research problems in psychology

Identifying Research Problems: The Foundation of Psychological Studies

Table of Contents

Have you ever been struck by a sudden curiosity about why we behave the way we do or how our minds work? Psychology , the study of the mind and behavior, begins with such questions. But how does a simple question or a moment of curiosity turn into a full-blown psychological study? The secret lies in the crucial first step of research: identifying the problem. Let’s dive into the intriguing process of shaping a simple query into a research problem that can lead to groundbreaking discoveries in the field of psychology.

What is a research problem in psychology?

At its core, a research problem in psychology is a clear, concise statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice. It pinpoints what the researcher intends to understand, explore, and address. This step is not merely about finding a topic; it’s about framing a specific problem that is researchable, focused, and significant within the realm of psychology.

The art of asking the right questions

Identifying a research problem starts with asking the right questions. These should not be random or too broad; they must be specific and direct. A question like “Why do people dream?” is a start, but it’s too vague for a research study. Refining the question to “How do the dreams of people with insomnia differ from those of regular sleepers?” sets a more precise trajectory for research. It’s this specificity that helps researchers avoid the pitfalls of ambiguity and paves the way for a clear research pathway.

Understanding and rephrasing the problem

Once a tentative question is in place, the next step is to understand and rephrase it into an analytical statement. This involves breaking down the question into smaller, more manageable components and examining it from various angles. For instance, “What is the relationship between social media usage and self-esteem in teenagers?” can be broken down into measurable variables like the amount of time spent on social media and quantifiable aspects of self-esteem.

Key considerations in evaluating a research problem

• Feasibility : Is the research problem manageable within the constraints of time, resources, and researcher expertise?
• Relevance : Does the problem have theoretical and practical significance?
• Originality : Is the problem unique, offering new insights, or does it fill a gap in existing research?

Identifying gaps in knowledge

A research problem often arises from an identified gap in the existing literature. Researchers spend considerable time reviewing academic papers, books, and other sources to understand what has already been studied and where the knowledge voids are. By identifying these gaps, researchers ensure that their work contributes something new to the field and builds upon previous findings.

How to spot a gap in research

• Look for areas with conflicting findings and propose a study to resolve the disparities.
• Consider under-researched populations or variables that have not been thoroughly explored.
• Notice recommendations for future research in existing studies, as these often point to gaps.

Setting the direction of the study

Once a research problem has been identified, it sets the direction for the entire study. It determines the research design, the methods of data collection, and the analysis techniques to be employed. A well-defined problem leads to a focused research question, which in turn guides the development of hypotheses and the selection of variables to be tested.

Challenges in articulating research questions

• Ensuring the question is neither too broad nor too narrow to research effectively.
• Striking a balance between ambition and the practicalities of conducting the study.
• Translating a general interest in a topic into a structured research question that can be systematically investigated.

Laying the groundwork for focused investigation

Identifying the research problem is not just an academic exercise; it’s the foundation upon which the entire study is built. It directs the focus, energy, and resources of the researcher and sets the tone for a disciplined approach to investigating psychological phenomena. A clear research problem is like a compass, guiding the researcher through the complexities of the human mind and behavior.

Tools for defining the research problem

• Literature Reviews : Comprehensive overviews of existing research that can highlight what’s been done and what’s left to explore.
• Brainstorming Sessions : Collaborative discussions that can spur innovative ideas for research problems.
• Consulting Experts : Engaging with supervisors or authorities in the field to refine and validate the research problem.

Identifying the research problem is a vital process that lays the groundwork for any successful psychological study. It’s the step where curiosity is transformed into a structured inquiry. This foundation influences every aspect of the research, from the development of the hypothesis to the final analysis of data. Without a well-defined problem, research can become a rudderless ship, lost in the vast sea of potential investigation.

What do you think? Have you ever considered what it would be like to identify a research problem of your own? What areas of psychology would you be curious to explore, and what specific questions would you ask?

How useful was this post?

Click on a star to rate it!

Average rating 0 / 5. Vote count: 0

No votes so far! Be the first to rate this post.

We are sorry that this post was not useful for you!

Let us improve this post!

Tell us how we can improve this post?

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Submit Comment

Research Methods in Psychology

1 Introduction to Psychological Research – Objectives and Goals, Problems, Hypothesis and Variables

• Nature of Psychological Research
• The Context of Discovery
• Context of Justification
• Characteristics of Psychological Research
• Goals and Objectives of Psychological Research

2 Introduction to Psychological Experiments and Tests

• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Extraneous Variables
• Experimental and Control Groups
• Introduction of Test
• Types of Psychological Test
• Uses of Psychological Tests

3 Steps in Research

• Research Process
• Identification of the Problem
• Review of Literature
• Formulating a Hypothesis
• Identifying Manipulating and Controlling Variables
• Formulating a Research Design
• Constructing Devices for Observation and Measurement
• Sample Selection and Data Collection
• Data Analysis and Interpretation
• Hypothesis Testing
• Drawing Conclusion

4 Types of Research and Methods of Research

• Historical Research
• Descriptive Research
• Correlational Research
• Qualitative Research
• Ex-Post Facto Research
• True Experimental Research
• Quasi-Experimental Research

5 Definition and Description Research Design, Quality of Research Design

• Research Design
• Purpose of Research Design
• Design Selection
• Criteria of Research Design
• Qualities of Research Design

6 Experimental Design (Control Group Design and Two Factor Design)

• Experimental Design
• Control Group Design
• Two Factor Design

7 Survey Design

• Survey Research Designs
• Steps in Survey Design
• Structuring and Designing the Questionnaire
• Interviewing Methodology
• Data Analysis
• Final Report

8 Single Subject Design

• Single Subject Design: Definition and Meaning
• Phases Within Single Subject Design
• Requirements of Single Subject Design
• Characteristics of Single Subject Design
• Types of Single Subject Design
• Advantages of Single Subject Design
• Disadvantages of Single Subject Design

9 Observation Method

• Definition and Meaning of Observation
• Characteristics of Observation
• Types of Observation
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation
• Guides for Observation Method

10 Interview and Interviewing

• Definition of Interview
• Types of Interview
• Aspects of Qualitative Research Interviews
• Interview Questions
• Convergent Interviewing as Action Research
• Research Team

11 Questionnaire Method

• Definition and Description of Questionnaires
• Types of Questionnaires
• Purpose of Questionnaire Studies
• Designing Research Questionnaires
• The Methods to Make a Questionnaire Efficient
• The Types of Questionnaire to be Included in the Questionnaire
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaire
• When to Use a Questionnaire?

12 Case Study

• Definition and Description of Case Study Method
• Historical Account of Case Study Method
• Designing Case Study
• Requirements for Case Studies
• Guideline to Follow in Case Study Method
• Other Important Measures in Case Study Method
• Case Reports

13 Report Writing

• Purpose of a Report
• Writing Style of the Report
• Report Writing – the Do’s and the Don’ts
• Format for Report in Psychology Area
• Major Sections in a Report

14 Review of Literature

• Purposes of Review of Literature
• Sources of Review of Literature
• Types of Literature
• Writing Process of the Review of Literature
• Preparation of Index Card for Reviewing and Abstracting

15 Methodology

• Definition and Purpose of Methodology
• Participants (Sample)
• Apparatus and Materials

16 Result, Analysis and Discussion of the Data

• Definition and Description of Results
• Statistical Presentation
• Tables and Figures

17 Summary and Conclusion

• Summary Definition and Description
• Guidelines for Writing a Summary
• Writing the Summary and Choosing Words
• A Process for Paraphrasing and Summarising
• Summary of a Report
• Writing Conclusions

18 References in Research Report

• Reference List (the Format)
• References (Process of Writing)
• Reference List and Print Sources
• Electronic Sources
• Book on CD Tape and Movie
• Reference Specifications
• General Guidelines to Write References

Share on Mastodon

Research Topics

Cutting-edge research into the workings of the human mind

Our faculty conducts scientific research on topics that span across all areas of psychology. Some themes of research concentration are listed below. Click the topics to see the list of department faculty associated with each theme.

Addictive Behaviors

Computational Approaches

Decision Science

Developmental Approaches

Interventions

Learning & Memory

Mathematical Cognition

Meaning & Mental Representation

Motivation & Emotion

Neuroimaging

Plasticity & Change

Psychopathology & Risk

Reasoning & Problem Solving

Self & Identity

Self-Regulation & Control

Social Cognition

Stereotyping & Stereotype Threat

Vision Science

Words & Categories

The Grand Challenges of Psychological Science

• Communication
• Environment
• Interdisciplinary
• Psychological Science
• Replication
• Social Behavior

Globalization and diversity

• Research integrity and applicability
• Collaboration across fields and disciplines

Climate change

• Communication, polarization, and public trust
• Strengthening theory—and the road ahead

In October, APS invited members to share what they consider to be the “grand challenges” psychological science must address in the coming years. Our goal was to illuminate worrisome fault lines within the discipline, strengthen the field’s collective impact, and draw attention to how scientific psychology can more effectively inform public policy and advance human welfare. We reached out to members around the world, aiming for a collective response that reflects the diversity of experiences and opinions within the multidomain world of psychological research. 

Well over 100 of you responded, weighing in from every continent and representing every stage of your careers, from graduate school to more than 50 years postdoctorate. Although respondents were disproportionately White, North American, and male, your concerns were global and inclusive, touching on matters from rigor and relevance to stronger engagement of scientists, policymakers, the media, and society broadly. Many of you identified several overlapping challenges, along with detailed lists of priorities. Some of you suggested future directions for the discipline, whereas others aimed your recommendations squarely at APS. You expressed equal measures of skepticism and hope.  

In this article, we spotlight some of the consensus issues that surfaced, excerpting some responses and paraphrasing others. Though we can’t include every response, APS is taking them all to heart and will continue to do so as we move through our long-term strategic planning process.    

On behalf of APS to all of our members—especially those who responded to this challenge—we are deeply grateful for your time, thoughts, and commitment to psychological science.

Discussions of psychological science’s need for greater support of and engagement with researchers outside of Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) parts of the world emerged again and again in your responses, amplifying the three-part “Psychological Science Needs the Entire Globe” series that concludes in this issue of the  Observer . Carryl Baldwin, a cognitive psychologist at Wichita State University, offered a particularly succinct analysis: “We need to broaden our science to facilitate a decolonization approach that recognizes and includes perspectives and contributions from people outside of WEIRD societies.” 

