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40 creative child development research paper topics.

Child development research topics are not so common as compared to others types of writing ideas. As such, students seeking such prompts have to dig deeper to find one or two that would match their specifications. However, this task is not easy, and most students would give up way before they start. That is why we have developed a professional list of child development topics for high school and college students.

What Is A Child Development Research Paper?

It is a field that specializes in exploring how children grow and change in the course of childhood. It uses theories that center on child development, such as emotional, social, and cognitive growth. Child development is considered one of the wealthiest areas of study, with quite a low number of research papers done on it.

Studying child development is necessary as it has direct implications on the long-term state of the child in the end. Some of the aspects that child development will handle include school attainment, future opportunities, and the child’s earning potential. Therefore, it would be improper to avoid taking such a subject.

How To Write Child Development Papers

Before we delve into the nitty-gritty of such a paper, it is essential to understand the importance. A child development paper will help set the foundation for the children’s lifelong health, learning, and behavior. In other words, it will help shape our understanding of early childhood stages that will impact the child in the future.

Some of the areas of development in a child will include:

Social, personal and emotional development Physical development Literacy skills Understanding the world around them Communication and language

Therefore, if you want a top-rated child development research paper, start with these simple steps:

Conduct thorough research on various aspects of child development
Brainstorm with your friends, teachers, or experts
Understand the audience you are writing for
Make sure that the writing ideas are meaningful

You can identify world-class topics for a child development paper through:

Reputable online sources,
The UNICEF website
TV shows that involve children
Talks and symposiums on child development

Through these, you will come up with unique and researchable child development topics for papers.

Are you stuck right now on where to start? Below is a list of reputable writing ideas that will offset your paper. Give them a try and see the results!

Interesting Early Childhood Education Research Paper Topics

Stages that children pass through in their early years of development
Diseases that are common to children under five years old
Key cognitive aspects of early childhood development
The impact of the environmental factors in the development of a child
How television, videos, and games shape a child during his developmental years
How children develop ego and self-centeredness in their early years of growth
Why parents should always be by the side of their children during early years
The role of caregivers in child development at early stages

Early Childhood Education Research Paper Topics For College Students

How often should a mother be close to their children in their early years?
Factors that facilitate mental development for children
How noise-induced hearing loss affects children
Essential nutrients for premature children
The impact of social interaction during early years of a child
Discuss the various development aspects during the prenatal stage
The role of early childhood life in shaping their adult life
Why play is essential during the early stages of child development

Accessible Child Psychology Research Paper Topics

The implications of a child growing in a technology environment
How the coronavirus pandemic has shaped child psychology
The role of a psychologist in the early stages of child development
The implication of the COVID-19 lockdowns and quarantine on child psychology
Why attention is necessary for children in their early development stages
Effective monitors for the psychological development of children
The role of music in child psychology development
The effects of birth disorders in child psychological development

Hot Research Topics On Child Development

The impact of bullying on child development
How to analyze behavioral child development aspects
The significant role of proper nutrition in child development
How to identify genius children from birth
How to explain the connection between a mother and a child
The impact of genes in the development of a child
How a particular community will affect a child’s development
The implication of celebrating birthdays on child development

First-Class Research Topics On Children

How to deal with childhood trauma
The effects of single families on child development
At what stage should parents start teaching core skills to their children?
The role of family doctors in child development
Toxic events that may impact a child’s development
Implications of divorce on children
How low income affects children development
Effects of graphic violence through animations on child development

Are you thinking of online writing help with child development research papers? We are here for you. Contact us today for a brilliant article!

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BMJ Glob Health
v.4(Suppl 4); 2019

Early childhood development: an imperative for action and measurement at scale

Linda richter.

1 Centre of Excellence in Human Development, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg-Braamfontein, South Africa

Maureen Black

2 RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA

3 Early Childhood Development, Unicef USA, New York City, New York, USA

Bernadette Daelmans

4 Department of Maternal, Newborn, Child and Adolescent Health, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland

Chris Desmond

5 DST-NRF Centre of Excellence in Human Development, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Amanda Devercelli

6 Early Childhood Development, World Bank Group, Washington, District of Columbia, USA

7 Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland

Günther Fink

8 Household Economics and Health Systems, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland

9 Global Health and Population, Harvard University T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

Jody Heymann

10 Fielding School of Public Health and WORLD Policy Analysis Center, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA

Joan Lombardi

11 Early Opportunities, Washington, District of Columbia, USA

Chunling Lu

12 Division of Global Health, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

Sara Naicker

Emily vargas-barón.

13 RISE Institute, Washington, District of Columbia, USA

Experiences during early childhood shape biological and psychological structures and functions in ways that affect health, well-being and productivity throughout the life course. The science of early childhood and its long-term consequences have generated political momentum to improve early childhood development and elevated action to country, regional and global levels. These advances have made it urgent that a framework, measurement tools and indicators to monitor progress globally and in countries are developed and sustained. We review progress in three areas of measurement contributing to these goals: the development of an index to allow country comparisons of young children’s development that can easily be incorporated into ongoing national surveys; improvements in population-level assessments of young children at risk of poor early development; and the production of country profiles of determinants, drivers and coverage for early childhood development and services using currently available data in 91 countries. While advances in these three areas are encouraging, more investment is needed to standardise measurement tools, regularly collect country data at the population level, and improve country capacity to collect, interpret and use data relevant to monitoring progress in early childhood development.

Summary box

New knowledge of the extent to which experiences during early childhood shape health, well-being and productivity throughout the life course has prompted action to improve early childhood development at the country, regional and global levels.
Advances have been made in three areas of measurement needed to achieve these goals: population-level child assessments, population proxies of children at risk of poor childhood development, and country and regional profiles of drivers and supports for early childhood development.
Regular, country-comparable, population-level measurements of childhood development, as well as threats to development and available supports and services, are needed to drive progress and accountability in efforts to improve early childhood development.

Introduction

Scientific findings from diverse disciplines are in agreement that critical elements of lifelong health, well-being and productivity are shaped during the first 2–3 years of life, 1 beginning with parental health and well-being. 2 The experiences and exposures of young children during this time-bound period of neuroplasticity shape the development of both biological and psychological structures and functions across the life course.

Adversities during pregnancy and early childhood, due to undernutrition, stress, poverty, violence, chronic illnesses and exposure to toxins, among others, can disrupt brain development, with consequences that endure throughout life and into future generations. 3 4 Children whose early development is compromised have fewer personal and social skills and less capacity to benefit from schooling. These deficits limit their work opportunities and earnings as adults. 5 A corollary of early susceptibility to adversity includes responsiveness to opportunities during these early years. As a result, interventions during the first 3 years of life are more effective and less costly than later efforts to compensate for early adversities and to promote human development. 6

It is estimated that, in 2010, at least 249 million (43%) children under the age of 5 years in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) were at risk of poor early childhood development (ECD) as a consequence of being stunted or living in extreme poverty. 7 This loss of potential is costly for individuals and societies. The average percentage loss of adult income per year is estimated at 26%, increasing the likelihood of persistent poverty for these children, families and societies. 5 Assuming 125 million children are born each year with a global average of poor infant growth, 8 the estimated annual global income loss is US$177 billion. 9 These impacts have serious consequences on economic growth. Recent World Bank estimates suggest that the average country’s per capital gross domestic product would be 7% higher than it is now had stunting been eliminated when today’s workers were children. 10 At the global level, human capital accounts for as much as two-thirds of the wealth differences between countries. ECD is the foundation of human capital. 11

Supported by a growing body of evidence and increasing global interest in this field, ECD is included in the 2015 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Target 4.2 is ‘improved access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-primary education’. Progress towards achieving this target is measured by indicator 4.2.1, ‘the proportion of children under 5 years of age who are developmentally on track in health, learning and psychosocial well-being, by sex’. ECD is closely linked to other SDGs as well, for example, eradicate poverty (1), end hunger and improve nutrition (2), ensure healthy lives (3), achieve gender equality (5), reduce inequality in and among countries (10), and promote peaceful societies (16), and it is implied in several more. 5

The United Nations Global Strategy for Women’s, Children’s and Adolescents’ Health, 2016–2030 synthesises the 17 SDGs in three strategies: survive, thrive and transform. Survive refers to sustained and increased reductions in preventable deaths of women, newborns, children and adolescents, as well as stillbirths; thrive refers to children receiving the nurturing care necessary to reach their developmental potential; and transform refers to comprehensive changes in policies, programmes and services for women, children and adolescents to achieve their potential. 12

ECD has also become an important component of other global agendas, including Scaling Up Nutrition, the Global Partnership for Education, the Global Financing Facility for Every Woman Every Child, the Every Woman Every Child movement, the work plans of the WHO, Unicef and the World Bank Group, the G20, 13 international funding agencies, and philanthropic foundations. 7

These multifaceted findings have generated political momentum to improve ECD as a critical phase in the life course, making it urgent to develop measurement tools and indicators to monitor progress globally and in countries. Advances in measurement are needed to support efforts to motivate and track political and financial commitments, and to monitor implementation and impact. This means that we must be able to determine how many and which children are thriving, and on track in health, learning and psychosocial well-being.

Measurement of children’s progress in childhood is acknowledged to be challenging because development is by nature dynamic and children have varying individual trajectories. Well-validated instruments of individual development are complex and require extensive training and expertise. These challenges are amplified in efforts to make measurements across populations of children. Taking these limitations into account, we review progress in three areas of measurement that are contributing data to the current political momentum for ECD and efforts to monitor implementation and impact. Progress is being made to construct a feasible country-comparable measure of young children’s development that could be incorporated into national surveys, to improve proxies of population levels of young children at risk of poor early development, and to generate country profiles of determinants, drivers and coverage for early childhood development and services, using currently available data.

A new initiative to construct a population measure of ECD

A direct measure of the development of children 0–5 years that could be administered globally and used both within and across countries is urgently needed. Efforts have been made since the 1980s to develop a globally applicable measure of ECD, with the major challenges being individual and cultural variations in the onset of early skills. 14

Currently, the Early Child Development Index (ECDI) is included as the indicator of SDG goal 4, target 4.2. It is a composite index, first introduced in Unicef’s fourth Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) in 2010. It is derived from 10 caregiver-reported questions designed for children aged 36–59 months to assess four domains of development: literacy-numeracy, learning/cognition, physical development and socioemotional development. Some items are acknowledged to be unsuitable for assessing development, 15 and efforts are under way to revise the index, as well as to include items applicable to children younger than 3 years of age.

Three research efforts have collaborated to create the Global Scale for Early Development (GSED): the Infant and Young Child Development from the WHO, 16 the Caregiver-Reported Early Development Instrument from the Harvard Graduate School of Education, 17 and the Developmental Score from the Global Child Development Group at the University of the West Indies. 18 The goals of the GSED are to develop two instruments for measuring ECD (0–3 years) globally: a population-based instrument and a programme evaluation instrument, as described in table 1 .

Global Scale for Early Development: population and programme measures

The GSED takes advantage of large-scale and cohort studies from many countries and is harmonising efforts to generate population-based and programmatic evaluation measures of the development of children aged 0–3 years old that can be used globally ( table 2 ). The scale will be available for country testing in 2019. The aim is to have the population-based measure incorporated into national surveys, including Unicef’s MICS and the US Agency for International Development’s Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), to produce globally comparable monitoring data. Efforts are also under way to harmonise the revision of ECDI and the development of GSED to align on child outcome measurement from birth to 59 months of age.

Development and validation of the Global Scale for Early Development

CREDI, Caregiver-Reported Early Development Instrument; D-score, Developmental Score; IYCD, Infant and Young Child Development.

A country-comparable proxy for population levels of risk of poor childhood development

Information about children’s risk for poor development is important, as is identifying areas for intervention. To track these, a proxy measure of population levels of young children at risk of suboptimal development has been calculated.

Stunting and poverty were used in the first published estimation in 2007 of the global prevalence of risk to children’s development. The initial choice of indicators was based on evidence that they both predict poor cognitive development and school performance. 19 20 Additional advantages are that their definitions are standardised and many countries have data on both indicators. 21

Lu et al 21 updated the earlier values to 2010, using the 2006 WHO growth standards and World Bank poverty rates (US$1.25 per person per day), leading to an estimate of 249 million children or 43% of all children under 5 years of age in LMICs being at risk of poor childhood development. The accuracy and comparability of the later estimates benefited greatly from major advances in both data availability and estimation methods. 21

To estimate the long-term consequences of poor ECD, studies focus on estimating the impact on subsequent schooling and labour market participation and wages. The current estimate, that the average percentage of annual adult income lost as a result of stunting and extreme poverty in early childhood is about 26%, is supported by follow-up adult data from early life interventions. Two programmes have found wage increases between 25% in Jamaica attributed to a psychosocial intervention 22 and 46% in Guatemala attributed to a protein supplement. 23

In order to improve the estimate of risk, efforts are under way to include additional risks experienced in ECD known to affect health and well-being across the life course. For example, adding low maternal schooling and exposure to harsh punishment to stunting and extreme poverty, for 15 countries with available data from MICS in 2010/2011, increased the number of children estimated to be at risk of poor childhood development substantially. 5

Country profiles of ECD

Population-based measures of early child development and proxies of children at risk give an indication of prevalence, and indicators of disparity can be derived according to gender, urban–rural location and socioeconomic status. However, they do not include drivers, determinants nor coverage of interventions that could improve childhood development.

The Countdown to 2015 for Maternal, Newborn and Child Survival , established in 2005, set a precedent by creating mechanisms to portray multidimensional aspects of progress towards improving maternal and child health, and is testimony of its value. 24 Countdown to 2030 , which tracks maternal, child and adolescent health and nutrition goals, has expanded to address the broader SDG agenda, including ECD, health in humanitarian settings and conflict, and adolescent health and well-being. 25 26 It includes coverage and equity of essential interventions, as well as indicators of determinants and the enabling environment provided by policies.

This approach has been applied to ECD using the Nurturing Care Framework, 27 launched at the 71st World Health Assembly. The concept of nurturing care was introduced in the 2017 Lancet Series Advancing Early Child Development: From Science to Scale . Nurturing Care Framework comprises conditions for early development: good health and nutrition; protection from environmental and personal harm; affectionate and encouraging responses to young children’s communications; and opportunities for young children to learn through exploration and interpersonal interactions. 7

These early experiences are nested in caregiver–child and family relationships. In turn, parents, families and other caregivers require support from a facilitating environment of policies, services and communities. Policies, services and programmes can protect women’s health and well-being, safeguard pregnancy and birth, and enable families and caregivers to promote and protect young children’s development. 6

The Nurturing Care Framework has been used to produce ECD profiles for 91 LMICs. 28 Countries were selected either to ensure alignment of ECD with Countdown to 2030 , or because more than 30% of children are estimated to be at risk of poor ECD in 2010, using the methods described in Lu et al 21 and Black et al . 7

These country profiles, which consist of currently available data from LMICs, are laid out to represent the Nurturing Care Framework. The profiles consist of the following sections:

Selected demographic indicators of the country relevant to early child development: total population, annual births, children under 5 years of age and under-5 mortality.
Threats to ECD, including maternal mortality, young motherhood, low birth weight, preterm births, child poverty, under-5 stunting, harsh punishment and inadequate supervision.
The prevalence of young children at risk of poor child development disaggregated by gender and rural–urban residence, and lifetime costs of growth deficit in early childhood in US dollars.
The facilitating policy environment for caregivers and children, as indexed by relevant conventions and national policies.
Support and services to promote ECD in the five areas of nurturing care: early learning, health, nutrition, responsive caregiving, and security and safety.

Most of the existing data are published in Unicef’s annual State of the World’s Children. Convention and policy data come from, among others, the United Nations Treaty Collections and the International Labour Organization.

Figure 1 shows an example of the country profiles, with the country name replace by ‘Country Profiles’.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is bmjgh-2018-001302f01.jpg

An example of an early childhood development (ECD) country profile. CRC, convention on the rights of the child.

In a forthcoming paper, Lu and Richter (2019) describe in detail the updated estimates of children at risk of poor childhood development using the newly released poverty line of US$1.9 per person per day to estimate that, in 2015, 233 million children or 40.5% of children under 5 years of age were at risk of poor childhood development. Figures 2 and 3 show the estimates of risk for poor ECD across a decade, from 2005 to 2010 and 2015, and using the 2010 data variations between children at risk living in rural and urban areas. Gender is not illustrated here because, in most countries, the differences are small and not statistically significant.

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Decline in the number of countries with high proportions of young children at risk of poor development between 2005 and 2015.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is bmjgh-2018-001302f03.jpg

Differences in risk of poor development among urban and rural children in 63 countries (most recent years with available data).

Figure 2 shows that, between 2005 and 2010, countries with two-thirds of young children at risk (>67%) declined in both central Europe and South-East Asia. There was little change in countries with high proportions of young children at risk in sub-Saharan Africa during this period, and by 2015 countries with the highest proportion of children at risk were in Central and Southern Africa.

Estimates on the prevalence of children at risk of poor development in urban and rural areas were derived using DHS, MICS and country data for 63 countries with available data in most recent years ( figure 3 ). The differences are strikingly high, with more rural children at risk than their urban counterparts in 50 countries (differences of more than 20%). Almost all countries with 40% point differences were in sub-Saharan Africa. 28

There are additional indicators that ideally should be included in a monitoring framework, but currently lack comparable country data. Data are usually unavailable because reliable, valid instruments feasible for multicountry administration are still in development, or the instruments are not yet included in representative surveys. In particular, there are as yet no global population-based indicators for assessing responsive caregiving. Suggestions have been made that data should be collected on whether information about ECD and caregiver–child interaction is publicly disseminated, whether home visits or groups are provided for parents at high risk of experiencing difficulties providing their children with nurturing care, and whether affordable good quality child day care is available for families who need it. 29 National data on laws and policies that support responsive caregiving are also insufficient, for example, wages and other forms of income to enable families to provide for their young children. 30

Additional data gaps concern risks arising from poor parental mental health, 31 low maternal schooling, and maternal tobacco and alcohol use, among others, prevalence of childhood developmental delays and disabilities, 32 and maltreatment and institutionalisation of young children. 33 There is also no comparable information on government budget allocation to ECD or household expenditure on ECD services care, among others.

Multidisciplinary scientific evidence and political momentum are focusing on ECD as a critical phase in enhancing health and well-being across the life course. Additional measurements and indicators for monitoring and evaluation are urgently needed to support expansions in implementation and investment, and to report progress. New data will stimulate global, regional and national action, and in turn motivate for more areas of ECD to be covered in national surveys.

The Nurturing Care Framework provides a platform for three important areas of work. First, very significant progress is being made through the revision of the ECDI and the development of the GSED, a short caregiver-reported population measure of ECD that could feasibly be included in DHS, MICS and other nationally representative household surveys. The GSED will enable ECD to be tracked at population levels, and for programmes and services to be monitored and evaluated in comparable ways.

Second, a country-comparable proxy of the risk of poor ECD developed from 2004 data and updated with 2010 data has been extended to 2015, enabling comparisons to be made globally, regionally and by country across the last decade. Plans are in place to update these estimates regularly, and to add new risks as data for more countries become available.

Third, using these estimates, data included in Countdown to 2030 , and additional data from MICS and policy databases, initial profiles have been constructed for 91 LMICs. The profiles are organised according to the ecological model of the Nurturing Care Framework with policies, services and programmes supporting families and caregivers to provide good health and nutrition, security and safety, opportunities for early learning, and responsive caregiving for young children to thrive. The further development of these profiles is overseen by a multiagency committee as part of Countdown to 2030 and are freely available ( http://www.ecdan.org/countries.html and https://nurturing-care.org/?page_id=703 ). Unicef will update the country data annually and the profiles will be reproduced every 2 years.

However, as indicated earlier, substantial gaps in national and global data on topics of concern to ECD remain. The current global estimation on burden of risks, for example, does not include known risk factors other than stunting and extreme poverty, as a result of which the existing burden calculation is considerably underestimated. 5 The limited information on ECD investments at the country and global levels is exacerbated by the lack of appreciation of what constitute essential and continuous services, standard indicators for measuring ECD interventions and policies, as well as systematically collected data. Country capacity needs to be strengthened and ECD costing modules integrated into existing household income or expenditure surveys, and routinely collected from specific types of programmes. Clear definitions are needed to track donor contributions to ECD, and efforts should be made to address data issues, including collecting data from emerging donor countries (eg, China), foundations and international non-governmental organisations that are playing an increasing role in financing ECD, as has been called for by the G20. 33 National policies, strategic plans and laws which support ECD through nurturing care should be tracked for this intersectoral area.

To improve measurements of risks, intervention coverage, policies, financial commitments and impact on young children’s development, more investment is needed to regularly collect and disseminate data at the national and subnational levels. Analytical gaps at the country and global levels exist, especially with respect to equity analyses by household wealth, maternal education and rural–urban location, as well as by gender and child age within 0–5 years.

In conclusion, progress has been extremely positive, but too slow and too fragmented for the bold global agenda of ECD and the Nurturing Care Framework. The alliance with Countdown to 2030 is helpful as there is much to be learnt from the initiative’s experience under the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), as well as collaboration with the SDGs. The country profiles boldly portray what we currently know about ECD in some of the most at-risk conditions and will prove a valuable tool for advocacy and implementation, including to improve measurement. Successful implementation and impact are dependent on accountability supported by regularly updated reliable and valid information.

Acknowledgments

Robert Inglis (Jive Media Africa, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa) and Frank Sokolic (EduAction, Durban, South Africa) for assistance with the country profiles and maps.

Handling editor: Seye Abimbola

Contributors: All authors meet the conditions for authorship: substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work, or the acquisition, analysis or interpretation of data; drafting the work or revising it critically for important intellectual content; final approval of the version published; and agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Funding: This study has been funded by Conrad N Hilton Foundation and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.

Competing interests: None declared.

Patient consent for publication: Not required.

Provenance and peer review: Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Data sharing statement: Data on the country profiles are publicly available on the websites cited in the paper.

160 Best Child Development Research Topics and Ideas

Table of Contents

For writing a child development research paper, a good topic is needed the most. But do you think it is easy to search and spot the best child development research topics? Definitely not, the research topic selection is a tedious task that usually requires a lot of time and effort. Hence, to help you, here in this blog post, we have compiled a list of captivating child development research topics and ideas.

Child Development Research Paper Writing

The Child Development Research Paper is an academic paper that focuses on various topics that are related to the growth process of a child right from birth to adulthood. In general, the study of child development deals with the growth aspects of a child mentally, socially, and physically in each development stage such as newborn, infant, toddler, preschool, school-age, and teenager.

For the growth and development of children, a lot of factors like environment, people the child lives with, education, etc. play a major role. On the whole, very commonly, many external factors influence child development positively and negatively. For writing a child development research paper, you can pick the research topics that address any serious issues that affect the growth and development of a child.

After you have selected an ideal child development research paper topic, you can prepare a strong research paper outline and begin writing your research paper coherently by including the components such as introduction, body, and conclusion. When writing, you can approach the topic from different perspectives.

In a child development research paper, the introduction should be catchy and should have a bold thesis statement. The body should explain the thesis statement in two or three paragraphs with effective topic sentences and supporting evidence. Finally, the conclusion should wrap up the research paper with a good summary and a call to action. Remember, the research paper you craft should be well-structured, persuasive, and informative to your readers.

List of Child Development Research Paper Topics

Child Development is a broad subject with plenty of research topics to focus on. If you are asked to write a child development research paper, then you can consider selecting topics from any research areas such as child psychology, child mental health development , ADHD, or child development stages.

List of Child Development Research Paper Topic Ideas

Here, we have sorted different categories of child development and have listed some best child development research topics for you to consider. Go through the list and pick an ideal research topic that is comfortable for you to research and write about.

Simple Child Development Research Topics

What factors impact the development of a child?
Explain how the classroom environment affects child development.
Describe the role played by the surroundings in the development of a child.
How does playing with other children affect the development of a child?
Explain the role of movement in the development of a child.
Are children more intelligent than adults?
Explain the stimulation process of the early language.
Describe the growth and progress of youngsters.
Explain how literate communities influence child development.
Discuss the early child development stages as defined by Erik Erikson.
What is the most harmful parenting style?
The effect of genetics on child development.
The influence of peers on child development.
Why are children often more creative than adults?
Diet and its role on child development.
Characteristics of serious games.
Cultural influence on early childhood brain development.
Piaget’s Work and Legacy in Child Development.
Pretend Play Importance for the Child’s Development.
Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories in Childhood Quantitative Cognitive Development.
Developmental Analysis: Personal Introduction of Childhood – Adolescence.
Personal and Social Development of the Children

Child Development Research Topics Related to Psychology

Explain the importance of developing child psychology.
What are the five stages of psychological development?
Society is changing the psychology of our children.
When should a child see a psychologist?
How does bullying affect a child psychologically?
Explain how to avoid the risk of psychological underdevelopment in children.
Why is it important to monitor the psychological development of a child?
How does birth order affect procrastination?
Behavioral psychology of autistic children.
The science behind understanding child emotions.
Developmental perspectives on self-perception in children.
Future development in technology and the impacts on early childhood education.
Enlist three important child development theories.
What is childhood development?
Moral development stages and their analysis.
What is the development in early childhood and Adulthood?
A review of family support on children’s mental health.
Barriers to children mental health services in your country
Children mental health: Challenges and future.
COVID-19 impact on children’s mental health.

Stages of Child Development Research Paper Topics

Describe the transition between a newborn to an infant.
How does education affect the development of a child in the early stages?
How can parents deal with reading and dyslexia problems?
Describe the major developmental milestones in children.
Explain how parents can address anxiety in children and teenagers.
How can a parent identify a problem in their child’s development through the four basic stages?
How does caffeine affect teens?
How can a parent identify bad habits in their children?
How can a parent deal with bedwetting?
Explain how parents can address the issue of contraception for teenagers.
What Kind of Child Development Takes Place During the Prenatal Stage?
Elaborate on Children Services about child development.
Role of environment in child development.
How do literate communities create an impact on child development?

Early Child Development Research Ideas

Stages of toddler mental development.
Games to play with your toddler.
How does proper nutrition impact early childhood development?
The importance of socialization.
How much time should you spend with your small child?
How authentic are different developmental theories?
Should differently-abled children be included in regular classrooms?
Does storytelling help in child development?
Explain emotional development during early childhood.
How do the media affect early childhood development?

Interesting Child Development Essay Topics

Analyzing the moral development stages
Special needs of differently-abled children
The effect of domestic violence on child development
How does a divorce affect the development of children?
Imaginary friends can be a problem.
Discuss Children Services in relation to child development
Child Abuse Prevention programs and how they work.
Does obesity affect child development?
The best parenting model.
Music and its benefits for child development.

Best Research Topics on Child Development

Describe the 4 types of parenting.
How important is family for a small child?
A green environment and its effects on children.
The best way to develop a child’s language skills.
The best games for child mental growth.
The effects of social media on children.

ADHD Child Development Research Paper Topics

What is Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?
Explain the main causes of ADHD.
Can ADHD be cured in the 21st century?
The challenges of ADHD for parents.
In-depth analysis of ADHD therapy methods.
The incidence rate of ADHD in small children.
Special needs of children suffering from ADHD.
How to improve ADHD behavioral care quality in community-based pediatric settings?
Behavioral and pharmacological treatment of children with ADHD
The educational implications of ADHD on school-aged children

Child Mental Health Development Research Ideas

The effects of sleep disorders on the development of a child.
The effects of mono-parental families on small children.
The effects of substance abuse on children.
The effects of financial insecurity on children.
The effects of the death of a parent on small children.

Child Development Project Topics

Analyze the impact of sports on child development.
Positive social relations and their effect on toddlers
Are books important for small children?
Technology effects on small children.
Poor dieting and its negative effects

Latest Child Development Research Topics

Teens in LGBTQ
Latest social development techniques
How does grief affect child development?
How can an abusive environment affect child development?
Causes of aggression in children
Addiction among the youth
What is extended adolescence?
Teenage substance abuse
Advancements in children’s cognitive development.
The effects of social insecurity.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: What is it?
Talk about the primary causes of ADHD.
Describe the danger of psychological underdevelopment in children and how to prevent it.
Why is it crucial to keep track of a child’s psychological growth?
using cutting-edge child development methods to eradicate autism.

Read more: Interesting Satirical Essay Topics For Students To Consider

Outstanding Child Development Research Topics

How to manage a fussy baby.
Explain the importance of siblings and their relevance.
Write about Positive Parenting and Children’s Cognitive Development.
Analyze the benefits of children’s much-needed exposure to nature
Compare dyspraxia and autism.
What are the stages of play in childhood?
How do US states measure up on child rights?
How people could use child development research to change public policy?
Explain how to solve behavioral issues
Why do children need emotional support in early childhood?

Final Words

To write a high-quality child development research paper, pick any topic from the list of excellent topics suggested in this blog post. In case you need any professional online assignment help to complete your child development research paper, then contact us immediately. We have a team of well-experienced assignment helpers to assist you in writing a plagiarism-free child development research paper as per your requirements without missing the deadline.

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100 Best Child Development Research Topics for 2023

If you need to write a research paper about child development, you probably already know that finding great child development research topics is a very difficult task. In fact, it can sometimes take you days to find a good topic to write an interesting essay on. Fortunately, we have a list of research topics in child development that will help you immensely. Remember, all our topics are free to use. You can use them as they are or reword them. To help as many students as possible, we are constantly updating the list. You can easily find fresh topics for 2022 right here.

Having Trouble Finding Topics in Child Development?

Of course, you can try to find topics in child development on various websites. The problem is that most of those topics are years old. Furthermore, most of those child development research paper topics have been used by students over and over again. Your professor is probably bored of reading the same essays every semester, don’t you think?

To make sure you get a top grade on your essay, you need to find original, highly interesting topics. You need research topics for child development that are relevant for the scientific community today. Just pick one of our topics and start writing your essay in minutes.

Easy Child Development Topics

If you are looking from some easy topics so that you don’t have to spend much time writing the essay, you might want to take a look at our awesome easy child development topics:

Describe 3 important child development theories
Define childhood development
Talk about the Vygotsky Theory.
What are childcare centers?
Are children more intelligent than adults?
Music and its benefits for child development.

Child Development Essay Topics for College

Of course, college students should pick topics that are more advanced than those picked by high school attendees. Take a look at some interesting child development essay topics for college students:

Child Abuse Prevention programs and how they work.
Discuss Children Services in relation to child development
How does a divorce affect the development of children?
Analyzing the moral development stages
Domestic violence effects on child development
Three best parenting styles and why they work
Special needs of differently-abled children

Controversial Topics Child Development

Child development is, of course, filled with controversial ideas, theories and practices. You may want to talk about some of them, so here are some controversial topics child development ideas:

The best parenting model.
Family conflict hinders proper child development.
Does obesity affect child development?
Does race affect child development?
Are siblings important at all?
Imaginary friends can be a problem.

Best Research Topics on Child Development

Nobody knows what your professor likes or dislikes better than you do. However, we believe the following list of ideas contains some of the best research topics on child development:

Coronavirus lockdown and its effects on children.
Peers’ influence on child development.
Children understand life through play.
A green environment and its effects on children.
Describe the 4 types of parenting.
Diet and its role on child development.
How important is his family for a small child?

ADHD Child Development Topics

ADHD is a disorder that affects a growing number of children worldwide. It goes without saying that picking one of our ADHD child development topics will surely surprise your professor:

What is Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?
Discuss the main causes of ADHD.
Incidence rate of ADHD in small children.
The challenges of ADHD for parents.
Special needs of children suffering from ADHD.
In-depth analysis of therapy methods.
Can ADHD be cured in the 21st century?

Interesting Topics Related to Child Development

Are you looking for the most interesting topics related to child development? Here is the list of what our ENL writers consider to be the most intriguing things to talk about in 2022:

Games that stimulate child development
Does poverty affect the development of children?
Tech and its effects of child development.
Do imaginary friends play a role?
Child development and its effects on the person’s entire life
Why are children often more creative than adults?

Child Development Psychology Topics

But what if you want to talk about psychology? The good news is that we have several original child development psychology topics that you can choose from right now for free:

What are the five stages of psychological development?
An in-depth look at the mental development of children.
Improving mental growth: best practices.
Lack of attention and its effects.
Behavioral psychology of autistic children.
Society is changing the psychology of our children.
The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Difficult Child Development Topics for Research

Are you looking for a challenge? Do you want to test your ability to write a complex academic paper on a difficult subject? Just pick one of these difficult child development topics for research and start writing:

The coronavirus pandemic and its effects on child development.
Eliminating dyslexia with novel child development techniques.
Best way to develop your child’s language skills.
Eliminating autism with novel child development techniques.
The minimum time that you should spend with your child.
3 best games for child mental growth.

Current Topics in Child Development

Of course, your professor is most interested in new and exciting research. This is why it is generally a great idea to pick a current topic to write about. Here are some of the best current topics in child development:

COVID-19 anxiety in small children.
Advancements in children cognitive development.
Latest social development techniques.
The link between psychical and physical development
What are developmental milestones?
Solving behavioral issues correctly.
Link between play and social skills.
Best methods to cure autism in 2022. Check out more autism research topics .

Child Mental Health Development Paper Ideas

Interested in writing about the mental health development of children of all ages? We have some very good news for you. We have a list of child mental health development paper ideas you will find most intriguing:

The effects of divorce on small children
The effects of the death of a parent on small children
The effects of family violence on child development
The effects of substance abuse on children
The effects of mono parental families on small children
The effects of financial insecurity on children
The effects of sleep disorders on the development of a child

Child Development Project Topics

Are you looking for an original project idea? Our team managed to create a list of 100% original child development project topics just for you:

Talking and its effects on child development.
Analyze the impact of sports on child development.
Poor dieting and its negative effects.
Technology effects on small children.
Are books important for small children?
Positive social relations and their effect on toddlers.
Is Internet exposure recommended?

Psychology Research Topics on Child Development

Researching the psychology of child development can be a very difficult thing to do. However, if you think you are up to the task, pick one of these great psychology research topics on child development:

Define the term “sociocultural theory”
The 4 stages of psychological development.
Analyzing the main psychological processes of children.
In-depth analysis of child psychology.
Does your children need to see a psychologist?
The science behind understanding child emotions.
Deviant behavior in small children.

Early Child Development Topics

Talking about infants and toddlers can be very interesting, especially if you manage to find a great topic. Choose one of these early child development topics and start writing your paper right away:

Stages of toddler mental development.
How much time should you spend with your small child?
The importance of socialization.
Games to play with your toddler.
Is play important for early child development?
Infant vs. toddler: the similarities.
When does the ego first appear?

Topics About the Stages of Childhood Development

Are you interested in talking about the various stages of childhood development? You are certainly in luck today. We have just added these topics about the stages of childhood development to our list:

What are the 5 stages of child development?
What defines a newborn?
Describe the transition between a newborn to an infant.
Child development stages: the toddler.
Preschool and school age children: key differences

Latest Child Development Paper Topics

It’s difficult to keep up with science, we know. Here are the latest child development paper topics you may want to write about:

Genetics effect on child development.
Social media effects on children.
Pollution effects on the development of children.
Social insecurity effects.
Good sleep and its benefits.
Preschool programs are improving emotional skills.
The science of childhood development.

Need More Child Development Topics for Papers?

But what if you want more than these interesting topics in child development? In case you need a list of original, well thought of topics, we have the perfect solution. Our experienced academic writers can put together a list of new child development topics for papers in no time. And the best part is that only you will get the new list. So, if you need dozens of child development research topics that nobody else thought of yet, you need our help. If you need a custom thesis , we can also help you. Don’t hesitate to get in touch, even during the night.

178 Original Child Development Research Paper Topics

Child development is represented by all the changes that occur in a child from the time of their birth to adulthood. The changes covered by child development include all the emotional, physical, thought and language changes.

During the process of development, a child transitions from being dependent on his parents to being an independent young adult. It is generally accepted that there are 5 main stages of child development: newborn, infant, toddler, preschool, and school-age.

If you are pursuing a bachelor of science or even a Master of Science degree, you will inevitably have to write at least one research paper about child development. The good news is that writing the paper shouldn’t be too difficult because the Internet contains plenty of information about most aspect of child development.

However, finding the right child development research paper topics for your papers can pose a problem. Don’t worry, we’ve got you covered. We have a list of 178 original topics on this page that should work great in 2023.

How Does A Good Research Paper Look Like?

