV) in a 28-bed Medical Intensive Care Unit ( Broyles, Colbert, Tate, & Happ, 2008 ; Happ, Swigart, Tate, Arnold, Sereika, & Hoffman, 2007 ; Happ et al, 2007 , 2010 ). Both the primary study and the QSA were approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Pittsburgh. Data were collected by two experienced investigators and a PhD student-research project coordinator. Data sources consisted of sustained field observations, interviews with patients, family members and clinicians, and clinical record review, including all narrative clinical documentation recorded by direct caregivers.

During iterative data collection and analysis in the original study, it became apparent that anxiety and agitation had an effect on the duration of ventilator weaning episodes, an observation that helped to formulate the questions for the QSA ( Tate, Dabbs, Hoffman, Milbrandt & Happ, 2012 ). Thus, the secondary topic was closely aligned as an important facet of the primary phenomenon. The close, natural relationship between the primary and QSA research questions is demonstrated in the side-by-side comparison in Table 1 . This QSA focused on new questions which extended the original study to recognition and management of anxiety or agitation, behaviors that often accompany mechanical ventilation and weaning but occur throughout the trajectory of critical illness and recovery.

Considerations when Undertaking QSA ( Table 2 )

Practical advantages.

A key practical advantage of QSA is maximizing use of existing data. Data collection efforts represent a significant percentage of the research budget in terms of cost and labor ( Coyer & Gallo, 2005 ). This is particularly important in view of the competition for research funding. Planning and implementing a qualitative study involves considerable time and expertise not only for data collecting (e.g., interviews, participant observation or focus group), but in establishing access, credibility and relationships ( Thorne, 1994 ) and in conducting the analysis. The cost of QSA is often seen as negligible since the outlay of resources for data collection is assumed by the original study. However, QSA incurs costs related to storage, researcher’s effort for review of existing data, analysis, and any further data collection that may be necessary.

Another advantage of QSA is access to data from an assembled cohort. In conducting original primary research, practical concerns arise when participants are difficult to locate or reluctant to divulge sensitive details to a researcher. In the case of vulnerable critically ill patients, participation in research may seem an unnecessary burden to family members who may be unwilling to provide proxy consent ( Fielding, 2004 ). QSA permits new questions to be asked of data collected previously from these vulnerable groups ( Rew, Koniak-Griffin, Lewis, Miles, & O'Sullivan, 2000 ), or from groups or events that occur with scarcity ( Thorne, 1994 ). Participants’ time and effort in the primary study therefore becomes more worthwhile. In fact, it is recommended that data already collected from existing studies of vulnerable populations or about sensitive topics be analyzed prior to engaging new participants. In this way, QSA becomes a cumulative rather than a repetitive process ( Fielding, 2004 ).

Data Adequacy and Congruency

Secondary researchers must determine that the primary data set meets the needs of the QSA. Data may be insufficient to answer a new question or the focus of the QSA may be so different as to render the pursuit of a QSA impossible ( Heaton, 1998 ). The underlying assumptions, sampling plan, research questions, and conceptual framework selected to answer the original study question may not fit the question posed during QSA ( Coyer & Gallo, 2005 ). The researchers of the primary study may have selectively sampled participants and analyzed the resulting data in a manner that produced a narrow or uneven scope of data ( Hinds et al., 1997 ). Thus, the data needed to fully answer questions posed by the QSA may be inadequately addressed in the primary study. A critical review of the existing dataset is an important first step in determining whether the primary data fits the secondary questions ( Hinds et al., 1997 ).

Passage of Time

The timing of the QSA is another important consideration. If the primary study and secondary study are performed sequentially, findings of the original study may influence the secondary study. On the other hand, studies performed concurrently offer the benefit of access to both the primary research team and participants member checking ( Hinds et al., 1997 ).

The passage of time since the primary study was conducted can also have a distinct effect on the usefulness of the primary dataset. Data may be outdated or contain a historical bias ( Coyer & Gallo, 2005 ). Since context changes over time, characteristics of the phenomena of interest may have changed. Analysis of older datasets may not illuminate the phenomena as they exist today.( Hinds et al., 1997 ) Even if participants could be re-contacted, their perspectives, memories and experiences change. The passage of time also has an affect on the relationship of the primary researchers to the data – so auto-data may be interpreted differently by the same researcher with the passage of time. Data are bound by time and history, therefore, may be a threat to internal validity unless a new investigator is able to account for these effects when interpreting data ( Rew et al., 2000 ).