Experimental psychologist Braj Bhushan of the Indian Institute of Technology framed the challenge in historic terms. “Since [Wilhelm] Wundt’s effort to kickstart scientific psychology in 1879, the scientific endeavor of psychological science is 138 years old now. However, the scientific temper of the field is not homogeneous across different geographical areas,” he wrote. “Experimental study of indigenous concepts and their dissemination through academic journals of repute remains a challenge. This, in turn, hampers fostering diversity that the area should really have. The lack of funding for carrying out timely research is another bigger challenge in many countries. The availability of technology, tools, and techniques for research is highly skewed across the globe.” 

APS Fellow Susan Cross, a personality/social psychologist at Iowa State University, elaborated: “The field of psychology MUST grapple with and develop much more extensive knowledge, theories, and research literature on cultural variation in psychological phenomena.” Doing so, she proposed, will require funding to help scholars recruit more diverse, global samples; more training of journal editors to recognize and value strong cross-cultural research; development of methods and tools that enhance cross-cultural collaboration; the inclusion of indigenous scholars able to question and replace “dominant theories, methods, and data that are biased by Western ideals, values, and beliefs”; and “humility and an ability to think outside one’s cultural and disciplinary constraints on the part of Western researchers.” Means toward these ends include cross-national partnerships among psychological associations to create networks, share information, and inform researchers of opportunities to collaborate. “We must become a more global science or we will consign ourselves to irrelevance.” 

English-language proficiency is another obstacle, Bhushan noted. “Even those authors from the non-English-speaking countries who have published in international journals keep receiving comments about the quality of language in the review reports.” He suggested “an inclusive program” of continuing education as one way to help level the playing field in terms of language. 

Why does any of this matter? “Taken together, the lack of representation and of transparency greatly threaten both the internal and external validity of our research,” wrote clinical neuropsychologist Luis D. Medina, University of Houston. “As our society becomes increasingly diverse across multiple domains, our observations, constructs, tools, and other products of our research—largely reliant on data from a limited subset of the global population—will become increasingly limited, or even irrelevant.” Consequently, “rather than working toward better understanding of human psychology and the reduction of human suffering, our field will continue contributing to the perpetuation of health disparities.” 

Related content from this issue:  

• Psychological Science Needs the Entire Globe, Part 3 : Let’s Talk About the “C” Word: Colonialism and the Challenges of Psychological Science in the Developing World.
• On the Right Side of Being Wrong : Researchers are embracing a new culture of transparency. 
• Exploring the Mysteries of Self and Consciousness : The myriad ways consciousness influences the highs and lows of human experience.
• Fully Credited : A new model of “contributorship” addresses the marginalization of early-career researchers in scientific publications. 
• Up-and-Coming Voices : Previews of emerging research on methodology and research practices 

Representation extends beyond geography, too. “We must grapple with the White- and male-centric nature of our discipline, making it a priority to listen to our colleagues (and participants) who seek more voice at the table,” wrote APS Fellow Gordon Hodson, a social psychologist at Brock University in Canada. “This will require cultural humility, epistemic inclusion, and the decentering of the default White and European/American ways of knowing and making decisions about the direction of our discipline. Of course, those with power or cultural primacy rarely relinquish it without resistance, and academic psychology will likely be no exception,” he added. “Here, psychology would be well advised to turn to many of our sister disciplines who have made headway on these issues.” 

APS Fellow Douglas MacDonald, an associate professor at University of Detroit Mercy, advised “addressing inequities within the psychological scientific community in terms of race/ethnicity, sex and gender, and socioeconomic differences. This should take the form of improved representation on editorial boards and more equitable practices in the evaluation and publication of research by scholars of different backgrounds and countries.” 

Community/social psychologist Crystal Steltenpohl, of Dartmouth College’s Center for Program Design and Evaluation, pinpointed the field’s need to overcome a “reliance on old measures of prestige as a way of determining a researcher’s value.” She mentioned challenges such as “lack of support for undergraduate education, especially at smaller regional schools,” and, in the context of graduate education, “the assumption that all students are going to or should want to become academics.”   

“We need to adjust our frames around the radical authenticity movement of gender identity, too,” said Erica Kleinknecht, a cognitive scientist at Pacific University. “According to a recent study, 20+% of Gen Z individuals from LGBTQ+ spaces identify as nonbinary, and when they come into intro psych where print materials still conflate sex and gender into binary divisions, we are making ourselves irrelevant to them. The 20th-century binary frame is wrong, and we need to move beyond it.”  

To all these ends, APS Fellow Brian Carpenter, a clinical psychologist at Washington University in St. Louis, wrote that “psychological science needs to address the origins of and solutions for prejudice, discrimination, and intolerance of differences related to gender, race, national origin, age, sexual orientation, and other facets of identity and experience.”

Return to Top

Research integrity and applicability 

Many APS members prioritized psychological science’s significant concerns with replicability and the sometimes dubious real-world applicability of research. “The biggest challenge that psychological science must address is to increase its rigor, reproducibility, and generalizability ,” wrote APS Fellow Tom Beckers, an experimental psychologist at KU Leuven. “The change in research culture that is needed for this has already started to take hold but is very fragile still.” Granted, other sciences face similar predicaments. “Fields ranging from economics to biomedicine are grappling with similar issues about research integrity and rigor,” wrote freelance writer Scott Sleek in an article about the emerging culture of data sharing and self-correction (see “On the Right Side of Being Wrong”). “But psychological science has stood out for the breadth of its self-correction initiatives.” 

Retired experimental psychologist Harold Miller, Brigham Young University, was unsparing in his summation. “Beginning in 2015 or so with the publication in top-tier scientific journals of failures to replicate reports of earlier research published in prestigious psychology journals, the discipline has worn a black eye,” he wrote. “Attempts to counter this trend took the form of long-overdue, broad-based recommendations for replacing long-standing traditions of peer review and editorial decision-making that were now seen as hopelessly biased. Calls for the preregistration of research proposals, the publication of negative results as a matter of course, and the disclosure of potential conflicts of interest by researchers, among other proposed remedies, appeared and were increasingly embraced as standard practices.” Amid these promising indicators, however, Miller noted “discomfiting counterindications, such as appeared in a recent  Psychological Science —namely, a report that the original articles subsequently discredited as unreplicable still receive the lion’s share of citation.” 

Righting the ship may require rethinking the basics, many APS members opined. “It is not clear to me that psychology can continue to call itself a science when most of those practicing it do not know the fundamental methods or statistics of the field,” wrote APS Fellow Pamela Davis-Kean, of the University of Michigan. “When the story outweighs any evidence—then we are just philosophy and squarely in the humanities. We will continue to be challenged with poor training in methods and statistics, poor theory, unvalidated measures, tenure incentive being stronger than scientific integrity, and an aging field that values big names more than rigorous science.”  

MacDonald identified “inconsistencies in best practices with respect to executing research in a transparent/open, ethical, and rigorous manner. There is a need for improved training of scientists that includes improvements in teaching what questionable research practices are and how they can be avoided.”  

“We need to become more of a science, valuing incremental contributions and robust findings (even if they are not surprising or flashy),” wrote Heather Kappes, a personality/social psychologist at the London School of Economics and APS’s Visiting Behavioral Insights Scholar (see Kappes’s “Notes From a Scholar” series ). “This probably means teaching and training in a range of techniques that are only lightly used at present, including things like computational modeling and qualitative methods. We should be trying to publish fewer papers, but being more careful with each that we do publish.” To that point, developmental psychologist Royette Dubar, of Wesleyan University, called out “the increased pace of publishing at the expense of quality research” and called for “more opportunities to publish (and value) nonsignificant findings that are based on sound theoretical and methodological designs.” 

APS Fellow Elizabeth Hayden (University of Western Ontario), who studies developmental psychopathology, remarked that “invalid measurement practices contribute much more heavily to replication problems than people appreciate,” at least in her subdiscipline. “Most of our theories of etiology of psychopathology are based on a research literature that has drawn upon measurement practices that don’t meet modern standards for psychometric development and are developmentally insensitive. I don’t think open science practices can accomplish much without better measures,” Hayden added. “We should be spending more time on measurement development and validation and less time testing etiological models until we know we’re measuring what we want to, reliably and validly.” 

Christopher Green, a quantitative psychologist at York University, proposed a three-step corrective course. “(1) We must correct the misuse (including rampant overuse) and the widespread misinterpretation of the meaning of null-hypothesis significance testing. (2) We must greatly improve the state of statistical training that psychology students receive. (3) We must expand the statistical (and, more generally, mathematical) tool kit with which psychologists are familiar and comfortable. We don’t need ever-more-elaborate statistical methods to be misused by researchers who were not adequately prepared to use them correctly. Instead, we need to teach the basics much better.”  

How about asking tougher questions and allowing scientific facts to speak for themselves—even if they may be unpopular? “In my long career, I have watched the precarious balance between ideology and science as it teeters one way, then another,” wrote APS Fellow Carol Tavris, a social psychologist in Los Angeles, California. “At its best, science has been able to overturn, or at least slow, pernicious fads (e.g., recovered memory therapy) and benign but wrong theories (e.g., that women reason ‘in a different voice’). Today, I fear that the greatest challenge for psychological science is maintaining our emphasis on science, even when its findings question the current ideologies of race, gender, and social justice.”  

As an example, Tavris wrote that “scientific evidence and ‘rigor’ are increasingly seen as the villains in the war against racism—if research doesn’t show what we want it to, it must be racist, worthy of being silenced and its promoters shunned. This is a tragically misguided belief…. I hope that APS will hold the line for competent, peer-reviewed research and debate.” 

On a more hopeful note, cognitive scientist Laird Edman, Northwestern College, sees the replication crisis as “a sign our science is maturing—we have the opportunity to refine our methods and make our science much better by adopting open science methods. However, we also need to understand the limits of our science and have the intellectual humility to embrace a sophisticated epistemology and philosophy of science. Too many psychological scientists are naïve logical positivists but are unaware of how that epistemological position is untenable and long outdated … Developing a science that is more rigorous and more modest at the same time will serve us well and allow us to grow and give away our science better than we have in the past.”

Collaboration across fields and disciplines  

For years, APS leaders have called for psychological scientists to collaborate across geographic and disciplinary borders and, as current  APS President Jennifer Eberhardt  wrote in this magazine, to get “more of the science into the world and more of the world into the science.” APS members echoed these sentiments in their responses. 

APS Fellow Paul van Lange, a professor of social psychology at VU Amsterdam, identified behavioral economics and ecological and evolutionary science as fields within and outside of psychology that would benefit from a more integrated approach. “Thinking of the movie  Toy Story , and the charming character Buzz Lightyear in particular, we need to cross borders—to the future, to the entire world, and beyond,” he wrote. Crossing borders “helps us understand the connection between psychological processes, the focus of the past decades, and the broader context.” 