OK, but what does a good research paper look like? Well, to help you out, we’ve put together a simple outline that shows you exactly what your paper should contain:

Introduction Background information on the topic Thesis statement Body #1 (first major subtopic) Statement + a little background information Supporting evidence Body #2 (second major subtopic) Statement + a little background information Supporting evidence Body #3 (third major subtopic) Statement + a little background information Supporting evidence Conclusion Restate the thesis Summarize the key points Call to action Works Cited/Bibliography Appendix

Of course, to be able to write the research paper as fast as possible, you need to find the best possible topic. Stop wasting your time scouring the Internet and choose one of these original topics:

Best Child Development Topics

We will start our list of topics with the best child development topics (or what we consider to work great in 2023). Check out this list of awesome ideas:

Discuss the Piaget theory on child development
Research the mechanisms of child development
Analyze the Toddler stage (1-3 years)
Research motor skills during child development
The socio-emotional development of children
Discuss the 5 stages of development
Talk about cognitive development
Research the Preschool stage (3-4 years)
How does development shape a person’s life?
Research the role of the environment on development
Research hands-on experience learning

Easy Child Research Topics

Next on our list we have some of the easiest topics you can find. Our easy child research topics are meant to help you write the paper faster and save time for other activities:

Discuss the Erik Erikson theory on child development
Effects of parasites on child development
A closer look at the Infant stage (3-12 months)
Effects of race on child development
The intellectual development of children
Discuss maternal drug use effects
Effects of neglect on the development of children
The 5 stages of child development
Talk about the Newborn stage
Analyze the Pre-school stage (4-5 years)

Child Development Project Topics

Are you looking to start a child development project? You certainly need a great idea if you want an A+. Here are some child development project topics you could try:

Research asynchronous development
A project on physical growth
A project on gender role
A project on language and communication
Talk about the effects of malnutrition
Postnatal depression and child development
Weight growth during child development
The speed of height growth
Analyze the mechanisms of change
A project about individual differences
Research the development of children with disabilities

Research Topics On Children

If you are looking for interesting research topics on children, you have arrived at the right place. Take a look at these ideas and choose the one you like the most:

Discuss the Behavioral theory on child development
An in-depth look at secure attachment
How do emotions change over time?
Discuss the transition from dependent to independent
The effect of family on child development
The role of movement
The effect of school on child development
The importance of playing with other children
The importance of the surroundings
The effects of the Covid-19 pandemic
Psychological changes during development
Research the effects of classroom environment

Child Development Research Topics

Of course, we have a lot of child development research topics for students of all ages. Here are some of our best, original ideas that should be excellent for 2023:

Discuss the Vygotsky theory on child development
The role played by genetics
Compare and contrast the toddler and the infant
Compare and contrast the infant and the preschool child
The importance of a psychologist
Discuss the role of caregivers
Compare and contrast the toddler and the newborn
Effects of positive social interactions
Research disorganized families
Compare and contrast the preschool and the school age child
The negative effects of divorce
The role of a good early childhood life

Research Paper Topics Children Love

In case you are looking for some research paper topics children love, we have some of the best ideas right here. Check them out and start working on your paper now:

Latest news in child development
The importance of a good school
The importance of eating breakfast
The role of the mother
The role of the father
Teaching sign language to children
The effects of bullying on children
Discuss the importance of tangible rewards
Nurturing good habits
Sports in the life of a child

Child Development Topics For High School

So what if you’re a high school student? You can write about child development too. We even have some excellent child development topics for high school student right here:

Discuss ADHD and its effects
Negative effects of social media on child development
The role of technology in child development
Research differently-abled children
Study the emotional development of children
An in-depth look at the role of good nutrition
Research the role of sport in child development
Research the occurrence of depression
The struggles of preschool children
Negative effects of smartphones on child development
Effects of mass media on school children

Child Development Psychology Topics

Interested in discuss the psychological part of child development? Have a look at our child development psychology topics; you’ll surely find something of interest:

The different stages of psychological development
What makes children intelligent?
Discuss intellectual growth from 3 to 9 years of age
What makes children put their health at risk?
Research memory in preschool children
The problem-solving capabilities of a toddler
Language learning skills at the age of 3
Do toddlers have a self-preservation instinct?
How do toddlers understand the world around them?
Discuss a school psychology topic
Research how children think

Interesting Child Development Topics For Papers

Our writers have compiled a list of the most interesting child development topics for papers. All you have to do is choose one of our ideas and start working on your research paper:

Why is playing so important?
Talk about the effects of climate change on child development
How to ensure your child develops properly?
Discuss the role of social interaction
Is social media good for child development?
How do children form their ego?
The history of child development
Are some children more intelligent than most adults?
Research the way children understand life
Discuss the role of peers on child development

Great Children Research Topics

Are you in search of some great children research topics? You are in luck because we have a long list of such topics right here:

Research a child’s social development
Discuss speech development
Gross motor skills development
How to monitor child development effectively?
How important is attention?
Birth disorders and their negative effects
Talk about behavioral child development
The importance of music in child development

Child Development Research Paper Questions

Did you know that the best way to get started on your research paper is to look at some child development research paper questions? Here are some for you:

How to identify a child genius?
How does the community affect children?
Can children overcome trauma?
How important are birthday celebrations?
How important is the mother in child development?
How does the loss of hearing affect children?
Does the child need to visit a psychologist?
How does autism influence child development?
Does Facebook negatively affect a child’s development?
What is the role of genetics?
What defines a toddler?
How important is socialization?
How much time should a parent spend with his child?
What is the sociocultural theory?

Current Child Development Topics

Talking about the latest research in child development will surely get you some bonus points. Here are some current child development topics:

Latest advancements in cognitive child development
Autistic children development
Are video games dangerous for child development?
Severe psychological problems
Teaching your child a new language
Research into deviant behavior
Best games for children to play
Effects of a poor diet
The negative effects of a lack of physical exercise
How does technology influence child development?

Advanced Child Psychology Research Topics

If you want to write about complex topics, we also have a list of advanced child psychology research topics. Choose one of them for free right now:

The effects of talking on child development
Discuss the most important development milestones
The effects of the Covid-19 pandemic lockdowns
Discuss how television affects child development
Research the diseases that can hinder child development
Analyze the connection between a toddler and his parents
Research child development in single-parent families

Child Development Topics For College

College students will surely appreciate our long list of child development topics for college. Remember, this list is updated periodically so that everyone can get fresh topics:

The effects of family violence
Innovative child development techniques
How much time should you spend with your child?
Games that stimulate mental growth
Best ways to solve a behavioral issue
Negative effects of substance abuse
Negative effects of divorce

Controversial Child Development Topics

Don’t worry, your teacher will surely appreciate your courage. You shouldn’t be afraid to talk about controversial topics in your research paper. In fact, here are some topics to help you get started:

Books that children should avoid
The need for physical punishment
How important are schools?
Should children be allowed to play video games?
The effects of poverty on child development
Discuss the effects of social insecurity
Child development in the Indian society

Child Mental Health Essay Topics

Are you interested in talking about the mental health of children? No problem, we have a great list of child mental health essay topics for you:

Best ways to develop a positive mentality
An in-depth look at anxiety in toddlers
Discuss the stages of mental development
The occurrence of depression in preschool children
Discuss the cause and effects of ADHD
Can children suffer from PTSD?
Research the oppositional defiant disorder

Early Childhood Essay Topics

If you want to cover early childhood in your research paper, you have definitely arrived at the right place. Here are some awesome early childhood essay topics:

Tourette syndrome in toddlers
Discuss eating disorders in preschool children
The effects of social media on young children
Sports that children should play
Events that can negatively impact a child’s development
Ways to ensure maximum mental growth
Discuss the 5 stages of development and make a comparison between them
Does music affect the mathematical skills of young children?

Topics Related To Child Psychology

Our experts have created a list of interesting topics related to child psychology that you can use for free. Pick one of these ideas and start writing an A+ paper today:

Talk about what makes a child intelligent
Things that negative affect a child’s psychological wellbeing
Stress in young children in the United States
Should you child see a psychologist?
Sports that curb child delinquency
Discuss the effects of watching excessive television
The effects of religious orientation on a child’s mental health

ADHD Child Development Essay Topics

Writing about child development of children suffering from the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is not easy, we know. However, we have some great ADHD Child development essay topics for you:

How do ADHD children cope with boring situations?
Controlling the activity levels of ADHD children
Discuss ways to make ADHD children pay attention
ADHD’s effects on the ability to focus
Why do ADHD children have learning disabilities?

Get Research Help From The Best

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InBrief: The Science of Early Childhood Development

This brief is part of a series that summarizes essential scientific findings from Center publications.

Content in This Guide

Step 1: why is early childhood important.

: Brain Hero
: The Science of ECD (Video)
You Are Here: The Science of ECD (Text)

Step 2: How Does Early Child Development Happen?

: 3 Core Concepts in Early Development
: 8 Things to Remember about Child Development
: InBrief: The Science of Resilience

Step 3: What Can We Do to Support Child Development?

: From Best Practices to Breakthrough Impacts
: 3 Principles to Improve Outcomes

The science of early brain development can inform investments in early childhood. These basic concepts, established over decades of neuroscience and behavioral research, help illustrate why child development—particularly from birth to five years—is a foundation for a prosperous and sustainable society.

Brains are built over time, from the bottom up.

The basic architecture of the brain is constructed through an ongoing process that begins before birth and continues into adulthood. Early experiences affect the quality of that architecture by establishing either a sturdy or a fragile foundation for all of the learning, health and behavior that follow. In the first few years of life, more than 1 million new neural connections are formed every second . After this period of rapid proliferation, connections are reduced through a process called pruning, so that brain circuits become more efficient. Sensory pathways like those for basic vision and hearing are the first to develop, followed by early language skills and higher cognitive functions. Connections proliferate and prune in a prescribed order, with later, more complex brain circuits built upon earlier, simpler circuits.

In the proliferation and pruning process, simpler neural connections form first, followed by more complex circuits. The timing is genetic, but early experiences determine whether the circuits are strong or weak. Source: C.A. Nelson (2000). Credit: Center on the Developing Child

The interactive influences of genes and experience shape the developing brain.

Scientists now know a major ingredient in this developmental process is the “ serve and return ” relationship between children and their parents and other caregivers in the family or community. Young children naturally reach out for interaction through babbling, facial expressions, and gestures, and adults respond with the same kind of vocalizing and gesturing back at them. In the absence of such responses—or if the responses are unreliable or inappropriate—the brain’s architecture does not form as expected, which can lead to disparities in learning and behavior.

The brain’s capacity for change decreases with age.

The brain is most flexible, or “plastic,” early in life to accommodate a wide range of environments and interactions, but as the maturing brain becomes more specialized to assume more complex functions, it is less capable of reorganizing and adapting to new or unexpected challenges. For example, by the first year, the parts of the brain that differentiate sound are becoming specialized to the language the baby has been exposed to; at the same time, the brain is already starting to lose the ability to recognize different sounds found in other languages. Although the “windows” for language learning and other skills remain open, these brain circuits become increasingly difficult to alter over time. Early plasticity means it’s easier and more effective to influence a baby’s developing brain architecture than to rewire parts of its circuitry in the adult years.

Cognitive, emotional, and social capacities are inextricably intertwined throughout the life course.

The brain is a highly interrelated organ, and its multiple functions operate in a richly coordinated fashion. Emotional well-being and social competence provide a strong foundation for emerging cognitive abilities, and together they are the bricks and mortar that comprise the foundation of human development. The emotional and physical health, social skills, and cognitive-linguistic capacities that emerge in the early years are all important prerequisites for success in school and later in the workplace and community.

Toxic stress damages developing brain architecture, which can lead to lifelong problems in learning, behavior, and physical and mental health.

Scientists now know that chronic, unrelenting stress in early childhood, caused by extreme poverty, repeated abuse, or severe maternal depression, for example, can be toxic to the developing brain. While positive stress (moderate, short-lived physiological responses to uncomfortable experiences) is an important and necessary aspect of healthy development, toxic stress is the strong, unrelieved activation of the body’s stress management system. In the absence of the buffering protection of adult support, toxic stress becomes built into the body by processes that shape the architecture of the developing brain.

Brains subjected to toxic stress have underdeveloped neural connections in areas of the brain most important for successful learning and behavior in school and the workplace. Source: Radley et al (2004); Bock et al (2005). Credit: Center on the Developing Child.

Policy Implications

The basic principles of neuroscience indicate that early preventive intervention will be more efficient and produce more favorable outcomes than remediation later in life.
A balanced approach to emotional, social, cognitive, and language development will best prepare all children for success in school and later in the workplace and community.
Supportive relationships and positive learning experiences begin at home but can also be provided through a range of services with proven effectiveness factors. Babies’ brains require stable, caring, interactive relationships with adults — any way or any place they can be provided will benefit healthy brain development.
Science clearly demonstrates that, in situations where toxic stress is likely, intervening as early as possible is critical to achieving the best outcomes. For children experiencing toxic stress, specialized early interventions are needed to target the cause of the stress and protect the child from its consequences.

Suggested citation: Center on the Developing Child (2007). The Science of Early Childhood Development (InBrief). Retrieved from www.developingchild.harvard.edu .

199+ Child Development Topics [Updated]

Child development is a fascinating journey filled with countless milestones, challenges, and triumphs. As caretakers, parents, educators, and concerned individuals, it’s crucial to delve into the intricacies of child development topics to provide the best possible support for our young ones. In this comprehensive guide, we’ll explore various aspects of child development, from physical growth to cognitive leaps, emotional nuances, and the influence of the environment.

What Is Child Development?

Table of Contents

Child development encompasses the physical, cognitive, emotional, social, and moral growth of children from infancy through adolescence. It’s a dynamic process influenced by genetics, environment, and experiences.

Understanding child development topics is essential for promoting healthy growth and addressing challenges effectively.

199+ Child Development Topics: Category Wise

Physical development.

Growth milestones in the first year
Fine motor skill development
Gross motor skill milestones
The importance of tummy time
Nutritional needs for different age groups
Managing childhood obesity
Puberty: A guide for parents
Understanding adolescent growth spurts
Promoting healthy sleep habits in children
Dental care for kids: Tips for parents

Cognitive Development

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Language development in infants
Early literacy skills
Mathematical development in young children
Enhancing memory skills in kids
Executive function skills and their importance
Fostering creativity in children
Problem-solving activities for kids
Cognitive development in children with disabilities
Cultivating a growth mindset in children

Social and Emotional Development

Attachment theory and its implications
Building secure attachments with your child
Recognizing and managing separation anxiety
Understanding emotions: A guide for parents
Teaching empathy to children
Bullying prevention strategies
Helping children cope with stress
Friendship skills for kids
Resilience-building activities for children
Supporting LGBTQ+ youth in their development

Moral Development

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
Teaching values to children
Promoting honesty and integrity in kids
Empathy-building exercises for children
Discussing ethical dilemmas with children
Understanding cultural influences on morality
Moral development in the digital age
Encouraging civic engagement in young people
Addressing prejudice and discrimination in children
Promoting kindness and compassion in schools

Environmental Influences on Child Development

The role of family dynamics in child development
Socioeconomic disparities and child outcomes
Cultural influences on parenting practices
Technology and screen time guidelines for kids
The impact of social media on adolescent development
Nature vs. nurture: Debating influences on development
Supporting children through family transitions (e.g., divorce)
Creating inclusive environments for all children
Community resources for supporting child development
Preventing childhood trauma and adverse experiences

Developmental Disorders and Challenges

Understanding autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
Early signs of ADHD in children
Learning disabilities: Identification and interventions
Sensory processing disorder: Strategies for support
Anxiety disorders in children: Signs and coping strategies
Depression in adolescents: Recognizing the signs
Childhood trauma and its long-term effects
Neurodiversity: Embracing differences in learning
Supporting children with intellectual disabilities
Strategies for inclusive education in schools

Parenting and Caregiving Practices

Positive parenting techniques
Effective communication with children
Setting boundaries and consequences
Balancing work and family life
Promoting independence in children
Fostering a positive body image in kids
Discipline vs. punishment: Understanding the difference
Parenting through adolescence: Tips for navigating challenges
Self-care for parents: Prioritizing your well-being
Building a support network as a parent

Educational Strategies

The importance of early childhood education
Montessori vs. traditional education: Pros and cons
Differentiated instruction for diverse learners
Incorporating technology in the classroom
Project-based learning: Engaging students in real-world tasks
Culturally responsive teaching practices
Universal design for learning (UDL) principles
Supporting English language learners (ELLs)
The benefits of outdoor education
Teaching social-emotional skills in schools

Future Trends and Research Directions

Emerging trends in child psychology
Advances in neuroscience and child development
The impact of climate change on children’s health and well-being
Addressing disparities in access to education and healthcare
The role of artificial intelligence in education
Promoting sustainability education for future generations
Ethical considerations in genetic testing for children
Trauma-informed care approaches in schools and communities
Parental leave policies and their impact on child development
Advocating for children’s rights in a changing world

Miscellaneous Topics

The role of pets in child development
Supporting siblings of children with special needs
The benefits of music education for children
Cultivating a love of reading in kids
Exploring different parenting philosophies (e.g., attachment parenting, authoritative parenting)
Teaching financial literacy to children
Promoting environmental awareness in schools
The impact of sleep on children’s behavior and learning
Teaching children about consent and boundaries
Building resilience in children facing adversity
Understanding and supporting gifted children
The role of grandparents in child development
Helping children navigate peer pressure
Teaching children conflict resolution skills
Gender identity development in children
The importance of unstructured playtime
Positive reinforcement techniques for behavior management
Strategies for teaching emotional intelligence in schools
The benefits of mindfulness practices for children
Addressing food insecurity in schools
The impact of divorce on child development
Recognizing signs of child abuse and neglect
Promoting diversity and inclusion in children’s literature
Teaching children about online safety
Supporting children with incarcerated parents
Understanding and addressing childhood trauma
Fostering creativity and imagination in children
Teaching children about consent and personal boundaries
Supporting children with anxiety disorders
The benefits of play therapy for children
Encouraging physical activity in children
Strategies for managing ADHD in the classroom
Addressing perfectionism in children
Teaching children about healthy relationships
Recognizing signs of dyslexia in children
Supporting children with sensory processing challenges
The impact of social media on adolescent mental health
Teaching children about emotional regulation
Strategies for promoting self-esteem in children
Fostering resilience in children facing adversity
Understanding and supporting children with ADHD
Teaching children about body safety and boundaries
The benefits of outdoor play for children’s development
Strategies for managing screen time for children
Supporting children with learning disabilities in the classroom
Recognizing signs of depression in children
Teaching children about consent and healthy relationships
The impact of divorce on children’s mental health
Supporting children with autism in the classroom
Teaching children about diversity and inclusion
Strategies for managing challenging behaviors in children
Promoting positive body image in children
Teaching children about emotional intelligence
Supporting children with anxiety in school
Recognizing signs of autism spectrum disorder
Teaching children about empathy and kindness
The benefits of art therapy for children
Strategies for managing ADHD behaviors in children
Promoting self-regulation skills in children
Supporting children with dyslexia in the classroom
Recognizing signs of childhood trauma
Teaching children about healthy communication
The impact of bullying on children’s mental health
Strategies for promoting positive behavior in children
Fostering emotional resilience in children
Supporting children with ADHD at home
Recognizing signs of anxiety in children
Teaching children about body positivity
The benefits of mindfulness for children’s mental health
Strategies for managing challenging behaviors in children with autism
Promoting social skills in children with ADHD
Recognizing signs of dyscalculia in children
Teaching children about emotional regulation and self-control
Supporting children with dyspraxia in the classroom
The impact of childhood trauma on brain development
Strategies for managing oppositional behavior in children
Fostering emotional intelligence in children with autism
Recognizing signs of ADHD in girls
Teaching children about conflict resolution
The benefits of animal-assisted therapy for children
Strategies for promoting executive function skills in children
Supporting children with ADHD in the classroom
Recognizing signs of selective mutism in children
Teaching children about self-care and stress management
The impact of divorce on children’s academic performance
Strategies for managing sensory processing challenges in children
Promoting self-esteem in children with learning disabilities
Recognizing signs of childhood depression
Teaching children about empathy and compassion
The benefits of play-based therapy for children
Strategies for managing ADHD impulsivity in children
Supporting children with dysgraphia in the classroom
Recognizing signs of childhood PTSD
Teaching children about emotional regulation techniques
The impact of bullying on children with ADHD
Strategies for promoting positive self-talk in children
Fostering resilience in children with autism
Recognizing signs of ADHD in toddlers
Teaching children about conflict resolution skills
The benefits of equine therapy for children
Strategies for managing ADHD hyperactivity in children
Supporting children with dyscalculia in the classroom
Recognizing signs of childhood anxiety disorders
Teaching children about mindfulness and relaxation techniques
The impact of childhood trauma on social development
Strategies for promoting self-regulation in children with ADHD
Fostering emotional intelligence in children with learning disabilities
Recognizing signs of childhood OCD
Teaching children about emotional expression and communication
The benefits of drama therapy for children

Tips To Follow For Writing Child Development Research Paper

Writing a research paper on child development requires careful planning and consideration of various factors. Here are some tips to help you successfully navigate the process:

Choose a Specific Topic: Select a narrow and focused topic within the broad field of child development. This will allow you to delve deeply into a particular aspect and provide a comprehensive analysis.
Conduct Thorough Research: Gather relevant sources such as academic journals, books, and reputable websites. Make sure to use credible sources to support your arguments and provide evidence for your claims.
Develop an Outline: Draft a framework for your research paper, encompassing sections such as the introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, discussion, and conclusion. A well-defined outline aids in structuring your ideas and maintaining focus.
Craft an Engaging Introduction: Commence your research paper with an captivating introductory segment, offering context about the subject, accentuating its importance, and introducing your research query or central thesis statement.
Review Existing Literature: Conduct a literature review to summarize and analyze existing research on your chosen topic. Identify gaps in the literature that your research aims to address and explain how your study contributes to the field.
Choose an Appropriate Methodology: Select a research methodology that is suitable for your study, whether it’s qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. Describe your research design, participants, procedures, and data analysis techniques in detail.
Collect and Analyze Data: If conducting empirical research, collect data according to your chosen methodology. Examine the data utilizing suitable statistical or qualitative analysis methods and interpret the outcomes concerning your research query.
Examine the consequences and proposals: Within the discussion segment, interpret your outcomes within the framework of current literature and explore their implications for theory, application, and policy. Provide suggestions for forthcoming research and actionable interventions.
Write Clearly and Concisely: Use clear and concise language to convey your ideas effectively. Avoid jargon and unnecessary technical terms, and ensure that your writing is accessible to a wide audience.
Cite Your Sources Properly: Accurately cite all sources used in your research paper according to the citation style specified by your instructor or academic institution (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). Pay attention to formatting guidelines and include a bibliography or reference list.
Proofread and Revise: Before submitting your research paper, carefully proofread it for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. Revise as needed to improve clarity, coherence, and flow of ideas.
Seek Feedback: Consider seeking feedback from peers, mentors, or professors to gain valuable insights and suggestions for improving your research paper.

By following these tips, you can effectively write a research paper on child development that contributes to our understanding of this important field and informs future research and practice.

Understanding child development topics is essential for promoting healthy growth, supporting children’s well-being, and fostering positive relationships. By delving into the complexities of physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and moral development, we can better equip ourselves to nurture the next generation of thinkers, innovators, and compassionate individuals.

Let’s continue to explore, learn, and advocate for the holistic development of every child.

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315 Child Development Research Topics & Essay Examples

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African American Girl Development Psychology essay sample: Understanding the developmental processes and psychology associated with child development is crucial in elaborating the needs of children at different stages of life.
Cognitive Abilities Development of Children Psychology essay sample: The role of parents during the young stages of children has significant implications on the development of cognitive abilities and social structures.
Child Development and Learning - Developmental Psychology Psychology essay sample: This is a summary of 3 articles that go on the topics of human intellectual development, early childhood programs and developmentally appropriate academics.
Infancy and Early Childhood Development - Psychology Psychology essay sample: Infancy refers to the period when a human being is aged between 1 and 12 months. Infancy is marked by rapid physical growth, which aids an infant’s new abilities.
Children' Playing Concept - Psychology Psychology essay sample: Playing makes children active. It makes children engage their whole bodies and explore their surroundings with all senses.
Children Behavior Changes Psychology essay sample: This paper improves the understanding on family dynamics that help in understanding the model of transition and child adjustment.
The Effects of Nurseries on the Children Development Psychology essay sample: This study explores the effects of nurseries on the development of children between two and three years old. The quantitative research design was used to answer the research questions.
Personality: Attachment Theory Psychology essay sample: This paper is a comprehensive research on the developmental theory of personality specifically the attachment theory. Attachment theory is the common theory about infant and mother relationship.
How Television Can Affect Children in a Positive Way? Psychology essay sample: Many suppose that rather than watching television, children ought to focus on essential issues like studying, sports, and other activities that help in physical and intellectual growth.
Middle Childhood Cognitive Development and Learning Psychology essay sample: Explanations of the normal growth have been postulated by many theorists. Growth and development in early life is usually described in three main stages.
Infant Cognitive Development Stages Psychology essay sample: Each of four stages introduced by Piaget is characterized by the changes in the development of intellect and the mechanisms of cognition.
Educative Toys' Role in Child Development Psychology essay sample: The purpose of the study is to affirm the hypothesis that educative toys enhance child development and education. The toys should be given to children according to their age and grade.
Psychology: Middle Childhood Development Psychology essay sample: This paper focuses on highlighting some of the hereditary and environmental factors that affect physical, cognitive, and social development in the middle childhood stage.
Peers' and Parents' Role in Child's Development Psychology essay sample: This paper provides detailed information on the influence of parents, peers, and other people in the development of a child process.
Young Children’s Play and Environment Psychology essay sample: The essay proves that whereas children’s play in early childhood is free and innocent, it`s influenced by some factors that not only define and shape it but also make it complex.
Children and Adolescent Development Process Psychology essay sample: The case studies presented are for children or adolescents in school, who develop problems and need intervention. This analysis will integrate case studies and use scholarly research.
Child Observation with Piaget's and Freud's Development Theories Psychology essay sample: Jean Piaget developed his cognitive-developmental theory based on the idea that children actively construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate the world around them.
Child's Behavior and Developmental Stage Psychology essay sample: The behavior of children at any developmental stage is similar across cultures. The paper analyzes the behavior and the developmental stage of a 9-years child.
Pets for Children: Developmental Psychology Study Psychology essay sample: The study of the characteristics of child development is the area of psychology that provides for assessing various aspects, including cognitive, socio-emotional factors.
Child Development: Ages One Through Three Psychology essay sample: Babies need high amounts of glucose in order for their brains to properly develop as well as fat in order to help stimulate proper growth and development.
Childhood Stages and Development Psychology essay sample: The dynamic systems theory of motor development states that a child’s maturation is tied to the development of gross and fine motor skills.
Why Play Is Essential in Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: The paper is aimed to prove that playing is not an inconsequential activity for children cause it has a pivotal role in their cognitive development.
Growth and Development as a Journey Children Go Through Psychology essay sample: Developmental researchers have unearthed a wealth of information on how human beings go through the life span in terms of various developmental aspects
How Does Autism Affect the Emotional Development of Children? Psychology essay sample: Discussion of emotional characteristics of autistic children, range of autistic emotional development, supporting emotional development autistic children, treatments.
Autism and Emotional Development of Children Psychology essay sample: Parents are considered as the prime carers and educators of their children as well as the major providers of special, love, care, and attention that is normally given to autistic people.
Human Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: Human cognitive development was described in a number of theories, and one of the major contemporary issues in developmental psychology is sociocultural influences on the progress of human mind through the life span.
Child Development: The Attachment Theory Psychology essay sample: The process of child development starts with infant-mother interrelation being the background of human inner world formation.
Theory of Attachment In Adult Psychology essay sample: Attachment development is a behavioral control system that is formed over time when affective, cognitive, and learning abilities are affected by the attachment to a caregiver.
Importance of Outdoor Play on Development of Children Psychology essay sample: The research study examines the importance of outdoor play on process of learning, physical improvement, cooperative ability and many other aspects of the child’s development.
Cognitive Development Theories in Personal Example Psychology essay sample: Cognitive theories analyze the qualitative and quantitative mental capabilities that occur during cognitive development that are divided into four stages.
Play for Young Children Types and Values Psychology essay sample: This research paper will discuss the various types and values of play for young children and how they help in impacting positive values in the children.
Development of the Cognitive Process Psychology essay sample: The process of cognitive development involves various changes in the thinking process, which begin at infancy and improve progressively as an individual develops.
Human Growth and Development Psychology essay sample: This paper seeks to determine the number of principles that briefly characterize human Growth and development.
Psychology. Ecological System Theory Psychology essay sample: Literature in early childhood is on the increasing end due to the early experiences and recognition of theories supporting human development.
How Childhood Trauma Affects Health Across a Lifetime Psychology essay sample: Being a teacher requires a specific set of communication skills, and improving these skills could positively affect parent-teacher relationships.
Impact of Early Childhood Experience on the Development of the Personality Psychology essay sample: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the level of impact of early childhood on the life of a human and compare it to other youthful stages.
Professional Preparation: Promoting Child Development Psychology essay sample: The purpose of the present paper is to identify and explore one of the NAEYC early childhood professional preparation standards to enhance one’s knowledge in the field.
Childhood to Adulthood Developmental Analysis : Personal Experiences Psychology essay sample: In today's technology world, it takes longer for youths to gain adequate training, get employment, and become financially independent.
On the Formation of Prosocial Behavior in Children Psychology essay sample: This article discusses the importance of the environment in shaping prosocial behavior and the impact of the environment on interactions between children.
Physical Education Impact on Child Development Psychology essay sample: Inadequate physical activity hampers psychosocial health in children and elevates the risk of cardiometabolic disorders.
Preschool Program for Children from Birth to Eighteen Months Psychology essay sample: The main thing that infants demand during the period from birth to eighteen months is the adult's attention for emotional, social, and cognitive development.
Usage-Based Approach to Determine the Theory of Mind in Infants Psychology essay sample: Theory of mind (ToM) is the psychological explanation of the intellectual abilities that facilitate the understanding that other people have desires, plans, beliefs, and hopes.
Behavior Problems of Middle Childhood by Peterson Psychology essay sample: This document is intended to provide a critical review of a journal article, Behavior problems of middle childhood, authored by Donald Peterson of the University of Illinois.
Day Care and Child Mental Health/Cognitive Functioning Psychology essay sample: The study partially supported the hypothesis that early parental employment has a positive effect on children's development by increasing family income.
The Child Growth and Development Psychology essay sample: Children play an active role in such areas as self-understanding and self-efficacy. Childhood experiences have a significant impact on mental and social development.
Children Are Not Born With Prejudices - They Learn Them Psychology essay sample: Children tend to mimic the behavior, habits, and communication models from their caregivers, which consequently shape the child’s personal beliefs and character.
Middle and Late Childhood Developmental Needs Psychology essay sample: A child's mental, behavioral, and social developmental outcomes, as well as physical health, are determined by socioeconomic circumstances.
Early Childhood Sleep: Its Types and Consistent Routine Psychology essay sample: Sleep in early childhood begins the process of remodeling learned memories, which may be sufficient to provide short-term benefits in regulating mood and emotions.
Resilience After Trauma: From Surviving to Thriving Psychology essay sample: Resilience may be seen as minimized anguish from a stressful situation and the ability to manage a stressful ordeal with a lowered impact on a person's daily life and development.
How Culture Influences a Child’s Development Psychology essay sample: The goal of this paper is to analyze the role of culture as one of the main sources of influence on a child’s early development.
Classical Music in Children’s Development and Behavior Psychology essay sample: Western classical music, often referred to as simply classical music, is often considered highly beneficial to children’s education and associated with a variety of advantages.
The Impact of Dyslexia on Child Development Psychology essay sample: A society that views a person who has dyslexia as ordinary will also encourage the person to see themselves the same way.
Personal and Social Development of Children Psychology essay sample: Bringing up children and fostering their personal and social development is a complicated process requiring significant efforts from their parents and caregivers.
How Stress Affects Child Brain Development Psychology essay sample: Stress is an unavoidable and important part of any child’s life. Depending on how significant it is it can have a positive or negative effect on the child’s development.
Developmental Psychology: Early Childhood and Infancy Stages Psychology essay sample: The essay concerns the two stages of child and adolescent psychological development, considering the value of play, attachment, and bonding during these years.
Physical and Cognitive Development of Early Childhood Psychology essay sample: Before the age of six, the brain's growth continues, the development of the frontal lobes, which allows children to acquire the ability to control attention by school age.
Developmental Assessment of School-Aged Children Psychology essay sample: This essay discusses the physical assessment of school-aged children and typical developmental stages for children of this age.
Human Development: Preschool Children Psychology essay sample: The rate of development during the preschool years is contingent on both hereditary and environmental factors.
Analysis of Go-Go Caterpillar and Its Influence on Development Psychology essay sample: Go Caterpillar is a toy designed for toddlers aged from 9 months to approximately three years. The toy is not gender-specific, so it is equally suitable for girls and boys.
Child Birth and Development in Infancy Psychology essay sample: Physical and cognitive development in such an essential period of human life as infancy is critical to the quality of people’s lives.
Child Language Development Discussion Psychology essay sample: Language development is a course during which a child learns to communicate and understand speech during childhood.
The Analysis of the School-Aged Children’ Needs Psychology essay sample: School-aged children lack the knowledge about bodies and have limited capacity to evaluate the serious consequences of a particular illness or injury.
Developmental Psychology: The Developement of Logical Thinking at the Age of Six and Fourteen Psychology essay sample: In the paper, the author outlines the experience of trying to learn a complex physics concept at the age of six and fourteen that illustrates the development of logical thinking.
Developmental Theories for Children Psychology essay sample: Stages of development are useful in monitoring and measuring the growth of a child. This discussion aims at evaluating the best technique useful for children aged seven years.
Adolescent Risk Behaviors. Child Development Influences Psychology essay sample: Adolescence is one of the most challenging periods in the life of every individual because they go though in an understanding of life, establishing a personality.
Child Development Theories Psychology essay sample: The paper has discussed a case of a 4-year old Melissa, who is at risk due to her developmental stage, using Erikson’s and Piaget’s theories.
Development in Early Childhood and Early Adulthood Psychology essay sample: This paper aims to highlight social, emotional, physical and cognitive development in early childhood and early adulthood, as well as trends and theories of development.
Infancy to Late Childhood Development Psychology essay sample: This paper aims at reviewing information regarding the growth and development of children between birth and 11 years of age, from infancy to late childhood.
Developmental Assessment and the School-Aged Child Psychology essay sample: When conducting a medical assessment of a school-aged child, a medical professional must evaluate their cognitive, physical, social, language, and learning development.
Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Psychology essay sample: The cognitive development of infants and toddlers is associated with the acquisition of basic knowledge and skills that enables the child to become comparatively independent.
Play in the Lives of Young Children Psychology essay sample: Childhood games are fundamental activities that support young ones' cognitive, emotional, physical, and social development.
Infant Physical and Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: The cognitive and physical development of infants has been an object of research since the XX century. Its conventions were set by Jean Piaget.
Teaching a Child Table Manners Through Operant Conditioning Psychology essay sample: When teaching table manners, parents should give praise to children right away instead of waiting for them to exhibit the behaviors that are expected from them.
The 10-Month-Old Child: Developmental Information Psychology essay sample: This paper discusses the observations made from the video by reviewing existing literature on developmental skills among 10 months old infants.
The Formation and Development of Empathy in Children Psychology essay sample: The paper is relevant for the research as it contains resources that will help to explain the formation and factors that influence the development of a child’s empathy.
Biopsychosocial Analysis: Behavior and Social Environment Psychology essay sample: The development of a child through various milestones is dependent on various biological, psychological, and social factors.
The Early Childhood Stage Psychology essay sample: The early childhood stage is important because it determines the effectiveness in cognitive, social, and emotional development in a child.
Naturalistic Observation of Children's Behavior Psychology essay sample: To receive more evidences related to the behavior of children, it is important to observe the definite age groups in the situation and surroundings which are typical and familiar for them.
Managing Behaviour in Young Children Psychology essay sample: The paper discusses what tools and techniques are likely or unlikely to work in a particular case study. The strategy focuses on the family and interventions.
The Factors of the Child’s Healthy Development Psychology essay sample: Social and emotional development cannot exist within the framework of the healthy functioning of an individual from a young age.
Mental Health: Case Study of S. Psychology essay sample: This paper is devoted to the case of a woman I know personally. S. is a 31-year-old single mother with a family history of anxiety disorders.
Infant Temperament: A Longitudinal Study Psychology essay sample: The New York Longitudinal Study data reveals an impressive level of stability in temperament both within and between periods of childhood.
Connection Between Screen Time and Child Development Psychology essay sample: Toddlers who spend a considerable amount of time in front of screens demonstrate “poorer performance on developmental screening tests later in childhood”.
Child Development Psychology: Pregnancy Trimesters Psychology essay sample: During prenatal development, all three trimesters are very important and any kind of psychological or medical condition the mother undergoes, the child is equally affected.
Child Development Overview Psychology essay sample: This paper details the varied factors that impact child development, including the environment, cultural differences, attachment styles, and development stages.
Developmental Milestones in Infants and Toddlers Psychology essay sample: Concerning physical activity, a child should be able to keep his head at the age of two months and move across the bed at the age of six months.
Stages of Cognitive Development in Children Psychology essay sample: This paper explains the five stages of cognitive development which begin in infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, early adolescence, and ends with late adolescence.
Growth and Development of the School-Age Child Psychology essay sample: The school-age children are aware of the human body, and they begin acceptation their own through the changes it experiences.
Child Care and Behavior Concerns Psychology essay sample: Early child care interaction is also associated with increased exposure to peers at a young age and potential effects on early peer qualifications.
Child Growth and Development: Attachment Theories Psychology essay sample: Since growth and development are a broad and rich subject, several theorists have come together to help understand why and how people learn, grow, and act.
Socioemotional Development in Infancy Psychology essay sample: The psychological formation of infants is based on interaction with others, relationships, awareness of their feelings. This paper discusses socioemotional development in infancy.
Development of the Brain at Early Childhood Psychology essay sample: In conclusion, brain development starts after conception and continues after birth. Both biological and environmental factors influence the development of the brain.
Fundamental of Psychology: Attachment Theory Psychology essay sample: The concept behind attachment theory is that a child needs to develop a strong bond with at least one primary caregiver.
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory and Its Impact on Human Life Psychology essay sample: This paper aims at analyzing Bowlby’s attachment theory and its application in childhood, adulthood, romantic life, and the choice of parenting styles.
Interview and Observation: A Case Study on Child Development Psychology essay sample: Teddy is the patient that this case targets to study. Teddy is eight years old, he has been developing physically at a regular rate, and he does not have known physical health issues
John Watson and Child Behaviorism Psychology essay sample: To prove this point, Watson turned to studying the behavior of infants and came to the conclusion that children are capable of producing a small number of simple reactions.
Child’s Living Conditions and Attachment Development Psychology essay sample: The paper states that the experience of raising a child in an orphanage can cause atypical behavior in situations of social interaction.
Aspects of Child Development Psychology essay sample: The development of the child is influenced by external factors including the neighbors and their actions, and the personality characteristics of the child.
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory Points Psychology essay sample: John Bowlby, a psychoanalyst born in 1907 believed that behavioral and mental health problems were a result of a person's early childhood.
Child Observation Assessment: Development Psychology essay sample: The interview was with the caregiver, who said that Laura is an extremely playful and jovial girl, who cries only when she is wet or hungry.
Cognitive Development During Childhood Psychology essay sample: The cognitive development of children is a key aspect of their growth, especially in their formative years. Children are born with cognitive abilities.
Children’s Oral Language Development (Preschool) Psychology essay sample: The infant’s speech develops faster and better when adults talk to them a lot, not just talk, but specifically communicate.
Cognitive Development in Early and Middle Childhood Psychology essay sample: The Early Childhood stage of development lasts from 3 to 5 years. During this period, children are already ready to master complex skills, such as riding a two-wheeled bicycle
How Childhood Development Stages Affect Adult Life Psychology essay sample: While upbringing ordeals one undergoes when growing up characterize the childhood memories, they play an important role in the later lives.
Overcoming Separation Anxiety in Children Psychology essay sample: Most children quickly stop experiencing separation stress, but if this is not the case, the caregiver can support the parent by explaining how to behave with the child.
Child Psychology: Children's Behavior and Communication Style Psychology essay sample: The methods allow for identifying a child's communication style. This helps in finding a specific approach for each kid and indicating their weak spots.
Child Development and Environmental Influences Psychology essay sample: This paper is an annotated bibliography that aims to conduct an analysis of the child development theme from several sources.
Family Survey for Development of Children Psychology essay sample: This paper contains a letter with the family survey that was created with a request for family support in the understanding and development of children.
Personal Development From Childhood Through Present Age Psychology essay sample: The personal development of an individual occurs throughout life. Personality is one of those phenomena that is rarely interpreted in the same way by two different authors.
Children’s Books in Various Therapies Psychology essay sample: The paper discusses children's books in therapy. It includes Adlerian Play Therapy, Jungian Analytical Play Therapy, Psychodynamic Play Therapy, etc.
Observed Behaviors of 10-Year Old Children and Supporting Theories Psychology essay sample: This paper explains Erikson’s psychosocial, Freud’s psychosexual, Piaget’s cognitive developmental theories, Bandura’s social learning, Kohlberg’s moral development perspectives.
Developmental Psychology in Parenting Psychology essay sample: The paper describes attachment parenting, supportive education items, and governmental and non-governmental transformative intervention in parenting.
Effects of Socioeconomic Inequalities on Child Health and Wellness Psychology essay sample: Socioeconomic inequalities have a significant impact on the children’s cognitive and social-emotional behavior, as well as health outcomes.
The Relationship Between Income and Childhood Brain Development Psychology essay sample: Dr. Noble's talk on the connection between income and cognitive development is scientifically accurate and proven.
Child Development Assessment Tools Psychology essay sample: To clarify the ideas about the development of children, I also included a conversation as a more effective method that revealed the individual characteristics of each kid.
Development. “Baby Milestones: 24–36 Months” Psychology essay sample: The investigation of behavior in this essay will provide an analysis of the development and behavior of a two to a three-year-old child based on the video “Baby Milestones”.
Piaget’s Work and Legacy in Child Development Psychology essay sample: Piaget has been very influential and effective on the topic of understanding childhood development. His researched the differences that occur in child development.
Pretend Play Importance for the Child’s Development Psychology essay sample: Pretend play is immeasurably significant for a child's development; it has a positive impact on learners' literacy, mathematical thinking, and language and scientific skills.
Colour Psychology and its Effects on the Early Years’ Learning Environment Psychology essay sample: Colour can affect a child’s perception of the environment, and this process can alter the development of personality, which includes mental development.
Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories in Childhood Quantitative Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget largely contributed to developmental psychology and education, notably exploring children's learning styles and mental abilities.
Developmental Analysis: Personal Introduction of Childhood – Adolescence Psychology essay sample: This paper presents a personal introduction of childhood – adolescence, and theoretical perspectives of development (Freud’s, Erikson’s, Piaget’s theories).
Jean Piaget’s Infant Development Theory Psychology essay sample: The author of the paper agrees with Jean Piaget's theory of intellectual development since it focuses on cognitive processes throughout a particular period.
Importance of Play in Child’s Development Psychology essay sample: During the game process, a child’s will, emotions, cognitive processes, and interests interact and cooperate, as a result, positive changes in the personality of the child emerge.
Stages of Child Development Psychology essay sample: Egocentrism - the inability or unwillingness of a person to look at what is happening from the point of view of other people, to put himself in the place of another person.
Children’s Development Process Psychology essay sample: Parents, guardians, and professionals should incorporate children's observation programs for facilitating and enhancing children's development.
Initiative and Guilt Stage of Child’s Psychological Development Psychology essay sample: Initiative and guilt are the third stage of psychological development which happens between the ages of three to five in the child's life.
A Child's Development and Its Basic Elements Psychology essay sample: The issue of the development of a child is relevant and vital nowadays. There is a necessity to figure out all the basic elements of the process.
Jean Piaget’s Approach and Theory of Cognitive Development Psychology essay sample: Jean Piaget, is mostly famous for his multiple innovative theories and ideas on the development of cognitive functions of children in the process of growing.
How a Person Develops and the Factors That Influence the Growth Psychology essay sample: Child development is the individual progress from dependency to independence between birth and adolescence, which entails emotional and psychological changes.
Child Temperament and Life-Span Development Psychology essay sample: Temperament is a psychological term that refers to the combination of behaviors and attitudes an individual demonstrates.
Freud’s and Vygotsky's Theories of Child Development Psychology essay sample: The subject of psychoanalytic theory is human emotions and interpersonal relationships. This paper analyzes Sigmund Freud’s theory and Vygotsky's cultural-historical theory.
Temperament and Behavior in Young Children Psychology essay sample: Various factors regarding temperament and behavior in young children can affect their academic performance at an early age.
Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development of Children Psychology essay sample: As outlined by Jean Piaget, the formal operational stage of cognitive development considers children from the age of 12 years and above.
Analysis of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development Psychology essay sample: Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality and development states that body parts are sensitive to sexual or erotic stimulation during the childhood development phases.
Parental Stresses and Child’s Emotional Development Psychology essay sample: Raising a child as a head of a single-parent family is associated with various challenges. Firstly, a single-parent family may be struggling to afford even the basic needs.
Personal Development Due to Erikson’s Scale Psychology essay sample: Erikson’s theory of people’s psychosocial development is helpful for psychology. It helps doctors cope with their patient’s mental health issues.
Benefits of Educational Sensory Toys for Children Psychology essay sample: Educational toys assist children in attaining problem-solving skills even at a young age, which is suitable for their development.
Why Parents Matter More Than Peers in Children’s Development Psychology essay sample: This paper argues that parents' impact on their children's life surpasses peers' influence and cannot be overlooked when education issues are concerned.
Lack of Physical Development in Preschool Children Psychology essay sample: Physical development is an important aspect of growth in children and has been determined to enhance their social and language development.
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Research on early childhood mathematics teaching and learning

