research paper solved cold case

About Stanford GSB

• The Leadership
• Dean’s Updates
• School News & History
• Commencement
• Business, Government & Society
• Centers & Institutes
• Center for Entrepreneurial Studies
• Center for Social Innovation
• Stanford Seed

About the Experience

• Learning at Stanford GSB
• Experiential Learning
• Guest Speakers
• Entrepreneurship
• Social Innovation
• Communication
• Life at Stanford GSB
• Collaborative Environment
• Activities & Organizations
• Student Services
• Housing Options
• International Students

Full-Time Degree Programs

• Why Stanford MBA
• Academic Experience
• Financial Aid
• Why Stanford MSx
• Research Fellows Program
• See All Programs

Non-Degree & Certificate Programs

• Executive Education
• Stanford Executive Program
• Programs for Organizations
• The Difference
• Online Programs
• Stanford LEAD
• Stanford Innovation and Entrepreneurship Certificate
• Seed Transformation Program
• Aspire Program
• Seed Spark Program
• Faculty Profiles
• Academic Areas
• Awards & Honors
• Conferences

Faculty Research

• Publications
• Working Papers
• Case Studies

Research Hub

• Research Labs & Initiatives
• Business Library
• Data, Analytics & Research Computing
• Behavioral Lab

Research Labs

• Cities, Housing & Society Lab
• Golub Capital Social Impact Lab

Research Initiatives

• Corporate Governance Research Initiative
• Corporations and Society Initiative
• Policy and Innovation Initiative
• Rapid Decarbonization Initiative
• Stanford Latino Entrepreneurship Initiative
• Value Chain Innovation Initiative
• Venture Capital Initiative
• Career & Success
• Climate & Sustainability
• Corporate Governance
• Culture & Society
• Finance & Investing
• Government & Politics
• Leadership & Management
• Markets & Trade
• Operations & Logistics
• Opportunity & Access
• Organizational Behavior
• Political Economy
• Social Impact
• Technology & AI
• Opinion & Analysis
• Email Newsletter

Welcome, Alumni

• Communities
• Digital Communities & Tools
• Regional Chapters
• Women’s Programs
• Identity Chapters
• Find Your Reunion
• Career Resources
• Job Search Resources
• Career & Life Transitions
• Programs & Services
• Career Video Library
• Alumni Education
• Research Resources
• Volunteering
• Alumni News
• Class Notes
• Alumni Voices
• Contact Alumni Relations
• Upcoming Events

Admission Events & Information Sessions

• MBA Program
• MSx Program
• PhD Program
• Alumni Events
• All Other Events

A New Strategy to Speed Up Cold Case Investigations

Solving crimes with forensic genetic genealogy is slow and complicated. A new mathematical analysis could crack cases 10 times faster.

September 14, 2022

Investigators trying to ID an unknown person may spend months combing through massive family trees. | Cory Hall

For nearly 37 years, she was known as Buckskin Girl — a young, anonymous murder victim found outside Dayton, Ohio, wearing a deer-hide poncho. Then, in April 2018, police announced that the mystery of her identity had been solved. Her name was Marcia L. King, and she had been identified by linking a snippet of her DNA to one of her cousins.

It was one of the first high-profile cases in which this investigative method had been used to identify an unclaimed body. Two weeks after King’s name was revealed, police in California announced that they’d used similar techniques to track down the Golden State Killer. Suddenly, the combination of genetic sampling, genealogical research, and old-fashioned gumshoeing was hailed as a revolutionary breakthrough that would crack hundreds of cold cases.

Since then, forensic genetic genealogy has cleared more than 400 cases in the U.S. Yet this detective work is complex and time-consuming. While King was IDed after just a few hours of sleuthing, most cases take much longer. On average, they take over a year to solve successfully. Many are left unfinished: Law enforcement agencies may run out of funding before a person can be identified and investigators may give up if they hit too many dead ends.

A more systematic approach would help, says Lawrence Wein , a professor of operations, information, and technology at Stanford Graduate School of Business. With Mine Su Ertürk , PhD ’22, he has unveiled a method for solving cold cases with more speed and success. In a new paper in the Journal of Forensic Sciences , they present the first detailed mathematical analysis of the forensic genetic genealogy process and outline a way for investigators to optimize searches for unknown victims or criminal suspects.

To develop their search method, Wein and Ertürk teamed up with the DNA Doe Project , a California nonprofit that has solved more than 65 cases of unidentified remains, including the King case. It provided the researchers with data from 17 cases, including 8 that were unsolved at the time. “That’s quite similar to the historical average of cases they’ve solved,” Wein says. “So there’s no reason to suspect that these cases are much harder or much easier than randomly selected cases.”

Using that real-world data, Wein and Ertürk looked at how forensic genetic genealogy searches are commonly done and then tested their method, which aims to maximize the probability of finding a solution in the shortest time possible. “It turns out to be much quicker,” Wein says of the new approach — nearly 10 times quicker. “If they’re only solving a small number of cases using the current method, and we can get them to solve them 10 times faster, then they could solve a lot more cases.”

A Forest of Family Trees

A typical genetic genealogy investigation begins with a DNA sample from a “target” such as an unidentified body or a murder suspect. It’s uploaded into a DNA database such as GEDmatch or FamilyTreeDNA, which generates a list of “matches” — people who share pieces of the target’s genome. A search may turn up hundreds of these matches, usually distant cousins whose shared ancestors may have died more than a century ago. The cases Wein and Ertürk analyzed had between 200 and 5,000 matches.

That’s just the start: Drawing a line from these far-flung relatives to the target requires building a family tree that includes as many family members as possible. Here, too, the scale of the problem is daunting. “These are huge trees,” Wein says. “It’s really hard to visually lay out anything bigger than a couple dozen people.” As the tree expands, the odds of identifying the target improve — but the length of the search also increases.

Quote If they’re only solving a small number of cases using the current method, and we can get them to solve them 10 times faster, then they could solve a lot more cases. Attribution Lawrence Wein

Next, the relevant people in the tree have to be identified. This requires scouring public records, genealogy sites, and social media — time-intensive legwork that combines intuition and skill. “There’s a whole art to it,” Wein says. “Using marriage documents and death documents and birth documents and Facebook and all kinds of different records to try to figure out who people are and who their ancestors and offspring are.”

It’s not immediately apparent which matches will provide the best path to the target. Investigators’ strategies to follow these leads tend to be decentralized, Wein says. “You have a team of people doing this and they will each decide to take a match to investigate, and then they’ll go off on their own to try to build a family tree backward in time from each match. They’re not thinking about the big picture holistically.”

By stepping back and assessing the entire problem, Wein and Ertürk provide a roadmap for genetic genealogists seeking the most efficient path to an unidentified target. “Basically, we’re telling them, ‘Given where you are in the search right now, this is what you should do next,’” Wein says.

Solving Equations and Crimes

Explaining the difference between the new search method and the standard, or “benchmark,” method is complicated, but Wein boils it down to this: “The benchmark method looks for common ancestors between different matches. What you really want to find is the most recent common ancestor between a match and the unknown target, and that’s a slightly different problem.” The most recent common ancestor of first cousins, for example, is a grandparent; second cousins share a great-grandparent, and so on.

After identifying a list of possible most recent common ancestors, Wein and Ertürk’s method “aggressively” fills out the family tree with their descendants, even if there’s only a slight chance that the target’s ancestor is on the list.

This leap is accomplished by using probability theory to track the search’s progress. “We do this by describing the reconstructed family tree as a collection of probabilities that represent how likely each person on our tree is to be a correct ancestor of the target,” Ertürk explains. “Then, looking at these probabilities, you can tell which parts of the tree you should explore more.”

This approach proves effective even with smaller family trees, which means faster solve times. After running hundreds of simulated searches, Wein and Ertürk conclude that their method can solve a case with a 7,500-person family tree around 94% of the time. The standard method’s success rate in those cases is around 4%.

Wein hopes these findings will help the DNA Doe Project and other investigators refine their approach and crack more cases. He notes that his analysis doesn’t account for some of the “tricks” genetic investigators use to narrow their searches, such as focusing on family members who lived in a particular location. “In no way is our algorithm meant to substitute for genealogists,” he says. “But if they’re really stuck, it will give them some ideas that may be non-obvious.”

Wein and Ertürk have applied mathematics to tackle investigative challenges before. Last year, Ertürk cowrote a paper with Stanford GSB professor Kuang Xu that outlined a method of genetic searching that balances efficiency and privacy concerns . Wein has researched better ways to scan fingerprints , process sexual assault kits , and trace bullets .

He sees forensic genetic genealogy as another crime-solving tool that can be improved so it might live up to its promise. “It’s an interesting field that combines probability and statistics and optimization and sometimes game theory,” he says. “That’s how I, from a mathematical point of view, stayed attracted to these problems.”

For media inquiries, visit the Newsroom .

Explore More

Yes “we” can: swapping pronouns can make messages more persuasive, taking a stand with your brand: genderless fashion in africa, will a police stop end in arrest listen to its first 27 seconds., editor’s picks.

Analysis of the Genealogy Process in Forensic Genetic Genealogy Mine Su Ertürk Colleen Fitzpatrick Margaret Press Lawrence M. Wein

June 30, 2021 A New Way to Solve Genetic Mysteries — While Protecting People’s DNA Data Researchers propose a method to balance the power of genomic searches with privacy concerns.

July 21, 2020 Using Algorithms to Track Down Rapists A Stanford scholar has developed a more efficient way to test DNA samples in the hunt for sex offenders.

June 01, 2017 How to Solve More Gun Crimes Without Spending More Money Simple tweaks to how police process bullet casings could dramatically improve their forensic data.