Weighing in from the University of Porto and the biological/neuroscience field, Fernando Ferreira-Santos wrote that “psychological science is, perhaps, the hardest science. Psychological phenomena only emerge when complex biological systems with a long evolutionary history go through a protracted period of ontogenetic development embedded in intricate sociocultural contexts. This means that psychology must be a natural science, branching out of biology and neuroscience, but also a social science, attuned to the systems described by anthropology, sociology, and economics, among other disciplines.” 

Kleinknecht characterized the challenges in historic and demographic terms. “With increasing interdisciplinary work that crosses over conventional subfields, our modern scientific discoveries do not neatly fit in the 20th-century frameworks laid out in most textbooks,” she wrote. “With three generations in the workforce, there are three different worldviews about psychology influencing our practices. My boomer colleagues who were trained in the era/aftermath of behaviorism view our field differently than Millennials. Gen X psychologists were taught in the postbehaviorism era but are teaching Gen Z students. They have to go through a complete about-face as they reconcile how to handle history, bring in modern science findings, and explain away the archaic organization of our textbooks.” 

“The way that research projects are so often independently organized by lab and faculty members—and often hidden—is detrimental to the goals of science as a whole,” wrote Manon Ironside, a graduate student at the University of California, Berkeley. “We need more centralization, more collaboration, less of a model that elevates the authority of individual researchers and promotes individual achievement. It is likely that in order for meaningful change to take place in this domain, the incentive structure around publication would need to shift,” she added. “We need more of an emphasis on building the tools to do great science, less of an emphasis on product—especially during the earlier training years, like during the PhD. If this doesn’t change, people will continue to organize projects haphazardly, and psychology labs will remain insular and idiosyncratic, leaving the field open to continued replication crises and away from progress we could make by putting more emphasis on collaboration.”

As a basic matter of societal survival, addressing climate change stood out among the priorities of APS members in every generational cohort. “In my list of top 10 priorities for urgent research, application, and outreach attention, climate change would occupy Positions 1, 2, and 3, and probably a couple more slots as well,” wrote Geoff Cumming, a retired APS Fellow and quantitative psychologist from La Trobe University. “So many other urgent priorities, such as food supply, severe weather events, inequality, violence, disease and pandemic risks, safe water supply, livable housing, discrimination … all are exacerbated by climate change. Basically, if we don’t make massive strides on climate change mitigation and adaptation, then our children and grandchildren will have little or no chance of a decent life.” Effecting positive action, he added, “requires attitude and behavior change—the very core business of psychological science.” He called upon all research fields within the discipline “to take on relevant climate change topics, challenges, and opportunities.” 

Breaking down steps within that call to action, APS Fellow Craig Anderson, a personality/social psychologist at Iowa State University, implored researchers to devote more time to understanding “(1) the implications of rapid climate change for human behavior (e.g., development of violence-prone adolescents and adults, intergroup prejudice and violence, war); (2) the role that electronic media have played in science denial; and (3) ways that electronic media can be used to improve the general public’s understanding of this crisis and their support for action at the individual, group, and political levels.” Anderson has written several works on psychology and rapid climate change, most recently a monograph published by Cambridge University Press.  

Health psychologist Donald Edmondson, of Columbia University Medical Center, called for “understanding how psychology and behavior will change as the climate crisis deepens , as well as how changes in psychology/behavior can influence the climate crisis. Whereas previous widespread changes to political, social, and other systems yielded changes in psychology/behavior, historically, systemic changes have been limited to one (or a few) dimensions of everyday life and have never impacted every human. The impacts of the climate crisis are expected to touch every dimension of human existence. This unprecedented global transformation has been described as akin to ‘moving to another planet.’ Our field has not yet begun to seriously grapple with how this harsh new planet will change us.” 

Indeed, effecting action on climate change may be as much a matter of persuasion and communication as scientific research, members noted. Social psychologist Diane Sunar, professor emerita at Istanbul Bilgi University, pointed to “a wide spectrum of potential applications of psychological science to these issues, from finding the best ways to encourage ecologically sound individual practices (messaging, incentives, norm formation, etc.), to disaster management in response to weather and climate-related events, to ameliorating heightened social anxieties and resentments aroused by the international migrations resulting from drought, sea level rise, and the like. But the most urgent is the challenge of how to change the behavior of entrenched interests such as the carbon-based energy industry in all its forms. It is critical that decision-makers in the energy industry and other economic sectors that impact the environment and climate turn from their short-term interests to long-term interests. Do we know what persuasive techniques, messages, arguments, incentives can compete with short-term profits?” 

APS Fellow Janet Ruscher, a personality/social psychologist at Tulane University, amplified those concerns, noting the need to motivate “individuals and organizations to incur personal immediate costs (e.g., potentially lower income/dividends, restrictions on personal preferences, inconveniences) for the overall good of other people and the planet (e.g., living wages and health care for all, public health over personal freedoms, mitigating climate change). We need to understand how humans can learn to play ‘the long game.’”

Communication, polarization, and public trust  

Few would deny that recent years have seen sharp increases in political polarization and entrenched rejections of scientific findings , regardless of how clearly and consistently they are reported and otherwise communicated. According to Julie Morrison, an experimental psychologist at Glendale Community College (Arizona), the grandest challenge in this scenario is, “most fundamentally, trust in science. Without that, we can’t move forward with science-based interventions.” 

Although reports on this topic have mostly focused on the United States, it appears to be common globally. 

APS Fellow Kevin McConkey, a retired cognitive psychologist at the University of New South Wales, observed that “the rejection of expertise is a trend across much of the world, often associated with increased authoritarian attitudes and behaviors. We need to investigate more bravely and to communicate more broadly about these matters.”  

“A key focus we largely ignore in our research is how to gain public trust in our science” wrote Kumar Yogeeswaran, a social psychologist at the University of Canterbury. “In several nations, there are many people who don’t trust social scientists, and this limits the impact of our research. Our replication crisis did not help with this, but just like efforts to improve our credibility through open science practices, we also need to try harder to improve our credibility among the wider public. While important work is being done to persuade government and policymakers of the importance of our science, persuading only those at the top will not suffice. As the pandemic has taught us, a public that does not trust scientists has a negative collective impact on us all. This means we need to make efforts to better understand what contributes to public distrust of psychological science, engage better with diverse communities across any racial/ethnic, religious, and political divides, and work to build trust from the bottom up so we are seen as an honest broker when we weigh in on important societal issues.” 

Graduate student David Grüning, of Heidelberg University, noted that the COVID-19 pandemic has underscored “how essential the thoughtful communication of science beyond researchers’ professional realm is for society. Specifically, psychology had to tackle the Herculean task of communicating insights to the public for, for instance, battling misinformation or increasing vaccination endorsement. In this process we have recognized communicative gaps that still need to be bridged.” 

Rob Chavez, a social neuroscientist at the University of Oregon, wrote that misinformation and disinformation “and their potential for harm became particularly salient during COVID-19 pandemic. As psychological scientists, we need to be assertive in our approach to understanding these issues. However, it is also imperative that we be humble in the degree to which we suggest that psychological interventions are always the appropriate solutions to these problems, when perhaps institutional or other systemic changes would be more effective.” 

To those ends, “The single most important challenge faced by psychological science is how to bring our increasing knowledge about human nature and motivation to bear on public policy decision-making,” wrote APS William James Fellow Lynn Nadel, an emeritus professor of cognitive science and psychology at the University of Arizona. “We know a lot more every year about the explicit and implicit drivers of human behavior, but we remain incapable as a species of doing the right things most of the time. Much of this has to do with the disjunct between our short life spans and the relatively longer-term nature of the critical problems we are now facing. Our inability to get beyond short-term thinking and drives has put us all in danger—our species and the planet we live on together … We are challenged to shed light on why humans are so susceptible to misinformation, and so easily led down destructive paths.”  

APS Fellow Delphine Dahan, a cognitive psychologist at the University of Pennsylvania, noted the divergent trajectories of scientific discovery and public discourse. “As the field of psychology is growing and as more and more knowledge is accumulating, answers to questions will become more and more complex,” she wrote. “A significant challenge for psychological science will become to remain accessible and relevant to other disciplines and to the general public while also pursuing complex problems and providing complex answers. I fear that the public’s hunger for simple explanations to complex phenomena may lead the field astray.” 

To Tom Hilton, a retired industrial/organizational psychologist and navy officer who worked at the National Institutes of Health, “a huge hurdle is lack of public awareness of what psychological science actually is. The public still stereotypes psychology as all about mental illness and psychotherapy—not science.” And the fact that relatively few researchers show the public how scientific psychology contributes to everyday life “doubtless attracts fewer students to our field, and it hides our science behind a stereotype of mental health.” (Learn about some of Hilton’s work applying psychological science to policy in “Making Noise That Can’t Be Missed” in this issue of the Observer .)  

Moreover, much of the world has little exposure to psychological science of any kind. In Hong Kong, for instance, “the demands of psychological services enhance, but the awareness and acceptance have not increased,” wrote Ching Sum Sin, a registered nurse who has a master’s degree in psychology. Better awareness and detection of mental health problems have led to rising demand for mental health services, but challenges remain in “removing the stigma associated with using psychological health services and promoting the allocation of resources to psychological science by the government and universities.” 

And in India, developmental psychologist Aradhana Gambhir wrote, “it’s a taboo to consult a psychologist for psychological problems … and by and large still a stigma to admit that one is suffering from depression. As a teacher, I emphasize the need to give importance to emotional problems and to reach out to professionals.” 

Strengthening theory—and the road ahead   

Applied matters and empirical procedures were not the only challenges APS members identified. Others stressed the need for greater understanding of the theoretical underpinnings of psychological science, along with continued efforts to build a science with solid theoretical foundations. 

“My own opinion is that psychological science needs to refocus attention from defensive obsessing about minutiae of methodology and the replicability of tiny effect sizes to making important discoveries about human behavior and mental life—important in the sense of revealing interesting and nonobvious facts that can be understood in the context of rigorous theoretical frameworks,” wrote Andrew M. Colman, a cognitive psychologist at the University of Leicester. “And by rigorous theoretical frameworks I do not mean mere hypothesized relationships between variables but formal structures that provide explanation and real insight into psychological mechanisms or processes.” 

Peter Prudon, a retired clinical psychologist in the Netherlands, wrote that “the multitude of micro and mini theories to justify empirical investigations, undertaken to comply to the pressure to publish at all, and empirically in particular, is undesirable. It should be compensated by a much stronger emphasis on theoretical analysis and integration, with more attention to human existence as a whole.” 