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Published: 23 June 2020
Volume 52 , pages 607–619, ( 2020 )

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Camilla Björklund ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5436-537X 1 ,
Marja van den Heuvel-Panhuizen 2 , 3 &
Angelika Kullberg 1

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This paper reports an overview of contemporary research on early childhood mathematics teaching and learning presented at recent mathematics education research conferences and papers included in the special issue (2020–4) of ZDM Mathematics Education . The research covers the broad spectrum of educational research focusing on different content and methods in teaching and learning mathematics among the youngest children in the educational systems. Particular focus in this paper is directed to what lessons can be drawn from teaching interventions in early childhood, what facilitates children’s mathematical learning and development, and what mathematical key concepts can be observed in children. Together, these themes offer a coherent view of the complexity of researching mathematical teaching and learning in early childhood, but the research also brings this field forward by adding new knowledge that extends our understanding of aspects of mathematics education and research in this area, in the dynamic context of early childhood. This knowledge is important for future research and for the development of educational practices.

Research in Early Childhood Mathematics Education Today

Mathematics Education in the Early Years

Early childhood mathematics education: reflections and moving forward.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

Early childhood mathematics education is a rich field of study and practice that includes the provision of stimulating activities and learning environments, organized and orchestrated by teachers, care-takers and other professionals with the aim of offering young children experiences that extend their knowledge and development of mathematical concepts and skills. Generally, early childhood mathematics education involves children aged 3–6 years, but in many countries even the youngest toddlers go to early childhood centres. Therefore, contemporary research on early mathematics education focuses on children from birth until they enter formal schooling in the first grade. To develop this field of research, a strong foundation of theory and methodology is necessary, along with consideration of the practical settings of young children’s learning as well as the societal needs and relevant educational policy frameworks. Moreover, from a didactical perspective, it also requires consideration of the essence of the mathematics to be taught to young children.

High-quality research grounded in theory is necessary for all areas of mathematics education, in order to move forward and contribute to the generation of new knowledge from which the educational practice can benefit. Since there is much evidence that later development in mathematics is laid in the early years (e.g., Duncan et al. 2007 ; Krajewski and Schneider 2009 ; Levine et al. 2010 ), such high-quality research is especially critical for early childhood mathematics education. Research involving young children entails certain challenges that cannot simply be solved by adopting research designs that are used with older students. The aim of gaining deep knowledge of how young children’s mathematical understanding can be fostered places high demands on research methods. As early as 40 years ago, Donaldson ( 1978 ) stated that children act differently in their everyday situations than they do in experiment situations, and this has been confirmed by many others since then. Thus, gaining knowledge about teaching and learning mathematics in the early years requires research that is conducted in various learning environments and that acknowledges that these learning environments are complex, multifaceted, and dynamic.

Research in mathematics education is a relatively recent scientific discipline beginning in the last century (Kilpatrick 2014 ). Investigating young children’s mathematical learning and teaching became part of this discipline much later. Early childhood mathematics has long been the research field of developmental psychology and cognitive sciences. From the studies of mental abilities and thinking in mathematical problem-solving carried out in these disciplines, we have gained knowledge about the influence of working memory and attention span (e.g., Ashcraft et al. 1992 ; Passolunghi and Costa 2016 ; Stipek and Valentino 2015 ), as well as about the role of innate abilities of numerical awareness in children’s mathematical performance (e.g., Butterworth 2005 ; Wynn 1998 ). Yet, these studies lack a deeper investigation of the mathematics that is performed and how it is developed by children. Neither do such investigations address why certain mathematical competencies are important or why some activities stimulate their development and others do not. Contrary to psychological research, mathematics education research has a didactic perspective, which means that it is linked to the perspective of the learning child, the teaching teacher, and the environment offering learning opportunities in which the teaching and learning take place. Above all, didactic research distinguishes itself from psychological research because it deals explicitly with the question of what the mathematics is in early childhood activities, both within and outside formal education.

2 A brief overview of the current field of early mathematics education research

As shown by the many publications on teaching and learning of mathematics in early childhood that have been released in the past few years, this area of mathematics education research has increasingly become a mature discipline. The same is reflected by the special interest groups, working groups, and research fora dedicated to mathematics education in the early years. No self-respecting conference today can afford not to pay attention to the area of early mathematics, and there are now also communities and conferences that focus exclusively on early childhood mathematics education. All these communities and conferences are the epicentres where the latest developments in this field are brought together. To set the scene for research on early childhood mathematics teaching and learning, without it being complete, we first provide a brief overview of recently presented and discussed early mathematics education research. As an orientation point for this overview, we used what has recently been presented by researchers at three international meetings.

2.1 CERME 11 thematic working group (TWG) on early years mathematics

A conference that already has a considerable track record for including early childhood mathematics as a fixed part of its programme is the biennial conference of the European Society for Research in Mathematics Education (ERME). This conference started in 2009 with a Thematic Working Group (TWG) on Early Years Mathematics. Since then, the number of participants in this group has grown consistently. In 2019, this TWG (that is, TWG13) consisted not only of European researchers but also attracted participants from Canada, Japan, and Malawi. The most dominant theme presented there involved studies of children’s emerging number knowledge. Many of these presentations were traditional in design, including giving children tasks that had to be solved both individually when the children were interviewed and when they worked in groups in a classroom setting. Based on these studies, researchers formulated descriptions of the children’s knowledge. Sometimes, learning trajectories could be generated from these empirical observations. However, within this TWG several examples of studies with more innovative designs and research settings were also presented, including different modes of exploring and expressing numbers, which can extend our knowledge of early childhood mathematics education. An example of such research is Bjørnebye’s ( 2019 ) study, in which a dice game including elements of multiple representations and embodiment of counting strategies opened up the possibility of observing how children’s actions and responses reflect their understanding. Other studies investigated how affordances of manipulatives and applications encouraged children to develop new ways of thinking about numbers either by working in a digital environment (Bakos and Sinclair 2019 ) or by using their fingers to represent numbers (Lüken 2019 ; Björklund and Runesson Kempe 2019 ).

A characteristic of the research community gathered at CERME11 TWG13 is that the participants generally had in common an interest in better understanding the mathematical thinking of the child. Therefore, it was considered crucial that research establish clues for how to recognize mathematical thinking in the early years. For this purpose, Sprenger and Benz ( 2019 ) used eye-tracking data, as this platform was considered to contribute to the analysis of children’s perception of structure in the process of determining quantities. Yet, what Sprenger and Benz discovered is that data from technological devices still need to be interpreted, and that other expressions of children’s perceptions and reasoning are necessary assets for drawing valid conclusions.

A further important issue that was present at CERME11 TWG13 was related to teaching practice. Specifically, several presentations addressed the questions of how mathematics education should be orchestrated in early childhood education and what opportunities to learn should be offered to children. For example, Breive ( 2019 ) investigated the link between inquiry-based education and open-ended problem-solving, and the role of the teacher in orchestrating such conditions for mathematical exploration. In her paper, Breive described the teachers’ behaviour in terms of the degrees of freedom offered to the children with respect to their actions related to the mathematical content and context. Based on the data she collected, Breive concluded that teachers’ ways of acting, and the accompanying learning opportunities, should be given more attention within early mathematics education research. Similarly, Vogler ( 2019 ), who observed teacher–child group interactions, concluded that so-called indirect learning (which can be found as a common approach in many preschool settings) may induce an obstacle to learning mathematics embedded in activities if there is not a mutual understanding of what learning content is the aim of the activity. In line with these two studies, other researchers who focused on teachers’ interactions with children also highlighted critical issues for educational practice and supported further research inquiries.

Another source for learning about the latest developments in early childhood mathematics education research is the POEM conferences (Mathematics education perspective on early mathematics learning between the poles of instruction and construction). The latest conference, POEM4, was held in 2018. The presentations published in the conference proceedings (Carlsen et al. 2020 ) all, in one way or another, reflect the question “In what way—and how much—should children be ‘educated’ in mathematics before entering primary school?” This was also the recurring question in the discussions between the participating scholars. Among the contributions, three themes stood out: children’s mathematical reasoning, early mathematics teaching, and parents’ role in children’s mathematical development. There was a strong interest in children’s reasoning abilities and strategies in problem-solving. For example, Tsamir et al. ( 2020 ) investigated how children express their understanding of patterning. For this purpose, the researchers provided preschoolers with patterns to be copied and compared, while observing their strategies. Children’s strategy use was also observed in relation to play situations. Bjørnebye and Sigurjonsson ( 2020 ) observed them in teacher-led outdoor games, while Lossius and Lundhaug ( 2020 ) observed child-initiated play activities. Some researchers used their observations of children’s encounters with mathematical content for theoretical discussions on how to understand children’s meaning-making, for example by taking the semiotic mediation perspective (e.g., Bartolini Bussi 2020 ) or through the lens of attentional processes (Verschaffel et al. 2020 ).

With respect to early mathematics teaching, at POEM4 it was discussed that teachers’ educational work largely concerns how to empower children in the learning process, assuming that children have agency in their learning (Radford 2020 ). Some of the presented studies (e.g., Palmér and Björklund 2020 ) specifically chose children's perspectives and problematized how seriation was made a content for learning in a children’s story. They showed how different manipulatives and tools used in teaching have different implications for what is made possible for the children to learn. A critical but essential notion was expressed by Tzekaki ( 2020 ), who underlined that whether children act and think mathematically and learn mathematical concepts depends on what is defined to be mathematical thinking and acting. In line with this perspective, Keuch and Brandt ( 2020 ) and Bruns et al. ( 2020 ) also raised the issue that teachers’ and student teachers’ knowledge of mathematics in early childhood education affects their readiness to exploit the content in ways that facilitate children’s mathematical learning.

The issue of the knowledge of mathematics in early childhood was also addressed in papers on the role of parents in children’s learning of mathematics. Parents are recognized as young children’s first educators, contributing to their mathematical understanding and skills. One example of this research focus is Lembrér’s ( 2020 ) study. In order to know what experiences children bring with them into preschool education and thus might inform their encounter with mathematics, she investigated what parents value in the mathematics activities in which their children are engaged at home.

2.3 ICME-13 monograph “Contemporary research and perspectives on early childhood mathematics education”

The ICME-13 Monograph “Contemporary research and perspectives on early childhood mathematics education” (Elia et al. 2018 ) is the third source for becoming informed about the state of the art in the field of teaching and learning mathematics in early childhood. This book, which has its foundations in the ICME-13 (International Congress on Mathematical Education) Topic Study Group 1 (TSG1) “Early childhood mathematics education” held in 2016, contains chapters on a broad range of topics grouped into five key themes: pattern and structure, number sense, embodied action and context, technology, and early childhood educators’ professional issues and education.

Within these themes, the domain-overarching theme of pattern and structure played a prominent role. As Mulligan and Mitchelmore ( 2018 ) showed in a series of studies, children’s awareness of mathematical structures turned out to be crucial for acquiring mathematical competence. Particularly children’s structuring skills were found to be critical to developing coherent mathematical concepts and relationships. These findings are in line with Lüken and Kampmann’s ( 2018 ) intervention study with first graders, in which 5 months of explicit teaching of pattern and structure during regular mathematics lessons resulted in significant differences between pre- and post-test arithmetic achievement scores in the intervention group. Moreover, the intervention was most beneficial to the low-achieving children.

The research within the theme number sense examined a large variety of different aspects of number development. For example, there was a study about children’s enumeration skills when making lists for designating and representing collections of objects (Dorier and Coutat 2016 ). Also, attention was paid to the use of numerical finger gestures and other bodily-based communication in order to facilitate the learning process (Rinvold 2016 ), children’s spontaneous focusing on numerosity (SFON) (Rathé et al. 2018 ; Bojorque et al. 2018 ), and the link between writing skills and number development (Adenegan 2016 ). Furthermore, an exploration of children’s ability to operate with numbers revealed that 5-year-olds were able to solve multiplication and division problems when they were presented in familiar contexts (Young-Loveridge and Bicknell 2016 ).

In the theme embodied action and context , Karsli’s ( 2016 ) video-ethnographic research in a pre-kindergarten classroom showed that young children’s hand and body movements hold rich potential for engaging them in mathematics, and underlined the importance of early childhood teachers’ attention to the embodied ways in which children engage with mathematics, with potential for creating teachable moments. Other studies investigated children’s engagement in the context of play. In Henschen’s ( 2016 ) study free play was examined, while Nakken et al. ( 2016 ) compared free with guided play, of which the latter resulted in the children exhibiting deeper mathematical thinking, and engagement with more specific mathematical concepts. Anderson and Anderson ( 2018 ) broadened the scope by investigating children’s learning of mathematics in their home environment. Thom’s ( 2018 ) and Elia’s ( 2018 ) research on geometrical and spatial thinking in early childhood offered further insights into the crucial role of the body and other semiotic resources (language, drawings, and artefacts) by which young children develop and communicate spatial-geometrical thinking. A general conclusion within this theme was that the limited ways in which young children are invited to engage with geometrical, spatial, and measurement concepts undervalue the embodied, gestural, in-context nature of their mathematical thinking.

The theme technology specifically addressed the integration of technology into early childhood mathematics teaching and learning both at school and at home. The focus was mostly on touch-screen tablet-based applications. Because this new technology significantly differs from the traditional physical aid materials, professional development is needed to help educators identify and implement effective uses of these applications. To learn more about the role of the educator (teacher or parent) in the child’s interaction with the software, Baccaglini-Frank ( 2018 ) carried out an analysis of student-software-teacher relations, revealing how the teacher’s goal of helping the children experience success actually limited their development of numerical abilities. The use of technology also opened a window to a new perspective in early childhood mathematics, namely by exposing young children to advanced mathematics such as understanding symmetric transformation (Fletcher and Ginsburg 2016 ) and dealing with large numbers (also in symbolic form) and ordinality (Sinclair 2018 ).

In the theme early childhood educators’ professional issues and education , Cooke and Bruns ( 2018 ) provided a comprehensive overview of the various contributions in TSG1, for which they proposed to distinguish conditions at three levels that influence opportunities for young children to develop mathematical understanding and skills. At the macro level, curricula provide a framework (aims, content to learn, and activities) for mathematics teaching and learning in early childhood, with varying views. Several papers mentioned the tensions regarding new curricula and frameworks that may impose mathematical content rather than allowing the child to develop understanding of mathematical concepts through play. At the meso level, with focus on the teachers’ competence, all involved papers agreed as to the importance that the teacher possess a fundamental understanding of mathematics as the basis for high-quality early mathematics education. However, different studies used different conceptualizations and instruments to measure teachers’ mathematical competence. The micro level refers to the mathematics educational programmes and materials, as well as to the required training for teachers to develop their ability to effectively select and implement such programmes that address children’s mathematical needs (Fritz-Stratmann et al. 2016 ).

In sum, the common themes that stand out from the three international meetings are children’s learning through play, and concerns regarding how to apply content-focused teaching, with or without technology. We found that a great deal of the research is on children’s mathematical thinking and learning, including two main areas concerning children’s emerging number knowledge and children’s learning of patterns. It is noteworthy that in both areas, how children perceive structure or how they manifest structuring abilities were analysed in several of the studies. There were also a number of studies that focused on how finger patterns, gestures, or bodily-based communication may facilitate children’s learning of numbers.

Children’s learning through free or guided play is also a main issue that was discussed. Teachers’ guiding interaction with children in play was shown to contribute more to deeper mathematical thinking and engagement with specific mathematical content. How teaching affects children’s learning opportunities in preschool was furthermore of great concern in several of the studies. A conclusion drawn from this research is that teachers’ ways of acting and the learning opportunities created for children should be given more attention. In what way, and how much, children should be educated before entering primary school remains a central issue.

3 The contributions of this special issue

In this special issue of ZDM Mathematics Education (Issue 2020–4), contemporary research on early childhood mathematics teaching and learning is discussed by researchers from all over the world. The initiative emanated from the 42nd PME conference in Umeå, Sweden (July 2018), where we had the opportunity to organize a Research Forum in which researchers involved in the field of early childhood mathematics education gathered to present and discuss theoretical and methodological challenges and outcomes of studies on learning and teaching arithmetic skills in early years (Björklund et al. 2018 ; Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen 2018 ). The conclusion of the Research Forum was that early childhood mathematics education research is key, but that more efforts are needed to bring together the state of the art within this field as a foundation for moving early childhood mathematics education research forward. This special issue again provides a window into the contemporary field of research on early childhood mathematics teaching and learning. To discuss what this special issue adds to this field and reflect on the challenges that lie ahead for research on early childhood mathematics education, in the next section we synthesize the themes that emerge from the 15 papers included in this special issue. Each theme highlights the papers’ shared knowledge and contributions to research methods. Many papers are related to several themes, but for our discussion we chose those papers that predominantly belong to a particular theme. In total, we identified three recurring themes: the early interventions and their effects, the facilitating factors for learning and development, and the mathematical key concepts that can be observed in children. Together, these themes bring to the fore aspects that are essential for understanding the learning and teaching of mathematics in the early years.

3.1 What lessons can be drawn from interventions?

Research shows that children’s development of mathematical skills and knowledge is often influenced by socio-economic and curricular factors, and by social interaction in both short- and long-term perspectives (Pruden et al. 2011 ). Thus, there is a raised awareness of the impact early childhood education may have on reducing differences in conditions for learning and on increasing and securing equal opportunities for a good foundation in learning for all children. Based on their meta study of early mathematics education research, Duncan et al. ( 2007 ) stated that early intervention counts and numerous references to the same study indicate that this is an important standpoint in research. Why else indulge in the challenging task of researching learning among the youngest in our education systems, if one does not believe that efforts made through teaching are significant for children’s wellbeing and lifelong learning path?

Research on teaching and learning mathematics often shares a common research design in which interventions are implemented (designed, conducted, and the outcomes assessed) with the aim of finding ways to improve teaching practice for the benefit of the learning child, and often to reduce socio-economic inequality. Intervention studies can be objects of research in different ways, focusing on the children’s learning outcomes or the teaching practices. Nevertheless, the goal is to enhance learning through improved teaching. In the papers in this special issue we find efforts to implement well-designed interventions, explicitly focusing on how to teach. Some implement and analyse fine-grained differences in (teaching) actions and the effects on children’s attention to certain content (Paliwal and Baroody 2020 ; Mulligan et al. 2020 ), while others study the effects of attentiveness to children’s experiences and knowledge and the related choices of tasks (Clements et al. 2020 ; Grando and Lopes 2020 ). Nevertheless, essential to studying intervention success or failure is how learning outcomes are measured and interpreted, which is also an important aspect of early childhood mathematics education research (Li et al. 2020 ).

How teaching is framed to present mathematical content to young children, in order for it to be meaningful to them, and in order to be attentive to children’s experiences and knowledge, is investigated and discussed by Grando and Lopes ( 2020 ). Through narratives provided by early childhood teachers, they find insights into how teachers chose to frame the subjects of statistics and probability in ways that engaged children and were responsive to the children’s own experiences, rather than using materials provided by textbooks. Unconventional teaching methods whereby teachers turned their mathematics classroom into a space of creative insubordination are discussed in this paper in relation to the opportunities they offer children to become equipped with critical thinking. The authors argue that the specific content—statistics and probability—demands problematizing activities and experimentation with uncertain outcomes of problems in order to develop probabilistic thinking. This study highlights an essential issue in didactical research: that the content to be taught is not indifferent to how the teaching is designed. The study particularly raises concerns that the design of teaching cannot be random but rather has to be linked to the educational environment and the students attending that particular environment. Consequently, the generalizability of intervention programmes and teaching methods has to be taken into serious consideration if they are to be implemented in different educational settings.

Clements et al. ( 2020 ) set out to investigate the efficacy of implementing an intervention programme in which instructions and progression are grounded in a research-based learning trajectory. Even though the programme itself had previously been found to have positive outcomes for preschool children’s mathematics learning, the goal of the current study was to investigate how to teach in the most successful way. For this purpose, the authors used the same programme but adapted the choices of the tasks’ difficulty level to the children’s current knowledge levels. How to teach was then related to what to teach individual children. Results indicate that skipping difficulty levels to shorten the steps to the learning goals was not successful. This thorough investigation of teaching by adapting the complexity of the content to the child’s ability to learn best what is intended draws attention to the delicate work of teaching in early childhood education. The study supports child-centred approaches that are sensitive to the individual needs and potential of the child, while simultaneously aiming for the learning goals set by the curriculum.

While Clements et al. investigated the effects of an intervention programme covering broader numerical knowledge, Paliwal and Baroody ( 2020 ) aimed to investigate what conditions for learning the cardinality principle are most effective and how subitizing abilities impact on cardinality knowledge achievement. Their efforts were directed towards a fine-grained analysis of how to teach this aspect of the number concept, and what learning processes different approaches elicit in children. What stands out in their study is that they used a highly advanced research design, which allowed them to examine the effects of different ways of directing children’s attention to seeing numbers’ cardinality. In their paper, they point out the importance of directing children’s attention to various ways of seeing numbers’ cardinality, as follows: as a constructing act by adding units to get a number; as an act starting from naming the whole set with a counting word and then differentiating the added units by counting; and a third condition, attending only to single units in a counting act. Thus, their intervention was designed with explicit rigour as to what was made possible for the children to experience, and their investigation concerned the learning outcomes of the different conditions. While this attention in Paliwal and Baroody’s study to the different conditions can at first glance be considered subtle and far from the instruction children encounter in their mathematics education, the study offers insight into the importance of teachers’ awareness of their way of directing children’s attention to certain meanings of the content.

In another paper focusing on the effects of an intervention programme, Mulligan et al. ( 2020 ) analysed children’s written answers to pattern tasks in order to identify differences and changes in their structural awareness. They found a positive effect on the children’s development of awareness of mathematical pattern and structure (AMPS), and showed how the levels changed as an effect of a 37-week intervention programme. Mulligan et al. add to the field of early childhood mathematics knowledge of a particular ability (structural awareness), how it can be identified among young children, and also how the ability changes over a prolonged period of time (during an intervention), which may provide insight into what children actually learn while taking part in an intervention programme.

Children’s learning is of course at the centre of attention in intervention studies, and Li et al. ( 2020 ) pay explicit attention to how to interpret results from a pre- and post-diagnostic test. In their study, Li et al. investigated the development of mathematics problem-solving skills among kindergarteners by analysing their responses to a cognitive diagnostic test. As in most large-scale analyses, it can be shown in quantitative terms how children develop in producing correct answers that indicate growth in knowledge within certain domains that are tested for. However, Li et al. take a step further in their inquiry and illustrate how two children who scored similarly on the cognitive diagnostic test before an intervention had made different progress during the intervention period. Li et al. suggest that the reason for this difference may lie in how children understand and approach tasks, indicating different understanding even though similar answers are produced. Quantitative measures alone do not reveal such differences. The study thus shows the significance of paying attention to how children reason in order to solve a task. Based on their study, Li et al. recommend that children’s learning outcomes from participating in interventions be seen in the light of how the effects of interventions are measured, as it is observed that some developed skills do not endure over time and similar outcomes among children may conceal different learning paths.

3.2 What facilitates children’s learning and development?

Today, it is undisputed that the development of mathematical skills and the teaching of emerging skills in the early years are essential for mathematics education and developmental progress in the long term (Aunio and Niemivirta 2010 ; Duncan et al. 2007 ; Krajewski and Schneider 2009 ). However, in contrast to this perspective, a recent overview of the long-term effects of preschool mathematics education and interventions (Watts et al. 2018 ) challenges this almost taken-for-granted assumption, as most early interventions have a substantial fadeout effect. Thus, there is a need to revisit our current knowledge of teaching and learning, and scrutinize what seems to make a difference. Some of the papers in the special issue particularly consider this issue in their efforts to ascertain what facilitates children’s mathematical learning and development, and focus on influential aspects found in play settings (Reikerås 2020 ; Tirosh et al. 2020 ), verbal communication in teaching practices (Hundeland et al. 2020 ), and the home numeracy environment (Rathé et al. 2020 ).

Hundeland et al. ( 2020 ) raise the question of how children learn to use and understand the canonical language of mathematics, and study this aspect in terms of mathematical discourses taking place in kindergarten teaching sessions. They take a sociocultural stance (see Vygotsky 1987 ), seeing communication as the link between internal communication (thinking) and external communication (interaction). Therefore, children’s opportunities to contribute ideas and arguments are vital for their (mathematical) learning processes. Earlier research has also shown that care-takers’ talk influences not only children’s vocabulary but also, for instance, their spatial problem-solving (Pruden et al. 2011 ). The deeper knowledge that the study by Hundeland et al. ( 2020 ) provides regarding the quantity and quality of mathematical talk in which children are involved, offers us better opportunities also to organize supportive and stimulating conditions for knowledge growth.

What differs in the study by Hundeland et al. compared to most others with similar research questions is their focus on the kind of interaction that the mathematical discourse induces, which, based on the chosen sociocultural theoretical framework, should be crucial for positive learning outcomes. However, what they study and compare is the impact on the mathematical discourse that a certain in-service training has. This places mathematics in the spotlight of mathematics education research. While psychological and cognitive research provides us with important knowledge of mental processes and developmental advancement, studies like the one by Hundeland et al. have a clear direction towards understanding, and not least improving, the conditions for children’s learning and development, either by implementing teachers’ professional development or through curriculum improvements.

It is commonly agreed that young children’s learning is often situated in play. In a large-scale observation study, Reikerås ( 2020 ) conducted a thorough examination of the kind of play in which toddlers engage, for the purpose of learning how play skills may be related to early mathematical skills. It was found that competencies that allow the child to be active in solitary and parallel play, as well as children’s ability to initiate and remain in a play activity, correlated positively with the toddlers’ mathematical skills. The kind of play skills that showed the highest correlation with mathematical skills was their competence to interact in play. General social play skills thus seem to have an impact on mathematical learning, but Reikerås’ study cannot reveal how these are connected or any causal effects. An effort to better understand the interaction going on in toddlers’ play is made by Tirosh et al. ( 2020 ), investigating the challenges toddlers may face as they practise one-to-one correspondence in a playful context, and how different individuals participate in the playful mathematical context. Here, interaction and social skills become one issue with an impact on the learning opportunities arising in the play.

In many cases, the messy context of children’s play is a methodological challenge. It is not possible to control influencing variables to the same extent as in an experimental design. On the other hand, findings from the messy settings are more likely to bring to the fore aspects that were not anticipated, which raises new questions for research and theory development. Design research supports this kind of knowledge contribution, as several cycles are conducted, each developed based on insights from the previous cycle. These cycles adhere to children’s initiatives such as practising one-to-one correspondence in a setting the table task by putting one spoon inside each cup instead of placing one spoon beside each cup (see Tirosh et al. 2020 ); thus, the child is expressing an understanding of the concept, but is expressing it differently than how the task suggests. This highlights the importance of directing attention to instructions used in research studies, and particularly to the language of mathematics and the spatial aspects of props used in a task, related to the possibilities involved as young children interpret and execute a task.

Children take part in cultural life, where today numerical aspects are an inevitable part of the everyday environment. Nevertheless, there are differences in the extent to which children attend to these aspects, and consequently in how they learn the meaning of numbers, graphical representations of numbers, and how to use numbers. A common assumption is that home numeracy environment is a strong factor (LeFevre et al. 2009 ; Skwarchuk et al. 2014 ), which is reflected not least in the abundance of studies regarding socio-cultural background and demographic factors as a pre-cursor for learning progress. Rathé et al. ( 2020 ) put the common assumption to the test—that home environment has an influence on children’s progress in mathematical development—by comparing young children’s tendency to focus spontaneously on numeracy and numerical symbols in their home numeracy environment. Concerning this specific directionality to numbers, which is assumed to have an impact on children’s arithmetic skills in later years (see McMullen et al. 2015 ), based on their study they propose that the home numeracy environment does not seem to have any significant impact.

3.3 What mathematical key concepts can be observed in children?

A great deal of research in the field of early childhood mathematics education studies what mathematics children understand and how this understanding evolves. This knowledge is crucial in designing teaching that contributes to more advanced thinking and problem-solving strategies that support conceptual growth. Therefore, children’s utterances and how they act are the centre of interest for many researchers. Also, in this special issue, much attention is paid to the mathematical key concepts that can be attributed to children’s thinking, resulting in papers addressing children’s understanding of similarity in mathematical objects (Palmér and Van Bommel 2020 ), their understanding and use of structures (Sprenger and Bentz 2020 ; Kullberg and Björklund 2020 ), their understanding of the concept of cardinality and ordinality (Askew and Venkat 2020 ), and the underlying structure of their quantitative competencies (Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen and Elia 2020 ).

Children’s expressions, and how they are allowed to express themselves, are critical for our understanding of the learning of mathematics. Children’s problem posing is one aspect that can tell us about their understanding of mathematics (Cai et al. 2015 ). In the special issue, this is particularly addressed in the paper by Palmér and Van Bommel ( 2020 ), who investigated children’s understanding of similarity in mathematical objects. They analysed how children themselves created tasks in three-dimensional geometry that were similar to a previous problem-solving task they had worked on. It is suggested that this finding sheds light on the children’s interpretation of the specific mathematical features of the original task.

How children perceive structure has been shown to play an important role in how they, for example, determine a number of objects or solve an arithmetic problem (Ellemor-Collins and Wright 2009 ; Resnick 1983 ). In line with these earlier studies, Sprenger and Bentz ( 2020 ) investigated how 5-year-olds perceive structures in visually presented sets. By having the children determine the number of eggs in a 10-egg box while using an eye-tracking device (and recording the children’s utterances and gestures), they were able to analyse the children’s gaze when determining the cardinality of the set, and thereby gain insight into the process of perception. The eye-tracking data showed, for example, that many of the children were able to see structures (e.g. 4 + 1 or 3 + 2) and use them to determine a quantity without having to count all the objects. The authors argue that children’s ability to perceive structures in sets and use them to determine cardinality is central for their further arithmetic learning, as how children perceive sets (e.g., as individual objects, as a composite whole, or in structured part-whole relations) affects the strategies they use for solving arithmetic tasks.

Similar ideas are found in the study by Kullberg and Björklund ( 2020 ), who studied 5-year-olds’ use of finger patterns to structure number relations while solving an arithmetic problem. They identified two major ways of structuring the task: only structuring, and counting and structuring. In the group that both structured using their fingers and counted on some fingers, some ways were found to be more powerful. Children who solved the arithmetic task (3 + _ = 8) by creating a finger pattern of eight raised fingers and simultaneously identifying (‘seeing’) the missing part (5) on two hands (3 + (2 + 3) = 8) were more successful in solving arithmetic tasks, even in a later follow-up assessment. It is suggested that a possible reason for this later success is that these children were able to see numbers as parts included in other numbers, which has been found in earlier research (Resnick 1983 ) to be important for developing arithmetic skills.

Baccaglini-Frank et al. ( 2020 ) also argue that the appropriate use of fingers can contribute to developing children’s number sense. They studied how 4-year-olds interacted (verbally and using finger patterns) when using the application TouchCounts. The app combines multi-touch with audile, visual, and symbolic representation, and several solution strategies are possible, affording the simultaneous experience of, for example, finger patterns on the screen, with the number both seen and spoken. In their paper the authors emphasize how multimodal affordances may encourage children to use different strategies in response to different tasks, and thus experience a broad range of abilities related to number sense, including both cardinality and ordinality.