• See the Current DEI Report
• Supporting Data
• Research & Insights
• Share Your Thoughts
• Search Fund Primer
• Teaching & Curriculum
• Affiliated Faculty
• Faculty Advisors
• Louis W. Foster Resource Center
• Defining Social Innovation
• Impact Compass
• Global Health Innovation Insights
• Faculty Affiliates
• Student Awards & Certificates
• Changemakers
• Dean Jonathan Levin
• Dean Garth Saloner
• Dean Robert Joss
• Dean Michael Spence
• Dean Robert Jaedicke
• Dean Rene McPherson
• Dean Arjay Miller
• Dean Ernest Arbuckle
• Dean Jacob Hugh Jackson
• Dean Willard Hotchkiss
• Faculty in Memoriam
• Stanford GSB Firsts
• Certificate & Award Recipients
• Dean’s Remarks
• Keynote Address
• Teaching Approach
• Analysis and Measurement of Impact
• The Corporate Entrepreneur: Startup in a Grown-Up Enterprise
• Data-Driven Impact
• Designing Experiments for Impact
• Digital Business Transformation
• The Founder’s Right Hand
• Marketing for Measurable Change
• Product Management
• Public Policy Lab: Financial Challenges Facing US Cities
• Public Policy Lab: Homelessness in California
• Lab Features
• Curricular Integration
• View From The Top
• Formation of New Ventures
• Managing Growing Enterprises
• Startup Garage
• Explore Beyond the Classroom
• Stanford Venture Studio
• Summer Program
• Workshops & Events
• The Five Lenses of Entrepreneurship
• Leadership Labs
• Executive Challenge
• Arbuckle Leadership Fellows Program
• Selection Process
• Training Schedule
• Time Commitment
• Learning Expectations
• Post-Training Opportunities
• Who Should Apply
• Introductory T-Groups
• Leadership for Society Program
• Certificate
• 2023 Awardees
• 2022 Awardees
• 2021 Awardees
• 2020 Awardees
• 2019 Awardees
• 2018 Awardees
• Social Management Immersion Fund
• Stanford Impact Founder Fellowships and Prizes
• Stanford Impact Leader Prizes
• Social Entrepreneurship
• Stanford GSB Impact Fund
• Economic Development
• Energy & Environment
• Stanford GSB Residences
• Environmental Leadership
• Stanford GSB Artwork
• A Closer Look
• California & the Bay Area
• Voices of Stanford GSB
• Business & Beneficial Technology
• Business & Sustainability
• Business & Free Markets
• Business, Government, and Society Forum
• Get Involved
• Second Year
• Global Experiences
• JD/MBA Joint Degree
• MA Education/MBA Joint Degree
• MD/MBA Dual Degree
• MPP/MBA Joint Degree
• MS Computer Science/MBA Joint Degree
• MS Electrical Engineering/MBA Joint Degree
• MS Environment and Resources (E-IPER)/MBA Joint Degree
• Academic Calendar
• Clubs & Activities
• LGBTQ+ Students
• Military Veterans
• Minorities & People of Color
• Partners & Families
• Students with Disabilities
• Student Support
• Residential Life
• Student Voices
• MBA Alumni Voices
• A Week in the Life
• Career Support
• Employment Outcomes
• Cost of Attendance
• Knight-Hennessy Scholars Program
• Yellow Ribbon Program
• BOLD Fellows Fund
• Application Process
• Loan Forgiveness
• Contact the Financial Aid Office
• Evaluation Criteria
• GMAT & GRE
• English Language Proficiency
• Personal Information, Activities & Awards
• Professional Experience
• Letters of Recommendation
• Optional Short Answer Questions
• Application Fee
• Reapplication
• Deferred Enrollment
• Joint & Dual Degrees
• Entering Class Profile
• Event Schedule
• Ambassadors
• New & Noteworthy
• Ask a Question
• See Why Stanford MSx
• Is MSx Right for You?
• MSx Stories
• Leadership Development
• Career Advancement
• Career Change
• How You Will Learn
• Admission Events
• Personal Information
• Information for Recommenders
• GMAT, GRE & EA
• English Proficiency Tests
• After You’re Admitted
• Daycare, Schools & Camps
• U.S. Citizens and Permanent Residents
• Requirements
• Requirements: Behavioral
• Requirements: Quantitative
• Requirements: Macro
• Requirements: Micro
• Annual Evaluations
• Field Examination
• Research Activities
• Research Papers
• Dissertation
• Oral Examination
• Current Students
• Education & CV
• International Applicants
• Statement of Purpose
• Reapplicants
• Application Fee Waiver
• Deadline & Decisions
• Job Market Candidates
• Academic Placements
• Stay in Touch
• Faculty Mentors
• Current Fellows
• Standard Track
• Fellowship & Benefits
• Group Enrollment
• Program Formats
• Developing a Program
• Diversity & Inclusion
• Strategic Transformation
• Program Experience
• Contact Client Services
• Campus Experience
• Live Online Experience
• Silicon Valley & Bay Area
• Digital Credentials
• Faculty Spotlights
• Participant Spotlights
• Eligibility
• International Participants
• Stanford Ignite
• Frequently Asked Questions
• Operations, Information & Technology
• Classical Liberalism
• The Eddie Lunch
• Accounting Summer Camp
• Videos, Code & Data
• California Econometrics Conference
• California Quantitative Marketing PhD Conference
• California School Conference
• China India Insights Conference
• Homo economicus, Evolving
• Political Economics (2023–24)
• Scaling Geologic Storage of CO2 (2023–24)
• A Resilient Pacific: Building Connections, Envisioning Solutions
• Adaptation and Innovation
• Changing Climate
• Civil Society
• Climate Impact Summit
• Climate Science
• Corporate Carbon Disclosures
• Earth’s Seafloor
• Environmental Justice
• Operations and Information Technology
• Organizations
• Sustainability Reporting and Control
• Taking the Pulse of the Planet
• Urban Infrastructure
• Watershed Restoration
• Junior Faculty Workshop on Financial Regulation and Banking
• Ken Singleton Celebration
• Quantitative Marketing PhD Alumni Conference
• Presentations
• Theory and Inference in Accounting Research
• Stanford Closer Look Series
• Quick Guides
• Core Concepts
• Journal Articles
• Glossary of Terms
• Faculty & Staff
• Researchers & Students
• Research Approach
• Charitable Giving
• Financial Health
• Government Services
• Workers & Careers
• Short Course
• Adaptive & Iterative Experimentation
• Incentive Design
• Social Sciences & Behavioral Nudges
• Bandit Experiment Application
• Conferences & Events
• Reading Materials
• Energy Entrepreneurship
• Faculty & Affiliates
• SOLE Report
• Responsible Supply Chains
• Current Study Usage
• Pre-Registration Information
• Participate in a Study
• Founding Donors
• Location Information
• Participant Profile
• Network Membership
• Program Impact
• Collaborators
• Entrepreneur Profiles
• Company Spotlights
• Seed Transformation Network
• Responsibilities
• Current Coaches
• How to Apply
• Meet the Consultants
• Meet the Interns
• Intern Profiles
• Collaborate
• Research Library
• News & Insights
• Program Contacts
• Databases & Datasets
• Research Guides
• Consultations
• Research Workshops
• Career Research
• Research Data Services
• Course Reserves
• Course Research Guides
• Material Loan Periods
• Fines & Other Charges
• Document Delivery
• Interlibrary Loan
• Equipment Checkout
• Print & Scan
• MBA & MSx Students
• PhD Students
• Other Stanford Students
• Faculty Assistants
• Research Assistants
• Stanford GSB Alumni
• Telling Our Story
• Staff Directory
• Site Registration
• Alumni Directory
• Alumni Email
• Privacy Settings & My Profile
• Success Stories
• The Story of Circles
• Support Women’s Circles
• Stanford Women on Boards Initiative
• Alumnae Spotlights
• Insights & Research
• Industry & Professional
• Entrepreneurial Commitment Group
• Recent Alumni
• Half-Century Club
• Fall Reunions
• Spring Reunions
• MBA 25th Reunion
• Half-Century Club Reunion
• Faculty Lectures
• Ernest C. Arbuckle Award
• Alison Elliott Exceptional Achievement Award
• ENCORE Award
• Excellence in Leadership Award
• John W. Gardner Volunteer Leadership Award
• Robert K. Jaedicke Faculty Award
• Jack McDonald Military Service Appreciation Award
• Jerry I. Porras Latino Leadership Award
• Tapestry Award
• Student & Alumni Events
• Executive Recruiters
• Interviewing
• Land the Perfect Job with LinkedIn
• Negotiating
• Elevator Pitch
• Email Best Practices
• Resumes & Cover Letters
• Self-Assessment
• Whitney Birdwell Ball
• Margaret Brooks
• Bryn Panee Burkhart
• Margaret Chan
• Ricki Frankel
• Peter Gandolfo
• Cindy W. Greig
• Natalie Guillen
• Carly Janson
• Sloan Klein
• Sherri Appel Lassila
• Stuart Meyer
• Tanisha Parrish
• Virginia Roberson
• Philippe Taieb
• Michael Takagawa
• Terra Winston
• Johanna Wise
• Debbie Wolter
• Rebecca Zucker
• Complimentary Coaching
• Changing Careers
• Work-Life Integration
• Career Breaks
• Flexible Work
• Encore Careers
• D&B Hoovers
• Data Axle (ReferenceUSA)
• EBSCO Business Source
• Firsthand (Vault)
• Global Newsstream
• Market Share Reporter
• ProQuest One Business
• Student Clubs
• Entrepreneurial Students
• Stanford GSB Trust
• Alumni Community
• How to Volunteer
• Springboard Sessions
• Consulting Projects
• 2020 – 2029
• 2010 – 2019
• 2000 – 2009
• 1990 – 1999
• 1980 – 1989
• 1970 – 1979
• 1960 – 1969
• 1950 – 1959
• 1940 – 1949
• Service Areas
• ACT History
• ACT Awards Celebration
• ACT Governance Structure
• Building Leadership for ACT
• Individual Leadership Positions
• Leadership Role Overview
• Purpose of the ACT Management Board
• Contact ACT
• Business & Nonprofit Communities
• Reunion Volunteers
• Ways to Give
• Fiscal Year Report
• Business School Fund Leadership Council
• Planned Giving Options
• Planned Giving Benefits
• Planned Gifts and Reunions
• Legacy Partners
• Giving News & Stories
• Giving Deadlines
• Development Staff
• Submit Class Notes
• Class Secretaries
• Board of Directors
• Health Care
• Sustainability
• Class Takeaways
• All Else Equal: Making Better Decisions
• If/Then: Business, Leadership, Society
• Grit & Growth
• Think Fast, Talk Smart
• Spring 2022
• Spring 2021
• Autumn 2020
• Summer 2020
• Winter 2020
• In the Media
• For Journalists
• DCI Fellows
• Other Auditors
• Academic Calendar & Deadlines
• Course Materials
• Entrepreneurial Resources
• Campus Drive Grove
• Campus Drive Lawn
• CEMEX Auditorium
• King Community Court
• Seawell Family Boardroom
• Stanford GSB Bowl
• Stanford Investors Common
• Town Square
• Vidalakis Courtyard
• Vidalakis Dining Hall
• Catering Services
• Policies & Guidelines
• Reservations
• Contact Faculty Recruiting
• Lecturer Positions
• Postdoctoral Positions
• Accommodations
• CMC-Managed Interviews
• Recruiter-Managed Interviews
• Virtual Interviews
• Campus & Virtual
• Search for Candidates
• Think Globally
• Recruiting Calendar
• Recruiting Policies
• Full-Time Employment
• Summer Employment
• Entrepreneurial Summer Program
• Global Management Immersion Experience
• Social-Purpose Summer Internships
• Process Overview
• Project Types
• Client Eligibility Criteria
• Client Screening
• ACT Leadership
• Social Innovation & Nonprofit Management Resources
• Develop Your Organization’s Talent
• Centers & Initiatives
• Student Fellowships