Also, writing from Leiden University, APS Janet Taylor Spence Award ee Eiko Fried elaborated on the importance of strengthening theoretical knowledge and application. “Psychology is hyper-empirical. We are good at testing things, but not good at theorizing,” wrote the clinical psychological scientist. “There is no shame in that, and there is great value in establishing phenomena: robust features in the world that require explaining (i.e., explananda). But such explanations happen in the form of theories that explain them (i.e., explanantia), and there are two grand theory challenges that psychological science must urgently address. 

“First, we don’t have many great explanations in psychology,” Fried continued. “As Robert Cummins put it in 2000: ‘We are overwhelmed with things to explain, and somewhat underwhelmed by things to explain them with.’ Recent reforms in psychological science were focused on improving methodological and statistical practices to establish more replicable findings. That helps with the explananda part of psychology, but not at all with the explanantia part.” 

Second, wrote Fried, “psychological theories are often weak theories, narrative descriptions that do not allow us to precisely deduce how data would look if the theory was true. This makes it difficult to decide in many psychological studies whether data actually support a theory or not. Often, we simply have to take the theorist’s word for it.” 

To address both of these challenges, Fried advised “drawing on the rich disciplines of cognitive and mathematical psychology, and other areas outside of psychology, which feature strong theories: precise axioms or assumptions aiming to explain phenomena. Such theories can be represented via mathematical notation as formal theories, with several advantages. For one, the theory and all its auxiliary assumptions are now spelled out clearly and unambiguously. The theory, not its theorist, makes predictions via simulations. Further, formal theories are interdisciplinary, enabling collaborations.”  

Getting back to fundamentals, educational psychologist A. Alexander Beaujean of Baylor University observed that “perhaps the biggest challenge is the lack of technical concepts. Concepts such as ‘executive functioning,’ ‘working memory,’ etc., are polysemous, so two psychologists employing the same terms often mean different things. As a scientific discipline, we will quickly reach a plateau in what we can learn without technical concepts that have shared meaning. At such a point, research will increasingly consist of busywork that has no importance outside of the lab in which it originates.” 

APS members singled out numerous other tasks facing the field, from re-embracing the “lost art” of data modeling, to strengthening training in fields such as forensic psychology, to incorporating findings from neuroscience and technological advancements (e.g., developments in artificial intelligence), to more effectively addressing major societal problems involving poverty, racism, mental health, and social isolation.  

Hodson expressed pessimism about the field’s willingness to grapple with the many challenges requiring redress. “But I have little doubt about our ability to do so, should we collectively decide to reshape how our science is done.” 

APS looks forward to supporting conversations on these matters and more as we—representing the global community of psychological scientists—endeavor to advance science and contribute insights and solutions to society. 

Feedback on this article? Comment below or send an email to [email protected] .

APS regularly opens certain online articles for discussion on our website. Effective February 2021, you must be a logged-in APS member to post comments. By posting a comment, you agree to our Community Guidelines and the display of your profile information, including your name and affiliation. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations present in article comments are those of the writers and do not necessarily reflect the views of APS or the article’s author. For more information, please see our Community Guidelines .

Please login with your APS account to comment.

About the Authors

Leah Thayer is the editor of the Observer and the senior director of communications at APS.

The Limitless Applications of Psychological Science

“I think there’s never been greater interest in and relevance and importance of translating rigorous research and academic scholarship for practitioners,” said Michael Fenlon of PricewaterhouseCoopers in this exclusive interview with APS President Wendy Wood.

Science in Service: Making Noise That Can’t Be Missed

Tom Hilton’s decades of government service as an industrial/organizational psychologist has shown me time and again that it is possible for research to affect public and organizational policies and practices

But What’s It All For? Putting Practical Theories into Action

Researchers suggest a number of incentives to support the development of more practical theories.

Privacy Overview

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Starting the research process
• How to Define a Research Problem | Ideas & Examples

How to Define a Research Problem | Ideas & Examples

Published on November 2, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on May 31, 2023.

A research problem is a specific issue or gap in existing knowledge that you aim to address in your research. You may choose to look for practical problems aimed at contributing to change, or theoretical problems aimed at expanding knowledge.

Some research will do both of these things, but usually the research problem focuses on one or the other. The type of research problem you choose depends on your broad topic of interest and the type of research you think will fit best.

This article helps you identify and refine a research problem. When writing your research proposal or introduction , formulate it as a problem statement and/or research questions .

Table of contents

Why is the research problem important, step 1: identify a broad problem area, step 2: learn more about the problem, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research problems.

Having an interesting topic isn’t a strong enough basis for academic research. Without a well-defined research problem, you are likely to end up with an unfocused and unmanageable project.

You might end up repeating what other people have already said, trying to say too much, or doing research without a clear purpose and justification. You need a clear problem in order to do research that contributes new and relevant insights.

Whether you’re planning your thesis , starting a research paper , or writing a research proposal , the research problem is the first step towards knowing exactly what you’ll do and why.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

As you read about your topic, look for under-explored aspects or areas of concern, conflict, or controversy. Your goal is to find a gap that your research project can fill.

Practical research problems

If you are doing practical research, you can identify a problem by reading reports, following up on previous research, or talking to people who work in the relevant field or organization. You might look for:

• Issues with performance or efficiency
• Processes that could be improved
• Areas of concern among practitioners
• Difficulties faced by specific groups of people

Examples of practical research problems

Voter turnout in New England has been decreasing, in contrast to the rest of the country.

The HR department of a local chain of restaurants has a high staff turnover rate.

A non-profit organization faces a funding gap that means some of its programs will have to be cut.

Theoretical research problems

If you are doing theoretical research, you can identify a research problem by reading existing research, theory, and debates on your topic to find a gap in what is currently known about it. You might look for:

• A phenomenon or context that has not been closely studied
• A contradiction between two or more perspectives
• A situation or relationship that is not well understood
• A troubling question that has yet to be resolved

Examples of theoretical research problems

The effects of long-term Vitamin D deficiency on cardiovascular health are not well understood.

The relationship between gender, race, and income inequality has yet to be closely studied in the context of the millennial gig economy.

Historians of Scottish nationalism disagree about the role of the British Empire in the development of Scotland’s national identity.

Next, you have to find out what is already known about the problem, and pinpoint the exact aspect that your research will address.

Context and background

• Who does the problem affect?
• Is it a newly-discovered problem, or a well-established one?
• What research has already been done?
• What, if any, solutions have been proposed?
• What are the current debates about the problem? What is missing from these debates?

Specificity and relevance

• What particular place, time, and/or group of people will you focus on?
• What aspects will you not be able to tackle?
• What will the consequences be if the problem is not resolved?

Example of a specific research problem

A local non-profit organization focused on alleviating food insecurity has always fundraised from its existing support base. It lacks understanding of how best to target potential new donors. To be able to continue its work, the organization requires research into more effective fundraising strategies.

Once you have narrowed down your research problem, the next step is to formulate a problem statement , as well as your research questions or hypotheses .

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them.

In general, they should be:

• Focused and researchable
• Answerable using credible sources
• Complex and arguable
• Feasible and specific
• Relevant and original

Your research objectives indicate how you’ll try to address your research problem and should be specific:

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. & George, T. (2023, May 31). How to Define a Research Problem | Ideas & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 16, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/research-problem/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, how to write a problem statement | guide & examples, writing strong research questions | criteria & examples, how to write a strong hypothesis | steps & examples, unlimited academic ai-proofreading.

✔ Document error-free in 5minutes ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Res Metr Anal

The Use of Research Methods in Psychological Research: A Systematised Review

Salomé elizabeth scholtz.

1 Community Psychosocial Research (COMPRES), School of Psychosocial Health, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Werner de Klerk

Leon t. de beer.

2 WorkWell Research Institute, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Research methods play an imperative role in research quality as well as educating young researchers, however, the application thereof is unclear which can be detrimental to the field of psychology. Therefore, this systematised review aimed to determine what research methods are being used, how these methods are being used and for what topics in the field. Our review of 999 articles from five journals over a period of 5 years indicated that psychology research is conducted in 10 topics via predominantly quantitative research methods. Of these 10 topics, social psychology was the most popular. The remainder of the conducted methodology is described. It was also found that articles lacked rigour and transparency in the used methodology which has implications for replicability. In conclusion this article, provides an overview of all reported methodologies used in a sample of psychology journals. It highlights the popularity and application of methods and designs throughout the article sample as well as an unexpected lack of rigour with regard to most aspects of methodology. Possible sample bias should be considered when interpreting the results of this study. It is recommended that future research should utilise the results of this study to determine the possible impact on the field of psychology as a science and to further investigation into the use of research methods. Results should prompt the following future research into: a lack or rigour and its implication on replication, the use of certain methods above others, publication bias and choice of sampling method.

Introduction

Psychology is an ever-growing and popular field (Gough and Lyons, 2016 ; Clay, 2017 ). Due to this growth and the need for science-based research to base health decisions on (Perestelo-Pérez, 2013 ), the use of research methods in the broad field of psychology is an essential point of investigation (Stangor, 2011 ; Aanstoos, 2014 ). Research methods are therefore viewed as important tools used by researchers to collect data (Nieuwenhuis, 2016 ) and include the following: quantitative, qualitative, mixed method and multi method (Maree, 2016 ). Additionally, researchers also employ various types of literature reviews to address research questions (Grant and Booth, 2009 ). According to literature, what research method is used and why a certain research method is used is complex as it depends on various factors that may include paradigm (O'Neil and Koekemoer, 2016 ), research question (Grix, 2002 ), or the skill and exposure of the researcher (Nind et al., 2015 ). How these research methods are employed is also difficult to discern as research methods are often depicted as having fixed boundaries that are continuously crossed in research (Johnson et al., 2001 ; Sandelowski, 2011 ). Examples of this crossing include adding quantitative aspects to qualitative studies (Sandelowski et al., 2009 ), or stating that a study used a mixed-method design without the study having any characteristics of this design (Truscott et al., 2010 ).

The inappropriate use of research methods affects how students and researchers improve and utilise their research skills (Scott Jones and Goldring, 2015 ), how theories are developed (Ngulube, 2013 ), and the credibility of research results (Levitt et al., 2017 ). This, in turn, can be detrimental to the field (Nind et al., 2015 ), journal publication (Ketchen et al., 2008 ; Ezeh et al., 2010 ), and attempts to address public social issues through psychological research (Dweck, 2017 ). This is especially important given the now well-known replication crisis the field is facing (Earp and Trafimow, 2015 ; Hengartner, 2018 ).