Researcher stance/Context involvement

Issues related to context are a major source of criticism of QSA ( Gladstone, Volpe, & Boydell, 2007 ). One of the hallmarks of qualitative research is the relationship of the researcher to the participants. It can be argued that removing active contact with participants violates this premise. Tacit understandings developed in the field may be difficult or impossible to reconstruct ( Thorne, 1994 ). Qualitative fieldworkers often react and redirect the data collection based on a growing knowledge of the setting. The setting may change as a result of external or internal factors. Interpretation of researchers as participants in a unique time and social context may be impossible to re-construct even if the secondary researchers were members of the primary team ( Mauthner, Parry, & Milburn, 1998 ). Because the context in which the data were originally produced cannot be recovered, the ability of the researcher to react to the lived experience may be curtailed in QSA ( Gladstone et al., 2007 ). Researchers utilize a number of tactics to filter and prioritize what to include as data that may not be apparent in either the written or spoken records of those events ( Thorne, 1994 ). Reflexivity between the researcher, participants and setting is impossible to recreate when examining pre-existing data.

Relationship of QSA Researcher to Primary Study

The relationship of the QSA researcher to the primary study is an important consideration. When the QSA researcher is not part of the original study team, contractual arrangements detailing access to data, its format, access to the original team, and authorship are required ( Hinds et al., 1997 ). The QSA researcher should assess the condition of the data, documents including transcripts, memos and notes, and clarity and flow of interactions ( Hinds et al., 1997 ). An outline of the original study and data collection procedures should be critically reviewed ( Heaton, 1998 ). If the secondary researcher was not a member of the original study team, access to the original investigative team for the purpose of ongoing clarification is essential ( Hinds et al., 1997 ).

Membership on the original study team may, however, offer the secondary researcher little advantage depending on their role in the primary study. Some research team members may have had responsibility for only one type of data collection or data source. There may be differences in involvement with analysis of the primary data.

Informed Consent of Participants

Thorne (1998) questioned whether data collected for one study purpose can ethically be re-examined to answer another question without participants’ consent. Many institutional review boards permit consent forms to include language about the possibility of future use of existing data. While this mechanism is becoming routine and welcomed by researchers, concerns have been raised that a generic consent cannot possibly address all future secondary questions and may violate the principle of full informed consent ( Gladstone et al., 2007 ). Local variations in study approval practices by institutional review boards may influence the ability of researchers to conduct a QSA.

Rigor of QSA

The primary standards for evaluating rigor of qualitative studies are trustworthiness (logical relationship between the data and the analytic claims), fit (the context within which the findings are applicable), transferability (the overall generalizability of the claims) and auditabilty (the transparency of the procedural steps and the analytic moves processes) ( Lincoln & Guba, 1991 ). Thorne suggests that standard procedures for assuring rigor can be modified for QSA ( Thorne, 1994 ). For instance, the original researchers may be viewed as sources of confirmation while new informants, other related datasets and validation by clinical experts are sources of triangulation that may overcome the lack of access to primary subjects ( Heaton, 2004 ; Thorne, 1994 ).

Our observations, derived from the experience of posing a new question of existing qualitative data serves as a template for researchers considering QSA. Considerations regarding quality, availability and appropriateness of existing data are of primary importance. A realistic plan for collecting additional data to answer questions posed in QSA should consider burden and resources for data collection, analysis, storage and maintenance. Researchers should consider context as a potential limitation to new analyses. Finally, the cost of QSA should be fully evaluated prior to making a decision to pursue QSA.

Acknowledgments

This work was funded by the National Institute of Nursing Research (RO1-NR07973, M Happ PI) and a Clinical Practice Grant from the American Association of Critical Care Nurses (JA Tate, PI).

Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

Disclosure statement: Drs. Tate and Happ have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose that relate to the content of this manuscript and do not anticipate conflicts in the foreseeable future.

Contributor Information

Judith Ann Tate, The Ohio State University, College of Nursing.

Mary Beth Happ, The Ohio State University, College of Nursing.

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