• Skip to main content
• Keyboard shortcuts for audio player

Detectives Just Used DNA To Solve A 1956 Double Homicide. They May Have Made History

Sharon Pruitt-Young

Clippings from the Great Falls Tribune were part of the Cascade County Sheriff's Office investigative file into the 1956 murders of Patricia Kalitzke and Lloyd Duane Bogle. Traci Rosenbaum/USA Today Network via Reuters Co. hide caption

Clippings from the Great Falls Tribune were part of the Cascade County Sheriff's Office investigative file into the 1956 murders of Patricia Kalitzke and Lloyd Duane Bogle.

It was only three days into 1956 when three boys from Montana, out for a hike on a normal January day, made a gruesome discovery they were unlikely to ever forget.

During a walk near the Sun River, they found 18-year-old Lloyd Duane Bogle, dead from a gunshot wound to the head. They found him on the ground near his car, and someone had used his belt to tie his hands behind his back, according to a report from the Great Falls Tribune . The next day brought another disturbing discovery: A county road worker found 16-year-old Patricia Kalitzke's body in an area north of Great Falls, the paper reports. She had been shot in the head, just as Bogle had been, but she had also been sexually assaulted.

Their killings went unsolved until this week when investigators announced they had cracked what is believed to be the oldest case solved with DNA and forensic genealogy.

The victims were discovered in a lover's lane

Bogle, an airman hailing from Texas, and Kalitzke, a junior at Great Falls High School, had fallen for each other and were even considering marriage, the Tribune reports. The place where they were believed to have been killed was a known "lover's lane," according to a clipping from a local newspaper posted on a memorial page.

But their love story was brutally cut short by the actions of a killer whose identity would not be revealed for more than 60 years. And it was not for lack of trying: Early on in the case, investigators followed numerous leads, but none of them panned out. The case eventually went cold.

For decades, the Cascade County Sheriff's Office continued to work on it, with multiple detectives attempting to make progress over the years. One such investigator was Detective Sgt. Jon Kadner, who was assigned the case in 2012 — his first cold case, he said during an interview with NPR. He was immediately met with the daunting task of digitizing the expansive case file, an endeavor that took months.

He continued to work on the Kalitzke/Bogle case even while handling the newer cases that were landing on his desk all the time, but he had a feeling that more was needed to get to the bottom of what had happened to the couple all those decades ago.

"My first impression was that the only way we're gonna ever solve this is through the use of DNA," Kadner said.

Detectives turned to a new forensic investigation

Fortunately, Kadner had something to work with. During Kalitzke's autopsy in 1956, coroners had taken a vaginal swab, which had been preserved on a microscopic slide in the years since, according to the Great Falls Tribune report. Phil Matteson, a now-retired detective with the sheriff's office, sent that sample to a local lab for testing in 2001, and the team there identified sperm that did not belong to Bogle, her boyfriend, the paper reports.

Armed with this knowledge, Kadner in 2019 sought out the assistance of Bode Technology. After forensic genealogy was used to finally nab the Golden State Killer the year prior, law enforcement officials were becoming increasingly aware of the potential to use that technology to solve cold cases — even decades-old cases like Kalitzke and Bogle's.

With the help of partnering labs, forensic genealogists are able to use preserved samples to create a DNA profile of the culprit and then use that profile to search public databases for any potential matches. In most cases, those profiles can end up linking to distant relatives of the culprit — say, a second or third cousin. By searching public records (such as death certificates and newspaper clippings), forensic genealogists are then able to construct a family tree that can point them right to the suspect, even if that suspect has never provided their DNA to any public database.

In this case, "Our genealogists, what they're going to do is independently build a family tree from this cousin's profile," Andrew Singer, an executive with Bode Technology, told NPR. He called it "a reverse family tree. ... We're essentially going backwards. We're starting with a distant relative and trying to work back toward our unknown sample."

It worked: DNA testing led investigators to a man named Kenneth Gould. Before moving to Missouri in 1967, Gould had lived with his wife and children in the Great Falls area around the time of the murders, according to the Tribune .

"It felt great because for the first time in 65 years we finally had a direction and a place to take the investigation," Kadner told NPR. "Because it was all theories up to that point ... we finally had a match and we had a name. That changed the whole dynamic of the case."

Investigators' goal is a safer world

But there was one big problem: Gould had died in 2007 and his remains had been cremated, according to the Tribune . The only way to prove his guilt or his innocence was to test the DNA of his remaining relatives.

Detectives had an uncomfortable task ahead of them: letting a dead man's family know that, despite the fact that he'd never previously been identified as a person of interest, he was now the key suspect in a double homicide and rape.

Authorities traveled to Missouri, where they spoke with Gould's children and told them about the Kalitzke/Bogle case and eventually identified their father as a suspect, Kadner said. They asked for the family's help in either proving or disproving that Gould was the man responsible and the family complied.

The test results said Gould was the guy. With the killer finally identified, Kadner was able to reach out to the victims' surviving relatives and deliver the closure that had taken more than 60 years to procure. It was a bittersweet revelation: They were grateful for answers, but for many of the older people in the family, it was a struggle to have those wounds reopened.

"They're excited, but at the same time, it has brought up a lot of memories," Kadner said.

Now, the sheriff's office is considering forming a cold case task force, as other law enforcement agencies have done. The hope is that they'll be able to provide more families with the answers they deserve and, in many cases, have spent years waiting for.

"If there's new technology and we are able to potentially solve something, we want to keep working at it, because ultimately we're trying to do it for the family," he said. "Give them some closure."

The Kalitzke/Bogle case is one of the oldest criminal cases that has been solved using forensic genealogy, and authorities are hopeful that they'll be able to use this ever-advancing technology to solve cold cases dating back even further — although new state legislation restricting forensic genealogy could complicate matters.

Even without that complication, Singer explained to NPR, the success rate depends heavily on how well the evidence has been preserved over the years. Still, he hopes that it can be used to help law enforcement improve public safety and "[prevent] tomorrow's victim."

"It's really fantastic technology and it's going to solve a lot of cold cases," Singer said.

share this!

September 16, 2022

A new strategy to speed up cold case investigations

by Dave Gilson, Stanford University

For nearly 37 years, she was known as Buckskin Girl—a young, anonymous murder victim found outside Dayton, Ohio, wearing a deer-hide poncho. Then, in April 2018, police announced that the mystery of her identity had been solved. Her name was Marcia L. King, and she had been identified by linking a snippet of her DNA to one of her cousins.

It was one of the first high-profile cases in which this investigative method had been used to identify an unclaimed body. Two weeks after King's name was revealed, police in California announced that they'd used similar techniques to track down the Golden State Killer. Suddenly, the combination of genetic sampling, genealogical research, and old-fashioned gumshoeing was hailed as a revolutionary breakthrough that would crack hundreds of cold cases.

Since then, forensic genetic genealogy has cleared more than 400 cases in the U.S. Yet this detective work is complex and time-consuming. While King was IDed after just a few hours of sleuthing, most cases take much longer. On average, they take over a year to solve successfully. Many are left unfinished: Law enforcement agencies may run out of funding before a person can be identified and investigators may give up if they hit too many dead ends.