Askew and Venkat ( 2020 ) examined children’s understanding of the concept of cardinality and ordinality in connection with their awareness of additive and multiplicative number relations. To investigate this topic, first graders (6- and 7-year-olds) in South Africa were asked to position the numerals 1–9 on a bounded 0–10 number line. The children were able to do this in the correct order, with the fewest errors at the upper and lower ends of the number range. Furthermore, evidence was found that awareness of ordinality and that of cardinality develop alongside each other. However, the logarithmic scale, predicted in earlier research, which is considered to indicate a multiplicative structuring of number relationships, was not confirmed in the South African data. Instead, when the numerals grew larger the intervals became more stretched out rather than compressed. In fact, the children’s responses were closer to the linear model, which is considered to indicate an additive structuring of number relationships. Also, the use of unit sizes that did not take into account the length of the number line, together with the underestimation of the position of 5 on the 0–10 line, offered limited evidence of the children’s awareness of the multiplicative structure of the cardinality of numbers. More research is needed to disclose the deep interconnections between children’s understanding of cardinality and ordinality, and their understanding of multiplicative and additive number relations.

Another effort to unravel the complex nature of children’s early number understanding was carried out by Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen and Elia ( 2020 ), investigating the structure of the quantitative competence repertoire of kindergartners. Based on a literature review, they arrived at a model consisting of two constituent parts: quantification (the ability to connect a number to a given collection of objects) and quantitative reasoning (the ability to think and operate with quantities). Quantification was split up into counting and subitizing, and quantitative reasoning into additive and multiplicative reasoning. Although this model is partly in line with models found in earlier research, it also extends previously developed models by including multiplicative reasoning. Data were collected in the Netherlands and Cyprus. A series of confirmatory factor analyses showed that the hypothesized four-factor model fitted the empirical data of the Netherlands, but not those of Cyprus, which clearly challenges the model’s generalizability. A comparison of the component performances in the Dutch sample revealed that, in accordance with other studies, the lowest scores were found for multiplicative reasoning and that the competence of subitizing seems to develop before counting. This was partly confirmed by a statistical implicative analysis at item level. Although this analysis resulted in different implicative chains in the two countries, in both samples the multiplicative reasoning and conceptual subitizing items were found at the top of the chain and the counting and perceptual subitizing items at the end. Also, more research is necessary here, particularly concerning the generalizability of the model to other countries.

4 Future directions for research on early mathematics teaching and learning

After the Research Forum at PME42 we concluded that to move early childhood mathematics education research forward, more efforts are needed to bring together the state of the art within this field. Thus, we proposed a special issue on the theme Research on early childhood mathematics teaching and learning for the purpose of opening up further discussion and inquiry. In this article, the 15 papers included in the special issue are synthesized and discussed in terms of their contribution to the current field of research in early mathematics teaching and learning along with recent research presented at international mathematics education research conferences. Naturally, these do not cover the worldwide field of research, but they at least give a general idea of the current research interests and challenges.

All the papers in this special issue address aspects of early mathematics education and its underlying theories and research methodologies. They share common interests and challenges concerning how to gain knowledge of the youngest children’s mathematical development, and they identify prosperous teaching approaches. Our appeal to researchers participating in the special issue was to cover the broad span of mathematical ideas that are relevant in early childhood education. Nevertheless, we see a strong direction towards research on the learning and teaching of number concepts and basic arithmetic. This is in line with Alpaslan and Erden ( 2015 ) review of early mathematics research published in 2000–2013 in high-ranked scientific journals in the field of mathematics education, in which the most frequently reported research topics were number systems and arithmetic. The same trend is also found in the research addressed in the latest meetings of ICME, ERME, and POEM. We believe further research should widen this scope, and consider and investigate mathematical topics that are currently less highlighted. There is a need for deeper insight into what mathematics means to young children, and also how the foundations can be laid for the domains of spatial and geometric thinking and measurement, as well as for the domains of structures and patterns, data handling, problem-solving and mathematical reasoning.

Moving an educational field forward, however, is not solely based in covering a broad field of content. To strengthen the field, we need to scrutinize the research designs and methods that are used and the knowledge that is generated. Here, new technologies may open up opportunities for designing tools for investigating children’s competencies. However, this initiative goes beyond choosing digital tools or concrete building blocks; it concerns children’s opportunities to express themselves within different environments and make use of tools and manipulatives that may reveal new insights into their competencies and open up for innovative research questions to be posed. What is made available to experience surely has an impact on children’s expressions of knowledge. And expressions in both words and gestures are important keys here to interpreting the youngest children’s knowledge and skills. We can see this in the recent ICME, ERME, and POEM meetings’ presentation of a large variety of research designs and in the papers of this special issue. Many innovative research designs have been developed that allow thorough investigation of children’s mathematical competence and understanding. What we see, for example, is that subtle differences in expression (e.g. gaze, finger use, or ways of posing questions) reveal new and important insights for developing knowledge of children’s mathematical learning. These innovations in methodology allow for the thorough investigation of key features of learning mathematics that go beyond the broad content areas and highlight how mathematical aspects such as cardinality, ordinality, and number structure are experienced by children. Several of the papers in the special issue particularly attend to these aspects, and do so by creating and using new methodologies and technologies.

The consensus in the field of early mathematics education, reflected in the papers and conference presentations, is strong concerning the impact of early interventions on children’s opportunities to thrive as mathematics learners. From longitudinal studies, we know that early knowledge and skills seem to follow through the child’s development; that is, weak mathematical skills in early childhood years are likely to predict weak mathematics performance in later school years (Reikerås and Salomonsen 2019 ; Hannula-Sormunen et al. 2015 ). This means that early intervention and knowledge of how to offer all children a good start for their mathematical learning are essential to the field of early childhood mathematics education. However, it cannot be assumed that simply participating in education, whether it is framed as free or guided play or problem-solving, or stimulating interactive environments, will result in successful learning outcomes, even though most interventions do have a positive impact and most children develop their knowledge to some extent (Wang et al. 2016 ). Common research objectives, therefore, concern intervention implementation, and analyses of children’s learning outcomes from participating in differently designed activities. These studies are of high importance, as they connect the teaching to the learning and provide insights into what seem to be key aspects in the teaching practice. Nevertheless, researching interventions is delicate work, and it is essential to maintain scientific rigor in the design and analysis. Because early childhood education most often takes place in dynamic settings, the conditions under which children learn vary greatly. This diversity is observed in many studies in which children’s engagement in play, both self-initiated and guided, is used as data for analysing their mathematics competencies and learning of mathematics. This phenomenon means that the conditions offered to explore mathematical concepts and principles should be critically examined, along with how learning from interventions is measured and valued. There is a need to determine what works, what seems critical, and what aspects serve as particular challenges. In research, also special attention has to be given to the nature of the teaching practices. What we learn from intervention studies, both those included in the special issue and those in other contemporary research, is the importance of situating research in the current field of knowledge and the context in which the research is conducted. Each study broadens the picture of the teaching–learning relationship, which is by no means one-directional. There are many aspects to consider that potentially influence this relationship, and all of them cannot be included in one study alone.

Early childhood mathematics education research often attends to the opportunities and conditions that are offered for learning. There is no doubt that children’s activities and interaction with others, already from an early age, offer many opportunities to learn mathematical concepts and basic principles, but our ability to discern what children actually learn from the mathematical learning environments offered to them places high demands on the interpretation process. How to understand the processes going on in play and interaction, and what impacts the children’s learning outcomes—what is made possible to learn—often remains an unsolved issue, as the interaction between teacher and children is dynamic, and particularly as play is multidirectional in nature. Studies of interaction in both formal and informal contexts are nevertheless important, as they are conducted in the complex of social and cultural settings that do influence, through norms and individuals’ experiences, what is possible for children to learn.

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Published: 20 February 2015

Qualitative Research in Early Childhood Education and Care Implementation

Wendy K. Jarvie 1

International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy volume 6 , pages 35–43 ( 2012 ) Cite this article

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Governments around the world have boosted their early childhood education and care (ECEC) engagement and investment on the basis of evidence from neurological studies and quantitative social science research. The role of qualitative research is less understood and under-valued. At the same time the hard evidence is only of limited use in helping public servants and governments design policies that work on the ground. The paper argues that some of the key challenges in ECEC today require a focus on implementation. For this a range of qualitative research is required, including knowledge of organisational and parent behaviour, and strategies for generating support for change. This is particularly true of policies and programs aimed at ethnic minority children. It concludes that there is a need for a more systematic approach to analysing and reporting ECEC implementation, along the lines of “implementation science” developed in the health area.

Introduction

Research conducted over the last 15 years has been fundamental to generating support for ECEC policy reform and has led to increased government investments and intervention in ECEC around the world. While neurological evidence has been a powerful influence on ECEC policy practitioners, quantitative research has also been persuasive, particularly randomised trials and longitudinal studies providing evidence (1) on the impact of early childhood development experiences to school success, and to adult income and productivity, and (2) that properly constructed government intervention, particularly for the most disadvantaged children, can make a significant difference to those adult outcomes. At the same time the increased focus on evidence-informed policy has meant experimental/quantitative design studies have become the “gold standard” for producing knowledge (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005 ), and pressures for improved reporting and accountability have meant systematic research effort by government has tended to focus more on data collection and monitoring, than on qualitative research (Bink, 2007 ). In this environment the role of qualitative research has been less valued by senior government officials.

Qualitative Research-WhatIs It?

The term qualitative research means different things to different people (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005 ). For some researchers it is a way of addressing social justice issues and thus is part of radical politics to give power to the marginalised. Others see it simply as another research method that complements quantitative methodologies, without any overt political function. Whatever the definition of qualitative research, or its role, a qualitative study usually:

Features an in depth analysis of an issue, event, entity, or process. This includes literature reviews and meta studies that draw together findings from a number of studies.

Is an attempt to explain a highly complex and/or dynamic issue or process that is unsuited to experimental or quantitative analysis.

Includes a record of the views and behaviours of the players — it studies the world from the perspective of the participating individual.

Cuts across disciplines, fields and subject matter.

Uses a range of methods in one study, such as participant observation; in depth interviewing of participants, key stakeholders, and focus groups; literature review; and document analysis.

High quality qualitative research requires high levels of skill and judgement. Sometimes it requires pulling together information from a mosaic of data sources and can include quantitative data (the latter is sometimes called mixed mode studies). From a public official perspective, the weaknesses of qualitative research can include (a) the cost-it can be very expensive to undertake case studies if there are a large number of participants and issues, (b) the complexity — the reports can be highly detailed, contextually specific examples of implementation experience that while useful for service delivery and front line officials are of limited use for national policy development, (c) difficultyin generalising from poor quality and liable to researcher bias, and (d) focus, at times, more on political agendas of child rights than the most cost-effective policies to support the economic and social development of a nation. It has proved hard for qualitative research to deliver conclusions that are as powerful as those from quantitative research. Educational research too, has suffered from the view that education academics have over-used qualitative research and expert judgement, with little rigorous or quantitative verification (Cook & Gorard, 2007 ).

Qualitative Research and Early Childhood Education and Care

In fact, the strengths of qualitative ECEC research are many, and their importance for government, considerable. Qualitative research has been done in all aspects of ECEC operations and policies, from coordinating mechanisms at a national level (OECD, 2006 ), curriculum frameworks (Office for Children and Early Childhood Development, 2008 ), and determining the critical elements of preschool quality (Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2003 ), to developing services at a community level including effective outreach practices and governance arrangements. Qualitative research underpins best practice guides and regulations (Bink, 2007 ). Cross country comparative studies on policies and programs rely heavily on qualitative research methods.

For public officials qualitative components of program evaluations are essential to understanding how a program has worked, and to what extent variation in outcomes and impacts from those expected, or between communities, are the result of local or national implementation issues or policy flaws. In addition, the public/participant engagement in qualitative components of evaluations can reinforce public trust in public officials and in government more broadly.

In many ways the contrast between quantitative and qualitative research is a false dichotomy and an unproductive comparison. Qualitative research complements quantitative research, for example, through provision of background material and identification of research questions. Much quantitative research relies on qualitative research to define terms, and to identify what needs to be measured. For example, the Effective Provision of PreSchool Education (EPPE) studies, which have been very influential and is a mine of information for policy makers, rely on initial qualitative work on what is quality in a kindergarten, and how can it be assessed systematically (Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2003 ). Qualitative research too can elucidate the “how” of a quantitative result. For example, quantitative research indicates that staff qualifications are strongly associated with better child outcomes, but it is qualitative work that shows that it is not the qualification per se that has an impact on child outcomes-rather it is the ability of staff to create a high quality pedagogic environment (OECD, 2012 ).

Challenges of Early Childhood Education and Care

Systematic qualitative research focused on the design and implementation of government programs is essential for governments today.

Consider some of the big challenges facing governments in early childhood development (note this is not a complete list):

Creating coordinated national agendas for early childhood development that bring together education, health, family and community policies and programs, at national, provincial and local levels (The Lancet, 2011 ).

Building parent and community engagement in ECEC/Early Childhood Development (ECD), including increasing parental awareness of the importance of early childhood services. In highly disadvantaged or dysfunctional communities this also includes increasing their skills and abilities to provide a healthy, stimulating and supportive environment for young children, through for example parenting programs (Naudeau, Kataoka, Valerio, Neuman & Elder, 2011 ; The Lancet, 2011 ; OECD, 2012 ).

Strategies and action focused on ethnic minority children, such as outreach, ethnic minority teachers and teaching assistants and informal as well as formal programs.

Enhancing workforce quality, including reducing turnover, and improved practice (OECD, 2012 ).

Building momentum and advocacy to persuade governments to invest in the more “invisible” components of quality such as workforce professional development and community liaison infrastructure; and to maintain investment over significant periods of time (Jarvie, 2011 ).

Driving a radical change in the way health/education/familyservicepro fessions and their agencies understand each other and to work together. Effectively integrated services focused on parents, children and communities can only be achieved when professions and agencies step outside their silos (Lancet, 2011 ). This would include redesign of initial training and professional development, and fostering collaborations in research, policy design and implementation.

There are also the ongoing needs for,

Identifying and developing effective parenting programs that work in tandem with formal ECEC provision.

Experiments to determine if there are lower cost ways of delivering quality and outcomes for disadvantaged children, including the merits of adding targeted services for these children on the base of universal services.

Figuring out how to scale up from successful trials (Grunewald & Rolnick, 2007 ; Engle et al., 2011 ).

Working out how to make more effective transitions between preschool and primary school.

Making research literature more accessible to public officials (OECD, 2012 ).

Indeed it can be argued that some of the most critical policy and program imperatives are in areas where quantitative research is of little help. In particular, qualitative research on effective strategies for ethnic minority children, their parents and their communities, is urgently needed. In most countries it is the ethnic minority children who are educationally and economically the most disadvantaged, and different strategies are required to engage their parents and communities. This is an area where governments struggle for effectiveness, and public officials have poor skills and capacities. This issue is common across many developed and developing countries, including countries with indigenous children such as Australia, China, Vietnam, Chile, Canada and European countries with migrant minorities (OECD, 2006 ; COAG, 2008 ; World Bank, 2011 ). Research that is systematic and persuasive to governments is needed on for example, the relative effectiveness of having bilingual environments and ethnic minority teachers and teaching assistants in ECEC centres, compared to the simpler community outreach strategies, and how to build parent and community leadership.

Many countries are acknowledging that parental and community engagement is a critical element of effective child development outcomes (OECD, 2012 ). Yet public officials, many siloed in education and child care ministries delivering formal ECEC services, are remote from research on raising parent awareness and parenting programs. They do not see raising parental skills and awareness as core to their policy and program responsibilities. Improving parenting skills is particularly important for very young children (say 0–3) where the impact on brain development is so critical. It has been argued there needs to be a more systematic approach to parenting coach/support programs, to develop a menu of options that we know will work, to explore how informal programs can work with formal programs, and how health programs aimed young mothers or pregnant women can be enriched with education messages (The Lancet, 2011 ).

Other areas where qualitative research could assist are shown in Table 1 (see p. 40).

Implementation Science in Early Childhood Education and Care

Much of the suggested qualitative research in Table 1 is around program design and implementation . It is well-known that policies often fail because program design has not foreseen implementation issues or implementation has inadequate risk management. Early childhood programs are a classic example of the “paradox of non-evidence-based implementation of evidence-based practice” (Drake, Gorman & Torrey, 2005). Governments recognise that implementation is a serious issue: there may be a lot of general knowledge about “what works”, but there is minimal systematic information about how things actually work . One difficulty is that there is a lack of a common language and conceptual framework to describe ECEC implementation. For example, the word “consult” can describe a number of different processes, from public officials holding a one hour meeting with available parents in alocation,to ongoing structures set up which ensureall communityelementsare involved and reflect thespectrum of community views, and tocontinue tobuild up community awareness and engagement over time.

There is a need to derive robust findingsof generic value to public officials, for program design. In the health sciences, there is a developing literature on implementation, including a National implementation Research Network based in the USA, and a Journal of Implementation Science (Fixsen, Naoom, Blasé, Friedman & Wallace, 2005 ). While much of the health science literature is focused on professional practice, some of the concepts they have developed are useful for other fields, such as the concept of “fidelity” of implementation which describes the extent to which a program or service has been implemented as designed. Education program implementation is sometimes included in these fora, however, there is no equivalent significant movement in early childhood education and care.

A priority in qualitative research for ECEC of value to public officials would then appear to be a systematic focus on implementation studies, which would include developing a conceptual framework and possibly a language for systematic description of implementation, as well as, meta-studies. This need not start from scratch-much of the implementation science literature in health is relevant, especially the components around how to influence practitioners to incorporate latest evidence-based research into their practice, and the notions of fidelity of implementation. It could provide an opportunity to engage providers and ECE professionals in research, where historically ECEC research has been weak.

Essential to this would be collaborative relationships between government agencies, providers and research institutions, so that there is a flow of information and findings between all parties.

Quantitative social science research, together with studies of brain development, has successfully made the case for greater investment in the early years.There has been less emphasis on investigating what works on the ground especially for the most disadvantaged groups, and bringing findings together to inform government action. Yet many of the ECEC challenges facing governments are in implementation, and in ensuring that interventions are high quality. This is particularly true of interventions to assist ethnic minority children, who in many countries are the most marginalised and disadvantaged. Without studies that can improve the quality of ECEC implementation, governments, and other bodies implementing ECEC strategies, are at risk of not delivering the expected returns on early childhood investment. This could, over time, undermine the case for sustained government support.

It is time for a rebalancing of government research activity towards qualitative research, complemented by scaled up collaborations with ECEC providers and research institutions. A significant element of this research activity could usefully be in developing a more systematic approach to analysing and reporting implementation, and linking implementation to outcomes. This has been done quite effectively in the health sciences. An investment in developing an ECEC ‘implementation science’ would thus appear to be a worthy of focus for future work.

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The World Bank. (2011). Early Child Development in China: Breaking the Cycle of Poverty and Improving Future Competiveness (Report No. 53746-CN). Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/9383/709830PUB0EPI0067926B09780821395646.pdf?sequence=1

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Jarvie, W.K. Qualitative Research in Early Childhood Education and Care Implementation. ICEP 6 , 35–43 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/2288-6729-6-2-35

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207 Early Childhood Education Research Topics & Essay Examples

📝 early childhood education research papers examples, 🎓 simple research topics about early childhood education, 👍 good early childhood education essay topics to write about, ⭐ interesting topics to write about early childhood education, ✅ easy early childhood education topics for an essay, 🏆 best early childhood education essay titles, ✍️ early childhood education essay topics for college, ❓ early childhood education research questions.

Environment in Early Childhood Education The paper reviews the history of early education and argues that the context and environment is the key strategy applied to the modern education of young children.
Early Education Learning Theory The paper describes the learning theory of early education and its importance, effective teacher and learning environment and characteristics.
Curricular Issues in Early Childhood Education In the unit, “Curricular Issues,” Paciorek asserts that teachers have a role to inspire, encourage and influence children in the learning process.
Early Childhood Studies: Current Issues and Trends The changing demographics in early childhood have increased the complexity of childhood professional practice, owing to the need to fulfill the demands for cultural and linguistic diversity.
Early Childhood Education Standards and Practices The purpose of developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood education is to address the issues of individual ways of children's development.
Children’s Early Learning and Development The traditional approach to early childhood learning and development entails teachers’ typical use of themes to plan and generate the curriculum.
Early Childhood Education: Studies Review Studies on early childhood education have been conducted in various countries. This paper reviews three studies that were conducted in Germany, Netherlands and the USA.
Teaching Philosophy in Early Childhood Development The five domains of early childhood development constitute the early development instrument perspective, from which an important aspect of teaching philosophy can be explored.
Early Childhood Profession in Australia This report analyses the state of early childhood profession in Australia. Numerous features characterise early childhood profession.
Little Steps Early Childhood Care Center's Practices The essay investigates how Little Steps Early Childhood Care Center's practices are aligned with the National Association for the Education of Young Children Principles.
Educational Leadership for Children's Needs The present issues in early childhood education management and leadership prove that educational leaders need to pay more attention to the quality of leadership.
Intervention for Young Children with Learning Disabilities This paper discusses strategies that teachers could use to educate children with learning disabilities and how the Response to Intervention could support their educational outcomes.
American Special Education and Early Intervention Early remedial intervention might be used to address speech problems resulting from a hearing loss. Early special education interventions have many salient features.
Bilingual Education and Preschoolers' Development There are several theories in child development that directly or indirectly discuss the implications of bilingual education and show the importance of bilingual education.
Maria Montessori and Her Three Education Theories Maria Montessori transformed early childhood education through her theories of early childhood education. Scholars consider Montessori to be among the earliest educators.
Quality Early Childhood Program Comprehensive services are the component that improves the care given to the children within the educational facility.
Early Childhood Education: Leadership and Management Being a teacher means taking on a number of diverse roles. A teacher is a leader who should have the ability to manage children's talents and capabilities.
Engaging the Learner in the Early Years of Schooling The following project report is preparation of education plans for five- year-old Indonesian children who are now growing up in the alien lands of Sydney in Australia.
Developmentally Appropriate Activities for Toddlers The study sample includes a book aimed at developing toddlers’ cognitive skills and gross motor behavior, a go-get interactive game, and a video on learning colors.
Early Childhood Political and Pedagogical Landscape In New Zealand the government fails to hire qualified teachers in pre-school centres and child minding facilities. This condition can affect the quality of education for children.
Sloth Sky Preschool: Curriculum Context Sloth Sky Preschool offers center-based care for preschool/kindergarten children as a part of a school. Based on the location, the school is near Penguin Ocean Primary School.
Language and Literacy in Early Childhood Literacy is a powerful tool for dealing with problems in society. Parents should invest in the intellectual development of their children and provide access to books at home.
The Educational Process in Early Childhood The use of a method including all types of indicators will signify the precise results of the conducted study and contribute to the development of educational strategies.
Ethical Dilemmas in Early Childhood Education One of the core ideas of ethics in early childhood education is that both a child's and a family's interests are essential in children's development.
Special Education for Children of Kindergarten and Third-Grade Levels Special education is designed to address the needs of students with specific disabilities in a very individual manner.
Literacy Development for Preschoolers The article focuses on the importance of early literacy development in preschoolers and methods that will help teachers in this.
Childcare Facilities Analysis All childcare facilities should adhere to safety measures and have staff that is sufficiently trained to handle children as well as respond to unexpected childcare situations.
An Ethical Dilemma With a Child in a Preschool Classroom An ethical dilemma with a child in a preschool classroom stemming from a situation when a child does not want to comply with a particular EC institution’s standard schedule.
The Child Assessment Cycle in Education The purpose of this paper is to describe the child assessment cycle and related teacher responsibilities and explain how the child assessment cycle benefits students.
Early Childhood Safety Considerations Ensuring a young child’s safety is of utmost importance, especially when this task is entrusted to an early childhood specialist; caring for children is a great responsibility.
Early Childhood Education Children growing in proper care and correct guidance in their childhood education are more successful in their interactions with others, popular and more at ease in life.
Early Interventions in Rocking Behaviours of Children With Autism This paper provides an insight of the available behavioral interventions of improving learning outcomes of children with rocking behaviors.
Quality Early Childhood Education Program The educators, supervisors and caregivers involved into work with children are to be properly trained and master the practice of teaching including all techniques and methods.
Child Development From Birth to Three Years and the Role of Adults The period between 0 and 3 years is one of the most influential times for a child’s growth, development, and understanding of life basics.
The Aspects of Purposeful Preschool Program The article argues class management is one of the key components of teaching practice as it can ensure the proper development and academic achievement of preschool children.
Literacy Development for Children Birth in 3rd Grade Early childhood is characterized by the rapid development of human mental abilities, enabling individuals to acquire all fundamental literacy skills by eight years
Preschool Teacher Practice Rotation Experience Preschool experience plays a pivotal role in a person’s development, as it lays the foundation for their character
The United Arab Emirates Early Education Policy The UAE Early Education Policy will help to update the educational system so that students could acquire the necessary skills in a more efficient manner.
Social Inclusion Policy in Early Years Education It is crucial to promote the quality of the inclusion policy and increase coordination between families, communities, and schools.
Play-Based Philosophy for Early Childhood Education Play-based educational programs use games as a context for learning, where preschoolers can explore, discover, solve problems, and experiment in playful and imaginative ways.
Overcoming Stereotypes in Early Childhood Education Overcoming stereotypes in early childhood education is essential for raising children who would recognize all people around them as equals and treat them with respect.
The Meaning of Early Childhood Educator Encouraging early childhood development is vital for assisting a child in gaining the knowledge and skills appropriate for their age at a later stage of their life.
Using Data in Preschools: Data Collection Data drives every aspect of teaching, especially when there is a need to teach young children. Teachers need to see where the kids are thriving and the gaps that need to be filled.
Attachment and Its Role in Child Development Rapid brain development occurs during the first three years of life, and a child’s attachment to the caregiver or parent significantly affects this domain.
College of Early Childhood Educators and Its Aims College of Early Childhood Educators protects the public and controls accountability of the profession, the ones who use the professional position of Early Childhood Educator.
Preschooler Education Overview The article "Preschoolers (3-5 years of age)" describes preschoolers' development milestones aged between 3 to 5 and suggests some positive parenting tips.
"Teaching Strategies for Preschool Educators" Analysis The article focuses on the main teaching strategies used in preschool education. The first strategy is the promotion of early literacy.
Preschoolers Education and Activities for Children The activities for children should be appropriate for everyone within the class. Preschoolers must be encouraged to play and learn.
Early Childhood Educator: Pedagogical Mission and Approach An early childhood educator is an important figure in a child’s life. Aside from providing knowledge, one should facilitate child's socialization and transmit universal values.
Early Education in California The outcome of the assessment has a direct influence on the development of programs, their financing, and overall continuation.
Language Acquisition in Toddlers and Infants Language acquisition in toddlers starts from their communication with the environment. A friendly environment and proper materials allow for simplifying the language learning process
Strategies for Including Children with Special Needs in Early Childhood Settings This book seems to be a useful guide to understand not only the approach to Exceptional Student Education but also adapting children’s daily activities and working in a team.
Early Childhood Facility Planning The paper states that there is a wide variety of aspects that should be taken into consideration during early childhood facility construction.
EarlyON Centers Using Emergent Curriculum Theory According to the theory of emergent curriculum, the main purpose of the support provided via EarlyON centers is to strengthen the existing childhood programs.
Multicultural Considerations in Early Learning This paper suggests that the implementation of multicultural practices in early education may improve student performance.
Preparing Early Special Education Teachers to Partner With Families The research investigated the types of experiences that teachers of Early Childhood Special Education students had in their training programs related to partnering with families.
The Early Childhood Education Early Childhood Education is an internationally recognized research and professional institute for children's development.
Leadership in the Context of Early Childhood Education The teacher played a leadership role in motivating and coordinating a team of colleagues, acquiring information about the community, and researching children's educational needs.
Illinois Early Learning Project The Illinois Early Learning Project is anchored on the ability of children to be alert to sights, sounds, abstract objects, and concepts that make children explorers.
Assessments in Early Childhood Education This essay provides insight into various assessments and methods required to focus on the whole child. The classroom assessments should be organized.
Enhancing Vocabulary in Childhood: Article Summary This summary is based on the literature review article “Closing the Vocabulary Gap? A Review of Research on Early Childhood Vocabulary Practices” by Christ and Wang.
Infant and Toddler Development and Programming The set of materials presented in this essay provides a beneficial learning process for babies and toddlers because their usage is organized around educational principles of belonging.
Three-Dimensional Art Activities Use in Class The paper states that 3-dimensional art activities are very important for the improvement of children’s imagination and spatial awareness and gives several examples of activities.
How Children Learn Language The paper describes using child-directed speech or baby talk to develop associative connections and shapes the baby’s language capability.
Number Sense and Learning Centers in Preschool To improve Number Sense in preschool, the educator will have to adopt new learning strategies. The expectations of the learning outcomes are shaped by curriculum.
Childhood Education: The Montessori Approach and the Reggio Emilia Theory This research paper examines the problem of childhood education, using the Montessori approach and the Reggio Emilia theory.
The Quality of Learning Programs in Preschool Establishments The paper research and summarizes the article "Quality 101: Identifying the core components of a high-quality early childhood program" about high-quality child care programs.
Understanding the Early Childhood Development Understanding the underlying intricacies and specificities of early child development is crucially relevant for these young individuals education.
Visiting a Preschool Class as Reflective Practice This report provides a detailed reflection of the activities, environment, and knowledge obtained during a visit to a preschool class in one of the local public schools.
Play Influence on Child’s Development, Learning, and School Readiness This paper aims to discuss various theories and philosophical approaches that outline some advantages of providing children with adequate playtime.
Strive Preschool: Using Information Systems in a Preschool The school should start by establishing the necessary roles and activities and using IT budget to buy, maintain, and update software and hardware.
Promoting Early Development through Parent-Teacher Collaboration and Student Engagement Early childhood education plays a major role in building the skill set that allows a child to develop at a reasonably fast pace and acquire the needed abilities in due time.
The Osmo Genius Starter Kit: Turkish Early Childhood Education Curriculum The Osmo Genius starter kit is a learning system that integrates physical play with the digital world. This tool is manufactured for elementary school-aged children.
A Fire Safety Class Held in a Preschool The paper states that the case illustrates a fire safety class held in a preschool. Children were taught the basics of emergency case information.
Concept Formation in Early Years of Education Early childhood education requires a systemic model of teaching by having a planned assessment and tools that necessitate the conceptualization of key elements for learners.
Personal Code of Ethics for Early Childhood Educator A code of ethics is important for people not only as individuals but as professionals as well. It represents moral, religious, and cultural upbringing.
Planning and Teaching in a Preschool Setting The teacher's job is to plan learning activities that begin with the development of learning objectives and continue through implementation and evaluation in a preschool setting.
Physical Development in Florida Voluntary Prekindergarten Education Program The observed Pre-K program had an emphasis on physical development, which incorporated elements of math, reading, music, and arts.
Reggio Emilia’s Approaches to Children’s Education The task of educating infants and toddlers is a complex initiative that requires adopting appropriate frameworks for better results.
Diversity in Early Childhood Education The increasing diversity in early childhood education settings requires teachers to become competent in inclusive teaching practice, and challenge biases to promote social justice.
Creating a Personal Philosophy of Early Childhood Education The role of a preschool teacher is to provide intellectual and moral development and encouragement of children’s ideas to reveal potential talents and abilities.
Early Education (NAEYC) Accreditation Process NAEYC accreditation is beneficial for early childhood education centers because it provides staff’s enhanced commitment to the work and parental satisfaction.
Lesson Plans for Preschool and Second Grade During the math lesson, it is necessary to observe whether children show increased use of part-whole skills, and division of things into smaller objects.
Creating Early Years Learning Environments The purpose of the paper is to investigate the principles of stimulating children's curiosity, as well as creating the proper context as part of the learning environment.
Early Child Education: Developing Effective Learning Methods The paper describes how to develop strong relationships with young learners. It shows how teachers should develop relationships through shared experiences.
Preschool Education in China and Japan Preschool education in China serves several purposes, from child care to educational preparation. Meanwhile, the Japanese preschool system is more directed toward socialization.
Diversity in Early Childhood School Setting In today's multicultural society, classrooms all over the globe are becoming diverse. This means that schools now admit increased numbers of children from diverse cultures.
Early Childhood Educators' Influence on Society This paper is a reflection on Early Childhood educators regarding their societal role, standing, and their influence in society.
The Qualities of the Perfect Candidate to Work in the Field of Early Care and Education This paper discusses several concepts essential for working in Early Care and Education and becoming a professional in helping children realize their potential.
History of Inclusion in Early Childhood Education Creating schools with special needs was the first step to their inclusion into society, followed by integration: allowing them to visit a regular school.
Play in Early Childhood Special Education Although children with disabilities might need additional educators’ guidance, they should not be excluded from playing, as it provides them with developmental opportunities.
Early Children’s Development and Learning: Philosophy Statement This paper contains a brief description of the philosophy statement regarding early children’s development and learning.
The College of Early Childhood Educators The importance of the early childhood educator's involvement in the well-being, learning, and development of children cannot be overstated.
Trends in Pre-K Education in North Carolina The current essay will cover the curriculum of the preschool programs and also analyze the current state of the pre-K movement in North Carolina.
Standards of High-Quality Early Childhood Classroom The markers and standards of a high-quality early childhood classroom include educational materials, facilities, health practices, and staff professionalism, among others.
Stress in Early Childhood Education Early childhood education is crucial to the child's mental development, and the movie "No Small Matter" reveals curious insights into the topic.
The Preschool Program's Design Analysis This paper aims to design a preschool daycare program for children aged three to five and discuss the activities to enhance their social, emotional, physical, and cognitive skills.
Characteristics of Effective Early Childhood Teachers “Twelve Characteristics of Effective Early Childhood Teachers” explains the phenomenological attributes of each quality, ranging from passion to a sense of humor.
Praise and Encouragement in Early Childhood Education The article discusses approaching the children in school-based activities in class, which includes giving credit where it deserves by improving a child's potential.
A Lesson Concept in the Early Education Importantly, children of kindergarten and early school age already have nascent preferences and views on visual art.
Early Childhood Education in India Today's preschool education system in India is designed so that parents can rest assured of their children who have been trained in such groups.
Social-Emotional Skills Program for Preschoolers During the early 21st century, it was reported that the ability to regulate behaviors and emotions could be seen as the fundamental skills showcasing a child’s school readiness.
Comparison of the Two Early Childhood Educational Institutions in Hong Kong This paper examines the educational and administrative management aspects of two kindergartens in Hong Kong: HKYWCA Athena and The Salvation Army Shui Chuen O Kindergarten.
Importance of Early Childhood Study Early childhood is a great determiner of a person's future character and behavior, as children learn a lot because they can easily understand each other through games.
Research in the Field of Childhood Literacy This paper contains an annotated bibliography of the two articles devoted to the topics of childhood literacy and education.
Social-Emotional Skill Program to Enhance Learning in Preschoolers This research studies the relationship between three variables, the learners' socio-emotional skills and their academic and behavioral outcomes in pre-schoolers.
Me and Others: Observation of Preschool Children This paper analyzes the video “Me and others”, which shows an experiment on suggestibility performed with preschool children (5 years old).
Best Practices in Early Childhood Education This paper discusses best practices in the field of early childhood education, which are based on developmentally appropriate practice (DAP).
“The Kindergarten Program”: Visible Learning in Early Childhood Education Visible learning is particularly significant since children learn from experience and should be exposed to real-life situations.
How Fun and Playing Helps Kids Learn The topic of childhood development via playing will be examined in depth in this study, which will cover various aspects of the topic.
Early Childhood Education Programs Comparison Relying on the two videos on Early Childhood Education Programs, this paper compares various programs that are critical for the proper development of children.
The Universal Child Care and Early Learning Act The Universal Child Care and Early Learning Act has attracted a lot of attention due to its bold statements and declarations.
Preschool Activity: Introducing Multicultural Awareness The world is a place of many cultures and nations, which is why it is essential to introduce multicultural awareness to children.
The Lingua Globe Educational Toy The Lingua Globe toy represents a globe that features multiple buttons corresponding to different countries. The toy addresses primarily the linguistic aspect of development.
Early Childhood Education: Pedagogical Skills Understanding each child as a unique individual with their own psychological characteristics and structure of thinking seems to be a necessary competence of any children's teacher.
Positive Behaviour Support Framework in Preschool The School-Wide Positive Behaviour Support framework promotes acceptable behavior expectations for children in schools to facilitate a safe learning culture.
Family-Centered Programs in Early Childhood Classroom Family-centered programs for early childhood education have become popular across the United States due to their inherent benefits.
Indigenous Early Learning and Child Care Framework Community-level indigenous governments have participated in framework development, resulting in the identification of service gaps these communities find important.
Daycare Facilities: Establishment and Management Daycare facilities have been essential in equipping children with knowledge by providing a conducive environment for the caregiver to interact with the children and guide them.
The Montessori Method and Its Benefits The Montessori Method of education is an influential teaching method to ensure that students are equipped with the best practical skills in the learning process.
Early Years Learner: Lyla’s Case Study Lyla’s mother claims that the girl likes to talk about anything. She also likes to read, colour, draw, dance and spend time with her dog.
Expanding Existing Programs and Services in Preschool The expansion of the existing program and service in preschool is a good project which needs to be implemented in the West Bronx neighborhood.
Language Rationale: Montessori Education Curriculum An analysis of the language rationale in the Montessori education curriculum shows that learning occurs through spoken language, writing, and reading.
An Inquiry Into Form and Its Importance in Early Childhood Education The creative process uses various tools to help students better understand the world around them and how they perceive it.
Early Childhood Education Aspects Early childhood is considered the most crucial time of child development because it is a period of fast physical and mental development.
Family Partnerships to Help Needy Preschooler Students Family and parent partnerships are essential to ensuring that students build strong relationships that can help in boosting their success.
Educational Components of Child Care Programs The given discussion on teacher support and guideline implementation will focus on four key aspects of education.
Nurturing Early Childhood Teachers This essay focuses on nurturing childhood teachers in sectors of effective professional development, implementing a reflective practice model, and learning from past experiences.
Outdoor Learning Influence on Young Children Outdoor learning and the incorporation of more open approaches to early education are highly beneficial to the development of young children.
Early Childhood Education: Teaching Methods Early childhood educators rely on different teaching methods and solutions to delivering learning instructions, some of which might not produce the best results.
Should Pre-K Be Made Available to All Children? Preparing children for elementary school can benefit them because preschool improves their cognitive abilities and gets them used to a regimented schedule.
A Description of the Student Observation The paper includes a description of the setting, including one's first impressions, suitability for children, and the school environment and atmosphere.
Student Behaviour in Early Childhood Settings In the development of children, problems often occur in the form of deviations from generally accepted social age expectations.
Early Childhood Education and Childcare
Education for Sustainability Within Early Childhood Education
Aboriginal Children and Early Childhood Education and Care
Technology Benefits in Early Childhood Education Despite the doubts about the use of technology in early education, it should be integrated into the curriculum to provide young students with more opportunities to learn easily.
Early Childhood Education: Vision, Mission, and Philosophy
Comprehensive Analysis for the Development of an Early Childhood Education Program
Early Childhood Education: Development of Manipulative Skills
Infancy and Early Childhood Development Early childhood is a very important stage and proper care should be taken to establish a good foundation for the child.
China Early Child Development: Early Childhood Education in Yunnan
Early Childhood Education Philosophy
Sex Roles and Gender Bias in Early Childhood Education
Early Childhood Education Theorists and Their Theories
Language Learning Motivation in Chinese Primary Schools The study will focus on public international primary schools in China since that is the right age bracket to start learning a new language.
Observing and Assessing Early Childhood Education
Early Childhood Education China vs US
The Dichotomy and the Development of the Early Childhood Education and Care Services in Australia
Early Childhood Education Sets the Stage for Future Academic
Twenty-First Century Early Childhood Education Personal Philosophy
Parent Education and Family Life Education Fields Many career options within the child development field involve working with children exclusively or with the whole family unit.
Early Childhood Education: Impact on Cognitive and Social Development
Professional Development Plan for Early Childhood Education
Early Childhood Education Programs and the Involvement of Fathers and Males
The Personal and Public Benefits of Early Childhood Education
Early Childhood Education Past and Present
Factors That Influence Early Childhood Education Programs
Creative Curriculum Early Childhood Education
Multicultural Education and the Early Childhood Education
Factors Militating Against the Implementation of Early Childhood Education as a Grass Root for Sustainable Peace in Nigeria
Colour Psychology and its Effects on the Early Years’ Learning Environment Colour can affect a child’s perception of the environment, and this process can alter the development of personality, which includes mental development.
Early Childhood Education and Social Inequalities
Social Work and Early Childhood Education
Early Childhood Education and Developmental Delays
Primary Caregiving for Toddlers in Early Childhood Education
Early Childhood Education: Raising Children the Right Way
Music and Movement Early Childhood Education
Early Childhood Education for English Language Learners
Montessori Educational Approach and Early Childhood Education
Early Childhood Education and Economic Growth
Helpful Hints for Developing Fine Motor Skills in Early Childhood Education
Playful Learning and Pedagogies Within Early Childhood Education
Early Education and Developmental Disabilities The most vital component of this paper is the promotion of tools that allow parents and educators to better recognize signs of early developmental disabilities.
Economics and Early Childhood Education
Autonomy Within the Early Childhood Education Field
Early Childhood Education Science Curriculum
Brain Development and Early Childhood Education
Early Childhood Education Howard Gardner and Jean Piaget
What Are the New Directions and Early Childhood Education of Mexican Children?
How Does Good Early Childhood Education Affect Racism?
Does the Turkish Early Childhood Education Program Is Cultural?
What Is Quality Early Childhood Education?
What Are the Benefits From Early Childhood Education?
How the Prevailing National Political Situation Is Affecting Early Childhood Education?
What Is the Impact of Demographic Fluctuations on Early Childhood Education in Iran?
What Are the Famous Early Childhood Education Programs?
What Are the Three Indicators of Quality-Related to Early Childhood Education?
Who Bears the Cost of Early Childhood Education and How Does It Affect Enrolment?
Fending off Fadeout: How Do We Sustain the Gains of Early Childhood Education?
What Is the Impact of John Dewey on Early Childhood Education?
What Is the Impact of Early Childhood Education on Technology?
What Is the Impact of Multicultural Literature on Early Childhood Education?
What Are Piaget’s Theories in Early Childhood Education?
Why is Early Childhood Education Is Important?
What Communication Skills Are Needed for Early Childhood Education?
What Are the Early Childhood Education Standards as the Learning Objectives of the Curriculum?
What Are the Main Concepts in Early Childhood Education?
How Is the Integration of Art Into Early Childhood Education?
What Are the Current Problems and Trends in Evaluation in Early Childhood Education?
How Does Education in Early Childhood Influence Life?
Early Childhood Education: What Activities in the Curriculum Will Extend?
What Are Jean Rousseau’s Views on Early Childhood Education?
What Is the Importance of the Family in Preschool Education?
What Are the Areas of Early Childhood Education?
What Is Kindergarten Theory in Early Childhood Education?
What Is the Impact and Use of Mobile Media in Early Childhood Education?