Due to this lack of clarity on method use and the potential impact of inept use of research methods, the aim of this study was to explore the use of research methods in the field of psychology through a review of journal publications. Chaichanasakul et al. ( 2011 ) identify reviewing articles as the opportunity to examine the development, growth and progress of a research area and overall quality of a journal. Studies such as Lee et al. ( 1999 ) as well as Bluhm et al. ( 2011 ) review of qualitative methods has attempted to synthesis the use of research methods and indicated the growth of qualitative research in American and European journals. Research has also focused on the use of research methods in specific sub-disciplines of psychology, for example, in the field of Industrial and Organisational psychology Coetzee and Van Zyl ( 2014 ) found that South African publications tend to consist of cross-sectional quantitative research methods with underrepresented longitudinal studies. Qualitative studies were found to make up 21% of the articles published from 1995 to 2015 in a similar study by O'Neil and Koekemoer ( 2016 ). Other methods in health psychology, such as Mixed methods research have also been reportedly growing in popularity (O'Cathain, 2009 ).

A broad overview of the use of research methods in the field of psychology as a whole is however, not available in the literature. Therefore, our research focused on answering what research methods are being used, how these methods are being used and for what topics in practice (i.e., journal publications) in order to provide a general perspective of method used in psychology publication. We synthesised the collected data into the following format: research topic [areas of scientific discourse in a field or the current needs of a population (Bittermann and Fischer, 2018 )], method [data-gathering tools (Nieuwenhuis, 2016 )], sampling [elements chosen from a population to partake in research (Ritchie et al., 2009 )], data collection [techniques and research strategy (Maree, 2016 )], and data analysis [discovering information by examining bodies of data (Ktepi, 2016 )]. A systematised review of recent articles (2013 to 2017) collected from five different journals in the field of psychological research was conducted.

Grant and Booth ( 2009 ) describe systematised reviews as the review of choice for post-graduate studies, which is employed using some elements of a systematic review and seldom more than one or two databases to catalogue studies after a comprehensive literature search. The aspects used in this systematised review that are similar to that of a systematic review were a full search within the chosen database and data produced in tabular form (Grant and Booth, 2009 ).

Sample sizes and timelines vary in systematised reviews (see Lowe and Moore, 2014 ; Pericall and Taylor, 2014 ; Barr-Walker, 2017 ). With no clear parameters identified in the literature (see Grant and Booth, 2009 ), the sample size of this study was determined by the purpose of the sample (Strydom, 2011 ), and time and cost constraints (Maree and Pietersen, 2016 ). Thus, a non-probability purposive sample (Ritchie et al., 2009 ) of the top five psychology journals from 2013 to 2017 was included in this research study. Per Lee ( 2015 ) American Psychological Association (APA) recommends the use of the most up-to-date sources for data collection with consideration of the context of the research study. As this research study focused on the most recent trends in research methods used in the broad field of psychology, the identified time frame was deemed appropriate.

Psychology journals were only included if they formed part of the top five English journals in the miscellaneous psychology domain of the Scimago Journal and Country Rank (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ). The Scimago Journal and Country Rank provides a yearly updated list of publicly accessible journal and country-specific indicators derived from the Scopus® database (Scopus, 2017b ) by means of the Scimago Journal Rank (SJR) indicator developed by Scimago from the algorithm Google PageRank™ (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ). Scopus is the largest global database of abstracts and citations from peer-reviewed journals (Scopus, 2017a ). Reasons for the development of the Scimago Journal and Country Rank list was to allow researchers to assess scientific domains, compare country rankings, and compare and analyse journals (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ), which supported the aim of this research study. Additionally, the goals of the journals had to focus on topics in psychology in general with no preference to specific research methods and have full-text access to articles.

The following list of top five journals in 2018 fell within the abovementioned inclusion criteria (1) Australian Journal of Psychology, (2) British Journal of Psychology, (3) Europe's Journal of Psychology, (4) International Journal of Psychology and lastly the (5) Journal of Psychology Applied and Interdisciplinary.

Journals were excluded from this systematised review if no full-text versions of their articles were available, if journals explicitly stated a publication preference for certain research methods, or if the journal only published articles in a specific discipline of psychological research (for example, industrial psychology, clinical psychology etc.).

The researchers followed a procedure (see Figure 1 ) adapted from that of Ferreira et al. ( 2016 ) for systematised reviews. Data collection and categorisation commenced on 4 December 2017 and continued until 30 June 2019. All the data was systematically collected and coded manually (Grant and Booth, 2009 ) with an independent person acting as co-coder. Codes of interest included the research topic, method used, the design used, sampling method, and methodology (the method used for data collection and data analysis). These codes were derived from the wording in each article. Themes were created based on the derived codes and checked by the co-coder. Lastly, these themes were catalogued into a table as per the systematised review design.

Systematised review procedure.

According to Johnston et al. ( 2019 ), “literature screening, selection, and data extraction/analyses” (p. 7) are specifically tailored to the aim of a review. Therefore, the steps followed in a systematic review must be reported in a comprehensive and transparent manner. The chosen systematised design adhered to the rigour expected from systematic reviews with regard to full search and data produced in tabular form (Grant and Booth, 2009 ). The rigorous application of the systematic review is, therefore discussed in relation to these two elements.

Firstly, to ensure a comprehensive search, this research study promoted review transparency by following a clear protocol outlined according to each review stage before collecting data (Johnston et al., 2019 ). This protocol was similar to that of Ferreira et al. ( 2016 ) and approved by three research committees/stakeholders and the researchers (Johnston et al., 2019 ). The eligibility criteria for article inclusion was based on the research question and clearly stated, and the process of inclusion was recorded on an electronic spreadsheet to create an evidence trail (Bandara et al., 2015 ; Johnston et al., 2019 ). Microsoft Excel spreadsheets are a popular tool for review studies and can increase the rigour of the review process (Bandara et al., 2015 ). Screening for appropriate articles for inclusion forms an integral part of a systematic review process (Johnston et al., 2019 ). This step was applied to two aspects of this research study: the choice of eligible journals and articles to be included. Suitable journals were selected by the first author and reviewed by the second and third authors. Initially, all articles from the chosen journals were included. Then, by process of elimination, those irrelevant to the research aim, i.e., interview articles or discussions etc., were excluded.

To ensure rigourous data extraction, data was first extracted by one reviewer, and an independent person verified the results for completeness and accuracy (Johnston et al., 2019 ). The research question served as a guide for efficient, organised data extraction (Johnston et al., 2019 ). Data was categorised according to the codes of interest, along with article identifiers for audit trails such as authors, title and aims of articles. The categorised data was based on the aim of the review (Johnston et al., 2019 ) and synthesised in tabular form under methods used, how these methods were used, and for what topics in the field of psychology.

The initial search produced a total of 1,145 articles from the 5 journals identified. Inclusion and exclusion criteria resulted in a final sample of 999 articles ( Figure 2 ). Articles were co-coded into 84 codes, from which 10 themes were derived ( Table 1 ).

Journal article frequency.

Codes used to form themes (research topics).

These 10 themes represent the topic section of our research question ( Figure 3 ). All these topics except, for the final one, psychological practice , were found to concur with the research areas in psychology as identified by Weiten ( 2010 ). These research areas were chosen to represent the derived codes as they provided broad definitions that allowed for clear, concise categorisation of the vast amount of data. Article codes were categorised under particular themes/topics if they adhered to the research area definitions created by Weiten ( 2010 ). It is important to note that these areas of research do not refer to specific disciplines in psychology, such as industrial psychology; but to broader fields that may encompass sub-interests of these disciplines.

Topic frequency (international sample).

In the case of developmental psychology , researchers conduct research into human development from childhood to old age. Social psychology includes research on behaviour governed by social drivers. Researchers in the field of educational psychology study how people learn and the best way to teach them. Health psychology aims to determine the effect of psychological factors on physiological health. Physiological psychology , on the other hand, looks at the influence of physiological aspects on behaviour. Experimental psychology is not the only theme that uses experimental research and focuses on the traditional core topics of psychology (for example, sensation). Cognitive psychology studies the higher mental processes. Psychometrics is concerned with measuring capacity or behaviour. Personality research aims to assess and describe consistency in human behaviour (Weiten, 2010 ). The final theme of psychological practice refers to the experiences, techniques, and interventions employed by practitioners, researchers, and academia in the field of psychology.

Articles under these themes were further subdivided into methodologies: method, sampling, design, data collection, and data analysis. The categorisation was based on information stated in the articles and not inferred by the researchers. Data were compiled into two sets of results presented in this article. The first set addresses the aim of this study from the perspective of the topics identified. The second set of results represents a broad overview of the results from the perspective of the methodology employed. The second set of results are discussed in this article, while the first set is presented in table format. The discussion thus provides a broad overview of methods use in psychology (across all themes), while the table format provides readers with in-depth insight into methods used in the individual themes identified. We believe that presenting the data from both perspectives allow readers a broad understanding of the results. Due a large amount of information that made up our results, we followed Cichocka and Jost ( 2014 ) in simplifying our results. Please note that the numbers indicated in the table in terms of methodology differ from the total number of articles. Some articles employed more than one method/sampling technique/design/data collection method/data analysis in their studies.

What follows is the results for what methods are used, how these methods are used, and which topics in psychology they are applied to . Percentages are reported to the second decimal in order to highlight small differences in the occurrence of methodology.

Firstly, with regard to the research methods used, our results show that researchers are more likely to use quantitative research methods (90.22%) compared to all other research methods. Qualitative research was the second most common research method but only made up about 4.79% of the general method usage. Reviews occurred almost as much as qualitative studies (3.91%), as the third most popular method. Mixed-methods research studies (0.98%) occurred across most themes, whereas multi-method research was indicated in only one study and amounted to 0.10% of the methods identified. The specific use of each method in the topics identified is shown in Table 2 and Figure 4 .

Research methods in psychology.

Research method frequency in topics.

Secondly, in the case of how these research methods are employed , our study indicated the following.

Sampling −78.34% of the studies in the collected articles did not specify a sampling method. From the remainder of the studies, 13 types of sampling methods were identified. These sampling methods included broad categorisation of a sample as, for example, a probability or non-probability sample. General samples of convenience were the methods most likely to be applied (10.34%), followed by random sampling (3.51%), snowball sampling (2.73%), and purposive (1.37%) and cluster sampling (1.27%). The remainder of the sampling methods occurred to a more limited extent (0–1.0%). See Table 3 and Figure 5 for sampling methods employed in each topic.

Sampling use in the field of psychology.

Sampling method frequency in topics.