A more systematic approach would help, says Lawrence Wein, a professor of operations, information, and technology at Stanford Graduate School of Business. With Mine Su Ertürk, Ph.D., he has unveiled a method for solving cold cases with more speed and success. In a new paper in the Journal of Forensic Sciences , they present the first detailed mathematical analysis of the forensic genetic genealogy process and outline a way for investigators to optimize searches for unknown victims or criminal suspects.

To develop their search method, Wein and Ertürk teamed up with the DNA Doe Project , a California nonprofit that has solved more than 65 cases of unidentified remains, including the King case. It provided the researchers with data from 17 cases, including 8 that were unsolved at the time. "That's quite similar to the historical average of cases they've solved," Wein says. "So there's no reason to suspect that these cases are much harder or much easier than randomly selected cases."

Using that real-world data, Wein and Ertürk looked at how forensic genetic genealogy searches are commonly done and then tested their method, which aims to maximize the probability of finding a solution in the shortest time possible. "It turns out to be much quicker," Wein says of the new approach—nearly 10 times quicker. "If they're only solving a small number of cases using the current method, and we can get them to solve them 10 times faster, then they could solve a lot more cases."

A forest of family trees

A typical genetic genealogy investigation begins with a DNA sample from a "target" such as an unidentified body or a murder suspect. It's uploaded into a DNA database such as GEDmatch or FamilyTreeDNA, which generates a list of "matches"—people who share pieces of the target's genome. A search may turn up hundreds of these matches, usually distant cousins whose shared ancestors may have died more than a century ago. The cases Wein and Ertürk analyzed had between 200 and 5,000 matches.

That's just the start: Drawing a line from these far-flung relatives to the target requires building a family tree that includes as many family members as possible. Here, too, the scale of the problem is daunting. "These are huge trees," Wein says. "It's really hard to visually lay out anything bigger than a couple dozen people." As the tree expands, the odds of identifying the target improve—but the length of the search also increases.

Next, the relevant people in the tree have to be identified. This requires scouring public records , genealogy sites, and social media—time-intensive legwork that combines intuition and skill. "There's a whole art to it," Wein says. "Using marriage documents and death documents and birth documents and Facebook and all kinds of different records to try to figure out who people are and who their ancestors and offspring are."

It's not immediately apparent which matches will provide the best path to the target. Investigators' strategies to follow these leads tend to be decentralized, Wein says. "You have a team of people doing this and they will each decide to take a match to investigate, and then they'll go off on their own to try to build a family tree backward in time from each match. They're not thinking about the big picture holistically."

By stepping back and assessing the entire problem, Wein and Ertürk provide a roadmap for genetic genealogists seeking the most efficient path to an unidentified target. "Basically, we're telling them, "Given where you are in the search right now, this is what you should do next,'" Wein says.

Solving equations and crimes

Explaining the difference between the new search method and the standard, or "benchmark," method is complicated, but Wein boils it down to this: "The benchmark method looks for common ancestors between different matches. What you really want to find is the most recent common ancestor between a match and the unknown target, and that's a slightly different problem." The most recent common ancestor of first cousins, for example, is a grandparent; second cousins share a great-grandparent, and so on.

After identifying a list of possible most recent common ancestors, Wein and Ertürk's method "aggressively" fills out the family tree with their descendants, even if there's only a slight chance that the target's ancestor is on the list.

This leap is accomplished by using probability theory to track the search's progress. "We do this by describing the reconstructed family tree as a collection of probabilities that represent how likely each person on our tree is to be a correct ancestor of the target," Ertürk explains. "Then, looking at these probabilities, you can tell which parts of the tree you should explore more."

This approach proves effective even with smaller family trees, which means faster solve times. After running hundreds of simulated searches, Wein and Ertürk conclude that their method can solve a case with a 7,500-person family tree around 94% of the time. The standard method's success rate in those cases is around 4%.

Wein hopes these findings will help the DNA Doe Project and other investigators refine their approach and crack more cases. He notes that his analysis doesn't account for some of the "tricks" genetic investigators use to narrow their searches, such as focusing on family members who lived in a particular location. "In no way is our algorithm meant to substitute for genealogists," he says. "But if they're really stuck, it will give them some ideas that may be non-obvious."

Wein and Ertürk have applied mathematics to tackle investigative challenges before. Last year, Ertürk cowrote a paper with Stanford GSB professor Kuang Xu that outlined a method of genetic searching that balances efficiency and privacy concerns. Wein has researched better ways to scan fingerprints, process sexual assault kits, and trace bullets.

He sees forensic genetic genealogy as another crime-solving tool that can be improved so it might live up to its promise. "It's an interesting field that combines probability and statistics and optimization and sometimes game theory," he says. "That's how I, from a mathematical point of view, stayed attracted to these problems."

Provided by Stanford University

Explore further

Feedback to editors

Romania center explores world's most powerful laser

4 hours ago

A cosmic 'speed camera' just revealed the staggering speed of neutron star jets in a world first

22 hours ago

Saturday Citations: 100-year-old milk, hot qubits and another banger from the Event Horizon Telescope project

Mar 30, 2024

Curiosity rover searches for new clues about Mars' ancient water

Study says since 1979 climate change has made heat waves last longer, spike hotter, hurt more people

Scientist taps into lobsters' unusual habits to conquer the more than 120-year quest to farm them

Mar 29, 2024

Blind people can hear and feel April's total solar eclipse with new technology

Mapping the best route for a spacecraft traveling beyond the sun's sphere of influence

Researchers outline new approach in search for dark matter through future DUNE research project

Researchers reveal evolutionary path of important proteins

Relevant physicsforums posts, what do large moles on the body indicate, avian flu - a new study led by a team from the university of maryland.

Mar 27, 2024

Are all biological catabolic reactions exergonic?

Mar 20, 2024

A First of Its Kind: A Calcium-based signal in the Human Brain

Mar 18, 2024

Biological culture and cultural biology

Mar 17, 2024

Potentially fatal dog parasite found in the Colorado River

Mar 15, 2024

More from Biology and Medical

Related Stories

Is your genome really your own? The public and forensic value of DNA

May 2, 2018

Christine Jessop's killer identified: Solved cold case raises questions about genetic privacy

Oct 23, 2020

How cops used a public genealogy database in the Golden State Killer case

May 1, 2018

First US murder conviction overturned using DNA, family tree evidence

Jul 18, 2019

First US murder trial using DNA, family tree evidence

Jun 14, 2019

DNA database sold to help law-enforcement crack cold cases

Dec 23, 2019

Recommended for you

Scientists discover a key quality-control mechanism in DNA replication

Study identifies protein responsible for gas vesicle clustering in bacteria

Novel role for metabolites in cellular metabolism discovered

Scientists identify novel lysosome fission factor

Supergene research solves the mystery of tiny ant queens

Mar 28, 2024

Let us know if there is a problem with our content

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

DNA-solved cold cases: How effective has forensic genetic genealogy been over the years?

The April 2018 arrest of Joseph DeAngelo, the Golden State Killer, is often considered the birth of forensic genetic genealogy (FGG). Since then, the method has taken off, with investigators in the U.S. and across the globe repeatedly turning to FGG for their coldest of cases.

The research-intensive method has been used to find the perpetrator in some of the most famous murder cases, as well as identify Does who have gone without their names for far too long—such as Joseph Augustus Zarelli, previously known as the Boy in the Box and America’s Unknown Child.

And while cases like Zarelli’s receive mass media attention, investigators are using FGG to solve rape and murders cases in small judications in the middle of the country, too. Exactly how many cases, you ask? According to Tracey Leigh Dowdeswell, 545 cases as of Dec. 31, 2022.

The Forensic Genetic Genealogy Project can be found on  Mendeley Data.  The published product includes profiles on all 545 solves cases using FGG, as well as a user manual, which explains how the data was collected and coded. Dowdeswell also included an annotated bibliography of the sources used to collect the data.

This is an excerpt. Read the full article here

GLP Podcasts & Podcast Videos More...

GLP podcast: GE crops have lived up to the hype; Growing ‘mini’ organs from stem cells; How do we solve right-wing vaccine hesitancy?

Glp podcast: oops — heirloom seed company markets gm tomato; anti-biotech movement in retreat; bill gates does more harm than good, videos more....

Video: Why does love make us feel so good? Examining its effect on our brains

Bees & pollinators more....

Dissecting claims about Monsanto suing farmers for accidentally planting patented seeds

Analysis: Do neonicotinoid and glyphosate pesticides threaten bees? A reassessment

How effective and safe are current-generation pesticides?

Infographics more....

Are pesticide residues on food something to worry about?

Gmo faqs more....

Why is there controversy over GMO foods but not GMO drugs?

How are GMOs labeled around the world?

How does genetic engineering differ from conventional breeding?

Alex Jones: Right-wing conspiracy theorist stokes fear of GMOs, pesticides to sell ‘health supplements’

IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer): Glyphosate cancer determination challenged by world consensus

Most popular.

Newsletter Subscription

• Weekly Newsletter (Wed)
• Daily Digest (Mon, Tue, Thu, Fri)
• Weekly Top Six (Sun)
• Featured Articles Only
• Human Articles Only
• Agriculture Articles Only
• All Types of Content

Get news on human & agricultural genetics and biotechnology delivered to your inbox.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Forensic Sci Int Synerg

Crime Script Sequencing: An optimal forensic combination for cold case analysis

D.a. keatley.

a Researchers in Behaviour Sequence Analysis (ReBSA), Nottingham, UK

b Cold Case Review (CCR), Murdoch University, Australia

c School of Law, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia, 6150, Australia

M. Arntfield

d Arts & Humanities, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada

e Murder Accountability Project, Alexandria, VA, USA

D.D. Clarke

f School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK

Criminal cases go cold when investigative leads or forensic testing does not lead to a successful arrest. In these cases, investigators are often keen to use novel methods to derive fresh ideas or insights. Recently, academics from a range of fields, including Psychology, Criminology, and Forensic Sciences have developed a range of new methods and tests to assist with police investigations. The current paper outlines a novel approach to assisting with police cold case investigations: Crime Script Sequencing. The new method combines two leading temporal methods, Crime Script Analysis and Behaviour Sequence Analysis. A real-world cold case, the bombing of Canadian Pacific Airlines Fight 21, is presented and analysed using Crime Script Sequencing to offer readers a guide of how to use the method for other investigations. Impacts, insights, and potential future developments of the method are outlined.