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Early Childhood Education Research Paper

View sample early childhood education research paper. Browse research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a psychology research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

This research paper begins with a glance in the rearview mirror to consider what different sources had to say in the first half of the twentieth century. In 1929 the National Society for the Study of Education (NSSE) published its annual yearbook on the topic of preschool and parental education, in which editors referred to a

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new and different conception of the educational significance of the first half-dozen years of life. This new conception of the significance of the preschool period has led to the development of several new educational activities, more especially to the development of nursery schools and of new organizations and methods for the better training of parents. (NSSE, 1929, p. iv)

From the 1920s to the 1950s preschool or nursery school education were considered by most educators, researchers, and parents to be the only legitimate manifestation of what was referred to as early childhood education. The 1929 yearbook refers to full-day child care programs as “day nurseries,” which were part of the parallel and very different world of child welfare, clearly distinct in purpose, orientation, and content from the early childhood education programs of nursery schools. When the 1939–1940 yearbook titled Intelligence: Its Nature and Nurture was published (NSSE, 1939), the primary focus was, again, on one kind of setting (half-day nursery school programs) and on one specific outcome (IQ scores). Titles of chapters in the 1939–1940 yearbook included the following:

“A Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Nursery-School Training on Successive Intelligence-Test Ratings,”
“The Effect of Nursery-School Attendance Upon Mental Growth of Children,”
“Influence of the Nursery School on Mental Growth,”
“The Mental Development of Nursery School Children Compared With That of Non-Nursery-School Children,”
“MentalGrowthasRelatedtoNurserySchoolAttendance,”
“A Follow-Up Study of a Group of Nursery School Children,” and
“Subsequent Growth of Children With and Without Nursery School Experience.”

Early childhood education—as a discipline, a discourse of inquiry, and a body of educational practices and approaches—has changed dramatically since those early chapters written by the leading scholars of the day.The current research paper does not attempt to be either “definitive” or “comprehensive,” but it does attempt to provide an accurate reflection of the diversity of philosophies, theories, and practices into which the field of early childhood education has matured. We no longer identify one specific program as “typical” or model, and the once-firm line between “child welfare” and “educational” programs has all but disappeared. In this research paper we consider the wide range of settings in which young children participate from birth to approximately age 8 years. The paper is designed to provide an understanding of both the breadth and depth of early childhood education and, in so doing, to give the reader the opportunity to become acquainted with what we consider to be some of the major themes in this field. It is our intention that the reader will gain this level of understanding and will be able to use the paper to identify further sources of information and knowledge based on what we present here.

This research paper on early childhood education draws on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of child development in order to share our understandings of the most recent developments in early childhood education and research at the different nested systemic levels of analysis (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). At the center of these nested concentric levels is the microsystem, which is seen as the immediate and naturalistic ecological niche within which the child develops. Examples of microsystems are home environments, child care settings, and classrooms. The mesosystem is the network of relationships among the various microsystem environments. For example, the degree of continuity or conflict between the home environments and school environments is a mesosystem dynamic. Embedding both of these inner systems is what Bronfenbrenner refers to as the exosystem, which includes broader societal influences that impact on the meso- and microsystems. Exosystem factors include legislation and social policy, labor force participation rates, neighborhood characteristics, teacher training programs, and the like. The overarching macrosystem refers to the societal and cultural values, beliefs, and attitudes that shape and influence the creation of policies and programs that ultimately impact on the lives of young children and their families.

In the first section, titled “Learning and Teaching in Early Childhood Education: Art, Literacy, Music, and Play,” we focus on child growth and activity as it is observed within the early childhood microsystem environments in which young children play, learn, and develop. In this section we explore what is known about the abilities and interests that young children bring to early childhood settings, and how the early childhood environment can challenge, engage, and interact with their abilities and interests. Within and across the areas of art, play, literacy, and music this section explores the dynamic tension between more endogenous and maturational views of early education and development at one end of the continuum and an approach that advocates for more direct instruction at the other.

The second section, “Diversity in Early Childhood Education: Individual Exceptionality and Cultural Pluralism,” considers the importance and impact of diversity in early childhood education. Although much of the work in early childhood education in the early twentieth century represented an attempt to define a set of universal norms, our understanding today is that early childhood education includes a very wide continuum of children with diverse abilities and disabilities who come from an ever increasing range of cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Rather than attempting to reduce the field to a few narrow common denominators, we wish to reflect the diversity that enlivens this field and challenges practitioners, researchers, and policy analysts. In this section we maintain our focus on the microsystems of early childhood education but broaden our perspective to include the mesosystem relationships among the various microsystems, and we begin to explore the exosystem levels of the social, legal, and regulatory contexts of early childhood education.

In the third section, “Programs and Quality in Early Childhood Education,” we attempt to integrate theory, research, and practice in early childhood education as we consider the impact of ECE programs on the children and families who participate in them. Specifically, we examine two of the most dominant forms of ECE programming: compensatory education programs for at-risk children and nonparental child care programs. The issue of quality relates directly to the notion of an ecology of early childhood care, education, and development. Within this complex ecology there are dynamic interactions between the endogenous, biological factors of individual children and the environmental influences of classrooms, curricula, and the social, economic, and demographic realities that frame the development and education of young children. This framework, in turn, is informed by societal values and beliefs that contribute to the very definition of “quality” in ECE programs. In this third section we present a model of program quality that draws on empirical data from the different systemic levels of early childhood education and child care programs, across the curricular areas discussed in the first section of this research paper and in recognition of the individual differences and cultural diversity that are presented in the second section.

Learning and Teaching in Early Childhood: Art, Literacy, Music, and Play

Many textbooks on early childhood education are organized by curriculum subject areas with discrete how-to chapters on teaching literacy, music, art, science, social studies, movement, and mathematics to young children. The lives and abilities of young children are not so easily compartmentalized. For this reason we take a different tack when considering what children learn and how children learn in their early childhood years. We consider the ways in which children comprehend and represent their own lived realities across subject areas and domains of development. We open this discussion with an exploration of the nature and significance of art in early childhood education and artistic development in children. This discussion of the representational and semiotic functions of children’s art is followed by a consideration of children’s representations of thoughts, scripts, and inner realities in their spontaneous play. We then turn to children’s early encounters with the world of literacy in which the written word is seen as yet another powerful representation of both thought and language. The section concludes with an exploration of the significance of music, yet one additional form of representation and meaning in the child’s world that develops throughout the early childhood years

Art and Aesthetics in Early Childhood Education

The artistic production of young children has been a source of delight and enjoyment for many parents and early childhood educators. It is difficult to resist the simplicity of early forms that depict with enthusiasm and energy the worlds of childhood. It is hard not to be seduced by the directness and expressive quality of images that in their apparent inaccuracies, approximations, and technical deficiencies capture the element of youthful innocence that is but a memory in the adult universe. The aesthetic appeal of young children’s pictorial imagery seems to be closely bound to the emotional response that they evoke that allows for a nostalgic journey back to one’s early years. Fineberg (1997) highlighted the significance of these sentiments in Picasso’s fascination with the “visual inventiveness of children” by pointing to its connection with the artist’s “own extraordinary access to the memories and urges of childhood that most of us have buried beyond the reach of our adult consciousness” (p. 137).

The value of early childhood as a period of uncontaminated purity where one has the benefit of perceiving the world through what Vasily Kandinsky (1912) called “unaccustomed eyes” and thus has the ability to attend to the “pure inner tone” of the objects in the world has been strongly reflected in the work of many artists of the modern area and has created a powerful legacy. Jean Dubuffet, who “turned in the 1940s to children’s drawings as a means of cutting to the truth of the ordinary experience” (Franciscono, 1998, p. 116); Joan Miro, whose work associated with the phenomenon of primitivism in French art of the 1920s and 1930s; and Paul Klee are among the icons of modernism who elevated children’s art to an unprecedented height. Consider Picasso’s famous remark made to Sir Herbert Read in 1956: “It took me years to learn to draw like . . . children.” This one sentence captures the respect and admiration for young children’s artistic production shared by the most influential artists of the modern era (quoted by Fineberg, 1997, p. 133).

The sentiment expressed by Klee (1957) that “the more helpless they [children] are, the more instructive their examples and already at an early stage one has to save them from corruption” (translation by Hofmann, 1998, p. 13) echoes in the works of one of the most influential Western art educators of the twentieth century, Victor Lowenfeld. In his most acclaimed work Creative and Mental Growth, Lowenfeld and Brittain (1964) argued that if “children developed without any interference from the outside world no special stimulation for their creative work would be necessary. Every child would use his deeply rooted creative impulse without inhibition” (p. 20). Needless to say, these assertions have never been empirically tested; nor have any scientific grounds been provided to offer them validity. Furthermore, it is impossible to conceive of circumstances in which children would grow up in environments devoid of visual manifestations of culture.

Yet, contemporary early childhood art education has been greatly affected by what had earlier been referred to as “a myth of natural unfolding” (Kindler, 1996). This is the notion that artistic abilities are contained within the child at birth and that a nonintrusive social environment is what is needed to bring them to the surface. This sentiment often echoes in early childhood texts and is well exemplified by Morgan (1988), who stated that we should consider “children’s symbolic activity to be sacrosanct in early years . . . and therefore teacher intervention is inappropriate” (p. 37). The nonintervention approach relies on the assumption that children are happy explorers who have an innate ability to satisfy their creative desires.

Art educators and researchers in day care, preschool, and primary classrooms have frequently witnessed children’s frustrating struggles with producing art rather than the happy explorations of young children trying to negotiate solutions to pictorial problems. Regretfully, many children emerge from these struggles with a loss of confidence that eventually leads to the abandonment of pictorial efforts. A question can then be asked about the merits of theoretical frameworks and pedagogical approaches that sacrifice on the altar of “natural development” opportunities of young children to grow into individuals who can use with confidence and competence pictorial means for expression and communication throughout their lives. This question is particularly valid in the light of alternative theories that stipulate that development in pictorial representation is in fact a process of learning from cultural models and that these models are absolutely essential in artistic development (Wilson & Wilson, 1977, 1981). Wilson and Wilson’s research clearly contradicts the idea that “creative expression comes from within the child” (Edwards, 1990, p. 66) or that “talent doesn’t need any experience of life” (Klee, quoted by Franciscono, 1998, p. 98). Instead, this work points to the significance of socialization and cultural exposure in the development of pictorial vocabulary that can be used for expressive purposes.

The very concept of artistic development and some longstanding models developed to describe it (e.g., Gaitskell, Hurwitz, & Day, 1982; Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1964; Luquet, 1977) have in fact become a subject of criticism in recent years. Four particular issues have been identified in this collective body of criticism. First, questions have been raised about the appropriateness of unilinear conceptions of development in explaining a wide range of pictorial imagery produced by children, adolescents, and adults. Second, a disparity has been noted between the breadth of the world of art and the narrowness of the focus on visual realism that has served as the endpoint in these developmental models. Third, cultural biases that mark these models have been identified theoretically and empirically. Fourth, insufficient recognition has been paid to the role of other modalities of expression in some forms of pictorial representation (e.g., Duncum, 1986; Golomb, 1994; Kindler & Darras, 1997b, 1998; Korzenik, 1995; Wolf, 1994; Wolf & Perry, 1998). Critics of the traditional stage models of development argued that alternative explanations are necessary to account for the range of pictorial systems that children begin to develop early in life and to engage in research relating to the reasons for selecting specific pictorial solutions. It has been pointed out that even very young children have at their disposal more than one pictorial system and that they choose among them as a function of their representational intentions and purposes (Bremmer & Moore, 1984). The notion of the significance of purpose—or teleology—of pictorial behavior in the discourse about development of graphic abilities has been at the center of a maplike model of development that has emerged as an alternative to the traditional stage models (Darras & Kindler, 1996; Kindler & Darras, 1997a, 1997b, 1998).

This model regards emergence and development of pictorial imagery as a semiotic process occurring in an interactive social environment that leads to pictorial behaviors that may engage single or multiple modalities of expression. This framework acknowledges psychobiological factors that found development of pictorial activity while emphasizing the role of culture in validating or deselecting specific pictorial systems. It constitutes an attempt to decolonize discourse about artistic development by pointing to the usefulness and value of pictorial repertoires that have remained outside of the acclaim of the Western art world and yet play a significant role in children’s lives (Kindler, 1999). In addition to highlighting the dimension of pictorial choices and their relationship to specific purposes of pictorial behavior, the model proposed by Darras and Kindler recognizes frequent interplay of the gestural, vocal-verbal, and graphic actions in the emergence and development of pictorial systems. This is consistent with Parsons’s (1998) notion about the nature of cognition in the arts. Parsons argues that the prevailing systems approach to cognition identifies the different arts as each being a different symbol system and “requires thought to stay within the boundaries of a single medium it is dealing with on the assumption that, if it moves from one system to another, it looses its coherence” (p. 106). He expresses concern that such understanding of cognition in the arts “transforms a dimension of difference into a principle of separation” (p. 106). The repertoire model of development in pictorial imagery moves beyond this principle and accommodates cognitive processes that result in pictorial systems contained within a graphic medium as well as those that cross traditional boundaries of music, drama, and visual arts. This broader conception of development is also more accommodating of cultural factors that define artistic growth than some of the earlier proposed models. The issue of a cultural bias in these earlier theories has vividly surfaced in recent studies that revisited the long-standing notion of the U-shaped curve of artistic development (Davis, 1991, 1997a, 1997b; Gardner, 1980; Gardner & Winner, 1982). The proponents of the Ushaped model argued that while young children exhibit very high levels of creativity in their pictorial work, older children and adolescents suffer from a serious decline in their artistic abilities, which are regained in adulthood only by artistically gifted individuals. The empirical data that confirmed the U-shaped developmental pattern were collected in North America and relied on aesthetic assessments of artistic merit executed by North American and other Western judges.

When this study was recently replicated in settings involving Chinese populations, the U-shaped pattern failed to be confirmed (Kindler, 2001; Pariser & van den Berg, 1997). In none of these recent studies was young children’s work considered to be artistically superior to the work of their older peers or nonartistic adults. This suggests that the cultural criteria of artistic merit indeed played a powerful role in defining the very concept of artistic development in research that led to the universality claims of the U-shaped developmental progression. It is important to note that the repertoire model of development does not disprove the U-shape model. In pictorial repertoires that emphasize modernist values, this prediction quite possibly continues to hold true. However, the repertoire model provides also for alternative developmental trajectories in other areas of pictorial pursuits, where technical mastery and preciseness of line, for example, may be of more interest and significance than the image’s overall expressive quality.

The revised understanding of development in pictorial representation presents an exciting challenge to the field of early childhood art education. It defines a teacher’s role in much more complex terms and places more responsibility on his or her shoulders for ensuring that children’s development in this domain does not become unduly constrained by a narrow set of cultural biases and preferences. Valuing and encouraging what we see as children’s spontaneous selfdirected explorations need to remain an important consideration in structuring learning environments of young children. However, in order to solve pictorial problems, children also require active assistance in (a) pursuing their own intuitive interests in the visual culture that surrounds them, (b) helping them achieve success in meeting their own pictorial expectations, and (c) exploring their emerging metacognitive abilities in relation to their pictorial production and strategies that can enhance this production. It draws on the use of peeras well as adult-generated examples and readiness to discuss ways in which different systems of pictorial representation can be further mastered and extended to suit children’s specific needs and ambitions.

While advocating a much greater sensitivity to and use of cultural models in early childhood education, it is important to clarify that the intention is not to train young children into able performers within a particular system of representation. The answer to early childhood art education will never be presenting children with coloring books or insisting that they copy a particular pictorial schema as the way to learn how to draw. However, a sensitive introduction of activities that help children understand the nature, value, and place of iconic representation and introduce them to a wider range of pictorial systems that function within their culture, supported by conversations and modeling of how different effects can be achieved, will provide children with freedom to choose whatever systems may best serve their purposes and needs in different times in their lives.

It is important to note that especially in the early childhood years children’s pictorial intentions may have little to do with creating a picture meeting the modernist standards of “child art.” Their graphic activity is often just one component of a semiotic process in which sounds, gestures, and words carry a significant portion of meaning. In this context, a teacher’s ability to accept these images as active happenings rather than as objects to be posted on day care or primary classroom walls may help children understand the value of this unique multimodal system of representation and see it as an alternative to other pictorial efforts where, in conformity with the deep-rooted tradition of Western art, images are supposed to stand on their own. Similarly, understanding that telling of a dynamic story may require a child to use different pictorial devices than in the case of a descriptive effort, a greater range of imagery can become socially encouraged and validated (Kindler, 1999). Activities that combine musical, dramatic, and visual art dimensions can further help children grow in pictorial repertoires that rely on multiple modalities of expression and that are often a natural choice of young children who spontaneously combine the gestural, the vocal, and the visual in their everyday play.

The importance of teachers’assistance in a child’s growing understanding of the technical possibilities and limitations of specific artistic media can perhaps be best demonstrated by looking at young children’s clay productions. Children as young as 3 years of age who perform in nonintrusive selfexploration environments tend to be much more limited in subject matter, scale, detail, and stylistic diversity in their clay productions than are those who benefit from appropriate instruction (Kindler, 1997). But perhaps most important, sensitive teaching that relies on constructivist approaches and actively guides children toward important discoveries that support their pictorial efforts translates into a sense of accomplishment and pride that sustains children’s interest in creative endeavors and encourages them to continue to use and further master this medium of representation. These recommended forms of adult intervention and teaching can be easily integrated into the play format, and skillful and sensitive teachers can make a tremendous difference in children’s artistic growth without compromising the child-centered emphasis and the relaxed and playful atmosphere in their early childhood classrooms.

What is needed, however, is a paradigm shift from understanding the concept of developmentally appropriate art education in terms of curricula targeting children’s actual levels of attainment to that of creating environments that allow children to perform within their “zones of proximal development” (Vygotsky, 1978).This shift can take place only if we free ourselves from the cultural baggage of romanticized notions of child art and accept that while it certainly can appeal to our aesthetic sensitivities and emotions, there are other territories of pictorial worlds that children should be free to explore, encouraged to learn about, and provided with assistance to master. Our love of children’s natural creative efforts should not become detrimental to their artistic growth in the broadest sense of the term.

This revised conception of human development in the area of the pictorial extends the discourse to a new territory inclusive of a wide range of manifestations of visual culture. It still accounts for repertoires that conform to the modernist expectations or give prominence to visual realism, but it also embraces pictorial worlds that rely on different rules, salient attributes, and criteria of excellence. In pluralistic, diversified societies it is especially important to plan early childhood education in ways that do not define artistic growth in hegemonic terms laden by a strong cultural bias. Recent research on artistic development has provided a platform for accommodating this diversity not by proposing a tight universal developmental sequence, but rather by suggesting a range of pictorial repertoires along which children’s growth in art can be witnessed and encouraged. The work needs to continue with mapping of the different repertoires and exploration of them in regard to the nature and modes of acquisition of these pictorial systems. Some of them may rely on self-directed discovery; others may require guidance and teaching starting early on in one’s life. Because the concept of art is constantly broadening and multicultural awareness is leading to a more inclusive dialogue about aesthetic merit and value of different kinds of pictorial imagery, the need to explore diverse avenues of growth and pedagogies that will support it along these multiple dimensions will continue to be an important area of concern and research for the years to come.

Literacy in Early Childhood

From reading readiness to emergent literacy.

There were considerable changes in our understanding of early literacy development in the last decades of the twentieth century. Prior to the late 1970s, a reading readiness paradigm dominated thinking about early literacy development. Central to the concept of reading readiness was the notion that children need to acquire certain prerequisite perceptual and motor skills and to attain a certain mental age before they could begin learning to read (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). Also implicit in reading readiness was the notion that children could not write (i.e., compose) until they had learned to read.

However, in the 1960s researchers began to conduct research on literacy development in children prior to their introduction to formal literacy instruction in school (i.e., Clark, 1976; Durkin, 1966). This groundbreaking body of research revealed that for many children literacy development begins long before their formal schooling and that, indeed, some children entered school as competent and independent readers. This early work precipitated a flurry of research in a number of aspects of literacy. Clay (1979) and Holdaway (1979) showed that young children’s reading behaviors developed along a continuum from initial, rough approximations of reenacting texts to accurate decoding of print. Research on emergent literacy included work on children’s writing as well their reading. For example, Bissex (1980), Chomsky (1977), and Read (1975) investigated young children’s writing development and were able to show that children’s early attempts at spelling were not random but were quite systematic and demonstrated a sophisticated and developmental understanding of phoneme-grapheme relationships. Working from within a Piagetian tradition, Ferreiro and Teberosky (1982) demonstrated that young children formed hypotheses about representing speech through writing that they modified as they refined their knowledge. From this collective body of work with young children sprung the theory of emergent literacy (Clay, 1966). Sulzby and Teale (1991) defined emergent literacy thus:

[A]n emergent literacy perspective ascribes to the child the role of constructor of his or her own literacy. Unlike previous work, the central issues now being addressed are the nature of the child’s contributions (i.e., individual construction), the role of the social environment in the process (i.e., social construction), and the interface between the two. (p. 729)

The research in emergent literacy had a profound impact on our understanding of both how literacy is learned and how it could be taught. For example, many of the tenets of whole language, a movement that flourished in the 1980s and 1990s, could be traced to this work.As this body of research on emergent literacy grew, so did the number of questions in four specific areas: the generalizability of the research, the presumed similarity between oral language learning and the development of literacy, the impact of culture on literacy development, and the importance of storybook reading.

Questions about the generalizability were focused on both the methodologies that were used as well as on the target populations under study.AsAdams (1990) pointed out, much of the research in emergent literacy has been limited to “case studies, chronologies and descriptions” (p. 336). Heath and Thomas (1984) pointed to the fact that in many of these studies the children on whom the research was conducted were the children of “parent-academics” (Heath & Thomas, 1984, p. 51) with their own children.

Questions were also raised about the presumed similarity between oral language development and literacy learning. For many researchers (i.e., Holdaway, 1979), literacy development was portrayed as a natural process that paralleled the development of language acquisition. A number of critiques attempted to refute this notion by pointing out the ways in which literacy acquisition was fundamentally different from first-language acquisition (i.e., Luke, Baty, & Stehbens, 1989); in particular, other research showed that in contrast to natural language development, some children did benefit from direct instruction in literacy (e.g., Adams, 1990).

Increasingly, researchers have begun to address questions of social, cultural, and linguistic diversity. When many of the original studies on emergent literacy were replicated with diverse populations, the initial positive findings on the effects of whole language–emergent literacy approaches were not replicated. For example, Anderson and Matthews (1999) and Elster (1994) found that children from working-class homes did not always follow the developmental trajectory of storybook reading that Sulzby (1985) found with the children from middle-class homes in her study. Other researchers have found that parents from diverse cultural groups support their young children’s literacy development differently (i.e., Anderson, 1995; Reyes, 1992). For example, many of the Chinese-Canadian parents in Anderson’s study expressed very strong opposition to many of the literacy practices considered sacrosanct within an emergent literacy paradigm. These practices included accepting the use of invented spelling and children’s pretend reading behaviors. The initial position paper by the National Association for the Education of Young Children on developmentally appropriate practices in literacy reflected a more or less homogenous prescription for a universal application of the principles of emergent literacy; it was later revised in recognition of cultural diversity in literacy learning (Bredekamp, 1997).

Related to questions of culture, researchers and practitioners have also raised questions about the relative importance of storybook reading in the early years. Because some of the earlier research with precocious readers (i.e., Clark, 1976; Durkin, 1966; Wells, 1985) found that storybook reading was often a part of their daily literacy routine, the general assumption was drawn that this activity was a necessary prerequisite that applied to all children (Pellegrini, 1991). This sweeping assumption tended to prevail even though in some cultures where storybook reading to children is practically nonexistent, most children in that culture still can achieve literate competence (Mason, 1992). Further, a major meta-analysis has suggested that storybook reading accounts for only about 8% of the variance in reading (Scarborough & Dobrich, 1994).

Despite these issues and concerns, the concept of emergent literacy has fundamentally altered the way that literacy learning in early childhood is conceived (Adams, 1990). Consistent with the basic premises of emergent literacy, for example, it is now widely acknowledged that literacy learning should be meaningful, functional, and contextualized and that a great deal of literacy learning occurs before children enter school. Research on literacy continues to focus both on some traditional areas of debate (e.g., the relative importance of phonics instruction) as well as on some emerging areas of interest (e.g., family literacy). It is to these two perspectives on literacy in early childhood education that we now turn.

The Role of Phonological Awareness

Perhaps no other single issue in early literacy has received as much attention over the decades than has phonological awareness or the ability to segment the speech stream into its constituent parts (e.g., phonemes). For example, many literacy researchers and educators see phonemic awareness as a prerequisite to learning to read and write (Bradley & Bryant, 1983; Stanovich, 1986). In contrast, other researchers (Malicky & Norman, 1999) acknowledge that while a certain level of phonemic awareness is needed to learn to decode print, children can become more phonemically aware through the process of learning to read and write. Mustafa (1997) and others argue that phonemic awareness is but one component of a more general competency in language and that it relates, for example, to vocabulary size. The debate continues whether phonological development is best achieved through direct instruction or through more informal, meaningful, and contextualized activities such as word play, rhymes, games, and songs.

Perhaps the most contentious issue in early literacy over the past half century has been the role of systematic instruction in the alphabetic code, commonly known as phonics (Chall, 1967). Although the debate still rages, especially in the United States, a more moderate position or middle ground is evolving. Recent reports have called for direct instruction in the phonics code but in contextualized ways with ample opportunity for children to apply the skill being learned in meaningful situations (Pressley et al., 1998; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).

The relationship between phonemic awareness in writing as well as in reading has been the focus of much research in recent decades. For example, whereas proponents of whole language once argued that children learned to spell through writing and “invented” spelling, researchers have shown that structured word study could also help young children become more proficient spellers (Templeton & Morris, 1999). These researchers have also shown that although it was once thought that learning to spell essentially consisted of memorizing lists of isolated words, efficient spellers use layers of information to help them learn the orthography. During the heyday of the process writing movement (e.g., Graves, 1983), personal writing such as journals, diaries, and so forth was heavily promoted. An underlying assumption of the writing process movement was that writing skills are generic and transferable from one context to another. However, researchers are now beginning to find that such is not the case and that each particular genre requires specialized knowledge and forms. Chapman’s (1995) research has shown that children who are exposed to a variety of genres in their daily experiences will also incorporate the specific features of different genres into their writing at a young age.

The debate on the relative importance of phonemic awareness in children and of phonics instruction with young children manifests itself in a variety of curriculum debates as well. There has been a general trend away from the use of programs based on behavioristic psychology (e.g., DISTAR) and toward approaches that are based more on principles of cognitive psychology. One widely known and widely applied curriculum program, Reading Recovery, was developed by Marie Clay in New Zealand. In Reading Recovery the children who have the most difficulty in reading and writing receive one half hour of individualized tutoring per day with teachers specially trained in Reading Recovery techniques. Despite the ubiquity of this program and even though generally favorable research reports on its effectiveness, it has received criticism on a number of points, including the following: The program is overly structured and inflexible (Dudley-Marling & Murphy, 1997); it does include a specific phonological awareness component (Chapman, Tumner, & Prochnow, 1998); it does not remediate the needs of those children most in need of support (Santa & Hoien, 1999); its initial gains wash out after children have attained expected grade-level proficiency in reading and, in the terminology of the program, are discontinued (Chapman et al., 1998); it does not lead to the staff development that its originator and proponents argue would happen (Center, Whedall, Freeman, Outhred, & McNaught, 1995); and it expends scarce resources without being any more effective than alternate, small-group tutoring (Santa & Hoien, 1999). Whereas the concept of multiple literacies (the notion that meaning is encoded in myriad ways other than print) has been around for some time, Luke and Luke (2001) argued that mainstream thinking in the early literacy field still privileges print literacy. That is, despite the advances in technology that allow for new ways of constructing and communicating meaning, the focus in early literacy still seems to be on decoding print. This fact is evidenced by recent trends in some parts of the United States to prescribe decodable texts for early reading instruction and to emphasize basic reading and writing skills. Decodable texts are texts written specifically for beginning reading instruction. They have a very high level of grapheme-phoneme agreement, which proponents argue helps children learn to crack the code. Critics argue that such texts use contrived, unnatural language that will not engender a desire to read in children. Thus, at this point in time it appears unlikely that curricula and instruction in early literacy will begin to reflect in any significant way a multiple-literacies perspective in the near future.

Family Literacy

Another trend that will deserve increasing attention in the coming years is the proliferation of family literacy programs. Taylor (1983) initially coined the term family literacy to describe the myriad ways in which the middle-class families with whom she worked embedded literacy in their daily lives. Taylor’s portrayal of the family as a site where considerable literacy learning takes place generated substantial interest in this phenomenon. Educators have subsequently been involved in developing family literacy programs that are intended to help parents support their young children’s literacy development. Critics of family literacy programs contend that underlying many such programs are some very troubling deficit assumptions about families that are poor where relatively little literacy is observed. There appears to be some kind of causal or predictive relationship between a family’s poverty and their lower levels of literacy practices in the home. Further, the argument has been that the literacy that does occur in these homes is not the “right” kind of literacy that will adequately prepare the children for school. The criticism has also been raised that many of these programs are gender-biased in that they are targeted specifically at children’s mothers. Mace (1998) has argued that

[t]he evidence of a literacy “problem” in industrialized countries with mass schooling systems has revealed that schools alone cannot meet this need. Families must be recruited to do their bit too. This is where the spotlight falls on the mother. She it is who must ensure that the young child arrives at school ready for school literacy and preferably already literate. (p. 5)

Whereas play has traditionally been seen within the early childhood community as the medium through which children learn (see also the section on the role of play in early childhood education), it is only recently that researchers have begun to investigate the role of play in young children’s literacy learning. For example, using an ethnographic research approach, Anderson (1995) documented the many ways in which one child incorporated various forms of workplace literacy into her play. In their work in day care settings, Neuman and Roskos (1993) found that children’s interest in literacy and their interaction with literacy materials were enhanced when appropriate literacy materials were placed in different play centers.They also suggested that “more challenging and complex language use may be produced in play environments that are literacy based” (p. 221). These authors cautioned that the literacy knowledge that children develop through play may not be sufficient for literacy acquisition. However, they argue that children’s “comprehension of the act of literacy” is developed through play (p. 221). Purcell-Gates (1996) proposed that this comprehension is crucial to children’s literacy development. She commented, “Grasping the signifying nature of print and the many ways it can function in peoples lives has been called the big picture . . . and is basic to any further knowledge about the forms and conventions of written language” (p. 422). However, the importance of play in literacy development is not universally embraced, as the pendulum appears to be swinging back—at least in some quarters in the United States—toward formal instruction in phonics. Thus, the zeitgeist of literacy theory continues to include simultaneously both advocates of child-centered, emergent literacy approaches and those who focus on the importance of phonemic segmentation and code breaking that can only be acquired through direct formal instruction.

Concluding Thoughts on Literacy in Early Childhood

Increasing trends of globalization are beginning to raise important policy issues in the area of early literacy. For example, in Vancouver, Canada, over 50% of the children entering kindergarten speak English as a second language, and there are over 50 different foreign languages that these children collectively bring to school. In a landmark report, Snow et al. (1998) proposed that initial literacy instruction should be in the child’s first language. Although this might be possible where there are concentrations of families and children with a common language, it would not be possible for the 50% of children entering Vancouver kindergartens every year who speak English as a second language as well as for countless others such as those in the schools in Canada alluded to earlier. The issue of literacy in one’s own first language in addition to literacy in English will continue to grow in complexity as society becomes increasingly diverse.

Music in Early Childhood

All children are born with some degree of music ability. A major challenge that confronts ECE music educators and researchers alike is to determine the relative importance of (a) a child’s innate music aptitude, (b) the music environments that contextualize the child’s life, and (c) the roles of indirect and direct instruction in music in the early years. This discussion briefly addresses each of these issues from theoretical, empirical, and applied perspectives.