Designs were categorised based on the articles' statement thereof. Therefore, it is important to note that, in the case of quantitative studies, non-experimental designs (25.55%) were often indicated due to a lack of experiments and any other indication of design, which, according to Laher ( 2016 ), is a reasonable categorisation. Non-experimental designs should thus be compared with experimental designs only in the description of data, as it could include the use of correlational/cross-sectional designs, which were not overtly stated by the authors. For the remainder of the research methods, “not stated” (7.12%) was assigned to articles without design types indicated.

From the 36 identified designs the most popular designs were cross-sectional (23.17%) and experimental (25.64%), which concurred with the high number of quantitative studies. Longitudinal studies (3.80%), the third most popular design, was used in both quantitative and qualitative studies. Qualitative designs consisted of ethnography (0.38%), interpretative phenomenological designs/phenomenology (0.28%), as well as narrative designs (0.28%). Studies that employed the review method were mostly categorised as “not stated,” with the most often stated review designs being systematic reviews (0.57%). The few mixed method studies employed exploratory, explanatory (0.09%), and concurrent designs (0.19%), with some studies referring to separate designs for the qualitative and quantitative methods. The one study that identified itself as a multi-method study used a longitudinal design. Please see how these designs were employed in each specific topic in Table 4 , Figure 6 .

Design use in the field of psychology.

Design frequency in topics.

Data collection and analysis —data collection included 30 methods, with the data collection method most often employed being questionnaires (57.84%). The experimental task (16.56%) was the second most preferred collection method, which included established or unique tasks designed by the researchers. Cognitive ability tests (6.84%) were also regularly used along with various forms of interviewing (7.66%). Table 5 and Figure 7 represent data collection use in the various topics. Data analysis consisted of 3,857 occurrences of data analysis categorised into ±188 various data analysis techniques shown in Table 6 and Figures 1 – 7 . Descriptive statistics were the most commonly used (23.49%) along with correlational analysis (17.19%). When using a qualitative method, researchers generally employed thematic analysis (0.52%) or different forms of analysis that led to coding and the creation of themes. Review studies presented few data analysis methods, with most studies categorising their results. Mixed method and multi-method studies followed the analysis methods identified for the qualitative and quantitative studies included.

Data collection in the field of psychology.

Data collection frequency in topics.

Data analysis in the field of psychology.

Results of the topics researched in psychology can be seen in the tables, as previously stated in this article. It is noteworthy that, of the 10 topics, social psychology accounted for 43.54% of the studies, with cognitive psychology the second most popular research topic at 16.92%. The remainder of the topics only occurred in 4.0–7.0% of the articles considered. A list of the included 999 articles is available under the section “View Articles” on the following website: https://methodgarden.xtrapolate.io/ . This website was created by Scholtz et al. ( 2019 ) to visually present a research framework based on this Article's results.

This systematised review categorised full-length articles from five international journals across the span of 5 years to provide insight into the use of research methods in the field of psychology. Results indicated what methods are used how these methods are being used and for what topics (why) in the included sample of articles. The results should be seen as providing insight into method use and by no means a comprehensive representation of the aforementioned aim due to the limited sample. To our knowledge, this is the first research study to address this topic in this manner. Our discussion attempts to promote a productive way forward in terms of the key results for method use in psychology, especially in the field of academia (Holloway, 2008 ).

With regard to the methods used, our data stayed true to literature, finding only common research methods (Grant and Booth, 2009 ; Maree, 2016 ) that varied in the degree to which they were employed. Quantitative research was found to be the most popular method, as indicated by literature (Breen and Darlaston-Jones, 2010 ; Counsell and Harlow, 2017 ) and previous studies in specific areas of psychology (see Coetzee and Van Zyl, 2014 ). Its long history as the first research method (Leech et al., 2007 ) in the field of psychology as well as researchers' current application of mathematical approaches in their studies (Toomela, 2010 ) might contribute to its popularity today. Whatever the case may be, our results show that, despite the growth in qualitative research (Demuth, 2015 ; Smith and McGannon, 2018 ), quantitative research remains the first choice for article publication in these journals. Despite the included journals indicating openness to articles that apply any research methods. This finding may be due to qualitative research still being seen as a new method (Burman and Whelan, 2011 ) or reviewers' standards being higher for qualitative studies (Bluhm et al., 2011 ). Future research is encouraged into the possible biasness in publication of research methods, additionally further investigation with a different sample into the proclaimed growth of qualitative research may also provide different results.

Review studies were found to surpass that of multi-method and mixed method studies. To this effect Grant and Booth ( 2009 ), state that the increased awareness, journal contribution calls as well as its efficiency in procuring research funds all promote the popularity of reviews. The low frequency of mixed method studies contradicts the view in literature that it's the third most utilised research method (Tashakkori and Teddlie's, 2003 ). Its' low occurrence in this sample could be due to opposing views on mixing methods (Gunasekare, 2015 ) or that authors prefer publishing in mixed method journals, when using this method, or its relative novelty (Ivankova et al., 2016 ). Despite its low occurrence, the application of the mixed methods design in articles was methodologically clear in all cases which were not the case for the remainder of research methods.

Additionally, a substantial number of studies used a combination of methodologies that are not mixed or multi-method studies. Perceived fixed boundaries are according to literature often set aside, as confirmed by this result, in order to investigate the aim of a study, which could create a new and helpful way of understanding the world (Gunasekare, 2015 ). According to Toomela ( 2010 ), this is not unheard of and could be considered a form of “structural systemic science,” as in the case of qualitative methodology (observation) applied in quantitative studies (experimental design) for example. Based on this result, further research into this phenomenon as well as its implications for research methods such as multi and mixed methods is recommended.

Discerning how these research methods were applied, presented some difficulty. In the case of sampling, most studies—regardless of method—did mention some form of inclusion and exclusion criteria, but no definite sampling method. This result, along with the fact that samples often consisted of students from the researchers' own academic institutions, can contribute to literature and debates among academics (Peterson and Merunka, 2014 ; Laher, 2016 ). Samples of convenience and students as participants especially raise questions about the generalisability and applicability of results (Peterson and Merunka, 2014 ). This is because attention to sampling is important as inappropriate sampling can debilitate the legitimacy of interpretations (Onwuegbuzie and Collins, 2017 ). Future investigation into the possible implications of this reported popular use of convenience samples for the field of psychology as well as the reason for this use could provide interesting insight, and is encouraged by this study.

Additionally, and this is indicated in Table 6 , articles seldom report the research designs used, which highlights the pressing aspect of the lack of rigour in the included sample. Rigour with regards to the applied empirical method is imperative in promoting psychology as a science (American Psychological Association, 2020 ). Omitting parts of the research process in publication when it could have been used to inform others' research skills should be questioned, and the influence on the process of replicating results should be considered. Publications are often rejected due to a lack of rigour in the applied method and designs (Fonseca, 2013 ; Laher, 2016 ), calling for increased clarity and knowledge of method application. Replication is a critical part of any field of scientific research and requires the “complete articulation” of the study methods used (Drotar, 2010 , p. 804). The lack of thorough description could be explained by the requirements of certain journals to only report on certain aspects of a research process, especially with regard to the applied design (Laher, 20). However, naming aspects such as sampling and designs, is a requirement according to the APA's Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS-Quant) (Appelbaum et al., 2018 ). With very little information on how a study was conducted, authors lose a valuable opportunity to enhance research validity, enrich the knowledge of others, and contribute to the growth of psychology and methodology as a whole. In the case of this research study, it also restricted our results to only reported samples and designs, which indicated a preference for certain designs, such as cross-sectional designs for quantitative studies.

Data collection and analysis were for the most part clearly stated. A key result was the versatile use of questionnaires. Researchers would apply a questionnaire in various ways, for example in questionnaire interviews, online surveys, and written questionnaires across most research methods. This may highlight a trend for future research.

With regard to the topics these methods were employed for, our research study found a new field named “psychological practice.” This result may show the growing consciousness of researchers as part of the research process (Denzin and Lincoln, 2003 ), psychological practice, and knowledge generation. The most popular of these topics was social psychology, which is generously covered in journals and by learning societies, as testaments of the institutional support and richness social psychology has in the field of psychology (Chryssochoou, 2015 ). The APA's perspective on 2018 trends in psychology also identifies an increased amount of psychology focus on how social determinants are influencing people's health (Deangelis, 2017 ).

This study was not without limitations and the following should be taken into account. Firstly, this study used a sample of five specific journals to address the aim of the research study, despite general journal aims (as stated on journal websites), this inclusion signified a bias towards the research methods published in these specific journals only and limited generalisability. A broader sample of journals over a different period of time, or a single journal over a longer period of time might provide different results. A second limitation is the use of Excel spreadsheets and an electronic system to log articles, which was a manual process and therefore left room for error (Bandara et al., 2015 ). To address this potential issue, co-coding was performed to reduce error. Lastly, this article categorised data based on the information presented in the article sample; there was no interpretation of what methodology could have been applied or whether the methods stated adhered to the criteria for the methods used. Thus, a large number of articles that did not clearly indicate a research method or design could influence the results of this review. However, this in itself was also a noteworthy result. Future research could review research methods of a broader sample of journals with an interpretive review tool that increases rigour. Additionally, the authors also encourage the future use of systematised review designs as a way to promote a concise procedure in applying this design.

Our research study presented the use of research methods for published articles in the field of psychology as well as recommendations for future research based on these results. Insight into the complex questions identified in literature, regarding what methods are used how these methods are being used and for what topics (why) was gained. This sample preferred quantitative methods, used convenience sampling and presented a lack of rigorous accounts for the remaining methodologies. All methodologies that were clearly indicated in the sample were tabulated to allow researchers insight into the general use of methods and not only the most frequently used methods. The lack of rigorous account of research methods in articles was represented in-depth for each step in the research process and can be of vital importance to address the current replication crisis within the field of psychology. Recommendations for future research aimed to motivate research into the practical implications of the results for psychology, for example, publication bias and the use of convenience samples.