1. Introduction

Advances in forensic science, criminology, and forensic psychology can all help to assist with solving criminal cases [ [1] , [2] , [3] ]. There are, however, a large number of unsolved cases—specifically, unresolved murder investigations—many of which are not so easily solved using modern forensic technology and testing. Instead, cold cases often require the synthesis of comparatively circumstantial evidence previously compiled by investigators with the opinion evidence of subject matter experts reviewing that evidence often years later. These cold cases, though sometimes decades old, are still of the utmost importance. Often, family of the victims are still alive and bearing the persistent wounds of not having answers. This has encouraged the development of new methods in criminology to help solve cold cases, when forensic science is lacking [ 2 ]. Recently, in the peer-reviewed criminological literature, offence-related timeline methodologies have become an increasingly favoured approach for mapping crimes. New methods, such as Matrix Forecasting [ 4 ], Behavioural Fingerprinting [ 5 ], and Behaviour Tracking [ 6 ] have all been developed to help with cold case investigations. All of these are underpinned by temporal analyses and frameworks [ 7 ]. The aim of the current research is to provide another novel approach to working cold cases, based on two leading timeline methods: Crime Script Analysis [ 8 , 9 ] and Behaviour Sequence Analysis [ [10] , [11] , [12] ]. The new method, Crime Script Sequencing (CSS) will be outlined herein with particular reference to a cold case involving an airliner bombing and ensuing mass murder that occurred in 1965. Like all new and novel analytic methods, this application of the CSS to the case is furnished as an initial guide and framework, from which developments and further testing are encouraged, especially with input from forensic sciences. Each component of CSS will be outlined, followed by an outline of the cold case in question, as well as a general overview of the proposed method. From the outset, the authors note this method is provided as one further tool in the toolkit of cold case investigators; it is not a magic bullet or panacea that might immediately and independently solve a case. The cold case chosen for demonstrative purposes here has also been selected in part due to its vintage and the fact that, while a curiously lesser-known cold case, so much of the original police file is now freely available and within the public record.

1.1. Timeline Toolkit

Crime Script Analysis (CSA) [ 8 ] was developed from Cognitive Psychology concepts of scripts and schema [ 13 ]. The original script analysis approach outlined general patterns of behaviour, based on an individual's understanding of expected behaviours. For example, when entering a restaurant, we often quickly perceive how to behave based on key features in the environment. If there is a staff member at the door, we are typically taken to a seat, if no staff member greets us, we find our own way to a table and discern whether to order at the bar or wait for a staff member based on whether a number is located on the table. Of course, these scripts are not necessarily foolproof, and often mistakes occur when we find ourselves in novel circumstances for which we have no script, or else we use the wrong script for the situation. Other conceptualisations of scripts can also be likened to computer scripts that run in a sequential manner from beginning to end. Actors in a play also can be used as an example of individuals literally following a script, with the inclusion of rehearsed scenes that the play passes through to reach the end.

In the same way that we follow scripts in our everyday lives, criminals are presumed to also follow scripts in the development of their crime commission [ 7 , 14 ]. Many goal-oriented crimes have a script that a criminal uses to navigate their behaviours and conduct their crime. As with any repeated behaviours, some of these sequences may become automatic or habitual. Many cold cases homicides, however, do not involve serial killers, whose crimes can often be linked through a number of other established methods [ 15 , 16 ]. An additional strength of crime script analysis is the ability to investigate individual crimes and compare them to a database of other, though not identical, substantively similar cases [ 17 ]. Investigators and researchers may also use a database of cases to develop a prototypical script for a specific criminal offence and then use that script to understand what behaviours may be missing from the case files. Investigators using CSA may ask, ‘are parts of the script missing because of a lack of investigation or evidence, or are they truly missing from the crime?’ It may not be possible to answer this immediately, but often when working cold cases, developing new questions is an important first step to finding new answers.

The crime script analysis approach has already been used in a wide range of crimes, including homicides [ 18 , 19 ], sexual assault and rape cases [ 14 , 20 ], drug trafficking [ 21 ], and cold cases [ 2 ]. In terms of cold cases, developing a crime script is often a useful means of beginning to map the possible pathways a criminal took in the commission of a crime, bearing in mind and accounting for the technological, cultural, procedural standards of the period of the crime. Owing to the very top down , expertise-driven nature of crime scripts, developing one for a cold case can facilitate discussion between practitioner and investigator in terms of likely behavioural pathways [ 22 ]. In the current case, involving the pre-planned massacre of 52 aircraft passengers and crew, experts from a wide variety of academic and applied sciences were contacted and consulted. Explosives experts provided insight into the type, availability, and complexity of the explosive device used to carry out the bombing. Clinical Psychologists imparted expert advice on the motivations and cognitions of suicidal people (owing to the fact the suspect was a passenger on board). Finally, criminologists provided expert insight into lone-actor terrorists, especially those who detonated delayed ignition bombs and yet showed no indication of using the delay to prevent their own death or elude detection. In this way, CSA provides a platform for and a unified framework through which multiple experts are able to provide input and help progress a case in a systematic, interdisciplinary manner.

Of course, one of the chief limitations of crime script analysis is that scripts are often subjectively descriptive in nature, lending itself to narrative forms of analyses, rather than statistical or comparatively quantifiable approaches. It can therefore be difficult to ascertain whether the case being investigated fits into a prototypical script or whether some elements of the script are incongruent. CSA, however, can nonetheless be used, much like traditionally more analogue forms of criminal investigative analysis, or “profiling”, to prioritise suspects. An example can be used to underscore this added value of CSA: imagine a bombing has occurred in a busy public space. A crime script is developed wherein it is said that knowledge of bomb making is a necessary antecedent of the bombing attack. Next, the investigation turns to the suspects, of which there are two. The first has extensive experience with bomb making, as he has a military history and has worked in mining for a number of years. The second suspect has no history of bomb making, so clearly for him to be elevated by investigators to the level of “suspect”, which has several procedural requirements beyond the scope of this discussion, he would have to find such information from online or offline sources. Therefore, Suspect One appears the more likely candidate; and yet, investigators are encouraged to look for online and offline behaviours of Suspect Two that may involve bomb-making learning practices. This sequential approach to understanding scripts can sometimes be missed in a general crime script, with larger encompassing scenes. Other timeline methods, however, are better suited to individual behavioural sequences, such as Behaviour Sequence Analysis.

Behaviour Sequence Analysis [ 23 , 24 ] is typically a bottom-up , data-driven approach to mapping timelines. While CSA takes crimes and develops scenes, in which behaviours are performed to attain or meet some goal of that scene, BSA instead maps sequential transitions of individual behaviours, events, emotions, and even cognitions. Essentially, while CSA may suggest behaviours A , B , and C occur within a certain scene, BSA puts these behaviours into sequential order: A → B , B → C . There are, of course, strengths and limitations to this more detailed, statistical approach to timeline analysis. First, while it does offer some numerical outputs in terms of the ‘strength’ of transitions (i.e., how likely they are to occur compared to chance); BSA requires detailed knowledge of individual transitions throughout the timeline. BSA lends itself very well to cases in which large quantities of very detailed sequences are available (e.g., CCTV footage, detailed diaries); however, in cold cases such information is typically unknown and/or unknowable.

Recently, researchers have attempted to develop methods to assist with cold case investigations, wherein information may be unknown and gaps in timelines extensive. The aim of the current paper is to provide a new method for analysing cold cases, that incorporates the strengths of both CSA and BSA. This method has been trialled against several open cold case investigations and has been shown to provide new investigative leads and discussion about key pieces of evidence in a case. These previously dormant cases that had been in abeyance prior to the application of CSS tactics are now offered new leads in active police investigations. Therefore, to highlight the added value of CSS to a cold case investigation, an openly documented case will be presented, one which similarly had the CSS method applied to it. The case will be outlined here, and the analyses and attendant discussion provided subsequently.

1.2. Canadian Pacific air lines flight 21

On July 8th, 1965, Canadian Pacific Airlines Flight 21 (CPA 21), a so-called “milk-run” commuter flight with multiple stops and brief layovers took-off from Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada with a final destination of Whitehorse in the Yukon Territory, a frontier town in the Canadian northern hinterland. Approximately 1 h after take-off, an explosion occurred in the rear left lavatory of the aircraft. This explosion led to the rear tail section of the plane detaching and the flight crashed at approximately 15:40, around 40 km west of 100 Mile House, British Columbia. All 46 passengers and 6 crew on board died in the crash. The police investigation eventually focused on 4 passengers as being potentially responsible for planting the bomb. No person has ever been publicly declared a suspect by police, nor have any charges been made. As of this writing, the case has still not been officially solved and remains open. The case remains the jurisdiction of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), which had at the time of the bombing—and retains—contracted front-line policing duties across much of rural Canada, including the area where CPA 21 came to ground. The aim of the current paper is not to ‘solve’ this case, 1 per se, but to evince how a combination of timeline methods may be used to re-investigate cold cases like this, wherein information is limited about the case itself. The combination of methodologies and expert perspectives will ideally yield new insight and investigative action items for police to pursue, as well as suspect prioritisation.