It is widely understood that a child’s music aptitude has an ideal chance for optimal development if parents, caregivers, and teachers provide a varied and rich music environment for a child early in life (Brand, 1982, 1985, 1986; Gordon, 1990; Pond, 1981; Simons, 1986). In fact, some researchers have hypothesized that children can suffer severe music developmental delays when music is not a frequent part of their home and school environments. Beyond enhancing the development of a child’s music abilities, Doxey and Wright (1990) also reported significant positive relationships between music and mathematics abilities in their study of music cognition and general intelligence. Subsequent research conducted over the past decade has also reported findings of enhanced cognitive development and spatial-temporal reasoning as the result of rich, stimulating preschool music activities (Rauscher et al., 1997; Shaw, 1999). The research evidence strongly suggests that an enriched music environment—a combination of quality, quantity, and a variety of music experiences—in the first several years of a child’s life can impact strongly on a child’s success in and enjoyment of music, as well as in other areas of cognitive development.

Innate Audiation and Learned Music Skill Development

Although environmental factors can contribute to a child’s success in music, the most important factor for potential growth in music is the child’s innate music aptitude, an ability that can now be evaluated by a reliable, standardized test (Gordon, 1978, 1979, 1986a, 1986b, 1989). In contemporary terms, standardized music aptitude tests measure a child’s ability to audiate music. Audiation is the innate human ability to create and recreate music, to conceptualize and comprehend and to compare music that has been heard in the past with music being heard in the present, and to music that may be heard in the future (Gouzouasis, 1992). Humans sing, chant, move, play instruments, and respond to music that they audiate. Humans audiate when they listen to music, recall music, read music, improvise music, and compose music (Gordon, 1986b).

In all of these ways and more, children, adolescents, and adults play music and play with music. Music play may occur consciously or unconsciously, spontaneously or planned, in unstructured or structured environments, and in informal or formal contexts, and may either be child initiated or adult initiated. Fundamental to all of these forms of music comprehension, production, and enjoyment is the child’s ability to audiate. A child’s ability to audiate may greatly influence the way in which he or she organizes the physical aspect of music (i.e., sound) in terms of melody, harmony, form, texture, and timbre and may greatly influence the way a child produces music through singing, chanting, moving, and performing on instruments. Of the many different elements of music, the tonal and rhythmic aspects can be most reliably measured in young children (Gordon, 1979).

Research has shown that children’s audiation abilities fluctuate during the early childhood years (Flohr, 1981; Gouzouasis, 1987, 1991; Jessup, 1984; Levinowitz, 1985; Zimmerman, 1986). It is widely accepted that children by the age of 9 years can learn to play an instrument, to dance, to sing, to read, to improvise, and to compose music. Although music achievement can certainly continue to develop in and beyond middle childhood, after age 9 the degree of music achievement a child may attain is seriously attenuated by his or her stabilized level of audiation ability. Indeed, there is ample evidence to support the notion that even young adults can be taught music listening strategies and instrumental performance that enable them to maximize their basic audiation ability in a variety of music contexts (Gouzouasis, 2000). Ultimately, however, their success in those music activities will be restricted by their ability to make connections between a broad range of acquired music skills and their innate audiation ability.

Central to developing a child’s music ability is the importance of objectively assessing each child’s music aptitude level. This allows the child’s teacher to teach to the child’s music strengths, thereby facilitating the child’s level of music achievement. In the early 1980s a number of researchers began to scrutinize traditional music-teaching practices in an attempt to observe how very young children acquire music in natural and noninstructional settings. This research represented a sharp departure from earlier top-down curriculum approaches that had been generated primarily by Western European composers and practitioners (Andress, 1986, 1989; Boswell, 1986; Goetze, Cooper, & Brown, 1990). This was in stark contrast to traditional, historical recapitulation models of music teaching and learning. Within this body of work four specific areas of focus (discussed later) are (a) the development of a child’s singing voice, (b) the relationship between music and movement, (c) the implications of “hot” and “cool” music media on children, and (d) children’s singing songs with and without words.

The research on singing voice has revealed that two- and three-pitch diatonic stepwise patterns are easier to sing than are arpeggiated patterns (Gordon, 1990; Gouzouasis, 1991; Guilmartin & Levinowitz, 1989–2000; Jersild & Bienstock, 1931,1934).Becausepitchedvocalglidesareeasilyproduced by children as young as 1 month of age, stepwise patterns are a natural feature in the developmental sequence of pitched vocalization. In contrast, arpeggiated patterns require more vocal precision. The research demonstrated that when young children move their bodies to music, it is important that they experience the free exploration of weight, flow, space, and time with the whole body and various body parts without the expectation that they attempt to coordinate their movements with an externally imposed steady beat (Gouzoausis, 1991). Because singing is in many ways a movement activity, the acquisition of a sense of steady beat is fundamental to all aspects of music learning, and it needs to be nurtured in a variety of play activities, with and without music accompaniment.

Gouzouasis (1987) drew metaphoric allusions between McLuhan’s idea of “cool” and “hot” media and the effects of two types of music accompaniment and nonaccompaniment on the singing achievement of 5-year-old children. There is evidence that nonaccompaniment facilitates the learning of songs, especially for children who possess low tonal audiation ability. Ironically, because of the prevalence of heavily textured, hot music learning contexts in contemporary music, twenty-first-century culture may be depriving young children of informal exposure to music experiences presented in developmentally appropriate learning contexts, or cool music media. Further, children who possess high tonal audiation ability can be expected to acquire a singing voice and sing songs consistently better than children who possess low tonal audiation ability, regardless of style and accompaniment texture. Thus, children who have inherently lower levels of audiation may have their music potential additionally compromised by the intensity and texture of much of the hot music media to which they are exposed.

A related application of that line of research led to the practice of singing songs without words with very young children (Gordon, 1990; Gouzouasis, 1987; Levinowitz, 1987). Very young children who possess few linguistic skills tend to respond very positively to singing activities with a neutral syllable such as “bah” or “too” than to songs with many words, sentences, and lyrics. Many young children sing the songs with which they are most familiar in tune, and they sing less familiar songs out of tune. That may be because they are better able to concentrate their listening, audiation, and vocal-production abilities on the music aspects of the song rather than the text, a characteristic that seems to be true of children who possess low to average music aptitude (Gouzouasis, 1987). Children seem to benefit most from singing songs without words because an emphasis on learning the words of the song can distract and detract from their attention to the music content. As a child’s language skills develop, song texts (i.e., lyrics) seem to interfere less with vocal development. A mixture of songs with and without words should be of benefit to older children (Levinowitz, 1987). Parents, caregivers, and teachers may still teach their favorite songs, but they can teach them using a neutral syllable instead of text. The ability of a child to sing one or more short phrases of a song, with or without text and in tune, is evidence that he or she has emerged from the tonal babble stage.

Music Acquisition and Language Acquisition

Although music is not a language, it is acquired in a manner and context similar to those in which language is learned (Gouzouasis & Taggart, 1995). The mechanisms that a young child uses to produce sounds are the same for both music and language. The throat, mouth, nose, lungs, and diaphragm are used in a variety of ways to produce meaningful music and linguistic sounds. For both music and language, sounds may vary in loudness, pitch, duration, and stress. When sound (or, technically, phones ) in the form of vowels and consonants ( segmentals ), is organized into morphemes—the smallest meaning-based unit in language—the sound is expressed as a linguisticmedium(Jakobson,1968).Similarly,whensoundin the form of pitches and durations is organized into tonal and rhythm patterns, it may be considered a music medium (Gouzouasis, 1987). Young children are encouraged to produce linguistic sounds from the time they enter our world through what psycholinguists have described as motherese, a reciprocal and contingent interaction between parent and infant (Broen, 1972; Cross, 1977; Newport, Gleitman, & Glietman, 1977; Phillips, 1970; Snow, 1977). Motherese is characterized by language that is simplified and limited in vocabulary, with words pronounced slowly with careful and exaggerated enunciation and in a repetitive manner. Motherese makes use of three different components of language: semantics (vocabulary), syntax (the predictability of sentence patterns), and pragmatics (the social and instrumental uses of language). Although there appears to be a similar babbling and mimicking stage in music, most young children are not exposed to a corresponding music variant of motherese (Holohan, 1984), perhaps because a shared system of semantics, syntax, and pragmatics has not yet been worked out between parent and infant.

Research has shown, however, that the music babble stage has at least two parts, rhythm and tonality, which seem to operate independently of each other (Gordon, 1990). Although the music babble stage can last essentially from birth until the child is 6 or 7 years old, some children have been observed to leave the babble stage completely as early as 24 months, depending on their music aptitude and environmental influences. A child can still be engaged in tonal babble after he or she is out of rhythm babble, and vice versa. On their own, children may babble by singing short patterns and experimenting (i.e., playing) with their voices. Children who babble on a tonal level seem to be singing in a monotone; that is, it centers in a narrow range around one pitch. The songs that such children sing are often unrecognizable to an adult, and the children may be unaware that their singing is different from that produced by adults. Although tonal babble may sound amusical to an adult, it should be encouraged through parental play and imitation that can begin as soon as an infant begins to produce pitched sounds (Stark, 1977; Stark, Rose, & McClagen, 1975). Many children who babble early and often tend be identified as those who learn to sing with the music syntax of an adult earlier than children who babble considerably less.

When a child is at the stage of using tonal babble, rhythm babble, or both, all music instruction should be informal (Gordon, 1990). Children who emerge from the tonal babble stage are able to audiate music with tonal syntax and are able to audiate and sing music with a sense of tonality—with a sense of how patterns are organized. They learn to sing what they audiate and to audiate what they sing (Gordon, 1990). In essence, they learn to coordinate their listening (perception) of music, their audiation (conception), and their vocal production of music (through their breathing, diaphragm, and vocal chords) in order to sing with a sense of tonality.

Play and Music Play

In many ways babble is an elemental form of play in music. Play, imagination, and creativity are naturally rooted in music activities in early childhood. In fact, one may consider music itself as a form of play. Humans play music. Young children play in a variety of activities while listening to music, and they play musically in a variety of contexts—with their voices, with their bodies, with props, and with music instruments. Observational research reveals that children spontaneously accompany their play with music. It is a simple form of multitasking, in that young children possess the abilities to attend to more than one activity while engaged in conscious and unconscious music making. Music play may be child initiated or caregiver initiated. Both forms are equally as diverse, rich, and valuable in learning. Moreover, music play may occur in both structured and unstructured and formal and informal settings (Gouzouasis, 1991, 1994). An understanding of the multifaceted relationships between play and music is central to both theories of music acquisition and learning. Moorehead and Pond (1981), Pond (1978), and Littleton (1999) provided brilliant insight to this topic, which sadly has been neglected by education researchers and psychologists.

Concluding Thoughts on Music in Early Childhood Education

Achild who is developmentally delayed in music learning deserves the same type of specialized instruction that a child receives who is developmentally delayed in some other aspect of learning. Although it seems that various forms of media made positive contributions to the proliferation of music in the twentieth century, the developmentally detrimental aspects and negative influences of electronic and digital media are too numerous to mention in this research paper (Gouzouasis, 2000). One may begin by scrutinizing the use of music in children’s television programming and the lack of quality music for young children on radio, recordings, and new forms of digital media (e.g., the Internet). Much of what is marketed as music for young children is actually developmentally appropriate for older children and is composed to appeal to parents and caregivers. Those factors are compounded by the gross commercialization of early childhood music instruction by corporate early childhood music trainers. From a perspective informed by both research and praxis, it is arguable that any music instruction is better than none at all.

Play in Early Childhood

“The play of children may strike us at times as fragile and charming, rowdy and boisterous, ingenuous, just plain silly, or disturbingly perceptive in its portrayals of adult actions and attitudes” (Garvey, 1977, p. 1). A plethora of scholars have focused on these and other aspects of play’s characteristic forms, which has led to a proliferation of theories to account for the origins, properties, and functions of these forms. Thus, to begin to understand play, in all of its ambiguities, requires multiple perspectives. This section provides a brief review of selected theories and research on children’s play, highlighting the paradoxical nature of the phenomenon.

Defining Play

Given the protean nature of play, defining it has proven problematic in the literature. In Western cultures, our understanding of play has been influenced most significantly by shared attitudes about what play is not; for example, “play is not work, play is not serious, play is not productive—therefore, play is not important” (Schwartzman, 1991, p. 214). Caillois (1961) argued that “in effect, play is essentially a separate occupation, carefully isolated from the rest of life and generally, is engaged in within precise limits of time and place” (p. 6). Denzin (1980a), on the other hand, proposed that the world of play is not distinct from everyday taken-for-granted reality, but that it occurs in the immediately experienced here and now. He also stressed that on an a priori basis play cannot be distinguished from other everyday interactions, including conversation and other activities of habit. Other definitions of play include that play is pleasurable and enjoyable, has no extrinsic goals, and is spontaneous and voluntary (Garvey, 1977); that play is free, separate, uncertain, unproductive, governed by rules, and full of make-believe (Caillois, 1961); and that play is a story that children tell themselves about themselves (Geertz, 1973). The ambiguity of these definitions reflects Western society’s struggle over how to conceptualize and value play.

Perspectives on Play

The diversity and ambiguity inherent in definitions of play have resulted in broad conceptualizations of the forms and functions of the phenomenon. These conceptualizations include play and cognition, psychoanalytic theory, educational perspectives, play and literacy, and play as communication, among others.

Traditional Theories of Play and Cognition. Child development theorists and researchers have attempted to explain the relationship between play and children’s cognitive development. Two major theorists, Jean Piaget and Leo Vygotsky, are perhaps the most noted for furthering our understanding of this relationship. Piaget (1962) believed that children gain knowledge through the dual processes of assimilation and accommodation. In assimilation, children take in information from their experiences in the external world, which is then integrated— assimilated— into existing mental structures. Because children’s cognitive structures are often inadequate to incorporate new information, they must learn to change or accommodate their mental structures to better accept information that is inconsistent with what they already know. Typically, the opposing forces of assimilation and accommodation must work in tandem to reach a state of equilibrium. The activity of play, however, is unique because children are able to suspend reality and make the world adapt to them; thus, assimilation assumes primacy over accommodation (Saracho & Spodek, 1995). Piaget (1962) offered an account of children’s unfolding cognitive process by identifying three stages of play: sensorimotor, symbolic, and games with rules. According to Piaget, each stage is part of a sequential order in a child’s development. The first stage involves repetitive actions that focus on physical activity. In the second stage children use their symbolic abilities to create and act out stories. The final stage involves the social conventions of rules in games. The cross-cultural applicability of Piaget’s theory, however, has been widely questioned because his data are based primarily on observations of White, middle-class children in Western society (see, e.g., Denzin, 1980b).

Vygotsky’s view of the relationship between play and development differs significantly from Piaget’s. Vygotsky (1976) argued that children’s play extends their cognitive development. Specifically, children have a “zone of proximal development,” a range of tasks between those that can be completed independently and those that can be mastered only through the mediation of adults or more competent peers. Vygotsky believed that social interaction with more competent others is critical to a child’s cognitive development because it is the social context of socialization experiences that shapes the thought processes of the young child. The emphasis on social interaction renders Vygotsky’s theory of play and cognition applicable across social and cultural contexts.

Psychoanalytic Theories of Play. Freud (1909) used the pretend play of children as the medium for understanding their conscious and unconscious wishes and fears. His theory of play was based on the idea of internal conflict, and he postulated that play is cathartic for children because it allows them to resolve negative feelings that may result from traumatic experiences. For instance, a child who has experienced the trauma of an accident and must be taken to the hospital, away from the safety and familiarity of home, may later play and replay various hospital scenes in order to cope with feelings of fear and pain. Other theorists have modified Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and have related play to wish fulfillment, anxiety, and ego processes (see Takhvar, 1988, for a review). Erikson, in contrast, believed that children use play to dramatize the past, present, and future, and to resolve conflicts that they experience in each stage of their development. Peller (1952) thought that children’s imitations of life in their play were caused by feelings of love, admiration, fear, and aggression.

Educational Perspectives on Play. Since the early nineteetn century, educators have observed the transition from play to learning as children struggle to leave the world of play at home to enter the world of learning at school. The idea that play could be used as an articulation of teaching practices and curricula was first put into practice by Pestalozzi (1827), who believed that young children could be educated to develop an inquiring approach to things and words. He developed a pedagogy that encouraged the development of children’s activity that was built on their potential for moral and aesthetic discernment through reflection.

It was Froebel’s modification of Pestalozzi’s theory, however, that became a medium for learning within the context of schooling. Froebel proposed that “play is the purest, most spiritual activity, and at the same time, typical of human life as a whole—of the inner hidden natural life of [human beings]” (Froebel, 1885, pp. 86–87). Froebel also suggested that children attempt to maintain continuity in their lives by bringing playful activity to their formalized learning experiences. For example, he argued that play allows children to achieve mastery over many aspects of themselves and their environment through symbolic enactment of roles, exploration of feelings, and interaction with others (Garvey, 1977). Such themes are typically repeated during several play episodes, which suggests that play is also cathartic for children because it allows them to reexperience and thereby resolve or master a difficult situation.

Froebel observed that the way in which children play often reveals their inner struggles (Adelman, 1990) and that play is often the primary means for children to learn social expectations, attempt to understand culturally appropriate behaviors, struggle to learn to manage emotions, and gain access to the techniques and skills of the world in which they live (Michelet, 1986). According to Froebel, it is essentially the child’s whole personality that can be seen to be involved in play. He in fact contended that to understand the whole child, it is crucial to understand that the inextricable link between the inner and the outer parts of children’s play have a visible and metaphysical aspect (Adelman, 1990). All of Froebel’s activities and materials symbolized spiritual meanings that he wanted children to gain (Saracho & Spodek, 1995), and the activities he developed were based on observations he made of German peasant children.

Maria Montessori (1965) also conceptualized her teaching methods from the natural play activities of children. She developed her methods by bringing into the classroom materials she was designing. She watched children play freely with them and then abstracted what she considered the essential elements of the play. Free play, however, was discouraged after she decided how the materials could be used best (Montessori, 1965). Montessori contended that by using her materials, “children could sharpen their abilities to gather and organize their sensory impressions in order to better absorb knowledge” (Saracho & Spodek, 1995, p. 130).

It was the advent of the progressive kindergarten movement, however, that provided the basis for contemporary educational uses of play (Saracho & Spodek, 1995). The movement was spearheaded by Dewey, who broke from the colonial view that children should avoid play to become more work oriented as they matured (Hartley & Goldenson, 1963). Dewey argued that play could be used to help children construct their understanding of the world, and that through play, children would learn to function at higher levels of consciousness and action (Saracho & Spodek, 1995). Play in Dewey’s terms, however, was still not a free activity. Instead, teachers were to use play to create an environment to nurture and enhance children’s mental and moral growth (Dewey, 1916).

Play and Literacy

Understanding the connection between children’s knowledge and use of literacy and their play behavior is a focus of current research. Research in the area of play and literacy is grounded in the theoretical work of Piaget (1962) and Vygotsky (1976). Both theorists compare the use of symbols in symbolic play and literacy. Piaget described play as being largely assimilative and viewed it as a reflection of the child’s cognitive development. He maintained that during play children demonstrate a mental distancing from what is real in the here and now through their symbolic representations of people, places, things, and actions. Moreover, he suggested that play may serve as a catalyst for the child’s emerging literacy skills. Vygotsky (1976) described how children represent literacy— from the gesture to the written word—as a unified process. He also believed that the social meaning of marks on a piece of paper is rooted in how a child’s indicatory gestures are responded to during play. Unlike Piaget, however, Vygotsky proposed that play is the primary factor in fostering children’s development, liberating their thoughts from specific contexts and from the literal meanings of concrete actions and uses of objects. He also theorized that the ability to engage in symbolic play enables children to develop a variety of represented (symbolic) meanings that serve as the basis for later success in literacy.

Other theorists have also hypothesized about the relationship between play and literacy. Bruner (1983), for example, advised that children’s early literacy development should be an integral aspect of play-based experiences that support children’s ideas, purposes, and social interpretations. He cautioned, however, that structuring and organizing play for educational purposes often results in “taking the action away from the child” (p. 62). Others, such as Donaldson (1978) and Heath (1983), pointed out that engaging in play and learning to read and write demand similar cognitive abilities; that is, through interacting with print, the learner moves from episodes of the here and now to settings that are decontexualized within text.

Theoretical studies on the play-literacy connection have provided the impetus for a number of empirical studies. There are two main strands of research in this area, both of which focus on the parallel representational processes involved in literacy and play. One strand of research examines how to enhance literacy use and knowledge through symbolic play (see, e.g., Jacob, 1984; Miller, Fernie, & Kantor, 1992; Neuman & Roskos, 1992, 1993; Roskos, 1988). Schrader (1991) and others (see, e.g., Roskos & Neuman, 1993) have been interested in the ways that children pretend to write as part of their dramatic play. Michaels (1981) examined children’s sharing-time narrative styles and differential access to literacy. Dyson (1997) studied the reciprocal relationship between children’s writing and the superhero dramas and discussions that followed in the classroom and on the playground.

Asecond strand of research has emphasized children’s use of language in symbolic play. Much of the research in this area has demonstrated that when teachers and parents become involved with children’s pretend play, there are positive increases in children’s literacy, language, reading, and writing (Bloch & Pellegrini, 1989; Christie, 1991; Galda & Pellegrini, 1985; Goelman & Jacobs, 1994; Pellegrini, 1984; Pellegrini & Galda, 1998).

Play as Communication

It was Bateson (1955, 1972) who first suggested that play was a paradoxical form of communication. He argued that play is socially situated and characterized by the production and exchange of paradoxical statements about people, objects, activities, situations, and the relationships among these. Bateson (1972) saw play as an ancient form of communication, which was based on his notion about animals’play fighting. He argued that because animals have no negatives (i.e., they cannot say “no”), negative behaviors such as “biting must be illustrated positively by not really biting” (KellyByrne, 1989, p. 246). Playful nipping must be communicated as not really biting, even though it stands for biting. Thus, play is not merely play, but is also a message about itself. In Bateson’s words, “these actions in which we now engage do not denote what these actions for which they stand denote. . . . The playful nip denotes the bite but it does not denote what would be denoted by the bite” (1955, p. 41). Play is therefore paradoxical because the behavior engaged in by the players is at once real and not real. Thus, the child playing mother is both a mother and yet not a mother. Other players’ awareness of this paradox is, according to Bateson (1955), a form of metacommunication.

Both Garvey (1977) and Schwartzman (1978) have expanded Bateson’s perceptions of play. Their body of work has concentrated on how children organize and communicate about make-believe, how the message “this is play” is signaled, and how play is initiated, sustained, and concluded. Schwartzman (1978) extended Garvey’s work by focusing on the meanings children attached to the texts they generated in play. Following the work of Geertz (1972) and Ehrmann (1968), Schwartzman (1978) argued that children’s pretend play could be analyzed “as a text in which players act as both subjects and the objects of their created play event” (p. 232). In her interpretations of play texts, she emphasized the importance of social and cultural contexts and suggested that play was very much about dominance and manipulation. Schwartzman’s understanding of hierarchical relationships in play “illustrates the weaving of the children’s social histories with the texts of their play and the relationship of both elements to the wider sociocultural context of the place of children and their hierarchical ranking in a variety of institutions such as the family and school” (Kelly-Byrne, 1989, p. 12).As children weave their social histories into their play texts, they fashion their relationships with others and express in subtle— and sometimes not so subtle—ways their individual perceptions of the world around them (Bakhtin, 1981). In other words, play is a medium through which children communicate and make sense of who they are in relation to others.

Closing Thoughts on Play in Early Childhood Education

Play has been defined and examined across a number of disciplines including biology, psychology, linguistics, sociology, anthropology, art, literature, and leisure studies. It has provide the means to delve into children’s inner thoughts and feelings, extend their cognitive growth and development, enhance their language and literacy development, and understand how they communicate their perceptions of the world. Such diversity in the interpretation of play both augments and constrains our understanding of the phenomenon, making reconciliation among play scholars difficult. Perhaps the best point of convergence is for both researchers and teachers to adopt an interdisciplinary approach focusing on the meanings that children themselves attach to play. Children are, after all, the ultimate authorities on the subject.

Diversity in Early Childhood: Individual Exceptionality and Cultural Pluralism

Giftedness and early childhood education.

Gifted children are found in every community. These very able youngsters reason, create, speak, write, read, interact, feel, make music, or move in ways that distinguish them from their age peers. They are developmentally advanced in one or more areas of human accomplishment and often demonstrate early indicators of their gifts as infants. As they enter ECE settings, they may encounter mixed reactions to their abilities that have consequences for the educational programs they are offered. Appropriate educational experiences for young gifted children are impacted by different macrosystem factors: the ideologies of parents, teachers, and society as a whole; the education system; and psychology, the discipline that provides a knowledge base for understanding and educating young gifted children and important directions for research. This discussion on giftedness presents some of the issues relevant to ensuring appropriate early childhood education for gifted children within the context of contemporary psychological knowledge. It also summarizes directions for research that will have implications for gifted children in ECE classrooms, for although the early years are acknowledged as critically formative, a significant body of research focused on gifted young children has yet to accrue (Robinson, 1993, 2000).

Prevalent Ideologies and the Education System

A number of powerful ideological factors may influence how young gifted children are educated. In some cases, ideology is combined with systemic factors, resulting in school administrative structures that are not responsive to individual children’s needs. First, an age-grade mindset may prevail, resulting in the belief that, for example, all 6-year-olds belong in first grade for both academic and social reasons (Robinson & Robinson, 1982). Second, a prevalent ideology is that special programming should begin in middle childhood. Underlying this ideology are several beliefs: (a) Ability will have stabilized by the time children are about 8 or 9 years old; (b) psychoeducational testing is unreliable before middle childhood; and (c) early childhood and primary school educators are well equipped to meet individual needs within their classrooms.

Another powerful ideology is that matching advanced developmental characteristics with appropriate curricula puts unnecessary stress on young children. Parents and teachers who respond to children’s advanced capabilities by offering them opportunities to develop these abilities often are viewed with suspicion as being “pushy.” Advocacy for accelerated school placements may also be viewed as a desire to speed up development in an unhealthy fashion, with negative socialemotional consequences (Southern & Jones, 1991). Also influencing the availability of educational opportunity is the belief that gifted young children have the intellectual and social-emotional resources to get what they need from the educational system; in other words, they will “make it on their own.”

There is little research support for the ideologies and systemic perspectives just described. Most of these powerful beliefs stem from anecdotal data. This is not to say that there may not be some children for whom one or more of the issues may be salient. There is always the imperative to consider each child individually, taking into account family, school, and community contexts. However, there also is a compelling imperative to examine these ideologies in light of relevant research.

Psychological Perspectives and the Nature of Advanced Development

Psychology offers important perspectives on the nature of advanced development, including explanations and descriptions of conceptual understanding and skills, different developmentalpathwaystogiftedness,asynchronyindevelopment, motivation, and social and emotional development. Precocity in development may be evident in infancy. Retrospective parental reports of unusually advanced development in infancy (e.g., Feldman, 1986) may be questioned for their reliability; however, observations and behavioral ratings of infants have been linked prospectively to intellectual and academic precocity (e.g., Gottfried, Gottfried, Bathurst, & Guerin, 1994; Louis & Lewis, 1992). Domain-specific abilities (e.g., linguistic or mathematical precocity) are apparent in very young children, and these abilities tend to be stable over time (Dale, Robinson, & Crain-Thoresen, 1995; Robinson,Abbott, Berninger, & Busse, 1996).

In addition to the strikingly advanced capabilities of young gifted children, some age-typical or even below-average capabilities may be evident. Gifted young children demonstrate considerable inter- and intra-individual variance, a phenomenon described as asynchronous development (Morelock, 1996). One of the ways in which their development may be more closely related to chronological than mental age is in their conceptual understanding of a domain. Gifted young children may bump up against a conceptual ceiling that is related to maturation (Fischer & Canfield, 1986; Porath, 1992).

For example, in coordinating plot elements in narrative or rendering perspective, abilities that are related to stage and structure of thought (Porath, 1996a, 1997), gifted children may be distinguished more by the complex use of the thought available to them than by exceptional developmental stage advancement. Gifted young children also may differ from each other in their developmental pathways.

Multiple Expressions of Giftedness

Each young gifted child has a distinct profile of abilities. In addition, there are multiple pathways to, and demonstrations of, giftedness in any one domain (Fischer, Knight, & Van Parys, 1993; Golomb, 1992; Porath, 1993, 2000; Robinson, 1993). Perhaps the best way to illustrate this is to introduce some young gifted children: Jessica, Holly, Sara, Sam, and Jill, five of the gifted children who participated in a series of studies on giftedness.

Six-year-old Jessica arrived to participate in a research project on narrative full of enthusiasm about her abilities to read and write: “I can read. Do you want me to read? I can write stories. Can Iwrite astory for you?” (Porath, 1986, p. 1). Jessica and the researcher settled on tape-recording a story to allow for production to keep pace with thinking. Jessica told “The Leprechaun’s Gold,” a story richly representative of the fairy tale genre (see Porath, 1996, for the story’s text). Jessica had a strong sense of story and a remarkable feel for language. Her vocabulary and syntax were mature, and she incorporated appropriate dialogue into her story.All of the aforementioned are advanced capabilities in a child of 6 years. Other 6-yearolds with whom Porath has worked have demonstrated their advanced verbal abilities in different ways: by playing with words (a story featuring a cat named Nip); through understanding the power of language (using rhymed couplets as humorous additions to a story); and by wanting to know all they can about words and their derivations.

Holly, aged 4.5 years, drew pictures in an enthusiastic, confident way with obvious mastery of different media. Her drawings of human figures were detailed and well proportioned. Most striking was her feel for composition, described by an art educator as entailing “some rather sophisticated propositions regarding spatial organization” (p. 31). The simple formal harmony of the composition also was noted. Sara, age 6, showed her talent in a somewhat different way, producing elaborate drawings with colors chosen for contrast and detail (Porath, 1993). Sam, age 2, showed advanced social role-taking ability. While playing with the toy telephone in his preschool, Sam initiated a conversation with, “Hello! I fine!” followed by adult-like speech inflections and twirling of the telephone cord. He engaged both a peer and his teacher by offering them the telephone and saying, “Talk to you?” (Porath, 2000, p. 203).

Jill, age 4, demonstrated social capability through her advanced interpersonal understanding, as elicited through responses to a picture story of a little girl who has lost her favorite book. Jill showed remarkable abilities to incorporate multiple emotions into her responses and empathize with the protagonist. Part of the discussion with Jill is reproduced below:

Researcher: How was the little girl feeling?

Jill: Surprised, mad, and sad—all three.

Researcher: Why?

Jill: Because her friends were near. That’s why she’s mad; and she was sad and surprised because her book was lost. [Upon being asked what another character in the story would do, Jill replied that he would help].

Jill: Because he didn’t want her to be sad and lost it again. You know why? Cause I lost my kitty . . . my favorite kitty, I would be feeling like that. (Porath, 2001, p. 20)

Motivation, Social-Emotional Development, and Giftedness

Young gifted children are notable for their motivation to learn (Gottfried et al., 1994; Robinson, 1993). Winner (1996) characterized this high intrinsic motivation as “a rage to master” (p. 3). Claire Golomb (1992) powerfully illustrated this rage to master in her research on an artistically gifted boy who, from the age of 2, explored topics by drawing numerous variations on a theme from every possible point of view. Similarly, at age 4 Wang Yani, an artistic prodigy, painted monkeys until she had exhausted the subject, often sustaining interest for incredibly long periods of time (Wang, 1987). Young gifted children may play an important role in creating environments that sustain them (Robinson, 1987).

In general, young gifted children are well adjusted socially and emotionally (Robinson & Noble, 1991). They tend to be socially mature, preferring older children’s company. However, young gifted children’s social-emotional development, while mature, still can be discrepant from their cognitive development. This asynchrony can interact with parental and teacher expectations of across-the-board maturity, with the possible result of denial of appropriate programming until the child “improves” socially. Another conundrum is that young gifted children, faced with an insufficiently challenging curriculum, will “act their age,” again with the possible result that social behavior becomes the focus of educational efforts rather than appropriate curriculum (Keating, 1991).

Very highly gifted children are the exception to the general finding of healthy social-emotional adjustment among gifted children. Because these children’s capabilities are so unusual, they find it very difficult to find their place in the world (Hollingworth, 1942; Winner, 1996). When asked how he was the same as and different from other children, a highly gifted 6-year-old replied, “I like Raphael and Michelangelo, but as artists not as Ninja Turtles” (Porath, 1996b, p. 15). This child struggled to find his place, both academically and socially, from the time he entered school.

Educational Implications

Psychological perspectives on the development of gifted children have important implications for early childhood education. The findings on the early emergence and stability of exceptional capabilities strongly suggest that the provision of an optimal curricular match to these advanced abilities in early childhood settings is essential to nurture young children’s curiosity, motivation, and accomplishment (Keating, 1991; Robinson et al., 1996). Well-designed programs that honor the constructive nature of understanding sustain children’s excitement in learning and extend their achievements (Freeman, 2000; Robinson, Abbott, Berninger, Busse, & Mukhopadhyay, 1997). These programs also have the potential to support different developmental pathways.

The importance of considering the nature and structure of conceptual understanding in planning educational programs is underscored by work on expertise. The knowledge structures of experts are complex; instruction that has as its objective the nurturance of expertise incorporates meaningful conceptual material (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1986). Instruction that fails to incorporate conceptual material can lead to cumulative deficits in achievement (Meichenbaum & Biemiller, 1998). This outcome was illustrated powerfully by Jeanne Bamberger (1982) in her study of gifted adolescent musicians. These young musicians went through a sort of midlife crisis when called on to learn formal theoretical musical concepts. Having experienced a largely skills-based approach to musical instruction since early childhood, they were unprepared for the demands to think more deeply about music and became frustrated and unmotivated.

Well-planned academic programs also support social and emotional development (Keating, 1991). Creative and flexible options are needed to address the diversity of development among young gifted children. Most particularly, highly gifted children need options that are sensitively matched to the needs implicit in development that includes abilities far ahead of even other gifted young children. A “nurturant resourceful environment” (Meichenbaum & Biemiller, 1998, p. 13) is necessary to support high motivation. Children need to be helped and supported to be interested (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1986), even when they are highly intrinsically motivated. Intensive early support and education result in high levels of competence and satisfaction (Bloom, 1985).

Giftedness is apparent in early childhood. Its presence signals a need to step outside the confines of a lockstep approach to education in which age and grade seem inextricably joined. When faced with compelling advanced developmental needs, the predictive question of subsequent performance is not relevant; however, an optimal match between school program and abilities is. Keating (1991) suggested that the following question be posed: “Is there an appropriate match between the child and the program?” If the answer is negative, then we must ask what needs to be done to make the program appropriate.

Directions for Future Research

Important guiding principles for early educational experiences for gifted children are apparent in psychological research. These principles need to be translated into an applied researchprogramtoguidepractice.Weneedrichlydescriptive classroom-based and system-based examples of exemplary practice and studies of intervention effects. Coupled with a need to expand how we conceive of intelligent behavior (see, e.g., Ceci, 1996; Gardner, 1983) is the need for valid and reliable assessment tools that go beyond IQ. Basic research into cognitive processes and the nature of abilities across domains needs to continue. Longitudinal research that includes an applied dimension would strengthen our understanding of the nature and development of giftedness. The complexities of gifted abilities and achievements are recognized (Freeman, 2000), as is the dynamic relationship between young children and their environments (Smitsman, 2000). This intensive and challenging research agenda is essential to ensuring appropriate early childhood education opportunities for children who demonstrate exceptional potential.

Linguistic and Cultural Diversity in Early Childhood

Recent decades have witnessed an increasing number of immigrants to many, if not most, Western industrialized countries. This continuing upswing in immigration and demographic changes has resulted in a dramatic increase of students with diverse ethnic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds in the school system and in ECE programs of many industrial societies, especially in NorthAmerica. Within existing societal contexts where family values, education equity, and human rights are discussed, contemporary education faces new understandings andchallengestomeettheneedsofculturallyandlinguistically diverse students who had been historically placed in contexts of social, economical, and educational vulnerability.

An important challenge in educating minority students has been how best to help them learn the majority language and culture without precluding them from developing and maintaining their native languages and cultures. In fact, decades of literature addressing best educational practices for minority children continue to stress the importance of developing home languages and cultural identity (Campos, 1995; Cummins, 1979, 1992; Hakuta, 1986; Paul & Jarvis, 1992). Such findings, however, have not exerted much influence on the practices in early childhood education (Bernhard, Lefebvre, Chud, & Lange, 1995; Kagan & Garcia, 1991; LaGrange, Clark, & Munroe, 1995; Soto, 1997). Research in this area has indicated that large numbers of early childhood settings have adopted at best superficial or token expressions of cultural diversity, such as presenting diverse holidays, foods, or customs. The issue of how to balance the competing interest between developing native and second languages during the early years has still relied ultimately on parental and individual struggles. A lack of responsiveness and efficacy for the diverse populations in many early childhood programs may be due partly to the limited understanding of cultural and language issues in the process of transition from the home culture to that of the school in minority children (Bernhard et al., 1991).

This brief discussion is an attempt to introduce some of the language and cultural issues raised regarding young immigrant children with a focus on the role and importance of the children’s home languages and cultures in ECE settings.

Second-Language Learning in the Preschool Years

Historically, researchers who have explored issues of secondlanguage learning and language maintenance in immigrant populations have been more concerned with school-age children than with preschool-aged children (Cummins, 1986; Lyon, 1996). In the past decade, however, researchers have become increasingly concerned about language learning of 2- to 6-year-old immigrant children due to the general increase in early education enrollment and growing minority populations, resulting in more and more immigrant children becoming exposed to a majority language during this early period. In addition, because younger children are presumed to be better language learners than older children, there has been a strong emphasis on immigrant children’s being fluent in the majority language prior to school entry. As a result, the goal of preparing immigrant children in the majority language has been pushed down to the preschool level (Kagan & Garcia, 1991; Prince & Lawrence, 1994; Wong Fillmore, 1991).