Ethics Statement

This study was cleared by the North-West University Health Research Ethics Committee: NWU-00115-17-S1.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

• Aanstoos C. M. (2014). Psychology . Available online at: http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.nwulib.nwu.ac.za/eds/detail/detail?sid=18de6c5c-2b03-4eac-94890145eb01bc70%40sessionmgr4006&vid$=$1&hid$=$4113&bdata$=$JnNpdGU9ZWRzL~WxpdmU%3d#AN$=$93871882&db$=$ers
• American Psychological Association (2020). Science of Psychology . Available online at: https://www.apa.org/action/science/
• Appelbaum M., Cooper H., Kline R. B., Mayo-Wilson E., Nezu A. M., Rao S. M. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for quantitative research in psychology: the APA Publications and Communications Board task force report . Am. Psychol. 73 :3. 10.1037/amp0000191 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bandara W., Furtmueller E., Gorbacheva E., Miskon S., Beekhuyzen J. (2015). Achieving rigor in literature reviews: insights from qualitative data analysis and tool-support . Commun. Ass. Inform. Syst. 37 , 154–204. 10.17705/1CAIS.03708 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Barr-Walker J. (2017). Evidence-based information needs of public health workers: a systematized review . J. Med. Libr. Assoc. 105 , 69–79. 10.5195/JMLA.2017.109 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bittermann A., Fischer A. (2018). How to identify hot topics in psychology using topic modeling . Z. Psychol. 226 , 3–13. 10.1027/2151-2604/a000318 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bluhm D. J., Harman W., Lee T. W., Mitchell T. R. (2011). Qualitative research in management: a decade of progress . J. Manage. Stud. 48 , 1866–1891. 10.1111/j.1467-6486.2010.00972.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Breen L. J., Darlaston-Jones D. (2010). Moving beyond the enduring dominance of positivism in psychological research: implications for psychology in Australia . Aust. Psychol. 45 , 67–76. 10.1080/00050060903127481 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Burman E., Whelan P. (2011). Problems in / of Qualitative Research . Maidenhead: Open University Press/McGraw Hill. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chaichanasakul A., He Y., Chen H., Allen G. E. K., Khairallah T. S., Ramos K. (2011). Journal of Career Development: a 36-year content analysis (1972–2007) . J. Career. Dev. 38 , 440–455. 10.1177/0894845310380223 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chryssochoou X. (2015). Social Psychology . Inter. Encycl. Soc. Behav. Sci. 22 , 532–537. 10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.24095-6 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cichocka A., Jost J. T. (2014). Stripped of illusions? Exploring system justification processes in capitalist and post-Communist societies . Inter. J. Psychol. 49 , 6–29. 10.1002/ijop.12011 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Clay R. A. (2017). Psychology is More Popular Than Ever. Monitor on Psychology: Trends Report . Available online at: https://www.apa.org/monitor/2017/11/trends-popular
• Coetzee M., Van Zyl L. E. (2014). A review of a decade's scholarly publications (2004–2013) in the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology . SA. J. Psychol . 40 , 1–16. 10.4102/sajip.v40i1.1227 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Counsell A., Harlow L. (2017). Reporting practices and use of quantitative methods in Canadian journal articles in psychology . Can. Psychol. 58 , 140–147. 10.1037/cap0000074 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Deangelis T. (2017). Targeting Social Factors That Undermine Health. Monitor on Psychology: Trends Report . Available online at: https://www.apa.org/monitor/2017/11/trend-social-factors
• Demuth C. (2015). New directions in qualitative research in psychology . Integr. Psychol. Behav. Sci. 49 , 125–133. 10.1007/s12124-015-9303-9 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Denzin N. K., Lincoln Y. (2003). The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theories and Issues , 2nd Edn. London: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Drotar D. (2010). A call for replications of research in pediatric psychology and guidance for authors . J. Pediatr. Psychol. 35 , 801–805. 10.1093/jpepsy/jsq049 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dweck C. S. (2017). Is psychology headed in the right direction? Yes, no, and maybe . Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 12 , 656–659. 10.1177/1745691616687747 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Earp B. D., Trafimow D. (2015). Replication, falsification, and the crisis of confidence in social psychology . Front. Psychol. 6 :621. 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00621 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ezeh A. C., Izugbara C. O., Kabiru C. W., Fonn S., Kahn K., Manderson L., et al.. (2010). Building capacity for public and population health research in Africa: the consortium for advanced research training in Africa (CARTA) model . Glob. Health Action 3 :5693. 10.3402/gha.v3i0.5693 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ferreira A. L. L., Bessa M. M. M., Drezett J., De Abreu L. C. (2016). Quality of life of the woman carrier of endometriosis: systematized review . Reprod. Clim. 31 , 48–54. 10.1016/j.recli.2015.12.002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fonseca M. (2013). Most Common Reasons for Journal Rejections . Available online at: http://www.editage.com/insights/most-common-reasons-for-journal-rejections
• Gough B., Lyons A. (2016). The future of qualitative research in psychology: accentuating the positive . Integr. Psychol. Behav. Sci. 50 , 234–243. 10.1007/s12124-015-9320-8 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Grant M. J., Booth A. (2009). A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies . Health Info. Libr. J. 26 , 91–108. 10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Grix J. (2002). Introducing students to the generic terminology of social research . Politics 22 , 175–186. 10.1111/1467-9256.00173 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gunasekare U. L. T. P. (2015). Mixed research method as the third research paradigm: a literature review . Int. J. Sci. Res. 4 , 361–368. Available online at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2735996 [ Google Scholar ]
• Hengartner M. P. (2018). Raising awareness for the replication crisis in clinical psychology by focusing on inconsistencies in psychotherapy Research: how much can we rely on published findings from efficacy trials? Front. Psychol. 9 :256. 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00256 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Holloway W. (2008). Doing intellectual disagreement differently . Psychoanal. Cult. Soc. 13 , 385–396. 10.1057/pcs.2008.29 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ivankova N. V., Creswell J. W., Plano Clark V. L. (2016). Foundations and Approaches to mixed methods research , in First Steps in Research , 2nd Edn. K. Maree (Pretoria: Van Schaick Publishers; ), 306–335. [ Google Scholar ]
• Johnson M., Long T., White A. (2001). Arguments for British pluralism in qualitative health research . J. Adv. Nurs. 33 , 243–249. 10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.01659.x [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Johnston A., Kelly S. E., Hsieh S. C., Skidmore B., Wells G. A. (2019). Systematic reviews of clinical practice guidelines: a methodological guide . J. Clin. Epidemiol. 108 , 64–72. 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2018.11.030 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ketchen D. J., Jr., Boyd B. K., Bergh D. D. (2008). Research methodology in strategic management: past accomplishments and future challenges . Organ. Res. Methods 11 , 643–658. 10.1177/1094428108319843 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ktepi B. (2016). Data Analytics (DA) . Available online at: https://eds-b-ebscohost-com.nwulib.nwu.ac.za/eds/detail/detail?vid=2&sid=24c978f0-6685-4ed8-ad85-fa5bb04669b9%40sessionmgr101&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#AN=113931286&db=ers
• Laher S. (2016). Ostinato rigore: establishing methodological rigour in quantitative research . S. Afr. J. Psychol. 46 , 316–327. 10.1177/0081246316649121 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lee C. (2015). The Myth of the Off-Limits Source . Available online at: http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/research/
• Lee T. W., Mitchell T. R., Sablynski C. J. (1999). Qualitative research in organizational and vocational psychology, 1979–1999 . J. Vocat. Behav. 55 , 161–187. 10.1006/jvbe.1999.1707 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Leech N. L., Anthony J., Onwuegbuzie A. J. (2007). A typology of mixed methods research designs . Sci. Bus. Media B. V Qual. Quant 43 , 265–275. 10.1007/s11135-007-9105-3 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Levitt H. M., Motulsky S. L., Wertz F. J., Morrow S. L., Ponterotto J. G. (2017). Recommendations for designing and reviewing qualitative research in psychology: promoting methodological integrity . Qual. Psychol. 4 , 2–22. 10.1037/qup0000082 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lowe S. M., Moore S. (2014). Social networks and female reproductive choices in the developing world: a systematized review . Rep. Health 11 :85. 10.1186/1742-4755-11-85 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Maree K. (2016). Planning a research proposal , in First Steps in Research , 2nd Edn, ed Maree K. (Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers; ), 49–70. [ Google Scholar ]
• Maree K., Pietersen J. (2016). Sampling , in First Steps in Research, 2nd Edn , ed Maree K. (Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers; ), 191–202. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ngulube P. (2013). Blending qualitative and quantitative research methods in library and information science in sub-Saharan Africa . ESARBICA J. 32 , 10–23. Available online at: http://hdl.handle.net/10500/22397 . [ Google Scholar ]
• Nieuwenhuis J. (2016). Qualitative research designs and data-gathering techniques , in First Steps in Research , 2nd Edn, ed Maree K. (Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers; ), 71–102. [ Google Scholar ]
• Nind M., Kilburn D., Wiles R. (2015). Using video and dialogue to generate pedagogic knowledge: teachers, learners and researchers reflecting together on the pedagogy of social research methods . Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol. 18 , 561–576. 10.1080/13645579.2015.1062628 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• O'Cathain A. (2009). Editorial: mixed methods research in the health sciences—a quiet revolution . J. Mix. Methods 3 , 1–6. 10.1177/1558689808326272 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• O'Neil S., Koekemoer E. (2016). Two decades of qualitative research in psychology, industrial and organisational psychology and human resource management within South Africa: a critical review . SA J. Indust. Psychol. 42 , 1–16. 10.4102/sajip.v42i1.1350 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Onwuegbuzie A. J., Collins K. M. (2017). The role of sampling in mixed methods research enhancing inference quality . Köln Z Soziol. 2 , 133–156. 10.1007/s11577-017-0455-0 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Perestelo-Pérez L. (2013). Standards on how to develop and report systematic reviews in psychology and health . Int. J. Clin. Health Psychol. 13 , 49–57. 10.1016/S1697-2600(13)70007-3 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pericall L. M. T., Taylor E. (2014). Family function and its relationship to injury severity and psychiatric outcome in children with acquired brain injury: a systematized review . Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 56 , 19–30. 10.1111/dmcn.12237 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Peterson R. A., Merunka D. R. (2014). Convenience samples of college students and research reproducibility . J. Bus. Res. 67 , 1035–1041. 10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.08.010 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ritchie J., Lewis J., Elam G. (2009). Designing and selecting samples , in Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers , 2nd Edn, ed Ritchie J., Lewis J. (London: Sage; ), 1–23. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sandelowski M. (2011). When a cigar is not just a cigar: alternative perspectives on data and data analysis . Res. Nurs. Health 34 , 342–352. 10.1002/nur.20437 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sandelowski M., Voils C. I., Knafl G. (2009). On quantitizing . J. Mix. Methods Res. 3 , 208–222. 10.1177/1558689809334210 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Scholtz S. E., De Klerk W., De Beer L. T. (2019). A data generated research framework for conducting research methods in psychological research .
• Scimago Journal & Country Rank (2017). Available online at: http://www.scimagojr.com/journalrank.php?category=3201&year=2015
• Scopus (2017a). About Scopus . Available online at: https://www.scopus.com/home.uri (accessed February 01, 2017).
• Scopus (2017b). Document Search . Available online at: https://www.scopus.com/home.uri (accessed February 01, 2017).
• Scott Jones J., Goldring J. E. (2015). ‘I' m not a quants person'; key strategies in building competence and confidence in staff who teach quantitative research methods . Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol. 18 , 479–494. 10.1080/13645579.2015.1062623 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Smith B., McGannon K. R. (2018). Developing rigor in quantitative research: problems and opportunities within sport and exercise psychology . Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 11 , 101–121. 10.1080/1750984X.2017.1317357 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stangor C. (2011). Introduction to Psychology . Available online at: http://www.saylor.org/books/
• Strydom H. (2011). Sampling in the quantitative paradigm , in Research at Grass Roots; For the Social Sciences and Human Service Professions , 4th Edn, eds de Vos A. S., Strydom H., Fouché C. B., Delport C. S. L. (Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers; ), 221–234. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tashakkori A., Teddlie C. (2003). Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social & Behavioural Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE publications. [ Google Scholar ]
• Toomela A. (2010). Quantitative methods in psychology: inevitable and useless . Front. Psychol. 1 :29. 10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00029 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Truscott D. M., Swars S., Smith S., Thornton-Reid F., Zhao Y., Dooley C., et al.. (2010). A cross-disciplinary examination of the prevalence of mixed methods in educational research: 1995–2005 . Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol. 13 , 317–328. 10.1080/13645570903097950 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Weiten W. (2010). Psychology Themes and Variations . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. [ Google Scholar ]