1.3. The suspects

Given that the bomb used in the CPA 21 cold case was placed in the rear lavatory of the plane and detonated an hour after take-off—with an estimated 10-s delay from the time of ignition—investigators agreed that it was not placed onboard pre-take off. Interviews with the airline's cleaning crew and associated logs also confirmed that when the lavatory was cleaned pre-take-off, no package had been observed in the small space by staff who were cleared as suspects. Therefore, the suspect was agreed at the time—and now—to have been one of the 46 passengers or 6 crew onboard the flight. The original investigation was extensive, especially by the standards of the day, resulting in thousands of pages of detailed documents, statements, diagrams, laboratory reports, and other evidence. The investigation stalled, however, and though the 4 persons of interest were identified, no further evidence or information allowed the RCMP to officially resolve the matter to the satisfaction of its senior leadership. The four suspects will be outlined, without inference as to guilt or culpability.

Douglas EDGAR : an inveterate gambler who purchased a large quantity of life insurance immediately prior boarding the flight. He gave the insurance tickets to his daughters who were with him at the airport. The stated purpose for his taking the flight (a job opportunity at a remote lumber mill) was determined by police to be subterfuge. His purpose for being on the aircraft and his final destination remain a mystery.

Stefan KOLESZAR : an experienced miner with expertise in explosives and a military background. Koleszar also had multiple criminal convictions, including for manslaughter, and was dishonourably discharged from the military for sex offences.

Peter BROUGHTON : a young man at the time of the incident, described by those who knew him as a ‘loner’, with an interest in firearms and knowledge of gunpowder. He resided in a rooming house with his mother and had recently borrowed books on commercial aircraft, including the make and model of aircraft (Douglas DC 6B) operating as Flight 21 on the date of the explosion.

Paul VANDER MEULEN : An American entrepreneur described by his psychiatrist as having a “ deep madness toward the world ”, he was confirmed to have been carrying a handgun and a large amount of cash on the flight after having opted to travel separately from the remainder of his entourage of prospectors headed to the Yukon Territory to explore mining opportunities.

Clearly, a compelling superficial case could be made for each of the 4 persons of interest outlined. The mere fact that these four individuals, given their backgrounds and idiosyncrasies, were on the same small aircraft is actually somewhat remarkable, even Hitchcockian [ 25 ]. Given the time that has elapsed since the bombing, it is, however, also unlikely that any new information will be found; thus, novel methods need to be developed to reanalyse existing evidence and perhaps shed new light on the case. That is the aim of Crime Script Sequencing (CSS), to bring together two leading timeline analysis methods and apply the combination to an unsolved cold case.

2.1. Sample

While there may not be new information available for CPA 21, there are other airline bombings that can be used to develop a script for such crimes—and which, in the context of cold cases, can be applied retroactively. This is typically one of the ways that Crime Script Analysis can be used to assist with an investigation. In the current study, 7 other acts of commercial aircraft bombing and sabotage with sufficient information about the bomb placement, suspects, and motives were used to develop a crime script for CPA 21. The cases were: United Airlines Flight 247 (1933); Philippine Air Lines PI-CP8 (1949); Canadian Pacific Flight 108 (1949); United Airlines Flight 629 (1955); Philippines Flight PR215 (1970); Philippines Flight BAC111 (1978); and American Airlines Flight 444 (1979). While this is not an extensive or exhaustive list of airline bombings, these are cases of mass murder, cases largely contemporaneous with CPA 21, that were found upon interdisciplinary review to have substantive, lengthy, and detailed procedural information available to clearly build a detailed script. The cases also imparted, for the purposes of this study, a variety of known or reasonably suspected motives and suspects responsible for the attacks. This data set therefore provided a comprehensive and compelling sample and representation of the multiple causes of and motives behind aircraft bombings during the mid-twentieth century for the purposes of developing scripts specific to the time. A strength of the CSA and BSA approaches are that if more cases are found, the database can be updated to see if and how the new cases affect the timeline. In this way, the methods are additive and positively integrate further data collection, rather than having to be completely re-analysed.

2.2. Script development

The details and evidence of each case in the sample were reviewed multiple times to ensure that the temporal information was clear and structured. Multiple secondary sources were used to corroborate information and include additional insights (e.g., police reports, court reports, and media reports 2 ). The process of re-reading each case was to begin developing a script of the antecedent scenes leading-up to each bombing incident. One strength of any crime script approach to a cold case is the ability to mine and source information from a variety of similar cases to identify the common characteristics of the script that connects each discrete criminal event. Scripts are then typically placed into a generalized timeline diagram [ 26 ] to allow for easier interpretation of how the script repeats itself across each iteration of the same crime—specifically, in this case, aircraft bombings that pre-date the era of political, ideological and religious terrorism now commonly associated with airline hijackings or bombings and which, by contrast, have no known or consistent motives.

3. Results & discussion

The current research developed an aircraft bomb construction-delivery-detonation script based on the previously tabled sample of cases. This script was then used as an archetype to which the current unsolved CPA 21 case could be compared.

Each of the cases were placed into sequential scenes in which several behaviours were performed. The precipitators scene outlined the general background life events and stressors that may be seen as a starting point on which offenders began their pathway toward pre-planned mass-casualty attacks on commercial aircraft. It demonstrates many factors that may affect the psychological disposition and feelings of such offenders. These precipitators were then found to lead to motivations of the perpetrators; these included without exception: anger , financial , and suicidal . An important part of developing the crime script is to highlight components of the re-investigation in which other experts may become involved. In developing the crime script for airline bombings, suicidality was noted as a motivation for several of the bombers in this study. There are, of course, world-leading academics whose expertise is in suicidal behaviours and suicidal ideation. Such experts were contacted for their input into the psychology and behaviour of suicidal individuals. This assisted the current study in constructing a more detailed, expert-driven analysis; it is also reinforced the interdisciplinary and collaborative nature of CSS as a new tool to be used in cold case investigations.

With respect to developing the next scenes in the bombing script, this study consulted experts in explosives in order to obtain their insight about actions and behaviours in these scenes. The next scene, planning , involved the active planning of how to actually create an improvised or homemade explosive device designed to down or destroy a commercial aircraft. Some offenders, it was determined, had apparent pre-existing expertise, while others needed to learn about bomb making through either—given the period in question—books or in-person tutelage. This is an area, as outlined above, that investigators can use to prioritise a suspect or potential relegate a suspect. Instrumental initiation involved the active planning and preparation of the plane bombing. This involves obtaining the materials and/or getting life insurance (for those motivated by financial means). The next phase of the crime script considered actions onboard the plane or how a bomb was otherwise planted on the plane. Of course, security protocols have changed significantly over the last few decades, so experts in aviation security from around the time were contacted to provide input on what would have been possible.

The crime script is developed with reference to various cases to highlight each scene and the behaviours therein. While this provides an elucidating account of plane bombings and perhaps even ‘typical’ plane bombings, it is hard to reduce this aggregate script back to an individual level. This is the ecological fallacy in effect, and it becomes hard to highlight which of the four persons in the CPA 21 case might be highlighted as a suspect. This ecological fallacy is not specific to crime script analysis, of course, but it does present a particular issue when attempting to use the method to progress a case. This is typically where investigators and practitioners may become frustrated by the method. Knowing the typical script is educational, applying it to an individual would be useful.

Given the relatively qualitative approach of CSA, analysing whether one of the four suspects in the CPA 21 case fits the script is a qualitative account of how closely they ‘match’ the prototype script developed. This can be informative and offer support for investigations but is lacks the numerical or statistical basis to provide much more than qualitative similarity statements. What is required, is a means of turning the CSA into a more numerical, statistical timeline, like BSA (see Fig. 1 ).

Crime Script Analysis of plane bombings.

Many cold cases lack the clear sequential information required to conduct a BSA. While methods of matching BSA timelines exist, such as Behavioural Fingerprinting [ 5 ], without clear behavioural sequences to begin with, such methods are of little use. However, by integrated CSA with BSA, a middle ground can be achieved. In the case of CPA 21, the crime script was developed into a state transition diagram, the type commonly used in BSA [ 7 ]. Fig. 2 outlines the overall CSA developed into a type of state transition diagram , of the type commonly used in BSA. At this point, it is provided only to show how all of the behaviours within a CSA can be mapped as nodes in a diagram.

Crime Script Sequencing of plan bombings.

Fig. 2 shows every link within the CSA, some of which are sequential, while others may simply co-occur. This is the framework for plane bombings, and unlike a BSA, at this stage the connections do not denote ‘strength’ of connections between nodes. In BSA, lines connecting nodes typically indicate the standardised residual (SR) score, which is a measure of the association between antecedent and sequitur nodes compared to chance. Typically, thicker lines mean higher SR scores. These scores are analysed by looking at sequence strings (e.g., ABCD; ABCE; ABCF ) and seeing how many times each pairing of behaviours (e.g., A → B ) occurs, compared to chance. This makes for compelling and interesting Behaviour Sequence Analysis; but is of little use in a single cold case.

3.2. Integrating CSA with BSA

The first step to developing a more statistical approach to cold cases is to mark the nodes in the diagram that each suspect ‘highlights’. While by no means evidentiary in a legal setting, it provides an initial insight into the factors that feature in each suspect's profile. A benefit of this approach can be seen in the CPA 21 case. Each of the possible suspects highlighted a number of the nodes, indicating the reason why investigators listed them as a potential suspect. This helps clarify why cold cases are not often easily solved, as many individuals can be suspects based on a number of factors. More importantly, this approach can begin to highlight those suspects who have multiple nodes highlighted.