Within this context, researchers have become increasingly concerned about the consequences of emphasizing English to language-minority children during the preschool years. The major concern is that this could result in a subtractive bilingual experience; that is, the addition of the majority (second) language can cause a deterioration or erosion of the native (first) language. Thus, instead of English serving as enhancement to the child’s linguistic repertoire, it often serves as a replacement (Lambert & Taylor, 1983; Wong Fillmore, 1991; Wright, Taylor, & Macarthur, 2000). Such subtractive processes can be associated with considerable cognitive, emotional, and developmental risks (Cummins, 1991; Skutnabb-Kangas, 1981; Wong Fillmore, 1991; Wright & Taylor, 1995). The extent to which such language loss or subtractive bilingualism takes place during the preschool years and the role that early educational institutions play in language development of these children, however, have been matters of significant debate. We turn now to this debate.

The Debate on Early Schooling of Language Minority Children

Perhaps the two important and interrelated questions raised in this debate are these: When should children be exposed to the majority language in a school-like setting? Is there a threshold of native language skills that children should reach before the majority language is introduced? In which language should children be instructed in their early years?

A rapid acquisition of English in a school-like setting before competence in the native language has been achieved, combined with a corresponding lack of incentive to develop the native language, not only slow the native language development but also adversely lead to difficulties in acquisition of a second language (Cummins, 1986; Schiff-Myers, 1992). To explain this bilingual language delay, many have cited Cummins’s (1984, 1986) hypotheses of threshold and developmental interdependence, which would suggest that a child’s second language competence is partly a function of the competence previously developed in the first language. The child must acquire and maintain a threshold level of proficiency, which include literacy skills as well as aural and oral skills, to avoid the subtractive effects of second language instruction. Therefore, if the first language proficiency is at a lower stage before the second language is introduced, it is more difficult to develop the second (Cummins, 1986; Lambert & Taylor, 1983; Skutnabb-Kangas, 1981; Soto, 1993).

The acquisition of a second language at the preschool stage can also lead to the loss of the home language (Cummins, 1991; Faulstich Orellana, 1994; Siren, 1991), which can, in turn, cause serious problems with communication and socialization within the families (Wong Fillmore, 1991). This does not mean that learning English, even in a limited way, should be a taboo for young minority children; however, as Wong Fillmore (1991, p. 345) stressed, “The problem is timing, not English. The children have to learn English, but they should not be required to do so until their native languages are stable enough to handle the inevitable encounter with English and all it means.”

However, other researchers have recommended that language-minority children take advantage of an early start in introducing both languages (Baker & deKanter, 1983; Porter, 1991). Language skills require up to 7 years of practice to reach the levels necessary for academic learning, and learning English in an ECE program can support the natural and easy acquisition of a second language. Porter (1991), for example, argued that early immersion in a second language, preferably between ages 3 and 5, offers the greatest opportunity to learn native pronunciation and the highest level of literacy in that language. The earlier the children learn a second language, the more easily they appear to achieve high levels of fluency.

The matter then rests as a problem of deciding the appropriate time and manner of exposing preschool-aged children to a second-language setting to promote the children’s bilingual competence, academic success, and family relations. A missing component in this discussion is how this issue can affect parents, who have the ultimate decisions of when and how to balance the competing interest between the two languages. How, exactly, are immigrant parents of young children dealing with these issues?

In a study of immigrant parents in Sweden, Siren (1991) reported that although most parents supported the goal of bilingual development, there were differences of opinion among parents regarding when this goal of bilingualism should be achieved. According to Soto (1993), parents of academically high-achieving Puerto Rican immigrant children in kindergarten through second grade strongly believed in developing a foundation in Spanish first while gradually introducing English to their children. Parents of children who were lower achievers also valued Spanish, but they expressed a preference for simultaneous learning in both languages and were much more ambivalent about the developmental progression of first- and second-language learning. In her study of Korean immigrant families in Canada, Koh (2000) similarly found that parents who enrolled their children in bilingual preschools expressed a strong preference for their children building a strong foundation in Korean before learning English. Accordingly, they tended to provide exclusive Korean language environments at home. In contrast, Korean immigrants who enrolled their children in English-speaking preschools believed that children at an early age could acquire two languages naturally and actively supported this scenario by their choice of preschool setting and the nature of home literacy activities. Thus, a major question among immigrant parents of young children concerns the most appropriate balance between developing fluency in both their native language and the majority language. Parental attitudes influence language practices and interaction patterns at home and parents’ selection of a particular preschool program.

There is general agreement among researchers that a child’s success in learning both the native language and the majority-culture language is more dependent on the nature of the home and preschool learning environments and less dependent on the child’s age per se (Arnberg, 1987; SchiffMyers, 1992). In other words, minority children’s secondlanguage learning in the early years is not always a problem if the home languages and literacy are valued and encouraged in the home, preschool, and community. Nevertheless, the appropriate balance between developing the native language and the majority language during the early school years is a critical issue about which language minority parents and ECE practitioners need to have more solid theoretical and empirical bases.

Another hotly debated issue surrounds the instructional use of the two languages in minority children’s early schooling (Garcia, 1993). At one end of this debate are proponents of native or bilingual language instruction who recommend learning of the native language prior to the introduction of an English curriculum (transitional or maintenance bilingual education). In this approach it is suggested that “competencies in the native language, particularly as related to academic learning, provide important cognitive and social bases for second-language and academic learning” (Garcia, 1973, p. 379). The other end of this debate recommends immersion to the English curriculum from the very start of the students’ schooling experience with the minimal use of the native language (English immersion education). Perhaps the most familiar examples of this debate are results on bilingual or native-language ECE classrooms for Spanish speakers in the United States (see Bilingual Research Journal, 1992). However, this issue could extend to a wide variety of languageminority groups who have a choice of native or bilingual language instruction in their early years. Evaluation of immersion, native, or bilingual programs includes political and ideological as well as methodological and technical debates.

However, a number of researchers have increasingly noted a positive outcome in the language and cognitive development for the children attending effective bilingual or native language classrooms (Campos, 1995; Paul & Jarvis, 1992; Rodriguez, Diaz, Duran, & Espinosa, 1995).

The language of instruction is but one of many factors that can determine the outcomes of learning in a specific early education program. These other factors could include teacher training, classroom interactions, the nature of peer relations, the curriculum that is used, parent involvement, or program philosophies that contextualize the teaching and learning in the programs. Further study of language practices in the early schooling of language-minority children should focus on more than the language of instruction alone and should include such ecological factors of the programs. The issue of minority students’ early education should also be understood not only in the classroom or school but also in a broader societal context where the children are learning the native and majority language (Garcia, 1993; Wong Fillmore, 1991).

The Role of Home Culture in Early Childhood Education

In the past, the language and culture that minority families and children brought from their home into new environment were considered to be deficiencies (Collins, 1988). Deficiency theory attributed the academic failure of children from certain ethnic groups to culturally determined socialization practices in the home. Much recent and current research has helped to refute this cultural deficiency model and has begun to contribute to our understanding of cultural differences between the school and the minority students. The cultural differences—or discontinuities—position, supported by a number of well-documented ethnographic studies, suggests that a major source of children’s education failure lies in the culture clash between home and school (e.g., Delgado-Gaitan & Trueba, 1991; Garcia, 1988; Heath, 1983).

Others have pointed out that deficit-difference models have oversimplified the problem of minority achievement by generalizing and perhaps overemphasizing home-school discontinuities (Goldenberg, Reese, & Gallmore, 1992; Weisner, Gallimore, & Jordan, 1993). Although home-school discontinuities must be recognized and accommodated appropriately in the school, not all cultural discontinuities between minority families and school are negative (DelgadoGaitan & Truba, 1991; Schmidt, 1998; Volk, 1997; Weisner et al., 1993). Thus, it is necessary to look at some new and emerging data that suggest certain positive outcomes of some discontinuities. Weisner et al. (1993) gave an example of how educators identified cultural differences between school and Hawaiian families and then incorporated the family’s teachinglearning style from the home culture into their classroom practices:

Sibcare is a ubiquitous aspect of Hawaiian child life; it reinforces habits of attending and orienting to siblings and other children rather than to adults. These habits can be generalized to the classroom by providing opportunities for peer teaching and learning. In a traditional classroom, these culture-based habits lead to problems; in classrooms using peer teaching, they produce better achievement. (p. 62)

Similarly, the Kamelahama Early Education Program (KEEP) in Hawaii showed that incorporating features of the home culture into reading lessons in primary classrooms resulted in an increase of the children’s reading achievement scores (Grant, 1995). Instead of mainstream classroom discussions of stories, discussions were adjusted to incorporate the Hawaiian storytelling tradition, which involves a high proportion of turn taking and cooperative production of responses (Au, 1997; Au & Carroll, 1997). Studies such as these showed that minority home cultures and values must be factored into children’s educational plans. Modifying old approaches and developing new conceptual insights and educational practices can help minority language children succeed in school.

The Socialization and Resocialization of Young Minority Children

Socialization is a means by which patterns of behavior, attitudes, values, and beliefs are transmitted to children from families, schools, peers, the media, and other influences (Garcia, 1993). During the early childhood years, family is essentially the major socialization source for a child. After the child enters early education programs, both the family and the school are primary socialization sources. The transition from home to early schooling marks a critical socialization period for all children, and perhaps more so for culturally and linguistically diverse children whose languages and ways of life are different from those of the mainstream (Kagan & Garcia, 1991; Villarruel, Imig, Kostelnik, 1995).

Families from diverse ethnic backgrounds may have different values, goals, and practices concerning what they consider important early experiences for children. These variations can reflect differences in their cultural belief systems about the status and role of children in society and their perceptions of how children learn (Goodnow, 1988). As an example, the traditional culture and socialization of northeast Asian countries are deeply rooted in Confucian philosophy, which strongly emphasizes interdependence from parents, group harmony, close family ties, and respect to adults. Children raised in this kind of cultural consciousness are not encouraged to initiate conversations with adults or to compete verbally with others publicly. These precise characteristics of socialization, however, are inconsistent with those of Western culture, which tend to emphasize the development of self-expression, autonomous choice, and independent individuals (Choi, Kim, & Choi, 1993). When the cultural climate of the home differs significantly from that of school and society at large, the child may be caught in the middle of home-school value conflict.

What happens if ECE programs of these children do not understand the values and child developmental goals behind cultural differences and seek to resocialize the children to a new set of values? Clearly, an appropriate function of education is socialization, and it is not unrealistic to expect that older children will accommodate such norms. However, asking very young children to be resocialized, just as formative socialization is taking place, unduly burdens them (Kagan & Garcia, 1991). The attempt to fit in to the socializationresocialization conundrum can result in confusion within the child and the rejection of the home culture and language. This in turn often creates a deep emotional gap between the child and the family and in some cases could lead to emotional or learning problems for the child (Delgado-Gaitan & Trueba, 1991; Kagan & Garcia, 1991). In fact, reports of Asian immigrants in North America have indicated a significant challenge in their children’s socialization and serious communication problems with their children at home (Kim & Choi, 1994; Lee & Lehmann, 1986; “There is no Utopia,” 1999). Pettingill and Rohner (1985), who compared children’s perception of parenting among Korean, Korean Canadian, and Korean American samples, found that perceived parental control was correlated with high parental warmth and low neglect, and slightly with parental hostility and rejection in the Korean sample. On the other hand, for the Korean Canadian and Korean American children, parental control was perceived as low warmth and high hostility, neglect, and rejection. This study showed that parental control—a positive feature of the parent-child relationship in Korea—was transformed into a negative feature for the children of Korean immigrants in North America.

Although there are always individual variations within the cultural groups, it is important to understand that the socialization characteristics of one cultural group are governed by its cultural values and beliefs and can be significantly different from those of another. Schools need to understand that minority families’ cross-cultural adjustments can be a difficult and complex process, so schools should provide learning environments that can mediate the adjustment and develop a healthy sense of self.

Closing Thoughts on Language, Culture, and Immigration

With so many children from diverse language and cultural groups in early childhood programs, it has become an increasingly important challenge to appreciate the significance of the family’s language and culture and to move from appreciation to action on the part of early childhood professionals. A number of key issues regarding language, culture, and the education of young immigrant children must remain high priorities for both early childhood educators and researchers.

First, there is concern with the possibility of subtractive bilingualism, that is, losing proficiency in the child’s first language. Supporting the child’s native language at an early age has been strongly encouraged for the children’s academic success, bilingual proficiency, family relations, and a healthy sense of self. ECE programs for minority children must encourage and appreciate the language skills and cultural values that these children bring from their home, so that they neither directly nor indirectly stop the children’s native language and cultural development.

Parents of minority preschoolers are challenged to decide when and how to provide the relative balance between the native and second languages for their children, and they need more information and support. Studies of the impact of family culture on children’s learning have showed that identifying cultural differences between the school and the families, and incorporating the information into classroom practices, resulted in better academic achievement.

For the children of minority groups, parenting values and practices at home may be very different from what educators expect, and socialization experiences may be unique and complex as children often interact in multiple linguistic and cultural groups. Thus, ECE professionals are expected to look at children within the context of their family and culture. The potential conflicts and confusion that these families and their children might experience in their cross-cultural adjustment must be acknowledged, understood, and overcome.

Child Temperament and Early Childhood Education

I didn’t get any information about temperament in my training. That community talk was when I first learned about Thomas and Chess’s study, you know, and about temperament. I didn’t learn that in my early childhood training. That’s terrible, right? (“Corinne,” cited in Andersen & McDevitt, 2000, p. 14)

The early childhood special educator just quoted reported that she had to remove her 3-year-old son from a day care setting in which he was in constant conflict with teachers and peers. She was on a desperate search for caregivers who were knowledgeable and skilled in working with challenging behavior. She was also seeking emotional support and practical suggestions for herself from early intervention professionals. This parent had learned from medical and mental health specialists that her child was neurologically intact but that his intensity, slowness to adapt, negative mood, high activity level, and short attention span were aspects of his temperament that were colliding with the expectations of his parents and teachers. However, her attempts to impart this well-informed assessment of the basis of her son’s behavior fell on deaf ears in her neighborhood day care center. The skepticism she encountered left her feeling judged and blamed, and her son was labeled “disturbed” and “troublesome.” Yet she herself could not blame the teachers, whose training, like her own, had included so little attention to the extensive research that now exists on child temperament (Andersen & McDevitt, 2000). Although her experience in encountering ignorance of temperament is tragically commonly reported (Andersen, 1994), it is also true that ECE professionals have been among the most enthusiastic supporters of the concept. Many have acknowledged that the topic needs more attention in personnel preparation and as a variable that affects the functioning of children in group settings (Andersen, 1990; Soderman, 1985).

The History of Temperament Research

The idea of temperament has a long history, dating back at least as far Hippocrates (Rutter, 1982). However, after the hereditarian views of personality that held sway in the nineteenth century were rejected, by the middle of the twentieth century children’s traits were considered either to be all learned or to be projections of their parents’ often-distorted perceptions. These psychodynamic and social-learning theories of children’s individual differences were first systematically challenged by the formulation and investigation of the construct of temperament by the American psychiatrists Stella Chess and Alexander Thomas. The attribution of all differences in children, including infants, to differences in parental (usually maternal) handling or to the projection of parental personality characteristics, ran counter to their own personal and professional experiences (Chess & Thomas, 1987). They knew that they could not refute these ideas on the basis of their opinions alone. The task called for a major research enterprise. Their New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS) was initiated in 1956 and followed 133 children from early infancy to adult life. This turned out to be a landmark study, and these two American psychiatrists paved the way for a veritable revolution in our understanding of children’s individuality and development. Their work was soon followed, and expanded upon, by other leading thinkers. The topic of temperament has consequently played a central role in the development of new interactionist theories of child development and in the formulation of etiological theories in child and adolescent psychiatry. It has been accompanied by intensive discussion of basic research and clinical questions, many of which continue to arise as children’s individuality is investigated today. It is therefore useful to consider first the central themes that have recurred as the concept of temperament has been put to the empirical test and as new conceptual issues have emerged. Following this, the implications and empirical investigation of temperament in early childhood education and day care will be discussed.

The Definition of Temperament and Temperament Traits

Chess and Thomas defined temperament as the behavioral style of a person, distinguishing this aspect from the person’s abilities and motivations (Chess & Thomas, 1987). They have also characterized it as “a non-motivational factor in the determination of behavioral patterns” (Chess & Thomas, in Carey & McDevitt, 1989, p. 26). They clarified this idea by explaining that an individual responds to an internal or external stimulus through the meditating effects of temperament, along with other factors, such as past events, cognitive level, subjective feelings, and ideals. Others have characterized temperament as a mediating variable, representing an individual’s response patterns and manner of coping with stress and adversity (Rutter, 1994). Carey and McDevitt (1995) stated that although there is still no universal agreement on a definition, the general usage is in accord with the view of Thomas and Chess’s original concept of behavioral style. They noted an important distinction between temperament and cognitive factors:

Thomas and Chess explain it as the “how” of behavior as contrasted with the “what” (abilities or developmental level) and the “why” (motivations and behavioral adjustment). This conceptual and empirical separation of temperament and cognitive function has been demonstrated at various times in childhood including infancy (Plomin et al., 1990, 1993) and the elementary school years (Keogh, 1986; Martin, 1989, 1989b). (p. 10)

Although new methods are now available to investigators, particularly in molecular genetics and in direct studies of brain function, no new findings have overturned earlier views that temperament represents an innate attribute of a child and arises from a combination of genetic, biological, and environmental contributors.

Early Childhood Education Research Paper

Chess and Thomas identified the nine temperament traits listed in Table 13.1. Although the traits developed by Chess and Thomas have formed the basis of several temperament scales, which in turn have been utilized clinically as well as in vast numbers of individual studies, others have developed different formulations of the construct. Drawing on Carey and McDevitt’s (1995) discussion of these alternatives, a brief summary is presented in Table 13.2.

The Measurement and the Functional Significance of Temperament

Although temperament is manifested in behavioral styles, researchers, clinicians, and parents are aware that similar behavior can have any number of nontemperamental causes. It is not surprising, then, that the assessment of specific behavior as related to temperament and the measurement of an individual’s temperamental profile have posed especially difficult problems for researchers and clinicians alike. Although some investigators have used psychophysiological instruments to support their claims about biological factors, most contemporary research has been conducted using paperand-pencil checklists of children’s behavioral tendencies as observed by parents, teachers, investigators, and clinicians. These scales are usually based on the nine dimensions developed by Chess and Thomas. These instruments are designed to tap children’s behavioral dispositions by asking parents and other observers questions about the child’s typical behavior in day-to-day situations. These scales, and modifications of them, have been validated on large numbers of children internationally (Carey & McDevitt, 1995). Currently, several scales are available that are appropriate for use by ECE personnel, often in combination with parent ratings and observations (McDevitt, in Andersen & McDevitt, 2000). These include a new questionnaire for caregivers and preschool teachers, the Teacher and Caregiver Temperament Inventory for Children (TACTIC), which measures temperament, attention, emotions, and conduct in 2- to 7-year-old children, and the Basic Behavioral Assessment Scale (BBAS) by Carey and McDevitt, which measures behavioral adjustment in 4- to 14year-old children in the areas of behavior, achievement, selfrelations, internal state, and coping (S. C. McDevitt, personal communication, November 2001).

Although there appears to be a growing consensus on many issues raised in the earlier years, more recent discussions of temperament continue to reflect earlier concerns about measurement. In response to Clarke-Stewart, Fitzpatrick, Allhausen & Goldberg (2000) presentation of a short and easy measure of infant temperament, Carey (2000) has argued for caution when hoping that there could be a brief and simple way to capture a complex phenomenon.

Although the work of Chess and Thomas and their followers was published as early as the mid-1960s, the findings on the predictive validity of children’s individual differences in emotional disposition and behavioral style did not win acceptance until the early 1980s. This was in spite of the fact that several independent lines of research had essentially replicated the early findings (Graham, Rutter, & George, 1973; Barron & Earls, 1984; Maziade, Caron, Cote, Boutin, & Thivierige, 1990). Fears of a deterministic view of human behavior may have played a role in the reluctance of developmentalists to accept the notion that biologically based differences exist in children’s emotional and behavioral dispositions. Carey and McDevitt (1995) suggested that in clinical circles another central reason for the slow acceptance of temperament concepts may lie in the fact that the risks associated with temperament are seen to lie not in the temperament itself but in the lack of goodness of fit between the child’s temperament and the expectations and values of the environment. Clinicians may have found it difficult to consider the question of fit because this notion is not in keeping with the habit of looking for problems within either the child or the environment. However, such a contextual approach has become not only acceptable, but fully in keeping with current theoretical understandings of the interplay between children’s dispositions, abilities, and interests and the complex factors that interact with their individuality at all levels of the ecology.

Despite the early resistance to the concept and despite the clinical world’s slowness to adopt complex etiological models, accumulating evidence has left little room for doubt about the reality and importance of temperament. Research in temperament has now involved the efforts of hundreds of scientists in numerous areas, and the second wave of temperament research has adopted stringent methodological standards and extended its reach across cultures and into the genome, utilizing research methods ranging from ethnographic studies to the most recent technology such as brain scans and electrophysiological measurement. Clinician-researchers have been appraising the role of temperament across culture and socioeconomic differences, exploring the interaction between temperament and physical status, and behavioral-geneticists and neuroscientists continue to study the relative contribution of genes and the environment, including the environment of the womb. Twin and adoption studies have revealed that there is a substantial genetic contribution to temperament—about 50% on average. (Contrary to previous views, there is compelling evidence that temperament in infancy is not highly under genetic control and that genetic influences are stronger in the postinfancy years. In addition, temperament is not as stable or continuous as was once proposed.) Investigation of the role of maternal hormones, stress, prenatal infections, and perinatal stress has reminded developmentalists that environmental contributors to temperament can be biological (Carey & McDevitt, 1995, pp. 18–24).At the same time, interactions of parenting style, family stress factors, and social pressures continue to be seen as important contributors to outcome.

In the past two decades temperament has been shown to affect a wide range of areas of children’s functioning, no less so in the preschool and school years than in infancy. Current knowledge about the functional significance of temperament was recently summarized by Carey (1998, pp. 27) as cited by Andersen and McDevitt (2000) as

fundamental part of the parent-child relationship;
significant factor in patterns of growth and feeding;
predisposition to prolonged crying in infancy;
possible contributor to sleep problems;
reason some children are hard to discipline;
major risk factor for social behavior problems;
substantial component of school performance;
factor in physical conditions; one factor in recurrent pain;
partial determinant of response to crises.

Although temperament has been shown to play an important role in many areas of development, perhaps the most significant area for application in early childhood education is the role of temperament in children’s psychological adjustment and educational achievement. It is useful, therefore, to review the major findings about this relationship. One of the most important and replicated findings of the early temperament research was the identification of specific clusters of traits that differentiated parents’ experiences with children. Forty percent of the sample of children who were rated by their parents as adaptable, approaching, mildly active, mildly intense, and regular in biological rhythms were described by their middle-class North American parents as “easy.” These children fitted well with the demands of family life and cultural expectations and were found to be at low risk for (but not immune to) the development of psychological and educational problems (Chess & Thomas, 1987). Ten percent of the sample were, by contrast, described as “difficult.” These children were low in adaptability, predominantly negative in mood, irregular, withdrawn in new situations, and intense in reactivity. A third group of children, comprising 15% of the sample, were mildly intense in response, mildly negative in mood, and slow to adapt to new situations. This group was described as “slow-to-warm-up.”

The most important finding of the NYLS was the discovery that “difficult” children were at significantly higher risk of developing problems in behavioral and emotional adjustment. However, adjustment problems were not inevitable. Chess and Thomas invoked the concept of goodness of fit to describe a compatible relationship between parental expectations and a child’s temperament; when the fit was poor, the child experienced excessive stress and developed reactive behavioral and emotional problems. The finding that temperamentally difficult children were at higher risk of developing psychological problems has been replicated in subsequent research (Earls & Jung, 1987; Graham et al., 1973; Maziade, Cote, Bernier, Boutin, & Thivierge, 1989; Maziade et al., 1990). However, fit has been shown to be context dependent. Consequently, Carey and McDevitt (1989) proposed the term temperament risk factors:

Temperament risk factors are any temperament characteristic predisposing a child to a poor fit (incompatible relationship) with his or her environment, to excessive interactional stress and conflict with his or her caretakers, and to secondary problems in the child’s physical health, development and behavior. These characteristics are usually perceived as hard to manage, but may not be. The outcome depends on the strength and durability of the characteristics and the environmental stresses and supports. (p. 195)

Temperament Research in Early Childhood Education

Despite the consensus that now exists about the importance of the role of children’s individual differences in temperament as a significant risk factor in specific contexts, applications of this knowledge in all levels of early childhood education have been few (Andersen, 1990). In 1995 Carey and McDevitt published an extensive review of the extant studies of temperament. In their chapter on day care, they decried the failure of the prevention, intervention, and caregiving communities to apply this important knowledge. In their chapters on infants and young children, they noted that “behavioral investigation in the area [of child day care] has almost completely ignored the impact of children’s temperament on the experience” (p. 83). They summarized the little research there was at the time. However, what little research there is suggests that further investigation is likely to be fruitful (Anderson-Goetz & Worobey, 1984; Field & Greenberg, 1982; Keogh & Burstein, 1988; Palison, 1986).

Among the most important preliminary findings cited by Carey and McDevitt (1995) was the (counterintuitive to some) discovery that mothers of children with difficult temperaments were less likely to go back to work and to place their children in day care, although the authors commented that this study was conducted in the late 1950s and early 1960s, when “the pressure to seek employment outside the home might not have been felt quite as strongly by middleclass mothers as it is today” (p. 85). More recently, Canadian researchers McKim, Cramer, Stuart, and O’Connor (1999) examined the family and child factors associated with child care decisions and found that mothers who preferred to stay home were more depressed and that their children were more likely to experience unstable care than were those who were working and wanted to work. The age at which the child entered day care and aspects of the care such as quality were not related to attachment measures. However, infants with difficult temperaments were at higher risk of being rated as insecurely attached. Attending day care appeared to reduce the strength of this relationship. This study, though preliminary, lends some support to the notion that enrolling a difficult infant in day care might have beneficial effects for the infant and possibly also for depressed mothers.

Another important question is how children’s individual temperaments affect their socioemotional adjustment to, and functioning in, early childhood group environments. In an early study of 2.5- to 3.5-year-old children entering day care, Billman and McDevitt (1980) obtained mothers’ and observers’ temperament ratings on a sample of 78 predominantly White middle-class children ranging in age from 34 to 64 months and attending two nursery schools in a small Midwestern American community. There were 40 girls and 38 boys in the study. The researchers set out to clarify the relationship between home-rated temperament and social behavior at nursery school, to investigate any relationship between difficult temperament and peer interaction, and to assess the consistency of temperament ratings made by different raters in different settings. Parental ratings of the temperament characteristic of low approach predicted teacher evaluations of slower adjustment. It is interesting to note that the “difficult child” cluster of traits emerged as a significant predictor of peer interactions. Although convergence between the two temperament ratings was moderate (.18–.46), correlations were statistically significant for all dimensions except mood. Activity level, approach-withdrawal, and sensory threshold were significantly related to peer interaction. Very active children were both more sociable than inactive children and more often involved in conflictual interactions. More rhythmic children spoke more to peers and got on with their tasks more effectively. When the children were assigned to the temperament clusters identified by Chess and Thomas, the difficult child was found to engage in more wrestling, hitting, jumping, pushing, and beating.

More recently, Harden et al. (2000) used Bronfenbrenner’s ecological framework to explore externalizing behavior problems among children enrolled in a suburban Head Start program and compared them with a subgroup of children with behavior problems in the clinical or borderline range. Children’s externalizing behavior was positively associated with internalizing behavior, parent psychological adjustment, child temperament, family environment, and exposure to community violence.

Yen and Ispa (2000) tested the hypothesis that curriculum type (Montessori and constructivist) moderates the impact of temperament (specifically, activity level and attention span and persistence) on the classroom behavior of 3- to 5-yearold children. A near-significant trend suggested that temperamentally active boys were more likely to be perceived by their teachers as having behavior problems if they were enrolled in Montessori programs than if they were enrolled in constructivist programs. An interesting finding was that attention span and persistence did not have any effect on the impact of the type of curriculum on children’s behavior. This is one of the few studies that explores the important question of the goodness of fit between specific types of curriculum and children’s temperament.

Stansbury and Harris (2000) conducted a study to ascertain whether standardized peer entry paradigm would produce stress responses in 38 3-year-olds and 25 4-year-olds and how such stress responses might correlate with temperament, approaches to peers, and peer competence as perceived by the children themselves. Four-year-olds were significantly less avoidant and were rated higher on the temperament trait of “approach.” They showed larger Hypothalamic-PituitaryAdrenal Cortical Axis (HPA) stress responses to new peers, and the disparity between self-reported peer competence and behavior in the peer-entry situation was associated with greater stress responses on a physiological measure. The researchers stressed the importance of examining discrepancies between self-perception and action in research on stress.

The need for the education of early childhood professionals about temperament was acknowledged in a study by Franyo and Hyson (1999) of the effectiveness of temperament training of early childhood caregivers. This study provided information about caregivers’ preexisting knowledge of temperament concepts and investigated the effect of educational workshops about temperament concepts. The findings were that without training, caregivers had heard about temperament but knew little about the specifics of the empirical findings. Without training, caregivers did not appear to have many ideas about how to achieve a goodness of fit by using behavioral management techniques, although this was an area in which they showed special interest. Encouragingly, caregivers were very accepting of the concept of temperament, and training sessions were effective in increasing their knowledge about temperament concepts. However, the investigators reported that there was no statistically significant evidence that the training was effective in improving the caregivers’ acceptance of children’s behaviors and feelings.

Implications for Further Research

Although these new efforts are encouraging, there continues to be a dearth of empirical research on the role of child temperament in early childhood group settings. Much more work remains to be done. There are many areas of child temperament research that have direct implications for early childhood education. The first of these is the direct education of caregivers and teachers about the origins and significance of individual differences in children’s behavioral styles so as to avoid misattributing all these differences to central nervous system dysfunction or parenting. Second, research is demonstrating that temperament has an impact on the way children experience, and affect, their environments. Active children are often criticized by staff for their restlessness when a programmatic modification may be in their interests. Children who need time to adapt to new situations require teachers who have the patience to help them overcome their period of hesitation (Soderman, 1985). There is particular concern about children whose temperaments challenge and frustrate caregivers and about peers who may be the recipients of rejection or neglect, leading to the development of secondary problems. More work is needed in formulating effective training programs that will bring about both significant attitudinal and behavior management changes in caregivers. This is particularly important in view of the fact that families of children with challenging temperament-related issues may seek assistance from ECE staff. Because there is often an overlap between this group of children and those diagnosed at school age with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder or oppositional defiant disorder, early intervention agencies should recognize that these children are at very high risk when the fit is poor and should be eligible for services under such circumstances (Andersen & McDevitt, 2000).

No less important than applying research about temperament risk factors is an appreciation of the fact that temperament traits can serve also as assets (Carey & McDevitt, 1995). Researchers would do well to explore how specific temperament traits may benefit children in their interactions with adult caregivers, with peers, and with the curriculum of ECE programs, and practitioners need to avoid automatically associating the word “temperament” with risk factors. Carey and McDevitt stated the key questions for the conduct of research on temperament in day care this way:

What kinds of children do better in what kinds of care arrangements? Does a child’s temperament influence his or her behavior with peers and child care professionals in the day care situation in the same ways as in the home? How can we deliver day care that best meets the needs of parents and children? What happens when there is a poor fit between the child’s characteristics and the handling provided by the day care facility? How is this dissonance best detected? Will the management principles that seem to work for parents in the home also prove effective in the day care setting? What do day care workers generally know about important mental health matters, including temperament differences? Where do they get such information, and how successfully do they apply it? What is the best way to augment such knowledge? What benefits can be demonstrated for its use? What are the consequences of day care workers not having this knowledge? For aggressive or non-compliant behavior, what management strategies beside time-out are suitable? How can parents and day care workers best collaborate for the well-being of the child? (Carey & McDevitt, 1995, p. 90)

Closing Thoughts on Child Temperament

The field of early childhood education has made great strides and, indeed, has demonstrated leadership in showing respect to cultural diversity among young children and their families and in serving as teachers of, and advocates for, young children with disabilities and social risk factors. A burgeoning body of empirical studies in a wide range of fields has led to a consensus that child temperament exists, can be reliably measured, and is an important and universal individual difference among infants and young children that can serve as an asset or create risk. Respecting diversity among young children must now be extended to respecting this diversity in behavioral style. Early childhood researchers and practitioners will undoubtedly rise to the challenge of the new millennium by absorbing and applying the substantial knowledge that has been accumulated about temperament in the past four decades. We can look forward to seeing further attention to this important variable in empirical studies, in personnel preparation, and in curricula and programming.

Programs and Quality in Early Childhood Education

Compensatory programs and early childhood special education.

The title of “father of the kindergarten” was given to Friedrich Froebel. If Froebel is granted this acknowledgement, then the title of mother of early childhood special education (ECSE) should be granted to Maria Montessori (1870–1952). Indeed, Montessori anticipated the broad sweep that the field would make across the spectrum of childhood experiences and needs. In 1901 she became the director of the “orthophrenic” school associated with the University of Rome, a former asylum for city children, most of whom were likely intellectually disabled or autistic. She mounted a campaign to reform the system that had previously confined these children to a life of isolation and neglect. Montessori understood the need they had for purpose in life, for stimulation and for achieving a sense of self-worth. Anticipating the modern ethos, Montessori emphasized the importance of showing respect to all children and of teaching them self-care skills as well as to observe and respect the world around them. Also foreshadowing current trends, Montessori took an interest in children who were at risk because they were poor.

An Overview of the History of Early Childhood Special Education

In 1907 Montessori began an experimental school in the poorest part of Rome to demonstrate that her educational methods could be effective with inner-city preschoolers who were not disabled. She also anticipated the contemporary approach to the field of ECSE by applying herself to a rigorous analysis of research on the education of the mentally handicapped, focusing on the work of two French doctors, Jean Itard and Edouard Seguin. Itard’s work with the Wild Boy of Aveyron brought into focus another constant theme in contemporary ECSE, the long-standing question of the relative weights of nature and nurture in children’s development. Seguin’s influence was to encourage Montessori in her already-strong belief in making education systematic and specific. Although many consider Seguin to be the father of special education, it is an irony of history that in North America Montessori’s influence was not felt in the education of young children with special needs as much as it was in the development of Montessori nursery schools for normal children of middle- and upper-middle-class parents.

Indeed, in most Western countries the early education of young children at risk for compromised development was a neglected field until shortly after World War II. Although each modern state has followed its own path in developing and expanding services for children at risk, the United States is unique in mandating these services—a mandate that has driven academic research as much as it has program delivery. As a result, much research on the education of young children at risk has been conducted in the United States, and it is therefore the American experience in the field that followed federal legislation that will be reflected, for the most part, in this section.

As was described in the opening section of this research paper, the theme of nature versus nurture was present in the earliest years of the field of early childhood education. The 1961 publication of McVicker Hunt’s Intelligence and Experience fueled a renewed emphasis on the role of environmental experience in cognitive development. In 1965 the U.S. federal government initiated the first Head Start program, a summer initiative to bring America’s poorest children into programs in which they would receive stimulation and nutrition and that would involve their parents in a broad-sweeping and early attempt to provide compensation for the known detrimental effects of poverty and social disadvantage on children’s development. These early short-term programs were followed by programs that were more intensive and broader in conceptualization. Consequently, by 1972 a mandated quota of 10% of children with disabilities in Head Start programs was established. And although the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142), passed in 1972, did not cover children from birth to 3 years of age, in time services for preschool-aged children were mandated, and standards and incentives for providing services to infants and toddlers were included. One outcome of international significance in the American legislation and experience has been the emergence of a unified discipline that subsumed all the early childhood risk factors under its umbrella: ECSE. This new field was heralded by the formation of the Division for Early Childhood as a subsection of the Council for Exceptional Children in 1973 (McCollum, 2000).

Early childhood special education is the branch of the field of early childhood education that addresses the diverse educational needs of children with disabilities and developmental delays. The field has also come to include children whose developmental risk was at first seen to arise from the disadvantage of being raised in certain family and sociocultural contexts. Although the term compensatory education has been used to describe the aim of programs attempting to make up for presumed deficits in children’s environments, many theorists now regard it as unreasonable to think in terms of a dichotomy between children with endogenous difficulties and those with problems arising from environmental factors. It has been known for some time now that many risk factors arising from social conditions, such as maternal ingestion of alcohol, are translated into biological problems in children. In addition, many genetic risk factors are triggered only in the presence of certain environmental conditions. Recent neurobiological research has confirmed the potentially devastating impact of social stresses on young children’s neurodevelopment. Recent medical research has also shown that the technologies that are used to sustain survival of very high risk infants may create additional disabilities in those children.

Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Early Childhood Special Education

The complexity of the difficulties that face contemporary young children is matched by the need for multidisciplinary academic inquiry informed by many specialties and with a knowledge base of evidence-based practices that are reproducible in a field that continues to be marginalized and underfunded. One consequence of the scope and diversity of needs in the field of ECSE has been a major effort, in past decades, in the development of a professional identity. McCollum (2000) discussed how, between 1976 and 1985, several related movements were influential in shaping the nature of ECSE. The development of empirically based systematic instruction, furthered by academic investigation based on current learning theories, came first. Second, attention to preventing school failure became a mandate of the states, and the beginnings of a relationship between early childhood education and ECSE were forged as attempts were made to identify those young children who might be in need of early intervention. Third, increasing attention was paid to the noninstructional roles of teachers as ecological theory began to influence the way that interventionists understood the importance of the social context of development. Finally, younger and younger children began to receive attention and intervention programs because infants and toddlers grew rapidly.