In the case of CPA 21, researchers and practitioners have focused on either the homicidal nature of the attack or the suicidal nature. It is one of the largest unsolved mass murder crimes committed in Canada - clearly pointing to an act of mass murder. The bomber, however, was a passenger on board, and therefore the act was also one of suicide. Though this is clear when highlighted, many profilers will typically lean towards one or the other and build a profile to support their views. One of the people highlighted by investigators, however, showed risk factors for both homicide and suicide motivations. This presents a new possibility for the profile: that both motivations were necessary for the bombing. Fig. 3 , Fig. 4 , Fig. 5 , Fig. 6 show the CSS for each of the suspects. What is immediately clear is that each of the suspects highlights several nodes, hence being a suspect. One suspect, however, highlighted a majority of the nodes.

Crime script sequencing for VANDER MEULEN

Crime script sequencing for KOLESZAR

Crime script sequencing for EDGAR

Crime script sequencing for BROUGHTON

In the CSA of airline bombings, several offenders placed explosive devices on commercial aircraft to kill others for an ideological motivation. Broughton is the only person in the CPA 21 case that appears to have both homicidal and suicidal antecedents. Briefly: Edgar showed no signs of being homicidal; indeed, his only potential motivation was to claim insurance money for his family. This singular motive qualified him as a suspect in terms of the financial motive, yet he demonstrated no signs or risk factors of being suicidal or homicidal. Koleszar, meanwhile, appeared to have some anger issues and predisposition to violence and some paraphilias; however, there was nothing suicidal noted in his past, and no known stressors in his life at the time of the bombing. Vander Meulen came under intense police scrutiny owing to his psychiatrist's report, which seemed to at least tacitly suggest a homicidal motivation, but again not suicidal. The point being: if the device had been placed on the aircraft without the bomber being on board, then homicidal motives would be a stronger factor to consider and would fit any number of other known scripts exhibited by set-and-run mass murderers relying on bombs. Owing to the bomber being on board CPA 21, however, suicidal motivations should also be considered—and prioritised in terms of script development. Of course, homicidal individuals can take their own lives as part of the crime commission, and suicide bombers are well-documented [ 27 ]. Many suicide bombers, however, stay with their bomb until detonation - which was not the case in the current plane bombing.

Broughton is the only suspect with corroborated indicators consistent with suicidality in his past. Broughton also had motive for being angry towards airlines and also had a confirmed recent acquired interest in and knowledge of airlines—including the specific make and model operated as CPA 21. In a simple additive model, Broughton is at the top of the suspect list, a fact noted by other authors [ 25 ]. This does not immediately mean Broughton is guilty. It does, however, offer new insights into the case and elevate him as a suspect .

3.3. Future steps: weighting nodes

A further level of analyses can be made to the CSS approach. Rather than simply highlighting the nodes and taking an additive model, researchers can begin weighting nodes in various ways. For example, in the current case, if the bomb were placed in luggage that was loaded onboard, then the anger and financial nodes could carry more weight - as these methods of bombing planes were typically seen in non-passengers who bombed planes for anger or financial motives. In the case of CPF-21, this would actually reduce Broughton's likelihood of being the bomber and turn the focus to someone not on the plane.

Similarly, the type of explosives used can be used to weight certain suspects. Issues like how readily available the materials were and who had access to them could be used to elevate or relegate certain suspects. In the current case, Edgar did not have any explosives expertise or training, so his likelihood is diminished further if we weight the explosives nodes in terms of expertise and availability. Koleszar would immediately seem to be a more likely suspect, if the bomb matched those typically used in mining. The bomb used, however, did not require specialist knowledge, and colleagues’ statements about Koleszar indicated he was a very safety conscious individual.

3.4. Future steps

The current method is not suggested as a solution to solving cold cases. The combination of CSA with BSA, however, has proven useful in cold case investigations by providing novel insights and investigative opportunities. While many academics think anything short of a complete solution and finger pointing firmly at one person is a failure, practitioners are often in need of something that can offer new insights. The current method positively endorses experts from various fields to parsimoniously work together and for their insights to be used to create clear scripts and diagrams. A further benefit of this approach is that as new information is discovered, from other cases or from investigation into the cold case, the diagrams can be updated. Sadly, many cold cases are not solved quickly, and often change-over in lead investigators occurs. A final benefit of the CSS method is that it provides a very quick, neat, succinct overview of the case, the suspects, and the progress made in narrowing down suspect lists.

4. Conclusion

Solving a cold case investigation is an extremely hard task. Cold case task forces and expert groups, while working diligently and tirelessly, still have a relatively low success rate. Academics from a range of disciplines can help with cold case investigations through developing novel techniques that can drive new lines of enquiry and add support to existing hypotheses. The current approach, Crime Script Sequencing, brings together two leading timeline analyses and offers a novel approach to building investigative leads from a range of expert opinions and data analyses. This approach has been used in several real-world cases and lead to positive feedback from practitioners owing to the clear pathways it produces and novel hypotheses it drives.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

1 From first-hand experience working in larger cold case investigative societies and task forces, investigators are understandably sceptical of new methods that claim to be able to solve cases. There are no such magic bullets. Instead, most investigators are keen for a new method that opens new lines of investigation that they can explore. That is the goal of Crime Script Sequencing.

2 While this clearly does not guarantee veracity of information, it is an approved approach in Crime Script Analysis and provides as much information as police typically have available to them when re-opening cold cases.

To read this content please select one of the options below:

Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, a timeline toolkit for cold case investigations.

Journal of Criminal Psychology

ISSN : 2009-3829

Article publication date: 18 December 2019

Issue publication date: 5 May 2020

The purpose of this paper is to outline a variety of related methods for helping with criminal (cold) case investigations. Despite the best efforts of police investigations, many cases around the world run out of leads and go cold. While many police departments around the world have developed specialist groups and task forces, academics have also been developing new methods that can assist with investigations.

Design/methodology/approach

Cold cases, by their very nature, typically comprise incomplete data sets that many traditional statistical methods are not suited to. Groups of researchers have therefore developed temporal, dynamic analysis methods to offer new insights into criminal investigations. These methods are combined into a timeline toolkit and are outlined in the current paper.

Methods from the timeline toolkit have already been successfully applied to many cold cases, turning them back into current cases. In this paper, two real-world cold cases are analysed with methods from the timeline toolkit to provide examples of how these methods can be applied in further cold cases.

Originality/value

Methods from the timeline toolkit provide a novel approach to investigating current and cold cases. This review provides academics and practitioners with a guide to begin using and developing these methods and forming successful collaborations with police departments and cold case task forces. The methods are also suitable for wider groups and to use in their investigations.

• Investigations
• Temporal analysis
• Sequence analysis
• Timeline toolkit

Keatley, D. and Clarke, D.D. (2020), "A timeline toolkit for cold case investigations", Journal of Criminal Psychology , Vol. 10 No. 2, pp. 47-63. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCP-09-2019-0039

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2019, Emerald Publishing Limited

Related articles

We’re listening — tell us what you think, something didn’t work….

Report bugs here

All feedback is valuable

Please share your general feedback

Join us on our journey

Platform update page.

Visit emeraldpublishing.com/platformupdate to discover the latest news and updates

Questions & More Information

Answers to the most commonly asked questions here

2 cold case murders from 1980s solved with genetic genealogy: Police

Shannon Lloyd was killed in 1987 and Renee Cuevas in 1989.

Two decades-old cold case murders in California have been solved through the novel investigative tool of genetic genealogy , authorities announced.

The first victim was 23-year-old Shannon Rose Lloyd, who was was sexually assaulted and strangled to death in her Garden Grove bedroom in May 1987, Garden Grove Deputy Police Chief Amir El Farra said.

Renee Cuevas, 27, was killed two years later, he said.

In 2003, police determined the same man committed both crimes and his DNA was submitted to the law enforcement database CODIS. No suspect was identified, El Farra said.

Then last year, authorities turned to genetic genealogy, which uses an unknown suspect's DNA to trace his or her family tree, El Farra said.

MORE: Suspect arrested in 1975 murder after genetic genealogist turns to new approach

Genetic genealogy made headlines in 2018 when it was used to find the Golden State Killer . Genetic genealogy takes an unknown suspect's DNA left at a crime scene and identifies it using family members who voluntarily submit DNA samples to a DNA database. Police can then create a much larger family tree than if they only used databases like CODIS.

Genetic genealogy identified Reuben Smith, who lived in Orange County in the 1980s, as a possible suspect, El Farra said.

In 1998, a decade after the Orange County murders, Smith was arrested in Las Vegas for sexual assault and attempting to kill a woman, police said.

MORE: He was found dead in 1963. Now this little boy finally has a name.

The Las Vegas charges were later dismissed but a DNA sample was taken at the time of his arrest. That sample was used to match Smith's DNA to the DNA at the Lloyd and Cuevas murder scenes, authorities said.

Smith died by suicide in 1999, police said.

"The justice that every victim deserves was hidden away in DNA, but with advances in IGG [investigative genetic genealogy] technology combined with the relentless dedication of generations of detectives and the talented prosecutors and forensic scientists at the District Attorney’s Office, we now know who killed Renee and Shannon," Orange County District Attorney Todd Spitzer said in a statement.

Top Stories

150 arrested for allegedly using drones to transport drugs, cellphones into prisons

• Mar 29, 3:43 PM

Total solar eclipse 2024: Path, time and the best places to view

• Mar 30, 10:50 AM

Man who crossed Key Bridge just before collapse speaks out: 'I'm really lucky'

• Mar 30, 5:36 PM

Trump is 'inciting political violence' sharing Biden hog-tied video: Biden campaign

• Mar 30, 10:31 PM

The Trump camp and the White House clash over Biden's recognition of 'Transgender Day of Visibility'

• Mar 30, 7:14 PM

ABC News Live

24/7 coverage of breaking news and live events

• Today's news
• Reviews and deals
• Climate change
• 2024 election
• Fall allergies
• Health news
• Mental health
• Sexual health
• Family health
• So mini ways
• Unapologetically
• Buying guides

Entertainment

• How to Watch
• My watchlist
• Stock market
• Biden economy
• Personal finance
• Stocks: most active
• Stocks: gainers
• Stocks: losers
• Trending tickers
• World indices
• US Treasury bonds
• Top mutual funds
• Highest open interest
• Highest implied volatility
• Currency converter
• Basic materials
• Communication services
• Consumer cyclical
• Consumer defensive
• Financial services
• Industrials
• Real estate
• Mutual funds
• Credit cards
• Credit card rates
• Balance transfer credit cards
• Business credit cards
• Cash back credit cards
• Rewards credit cards
• Travel credit cards
• Checking accounts
• Online checking accounts
• High-yield savings accounts
• Money market accounts
• Personal loans
• Student loans
• Car insurance
• Home buying
• Options pit
• Investment ideas
• Research reports
• Fantasy football
• Pro Pick 'Em
• College Pick 'Em
• Fantasy baseball
• Fantasy hockey
• Fantasy basketball
• Download the app
• Daily fantasy
• Scores and schedules
• GameChannel
• World Baseball Classic
• Premier League
• CONCACAF League
• Champions League
• Motorsports
• Horse racing
• Newsletters

New on Yahoo

• Privacy Dashboard

Cold case solved 60 years after grisly murder of Dayton mother; Investigators speak on the case

A Miami Valley Murder Mystery went unsolved for 60 years. That changed this week.

As first reported on News Center 7 at 11 on Thursday, the cold case involving Daisy Shelton’s 1964 homicide has been closed. This came as the Miami County Prosecutor’s Office approved closing the case.

>> PHOTOS: Local cold case from the 1960s solved

Shelton died in Dayton when she was 43 years old. After she died, the killer cut up her body and spread body parts around the Tipp City area.

A man fly fishing at a local gravel pit hooked a grisly catch; a human arm. The next day, divers found the woman’s other severed arm, and that discovery launched a full-blown recovery effort that brought in search boats and pumpers to lower the water level in the gravel pit.

“It was a very grisly murder, even by today’s standards,” Chief Deputy Steve Lord, of the Miami County Sheriff’s Office, said.

Lord said investigators identified Shelton and since she lived in Dayton they believed the crime took place there, but no other evidence developed.

The big break in the case came in 2017 when a cooperating witness surfaced. Lord painstakingly uncovered evidence that one man killed Shelton with repeated hammer blows to the head. Two more men had involvement in dismembering and disposing of her.

All three men died before the case could be brought to court.

>> PREVIOUS COVERAGE: ‘What kind of animal are they?;’ Cold case solved 60 years after grisly murder of Dayton mother

News Center 7 spoke to Shelton’s granddaughter, Maria Walling. She said her father also died before learning what happened to his mom.

“They never found the killer when they found all the body parts and it really messed him up,” Walling said.

Walling knows the names of the people involved in her grandmother’s death, but deputies will not release them.

“They could still be innocent until proven guilty in a court of law,” Lord said.

With the prosecutors allowing the closing of the case, investigators were allowed to inform Shelton’s family and Miami County residents. They say, unfortunately, this 60-year-old killing resembles too many murders in modern-day.

“It was just a dispute between two people and it escalated into violence,” Lord said.

Recommended Stories

Our favorite air purifier is $30 off right now in a limited time deal.

The Levoit Core 400S smart air purifier is 14 percent off in a deal on Amazon, bringing the price down to $190 from its usual $220. It's compatible with Alexa and Google Assistant, and has a simple touch display with easy controls and at-a-glance information.

The 25 best Walmart Easter weekend deals to shop this week — save up to 80% on TVs, tools, home goods and more

A Dyson-rivaling hair dryer for just $30, a rare markdown on classic Levis and an Emeril-approved air fryer for $100-plus off await.

Apple's antitrust fight could threaten its search for the next big thing

Apple's antitrust battle with the DOJ could prove harmful to its future innovation.

I'm a shopping editor — this bidet attachment is the best thing I've ever gotten on Amazon and it's just $43

This gadget will change your view about going to the loo.

The wrangling over a second wave of DC chipmaking money is already underway

A vigorous debate has already begun about whether the US semiconductor sector will need a second wave of support from Washington in the years ahead—as well as what it might look like.

These airtight glass food storage containers are under $2 each (that's over 40% off): 'I like them more than my Pyrex'

Made of ultra-durable borosilicate, they're leakproof and built to last, users say.

EVs pass the tipping point to mass adoption in 31 countries

When 5% of new car sales are purely electric, it's a threshold that signals the start of mass adoption, after which technological preferences rapidly flip. These 31 countries are far, far past that point.

This No. 1 bestselling shower caddy set can hold up to 40 pounds — and it's on sale for $18 for Prime members

'Now everything is contained nicely and doesn’t look cluttered,' one fan says.

Shoppers 'live by' this $9 cleaner that can make your garbage disposal sparkle again

Over 32,000 five-star fans turn to this cleaner when the germiest place in their kitchen gets funky.

Jarin Stevenson becomes Alabama's latest surprise hero in a history-making Final Four run

Stevenson, an 18-year-old freshman, had the game of his life at the perfect time for the Crimson Tide, whose magical run has been fueled by unlikely performances like his.

March Madness: Nate Oats finally led Alabama to its first Final Four. Now Dan Hurley, UConn await in Phoenix

“Probably won’t hit me until after the Final Four is over, because I’m going to enjoy it tonight and we’ve got to figure out how to beat UConn.”

UFC Atlantic City: Chris Weidman scores 1st win in 4 years after double-eye poke stops Bruno Silva

TKO? No contest? Decision win? Chris Weidman's latest win was a weird one.

March Madness: Alabama pulls away from Clemson late to reach first ever Final Four

Behind a career night from freshman Jarin Stevenson, and a late surge from Mark Sears, Alabama is now headed to Phoenix.

'It's the best': Olivia Wilde loves CeraVe — and the brand's eye repair cream is down to $14

Improve the look of puffiness, dryness and more with this cult-fave moisturizer.

With Flau'jae Johnson finding her rhythm, LSU primed and ready for Iowa rematch in Elite Eight

The Tigers are feeding off Johnson's infectious energy and are now just one win from a return to the Final Four.

GM Design Heritage Archive shares concept sketches of the Pontiac Aztek in happier times

GM Design Heritage Archive shares never-before-seen concept sketches of the Pontiac Aztek with The Autopian, offering a glimpse of what could have been.

Tesla’s $25,000 car means tossing out the 100-year-old assembly line

Tesla has a plan to fend off cheaper competition from China with a $25,000 electric car. But first it has to overhaul a 100-year-old manufacturing process pioneered by Henry Ford.

NCAA tournament scores, results: Iowa moves on to Elite Eight showdown with LSU, both UConn teams advance

The Sweet 16 continued on Saturday on the women's side and two teams punched the first tickets to the Final Four on the men's side.

AT&T resets millions of customers’ passcodes after account info was leaked on the dark web

AT&T says 7.6 million current customers were affected by a recent leak in which sensitive data was released on the dark web, along with 65.4 million former account holders. As first reported by TechCrunch, the company has reset the passcodes of affected accounts.

Clean your ride! Amazon's No. 1 bestselling car vacuum is down to $30 with Yahoo's exclusive code

Don't miss the discount on this powerful sucker with over 167,000 fans.

You could have key information to solve ‘disturbing’ 1990 assault case

DENVER (KDVR) — Metro Denver Crime Stoppers is looking to solve a 1990 cold case , and it needs help from the public.

Crime Stoppers described it as a “disturbing” case involving the abduction and assault of two juvenile victims. Police in Greenwood Village believe that members of the community hold the key that could finally bring justice to the victims.

“We believe there are individuals out there who have information that could be crucial to solving this case. Even the smallest detail could be the missing piece we need,” said Sgt. Rob Parker of the Greenwood Village Police Department.

2 girls abducted from yogurt shop, left in remote field

In March of 1990, according to Crime Stoppers, two young girls were abducted from a yogurt shop at closing time near East Arapahoe Road and Interstate 25.

They were abducted by an unidentified suspect who managed to evade capture despite extensive investigations, Crime Stoppers said.

The suspect then drove the girls to a remote area in Douglas County where Crime Stoppers said he allegedly sexually assaulted and abandoned the victims in a field.

Suspect had ‘distinctive’ features

At the time of the crime, the suspect was described as a white man in his 30s with a pockmarked face, a cleft chin and a bandage on his cheek. He was last seen driving an older model of a full-sized white van with a brown interior, according to police.

“These distinctive features, particularly the cleft chin and the condition of his skin, make the suspect identifiable to those who may have known him or seen him around the time of the crime,” Crime Stoppers said.

Crime Stoppers shared sketches of the suspect based on the victims’ descriptions:

Police and the Metro Denver Crime Stoppers are hoping that someone will recognize the suspect and come forward.

Tipsters can remain anonymous and earn a reward of up to $2,000. Anyone with information is asked to call the Greenwood Village Police Department at 303-773-2525 citing case No. 19001801 or call Metro Denver Crime Stoppers at 720-913-7867.

For the latest news, weather, sports, and streaming video, head to FOX31 Denver.