The impact of these diverse influences challenged the assumption that this new field was a branch of special education alone. As the influence of other specialties was brought to bear on the questions of how best to help young children whose development might not proceed well, the new field was increasingly being referred to not only in educational terms. In keeping with paradigm shifts that occurred in early childhood education in general, ecological perspectives transformed the way in which relationships between culture, society, family, and the individual child were construed. In addition, the vocabulary of health and human services became recognizable in the discourse of the field, which became more broadly known as early intervention. This term, which was formerly used exclusively to refer to a point of time in a clinical intervention, had now become a separate area of study and of practice. As Bailey (2000) has commented, in the past three decades the field of early intervention has grown rapidly from its inception to its current state of maturity.

As diverse as its origins were, it is to the credit of its leading thinkers that the field of early intervention has reached a remarkable consensus about its goals, methods, values, and achievements. This consensus, sharpened by the presence of self-critical dialogue within its ranks, is well demonstrated by the publication of two recent special issues of Topics in Early Childhood Special Education (TECSE) that present a compelling picture of the field as it stands today: Early Childhood Special Education in a New Century: Voices from the Past, Visions for Our Future, Parts 1 and 2. These papers provide rich and often personal historical accounts of issues as far-ranging as personnel preparation, remedial teaching, inclusion, new theoretical understandings, child care, social conditions, the role of governments in mandating services, methodological issues, interdisciplinary relations, and interventions for specific disabilities. Only some of the major themes of these special issues will receive attention here: (a) inclusion; (b) new theoretical and empirical influences, including a clearer conceptualization by Dunst of familycentered intervention as evidence-based practice; (c) lessons learned from the past; (d) current issues in personnel preparation; and (e) the impact of legislation on services.

The Principle and Practice of Inclusion

Zigler and Styfco (2000) pointed out that Head Start programs were deliberately segregationist at their conception. The idea was to provide special and separate programs for young children from disadvantaged environments. Although this practice effectively cut them off from opportunities to learn in the company of peers from wealthier backgrounds, at the time it was considered that these children would not otherwise attend community nursery schools. Rather, the motivation was to offer them enriching opportunities, including nutritional and health care, that could not be provided by their homes. Likewise, programming for young children with disabilities was equally separate because it was thought that community preschool teachers did not know how to teach them. The inclusion of young children with disabilities in regular preschool and day care programs began slowly, and with much resistance. It is of interest that inclusion is less often justified on empirical grounds than defended in terms of a philosophical position regarding the rights of children with disabilities to experience the same privileges as those without. The emergence of day care into the field of early childhood education added a new dimension to these issues as educational questions became intertwined with questions about custodial care and the needs of working parents.

Although there have been many separate rationales invoked from time to time as policy makers and trainers have sought to persuade communities to move toward the adoption of inclusive practices, Bricker (2000) reminded us that the movement was originally driven by a clearly formulated developmental integration approach, which emerged from examining the detrimental effects of institutionalization on young children. She commented that this was by no means a well-accepted notion at the time. Her account of the gradual acceptance of the principle of inclusion demonstrates how quickly a questioned idea becomes its opposite: “Perhaps the biggest change has been the shift in perspective of inclusion from an idea about how to improve services to young children with disabilities to a human ‘right’ that has become closely tied to important movements focused on social equality” (p. 17). She acknowledged that inclusion is still hotly debated despite an apparent consensus about its desirability, as evidenced by position papers put forth by organizations such as the Division of Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children. Bricker herself stated that

the continuing debate over inclusion will do well to focus on the reality of current parental choices when facing placement options for their children. For many parents, the debate raging at the philosophical level may be very different from the realities they face when deciding on a placement for their child. (p. 17)

On a more optimistic note, Odom (2000) argued that

thirty years of research and practice have produced a knowledge base that informs policy and practice. . . . [N]ow, more than any time in the past, we have a greater awareness of the type of support professionals can provide to create productive learning environments for children with and without disabilities and inclusive settings. With political will, local leadership, willing parents, and committed teachers, most young children with disabilities can benefit from inclusive settings. (p. 25)

It is noteworthy that Odom did not use the rather absolute statements—that inclusion benefits all children—that have entered the position papers put out by both professional and advocacy organizations.

The issues that surround the implementation of inclusion and the emergence in the next decades of large-scale research projects bring us to consider the strengths and struggles of the endeavor to subject early intervention programs to rigorous inquiry. The Head Start experience demonstrates how essential it is to consider how laudable programs can fail in the details of their implementation when errors are made early in their planning. Zigler and Styfco (2000) acknowledged the extent of the problems that surrounded Head Start from its inception: First was an exclusionary ethos, in which economically disadvantaged children were served separately from their peers from wealthier homes. This segregation extended to excluding those who were disabled until recent times. Second, the lack of a broad unitary goal in favor of a set of discrete objectives led to a misconception of Head Start as a cognitive enrichment program and a decreased emphasis on its original interest in social competence. The third problem was that programming was based on the questionable construct of school readiness. Finally, and perhaps most seriously, was lack of attention to quality. The first of these problems and the difficulties surrounding solutions to it were discussed earlier. The likelihood that topics of school readiness, social competence outcomes, and quality of programming will continue to be pressing issues in the field is acknowledged briefly here.

As researchers look at outcomes in diverse populations, they will be challenged to define common goals that should receive emphasis in the education of all at-risk young children. It is therefore of significance that the special issues of TECSE that were published in the summer of 2000 highlighted two interrelated themes: social competence and language development. In examining the question of social competence, Strain and Hoyson (2000) used research on social-skills intervention with children with autism to illustrate how increasingly sophisticated theoretical formulations of essential research-to-practice questions have produced gains in our ability to engender “rapid, occasionally sustainable, and socially meaningful changes in children’s social behavior” (p. 116). They identified four basic assumptions that historically have been used to determine the targets of intervention: (a) the notion that the difficulty with communication is intrinsic to the individual; (b) the notion that the individual has acquired the difficulty as a result of a long-standing interactional history; (c) the notion that dyadic interactions between children sustain the problem; and (d) the notion that the entire ecology of the child with special needs is responsible for altering its norms and the manner in which it structures opportunities for social interaction.

Arguing that none of these assumptions is sufficient to produce effective intervention, they described how a fifth assumption has led to a comprehensive research-to-practice model for children with autism in the past two decades: the LEAP program. The positive results of LEAP are presented to illustrate the potential of both short- and long-term positive benefits of interventions that are individualized and datadriven, have a generalization (transfer of skills) focus, maximize learning opportunities, and add a focus on family skills to the preschool intervention. These results identify the intensity of the intervention as a critical variable in yielding sustainable, long-term outcomes. One of their conclusions will likely be absorbed as the next generation of researchers attempts to achieve similar gains with other populations of children at risk:

The social interaction challenges presented by young children with special needs represent a complex, multivariate universe. That multivariate universe demands complex, longitudinal, intensive approaches—approaches holding greater promise for children and families but also greater challenges to our ways of designing, executing, and describing credible studies and longitudinal data sets. These are challenges worthy of all eager pioneers with a visionary spirit. (Strain & Hoyson, 2000, p. 121)

A complementary theme that emerges from Hart’s (2000) review of studies observing young children is the nature of the language interactions between children and their parents. As the field shifts from theory to data and back again, there is a constant return to children’s ecologies as the source of new understanding about how they learn. In reflecting on how much has been learned from observing the way children learn to express themselves in their conversations with their parents, Hart commented on the need for more information on the nature and extent of conversation between teachers and young children and between children and their peers in group environments. She discussed the challenges of group education in enhancing the ability of young children to express themselves:

Some teachers, like some parents, need more information concerning what children should be learning through play and how to arrange environments, materials, and activities that prompt and facilitate talking. Research is needed to add to interventions the power of engagement (Risley, 1977) and to design lowdemand environments (Wasik, 1970) that encourage children to talk when the only object is conversation. (p. 31)

New Theoretical Influences and Their Implications

The themes of social skills and communicative competence are not new to the field, but many argue that they still remain underemphasized in programming. Perhaps two of the most central, truly revolutionary theoretical and empirical influences facing the field in the next millennium are those emerging from brain research and those supporting the use of family-centered practices. New brain research is currently the political driving force behind many fresh initiatives for young children in North America (Greenspan, 1997; Shore 1997). It is of interest that despite its great press appeal, this paradigm is not widely heralded in the summer 2000 issues of TECSE as either the rationale for or the solution to the most pressing problems facing young children today. In fact, it is telling that Zigler and Styfco (2000) appear to be urging some caution in this regard as they reflect on the wildly exaggerated hopes that fueled the original Head Start programs: “Indeed, the current bandwagon that infant brains need constant stimulation for superior neural wiring and growth is the environmental mystique with a biological twist. . . . [T]he moral is that there is no quick fix for poverty and no magical treatment that will turn us all into Nobel laureates or Rhodes scholars” (p. 68).

Models stressing the importance of social processes as conceptualized by Vygotsky (1978) and of social contexts as conceptualized by Bronfenbrenner (1979) and his followers continue to hold sway. In his review and in anticipation of the “third generation” of research in the field, Dunst (2000) pointed to the intersection between children’s learning opportunities and parental supports as the pathway to instructional practices that are most likely to be development enhancing and reminded us that the influence of social support variables on parents’ contingent responses to children continues to draw empirical support. He calls for further research on natural learning opportunities provided by family and community life, reminding us that interventionists often have to more learn from families than they have to teach them.

Dunst’s (2000) social support paradigm links child developmental outcomes clearly to family-centered interventions. He pointed out that evidence-based, family-centered help giving is becoming more highly specified and can be divided into two central elements: relational and participatory. “Relational practices are a necessary condition for effective practitioner/ family transactions. . . . [T]hey are not sufficient for either strengthening family competence or promoting new capabilities. The latter has been found to be the case only when the family is an active participant in achieving desired outcomes” (pp. 100–101). Dunst acknowledged that his own interest in family-centered practices has become increasingly conceptual and empirical rather than philosophical: “I believe that a philosophically-based, family-centered approach is likely to run its course as a fad and is open to all kinds of criticism, as has recently occurred” (p. 97). He anticipated the continuance of third-generation research that establishes and describes the evidence that supports specific early family-centered intervention practices shaped by an evidence-based social support paradigm. As the field absorbs the impact of the hard data, practitioners will be increasingly asked to demonstrate, rather than discuss, the specific skills that emerge from this knowledge.

Current Issues in Personnel Preparation

McCollum (2000) stated that “between the late 1960s and the present, personnel standards and preparation opportunities have grown from no state certification in ECSE and no targeted preparation programs to widespread certification and many pre-service programs” (p. 80). By 1996 a set of published personnel standards were adopted by the Division of Early Childhood (DEC) and the NAEYC, and most states had some sort of certification for teachers of young children with disabilities. Credentialing programs had been set in place in many states, and ECSE programs at the university level became widely available. It is noteworthy that these events appear to be related directly to the United States legislated mandate described earlier, as there has not been a parallel growth in personnel preparation in countries such as Canada, where university-based ECSE courses are still something of a rarity (Andersen, 1999). However, even in the United States, personnel preparation has not kept pace with the expansion of services. This situation has led contemporary commentators to call for a renewed emphasis on this topic and for new training models that take account of important systemic changes. McConnell (2000) highlighted two such changes that she believed should receive special attention: The first is how both the content and the context of personnel preparation for those working at the preschool and primary levels should be altered given the inclusion of young children with disabilities in community settings. This new context calls for a revised understanding of the relationship of the early childhood educator to the early childhood special educator. The second change regards the delivery of services to infants and toddlers in the United States: The fee-for-service structure is driving a fragmented approach that is not in the interests of children and families. Regarding the latter, McConnell stated that few parents or practitioners are fully aware of the danger that this practice poses to the ability to provide integrated, family-centered interventions. In turn, this may lead to the loss of ECSE generalists and to their replacement by a service coordinator who lacks a solid foundation in child development. She called upon the field to protect children by more clearly defining its own identity and importance for their development.

Winton (2000) argued that the field has currently failed to implement what research has demonstrated needs to be done toimprovetheoutcomesforallyoungchildren.Shepositsthat the development of learning communities of multiple partners at multiple levels will help to create the shared vision and commitment from the community that will help to bridge this research-practice gap. She claims that this in itself is an empirically supportedapproach to personnel preparation, in spite of the very real barriers to its implementation. She suggested a series of small stepping-stones and identified some successful models as the pathway to this important destination.

The Impact of Legislation

Bailey (2000) stated that the field of ECSE in the United States would never have arisen in this fashion without the commitment of the U.S. government. He anticipated that the role of the federal government will now shift from its emphasis on legislated mandates to a more facilitative role, with more decision-making power being left in the hands of the states. He asserted that a strong federal presence will continue to be needed and anticipated the funding of large research projects of nationally representative populations.

Most contributors to these special summer 2000 issues of TECSE see legislated mandates as a positive measure but not without problems. Bruder (2000), in arguing that the field has not successfully fulfilled a commitment to the familycentered practices it espouses, suggested that the programmatic requirements under some sections of the legislation are complex and require more skills and knowledge of the theory than are currently held by state and local administrators. (This problem is complicated by the use of finance models made up of billable services created on a child-centered rehabilitation model rather than a family-centered approach.) She also saw categorical and discipline-specific funding streams as creating barriers to the implementation of truly familycentered services. Odom (2000), too, saw similar bureaucratic barriers to the effective implementation of inclusive practices, some of which arise from administrators’ misconception that inclusive programs cost more than traditional special education programs. Other barriers include policies over the manner in which funds are used: In some states money can be spent on tuition to permit a child with disabilities to spend some of his or her day in a community-based program; in other states this is not permissible. The allocation of special education teachers to nonspecialized settings is prohibited in some programs because the specialized teachers are paid out of special education funds. He regarded the flexibility with which administrators handle budgets as a key factor in overcoming these bureaucratic obstacles.

Although her discussion of the impact of federal legislation on personnel preparation is largely positive, McCollum (2000) stated that “the different paths taken by those interested in birth to 2 and in ages 3 to 8 after the passage of PL99457 was an unfortunate outcome of the new legislation” (p. 85). When states were permitted to use different agencies and different personnel requirements for the two age groups, a dual system of service and personnel preparation was enabled that created identity problems in the field. The field of ECSE was redefining its identity in relation to early childhood education and special education, with services delivered in educational settings; but with the younger group of infants and toddlers, professional identity was being reconceptualized through comparisons to noneducation disciplines. Indeed, the publications or organizations such as Zero to Three clearly demonstrate the influence of fields such as social work. As well some infant-parent intervention programs have adopted psychotherapeutic models from infant psychiatry. Corresponding with this divergence from the main discipline of ECSE, a number of systemic changes were occurring, complicating the question of personnel roles even further. In the same series, Smith (2000) discussed the need to shift efforts from the federal to the local level so that widespread community support, including fiscal support, will sustain and enhance the achievements begun with federal initiatives and legislation. Smith (2000) argues that communities need to be willing to invest tax dollars and to rethink social policy so that parents can spend more time at home. She also calls for greater respect for early childhood professionals and enhancement of the work environment and salaries so that the field will attract better qualified individuals.

Bailey (2000) noted that the role of the U.S. federal government was shifting from its emphasis on legislated mandates to a more facilitative role, with more decision-making power being left in the hands of the states. He asserted that a strong federal presence will continue to be needed and anticipated the funding of large research projects of nationally representative populations. Perhaps this is where the international field of early childhood education will feel the impact the most—as new research projects of sufficient scale and quality emerge that further our understanding of the impact of specific educational practices with targeted but representative groups of young children.

If the next decade will bring new large-scale studies with results that convince policy makers, there will continue to be a major challenge in bringing that knowledge to the field. Several authors of the special issue decried the researchpractice gap in ECSE. Bruder (2000), in particular, focused on the failure of trainers and agencies to adopt truly familycentered approaches, in spite of the substantial amount of evidence of its desirability and effectiveness. She also called for learning communities that can reform current efforts at personnel preparation “in which the norm is the use of ineffective training models (episodic, short-term workshops)” (p. 111). The learning communities that Bruder envisioned are ongoing, make use of technology such as Web sites and e-mail, and are founded on mentorship and distance education models. What is at stake when personnel are inadequately prepared is poignantly demonstrated by her use of three case studies of young children (one of whom is her own nephew) served dismally by intervention staff. About him, she stated, “I am as responsible as any for the shortcomings in our field that are currently impacting his life” (p. 108).

Bruder’s (2000) injection of a personal confession into the academicdiscourse is an appropriate noteon which to end this section.Itistothecreditofleadingearlyinterventiontheorists that in being invited to reflect on the state of the art of early intervention, they do not rest on their laurels. They stand united in recognizing that in spite of the very significant achievements of this fledging field, a great deal of work remains to be done to serve the growing numbers of young children in need of specialized and compensatory early childhood education.

Child Care and Early Childhood Education

The ecology of child care.

Beginning in the mid to late 1970s, a number of major changes in North America and other parts of the developed world began to have an impact on the provision of child care services and the nature of research that was conducted on child care. One major change was the sharp increase in the number and percentage of mothers of young children who worked in the paid labor force outside the home. For much of the century until this point, day nurseries were largely provided to low-income families either as part of governmental child welfare programs or by private philanthropists or religious organizations. Child care was now changing from its previous status as a welfare service for poor parents (who, it should be noted, were assumed to provide poor parenting to their children) to its emerging status as a family-support program for working parents in all income levels. Further, the programs were seen less as providing custodial baby-sitting and more as a setting in which young children’s early development could be stimulated and facilitated through appropriate kinds of learning activities and materials.

As pointed out in Belsky and Steinberg’s (1979) seminal literature review, another major change was the growing interest by researchers in what they referred to as modal child care programs as opposed to model programs. The model programs to which they referred tended to be situated in or affiliated with university settings. These programs tended to be well funded and staffed by well-educated professionals and to serve the children of university faculty, staff, and students. Questions began to be raised around the generalizability of findings drawn from these model programs to the more frequently used—or modal—community-based programs that tended to suffer from low and unstable funding and lower levels of staff training and that were not restricted to university-affiliated families.

Another shift was that researchers were increasingly critical of earlier studies that had reported that enrollment in child care programs could have a negative impact on motherinfant attachment patterns. Based largely on Ainsworth’s strange situation paradigm, these studies tended to focus on one-time observations of mother-infant interaction patterns in laboratory settings and typically included very little contextual data on the participants in these studies. Cross-cultural comparisons began to identify different patterns of motherchild attachment even within Western, developed countries (Lamb, 2001), calling into question the notion of a universal construct of attachment. Researchers began to examine attachment patterns within a broader range of child, maternal, family, and child care variables. The largest study of this kind was conducted by the National Institute of Child Health and Development (NICHD), a multisite study of 576 infant-mother dyads. While different patterns of attachment were found in this sample, none of the differences were attributable to the different kinds of child care arrangements in which the children participated (NICHD, 1994, 1996, 1998). In other words, there were no differences in the attachment patterns of children who were cared for by a parent in their own home or by a nonparent in a group care setting outside the home.

This shift in the attachment-related research reflected a significant shift in the nature of the research questions being posed by child care researchers. Much of the previous research on child care tended to focus on such main-effects questions such as, “Is child care good or bad for children?” This research tended to examine specific domains of child development with the child’s enrollment in a child care program as the only major independent variable. The emerging consensus was that it was not simply a child’s attendance in child care that impacted on that child’s development, but also the quality of the child care program in which the child was enrolled. Questions regarding the definition, measurement, and impact of quality child care have framed and guided much of the recent and current research. These programs of research have been guided very much by Bronfenbrenner’s (1979; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998) work on the ecology of childhood. Bronfenbrenner argued that a child’s development is influenced by a number of concentric systems within which the child lives and grows. The microsystem includes the immediate setting in which the child is found and the nature of the experiences and activities in those settings. The mesosystem is the network and relationships among the various microsystems in which the child participates (i.e., home, child care, swim lessons, etc.). The exosystem includes these two primary systems, but its impact on the child is mediated through other individuals and institutions. Exosystem variables include legislative and policy factors that determine licensing requirements, staff education requirements, funding mechanisms, and so on. All of these systems are embedded within what Bronfenbrenner called the macrosystem, which is the virtual space in which societies and communities articulate their beliefs, attitudes, and values toward public policy regarding children and families.

Structure and Process Variables in Child Care Quality

In short, then, instead of the main-effects question (“Is child care good or bad?”), researchers began to explore the ways in which different factors from different systemic levels interacted and to determine how that interaction of factors contributed to child care quality. A number of small-scale, local studies conducted in different parts of North America in the same time frame reported a consistent and complementary set of findings regarding both the structural and the process variables that impacted on child care quality. Structural variables are those standardized, quantifiable, and regulatable variables such as group size, the adult-child ratio, licensing auspice (nonprofit or commercial), and levels of staff education. These variables were found to be significant predictors of child care quality in different sociocultural contexts using similar instruments: Los Angeles (Howes, 1987); Victoria, British Columbia (Goelman & Pence, 1987); Bermuda (Phillips, McCartney, & Scarr, 1987); and Chicago (Clarke-Stewart, 1987).

These structural factors frame the child care experience for the children and the staff and provide actors a basic foundation on which process quality could then be constructed. The term process refers to the kinds of caregiving, facilitating, educating, and playing that go on within the structural framework.

Measures of process quality extended far beyond the strange situation laboratory procedures and examined the nature of adult-child and child-child interactions in the child care setting. Goelman and Pence (1987) observed the frequency with which children engaged in activities that promote positive developmental outcomes (i.e., emergent literacy, dramatic play, fine motor play) and activities that do not (i.e., excessive television watching). Adult-child interactions were observed by Howes (1987), Phillips et al. (1987), Clarke-Stewart (1987), and others who focused on such adult characteristics as sensitivity, receptivity, detachment, and punitiveness (see Table 13.3).

Thus, in contrast to the earlier generations of child care research, which treated child care as a uniform and universal treatment variable, researchers became much more keenly aware of the tremendous diversity that exists in the daily lives of adults and children in child care settings and of how the dynamics of those settings impact both the children and the adults. Perhaps the most consistent conclusion drawn from studies of quality in child is that the concept of quality is dynamic and does not rest on any one measure, scale, or quantifiable variable.

Toward a Predictive Model of Child Care Quality

The drawback to these smaller scale local studies was that while they represented careful analyses of child care in different communities, the small numbers of children and child care programs included in these studies put serious limitations on their interpretation and generalizability. In the 1990s, therefore, a new trend in child care research was to mount research studies that included larger numbers of children from larger numbers of communities in very distinct policy and jurisdictional contexts. For example, the U.S. National Staffing Study collected data from 643 child care rooms in urban and suburban communities in Arizona, Georgia, Massachusetts, Michigan, and Washington (Howes, Phillips, & Whitebook, 1992). The U.S. Cost Quality and Outcomes Study examined quality in 604 rooms in California, Colorado, Connecticut, and North Carolina (Hellburn, 1995). The CanadianYou Bet I Care! Project examined quality in 308 rooms in nonprofit and commercial infant-toddler and preschool centers in the provinces of New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia and in the Yukon Territory (Goelman, Doherty, Lero, LaGrange, & Tougas, 2000).Although the different studies used somewhat different sampling and instrumentation techniques, there is a strong and consistent pattern across all of these findings that both confirms and extends the findings from the earlier, smaller scale studies.

The quality of child care centers was found to be strongly linked to a combination of variables at the center, classroom, and teacher levels. Higher quality programs were found in centers that were operated as nonprofit organizations (as opposed to a commercial centers), with well trained staff both in terms of their overall levels of education and their levels of ECE-specific training. Group size and ratio provided the conditions for higher quality care, but the quality of care itself was found in distinct patterns of adult-child interaction. These patterns were characterized by heightened levels of sensitivity, responsiveness, and contingency on the part of child care staff and lower levels of punitive or detached patterns of interaction. Although it was important that the child care setting be well supplied and well stocked with developmentally appropriate materials, it was the training and education of the staff that determined whether these materials were used in the most appropriate manner. Michael Lamb (1998) summed up this body of research in this way:

Quality day care from infancy clearly has positive effects on children’s intellectual, verbal, and cognitive development, especially when children would otherwise experience impoverished and relatively unstimulating home environments. Care of unknown quality may have deleterious effects. (p. 104)

The identification of specific child care predictors can provide guidance and assistance to legislators, policy makers, and educators who deal with child care programs and the preparation of child care professionals. A closer look at the Canadian study (Goelman et al., 2000) suggests that whereas all of these are critical factors in child care quality, the responsibility for achieving these different quality criteria would fall to different groups of stakeholders. The quality criteria appear to fall into four distinct groups. The first group would be factors that are regulatable by local authorities: staff education levels, group size, and the adult-child ratio. Elsewhere we have argued at length for the primacy of training of staff both in terms of their overall education levels and their ECE-specific education levels (Goelman et al., 2000). Because the data from all of the studies just cited report that higher quality tends to be found in nonprofit centers than in commercial centers, there appears to be an implicit endorsement for regulatory statutes that encourage the creation of child care programs in the nonprofit rather than in the commercial sector. The establishment, implementation, and monitoring of these regulatable variables would help to provide the structural framework for quality.

A second set of variables consists of those that are related to the financial operation of the child care center. The critical financial factors were found to be staff wages, parent fees, and whether the center receives free or subsidized rent. All of these factors point to the financial vulnerability within which child care centers operate and the positive impact that is created when staff are well-compensated for their time. Subsidized or free rent helps to create additional funds that can be directed into salaries, in turn leading to lower levels of turnover. There appears also to be a set of administrative factors that can contribute significantly to child care quality. For example, the presence of student teachers from early childhood training programs has a number of positive effects on the life of the center. It assists with the adult-child ratios and brings highly motivated individuals into the center. The presence of studentteachers also helps to create a culture of inquiry and discourse among the student teachers, their supervising teachers, and their supervisors from the ECE training programs.

Finally, and as reported elsewhere, the Canadian study also found that specific attitudinal factors among the staff contributed to child care quality. Attitudes are difficult but important factors that cannot be regulated, factored into financial spreadsheets, or implemented as part of a novel administrative framework. Yet it appears that all of the three preceding categories of variables can contribute to the positive attitudes and levels of staff satisfaction that are so critical to the creation of a positive child care environment. A much-cited (but unsourced) quotation attributed to Albert Einstein claims that, “Not everything that can be counted counts. And not everything that counts can be counted.” Positive attitude may or may not be able to be assessed accurately, with validity and reliability, but the data suggest that when it can be identified, it provides a vital piece in the puzzle of quality child care.

What then, precisely, does this child care puzzle look like? Most studies of child care have relied on traditional analyses of variance, covariance, or multiple regression to bring statistical rigor to their arguments for including different and discrete pieces of the child care puzzle. Lamb (2001) and others have pointed out that in many of the child care studies the effect sizes tend to be very modest and the amount of variance accounted for is not overly impressive. Another challenge to data analyses is the determination of precisely how the variables interact. It is not clear, for example, whether the cumulative effect of these various predictors is additive, multiplicative, or exponential. For these reasons researchers are turning increasingly to more sophisticated and more powerful hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) techniques. In addition to identifying the discrete pieces of the child care puzzle, techniques such as path analysis can suggest the directionality of the paths. The metaphor of the puzzle, then, should be replaced with the image of an engine that has different parts, working together to move the vehicle forward.

Path analyses were applied to the data generated in the Canadian study (Goelman et al., 2000), and the resulting analyses identified a set of direct and indirect predictors of child care quality in rooms for infants and toddlers (0–35 months) and in rooms for 3- to 5-year-old children. Table 13.4 shows the seven direct predictors of quality in the preschool room, four staff predictors (staff wages, staff satisfaction, staff education, number of staff in the observed room), and three center predictors (whether the center receives free or subsidized rent, whether the center uses student-teachers, and the adult-child ratio in the observed room). These paths are shown graphically in Figure 13.1. The path analysis strongly suggests, however, a more complex interaction among these and other predictor variables. For example, although the auspice of the center and the parent fees were not found to be significant direct predictors of quality, their indirect impact on quality was found to be mediated through the direct predictors (see Figure 13.2). Auspice was a significant predictor of both staff wages and centers that received free or subsidized rent, both of which were found to be significant direct predictors. Parent fees were a significant predictor of wages and staff education levels, both of which, in turn, were direct predictors of quality. Finally, we note that two of the variables (staff education levels and number of staff in the observed room) served as both direct and indirect predictors of quality.

The role of child care in early childhood education continues to grow and evolve both as part of broader social and cultural changes in which the field is embedded and in terms of the practices and policies that determine the shape and content of child care programs. The demand for quality, licensed child care programs will continue to increase with the rising numbers of families with two working parents in the labor force and of single-parent families. We can expect the demand for infant child care to grow as part of this general trend. In addition, we are already witnessing an increasing demand for child care services and professionals who can respond appropriately to children with a wide range of special needs. This demand represents a challenge to create more spaces—and more appropriate spaces—for children with special needs, and a challenge to train more early childhood educators who have the skill set and knowledge base to work with young children who have special needs. At the policy level, schools, school boards, and training institutions will have to recognize that child care is no longer remedial service for poor children or a child-minding service for the children of working parents. Child care represents a major environmental niche for the majority of young children in industrialized societies, and it is in child care settings that children’s development can be facilitated and supported given the right combination of predictors of quality.

Closing Thoughts on Early Childhood Education at the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century

This research paper began with a brief reflection on how early childhood education was seen at the beginning of the twentieth century and then proceeded to discuss recent, current, and emerging areas of research and practice. The field continues both to deepen and to broaden its perspectives on the innate learning and developmental abilities of the young child and the ways in which those abilities are acknowledged and facilitated in the wide range of early childhood settings in which young children participate. The developing child represents his or her world through a variety of media, modalities, and disciplines including art, reading, writing, and music. Whereas the adult world divides the world of early childhood education into content or subject areas, it seems increasingly clear that it is that complex set of behaviors, insights, expectations, and explorations known collectively as play that is the major and overarching phenomenon that infuses, guides, and largely determines what and how children learn in their early years.

What currently captures the imagination and what drives the disciplined inquiry of ECE researchers are questions about how adults and learning environments facilitate the development of a more diverse population of children than had been the focus in earlier periods. This diversity includes, but is not limited to, children at both the highest and the lowest ends of the continuum of cognitive development, the social and linguistic needs of an increasingly multicultural and immigrant early childhood population, poor children, and children whose special needs are seen as problematic but more harder to diagnose and harder still to respond to.

Early childhood theorists, researchers, and practitioners have made significant strides by acknowledging the relevance of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems approach to the field of early childhood. It allows for the consideration of child actions and interactions in the microsystems where the children play, learn, and grow within the broader contexts of the legislative, regulatory, and societal values in which those immediate early childhood programs are embedded. The continuing challenge to the field is to find ways of operationalizing the ecological model in ways that inform and guide emerging areas of interest, research, and practice in early childhood education.

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40 Impressive Child Development Research Paper Topics
Social, personal and emotional development. Physical development. Literacy skills. Understanding the world around them. Communication and language. Therefore, if you want a top-rated child development research paper, start with these simple steps: Conduct thorough research on various aspects of child development.
Journal of Early Childhood Research: Sage Journals
The Journal of Early Childhood Research is a peer-reviewed journal that provides an international forum for childhood research, bridging cross-disciplinary areas and applying theory and research within the professional community. This reflects the world-wide growth in theoretical and empirical research on learning and development in early childhood and the impact of this on provision.
PDF Ten Current Trends in Early Childhood Education: Literature Review and
McCallops, K., Karpyn, A., Klein, J., & Jelenewicz, S. (April 2021). 10 Current Trends in Early Childhood Education: Literature Review and Resources for Practitioners. (T21-008). Newark, DE: Center for Research in Education and Social Policy. Center for Research in Education and Social Policy/Page 3 of 20.
A STUDY ON CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY STAGE
Early Childhood Development refers to the physical, cognitive, linguistic, and socio-emotional. development of a child from the prenatal stage up to age eight. This development happens in a ...
Early Childhood Research Quarterly
About the journal. (ECRQ) publishes research on and from birth through 8 years of age. ECRQ publishes predominantly empirical research (quantitative or qualitative methods) on issues of interest to early childhood development, theory, and educational practice. The journal also occasionally publishes practitioner and/or policy perspectives and ...
Advancing Early Childhood Development: from Science to Scale 1
In this paper, the first in a three part Series on early childhood development, we examine recent scientific progress and global commitments to early childhood development. Research, programmes, and policies have advanced substantially since 2000, with new neuroscientific evidence linking early adversity and nurturing care with brain ...
Early childhood development: an imperative for action and measurement
It is estimated that, in 2010, at least 249 million (43%) children under the age of 5 years in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) were at risk of poor early childhood development (ECD) as a consequence of being stunted or living in extreme poverty. 7 This loss of potential is costly for individuals and societies.
PDF Child Development and Early Learning: A Foundation for Professional
The developmental window (rapidity of brain development during early child-hood). The brain develops through a dynamic interaction between underlying biologi - cal processes and exposures and experiences in the environment. This process begins at conception and continues throughout life. During a child's early years, the brain
Early Childhood Education: The Long-Term Benefits
Results. The results section is divided into three areas for analyses: (1) academics, (2) social skills, and (3) attitudes toward school. All three areas are deemed important because past research has indicated that the long-term benefits from a quality preschool program are academic, social, and attitudinal.
Research
Advances in Understanding Child Development and Learning: Through a Lens of Equity. This issue of Young Children highlights key child development concepts, such as agency and funds of knowledge, emphasizing the need to deepen our knowledge of child development and learning through a lens of equity. Article. Young Children. June 1, 2023. Viewpoint.
160 Best Child Development Research Topics and Ideas
The Child Development Research Paper is an academic paper that focuses on various topics that are related to the growth process of a child right from birth to adulthood. In general, the study of child development deals with the growth aspects of a child mentally, socially, and physically in each development stage such as newborn, infant ...
100 Exiting Child Development Research Topics
Early Child Development Topics. Talking about infants and toddlers can be very interesting, especially if you manage to find a great topic. Choose one of these early child development topics and start writing your paper right away: Stages of toddler mental development. How much time should you spend with your small child? The importance of ...
178 Current Child Development Research Paper Topics For 2023
Here are some child development project topics you could try: Research asynchronous development. A project on physical growth. A project on gender role. A project on language and communication. Talk about the effects of malnutrition. Postnatal depression and child development.
Early Childhood Education: Academic and Behavioral Benefits of
One often-discussed topic is the optimal age to begin early childhood education. Barnett (1995, 2008) reviewed more than 30 studies and found that early childhood education to be positive for children living in poverty. Most individuals realize that the benefits of early childhood education exist, but the extent of those benefits and benefit ...
InBrief: The Science of Early Childhood Development
The science of early brain development can inform investments in early childhood. These basic concepts, established over decades of neuroscience and behavioral research, help illustrate why child development—particularly from birth to five years—is a foundation for a prosperous and sustainable society.
199+ Child Development Topics [Updated]
Tips To Follow For Writing Child Development Research Paper. Writing a research paper on child development requires careful planning and consideration of various factors. Here are some tips to help you successfully navigate the process: Choose a Specific Topic: Select a narrow and focused topic within the broad field of child development. This ...
Topics
Find research-based resources, tips and ideas for families—from child development to reading, writing, music, math, and more! ... Explore key early childhood topics such Developmentally Appropriate Practice, play, and math. ... and math. Blog. Stay up-to-date on issues in early childhood education and hear perspectives from a wide range of ...
315 Child Development Research Topics & Essay Examples
Development. "Baby Milestones: 24-36 Months". Psychology essay sample: The investigation of behavior in this essay will provide an analysis of the development and behavior of a two to a three-year-old child based on the video "Baby Milestones". Piaget's Work and Legacy in Child Development.
Research on early childhood mathematics teaching and learning
This paper reports an overview of contemporary research on early childhood mathematics teaching and learning presented at recent mathematics education research conferences and papers included in the special issue (2020-4) of ZDM Mathematics Education. The research covers the broad spectrum of educational research focusing on different content and methods in teaching and learning mathematics ...
Qualitative Research in Early Childhood Education and Care
In fact, the strengths of qualitative ECEC research are many, and their importance for government, considerable. Qualitative research has been done in all aspects of ECEC operations and policies, from coordinating mechanisms at a national level (OECD, 2006), curriculum frameworks (Office for Children and Early Childhood Development, 2008), and determining the critical elements of preschool ...
207 Early Childhood Education Research Topics & Essay Examples
The Illinois Early Learning Project is anchored on the ability of children to be alert to sights, sounds, abstract objects, and concepts that make children explorers. Assessments in Early Childhood Education. This essay provides insight into various assessments and methods required to focus on the whole child.
Early Childhood Education
Explores multiple aspects of early childhood education. Skip to Main Content ... 81 books, and numerous education-related conference papers. Tutorial for the Education Research Complete database. ... This resource guide is designed to help families and providers find information about the following child development topics: developmental ...
Understanding Early Intervention and Early Childhood Special Education
This study employed a survey to examine how familiar early interventionist/early childhood educators, who serve young children aged birth to eight, seek information on evidenced -based practices (EBP) prior to implementing a practice. This study also explored methods that educators use and prefer to access information about EBPs.
Study underscores the need for new early childhood education
A recent Early Learning Network study, led by researchers at the University of Michigan, MDRC and the Harvard Graduate School of Education in partnership with Boston Public Schools (BPS), adds valuable evidence to improving future early childhood education assessments of quality — an essential step for shaping effective practices and ...
Early Childhood Education Research Paper
Closing Thoughts on Early Childhood Education at the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century. This research paper began with a brief reflection on how early childhood education was seen at the beginning of the twentieth century and then proceeded to discuss recent, current, and emerging areas of research and practice.
Data on Singapore longitudinal early development study (SG-LEADS
The Singapore Longitudinal Early Development Study (SG-LEADS) seeks to understand factors that can enhance or hinder Singaporean children's early childhood development with an aim to inform public policies that can help each child reach his or her potential. SG-LEADS is a nationally representative household survey that focuses on Singaporean households with children aged 0-6 at the baseline ...

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Early childhood development: an imperative for action and measurement at scale

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