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain how scientific research addresses questions about behavior
• Discuss how scientific research guides public policy
• Appreciate how scientific research can be important in making personal decisions

Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority, and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with the world around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting claims. At various times in history, we would have been certain that the sun revolved around a flat earth, that the earth’s continents did not move, and that mental illness was caused by possession ( Figure 2.2 ). It is through systematic scientific research that we divest ourselves of our preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.

The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical : It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.

While behavior is observable, the mind is not. If someone is crying, we can see behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes we can learn the reason for someone’s behavior by simply asking a question, like “Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly, or is incapable of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior. This chapter explores how scientific knowledge is generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain.

Use of Research Information

Trying to determine which theories are and are not accepted by the scientific community can be difficult, especially in an area of research as broad as psychology. More than ever before, we have an incredible amount of information at our fingertips, and a simple internet search on any given research topic might result in a number of contradictory studies. In these cases, we are witnessing the scientific community going through the process of reaching a consensus, and it could be quite some time before a consensus emerges. For example, the explosion in our use of technology has led researchers to question whether this ultimately helps or hinders us. The use and implementation of technology in educational settings has become widespread over the last few decades. Researchers are coming to different conclusions regarding the use of technology. To illustrate this point, a study investigating a smartphone app targeting surgery residents (graduate students in surgery training) found that the use of this app can increase student engagement and raise test scores (Shaw & Tan, 2015). Conversely, another study found that the use of technology in undergraduate student populations had negative impacts on sleep, communication, and time management skills (Massimini & Peterson, 2009). Until sufficient amounts of research have been conducted, there will be no clear consensus on the effects that technology has on a student's acquisition of knowledge, study skills, and mental health.

In the meantime, we should strive to think critically about the information we encounter by exercising a degree of healthy skepticism. When someone makes a claim, we should examine the claim from a number of different perspectives: what is the expertise of the person making the claim, what might they gain if the claim is valid, does the claim seem justified given the evidence, and what do other researchers think of the claim? This is especially important when we consider how much information in advertising campaigns and on the internet claims to be based on “scientific evidence” when in actuality it is a belief or perspective of just a few individuals trying to sell a product or draw attention to their perspectives.

We should be informed consumers of the information made available to us because decisions based on this information have significant consequences. One such consequence can be seen in politics and public policy. Imagine that you have been elected as the governor of your state. One of your responsibilities is to manage the state budget and determine how to best spend your constituents’ tax dollars. As the new governor, you need to decide whether to continue funding early intervention programs. These programs are designed to help children who come from low-income backgrounds, have special needs, or face other disadvantages. These programs may involve providing a wide variety of services to maximize the children's development and position them for optimal levels of success in school and later in life (Blann, 2005). While such programs sound appealing, you would want to be sure that they also proved effective before investing additional money in these programs. Fortunately, psychologists and other scientists have conducted vast amounts of research on such programs and, in general, the programs are found to be effective (Neil & Christensen, 2009; Peters-Scheffer, Didden, Korzilius, & Sturmey, 2011). While not all programs are equally effective, and the short-term effects of many such programs are more pronounced, there is reason to believe that many of these programs produce long-term benefits for participants (Barnett, 2011). If you are committed to being a good steward of taxpayer money, you would want to look at research. Which programs are most effective? What characteristics of these programs make them effective? Which programs promote the best outcomes? After examining the research, you would be best equipped to make decisions about which programs to fund.

Link to Learning

Watch this video about early childhood program effectiveness to learn how scientists evaluate effectiveness and how best to invest money into programs that are most effective.

Ultimately, it is not just politicians who can benefit from using research in guiding their decisions. We all might look to research from time to time when making decisions in our lives. Imagine that your sister, Maria, expresses concern about her two-year-old child, Umberto. Umberto does not speak as much or as clearly as the other children in his daycare or others in the family. Umberto's pediatrician undertakes some screening and recommends an evaluation by a speech pathologist, but does not refer Maria to any other specialists. Maria is concerned that Umberto's speech delays are signs of a developmental disorder, but Umberto's pediatrician does not; she sees indications of differences in Umberto's jaw and facial muscles. Hearing this, you do some internet searches, but you are overwhelmed by the breadth of information and the wide array of sources. You see blog posts, top-ten lists, advertisements from healthcare providers, and recommendations from several advocacy organizations. Why are there so many sites? Which are based in research, and which are not?

In the end, research is what makes the difference between facts and opinions. Facts are observable realities, and opinions are personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate. In the scientific community, facts can be established only using evidence collected through empirical research.

NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

Psychological research has a long history involving important figures from diverse backgrounds. While the introductory chapter discussed several researchers who made significant contributions to the discipline, there are many more individuals who deserve attention in considering how psychology has advanced as a science through their work ( Figure 2.3 ). For instance, Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) was the first woman to earn a PhD in psychology. Her research focused on animal behavior and cognition (Margaret Floy Washburn, PhD, n.d.). Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was a preeminent first-generation American psychologist who opposed the behaviorist movement, conducted significant research into memory, and established one of the earliest experimental psychology labs in the United States (Mary Whiton Calkins, n.d.).

Francis Sumner (1895–1954) was the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology in 1920. His dissertation focused on issues related to psychoanalysis. Sumner also had research interests in racial bias and educational justice. Sumner was one of the founders of Howard University’s department of psychology, and because of his accomplishments, he is sometimes referred to as the “Father of Black Psychology.” Thirteen years later, Inez Beverly Prosser (1895–1934) became the first African American woman to receive a PhD in psychology. Prosser’s research highlighted issues related to education in segregated versus integrated schools, and ultimately, her work was very influential in the hallmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court ruling that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional (Ethnicity and Health in America Series: Featured Psychologists, n.d.).

Although the establishment of psychology’s scientific roots occurred first in Europe and the United States, it did not take much time until researchers from around the world began to establish their own laboratories and research programs. For example, some of the first experimental psychology laboratories in South America were founded by Horatio Piñero (1869–1919) at two institutions in Buenos Aires, Argentina (Godoy & Brussino, 2010). In India, Gunamudian David Boaz (1908–1965) and Narendra Nath Sen Gupta (1889–1944) established the first independent departments of psychology at the University of Madras and the University of Calcutta, respectively. These developments provided an opportunity for Indian researchers to make important contributions to the field (Gunamudian David Boaz, n.d.; Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, n.d.).

When the American Psychological Association (APA) was first founded in 1892, all of the members were White males (Women and Minorities in Psychology, n.d.). However, by 1905, Mary Whiton Calkins was elected as the first female president of the APA, and by 1946, nearly one-quarter of American psychologists were female. Psychology became a popular degree option for students enrolled in the nation’s historically Black higher education institutions, increasing the number of Black Americans who went on to become psychologists. Given demographic shifts occurring in the United States and increased access to higher educational opportunities among historically underrepresented populations, there is reason to hope that the diversity of the field will increasingly match the larger population, and that the research contributions made by the psychologists of the future will better serve people of all backgrounds (Women and Minorities in Psychology, n.d.).

The Process of Scientific Research

Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method . Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on. In this sense, the scientific process is circular. The types of reasoning within the circle are called deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning , ideas are tested in the real world; in inductive reasoning , real-world observations lead to new ideas ( Figure 2.4 ). These processes are inseparable, like inhaling and exhaling, but different research approaches place different emphasis on the deductive and inductive aspects.

In the scientific context, deductive reasoning begins with a generalization—one hypothesis—that is then used to reach logical conclusions about the real world. If the hypothesis is correct, then the logical conclusions reached through deductive reasoning should also be correct. A deductive reasoning argument might go something like this: All living things require energy to survive (this would be your hypothesis). Ducks are living things. Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (logical conclusion). In this example, the hypothesis is correct; therefore, the conclusion is correct as well. Sometimes, however, an incorrect hypothesis may lead to a logical but incorrect conclusion. Consider this argument: all ducks are born with the ability to see. Quackers is a duck. Therefore, Quackers was born with the ability to see. Scientists use deductive reasoning to empirically test their hypotheses. Returning to the example of the ducks, researchers might design a study to test the hypothesis that if all living things require energy to survive, then ducks will be found to require energy to survive.

Deductive reasoning starts with a generalization that is tested against real-world observations; however, inductive reasoning moves in the opposite direction. Inductive reasoning uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations. Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based. For instance, you may notice that your favorite fruits—apples, bananas, and oranges—all grow on trees; therefore, you assume that all fruit must grow on trees. This would be an example of inductive reasoning, and, clearly, the existence of strawberries, blueberries, and kiwi demonstrate that this generalization is not correct despite it being based on a number of direct observations. Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate theories, which in turn generate hypotheses that are tested with deductive reasoning. In the end, science involves both deductive and inductive processes.

For example, case studies, which you will read about in the next section, are heavily weighted on the side of empirical observations. Thus, case studies are closely associated with inductive processes as researchers gather massive amounts of observations and seek interesting patterns (new ideas) in the data. Experimental research, on the other hand, puts great emphasis on deductive reasoning.

We’ve stated that theories and hypotheses are ideas, but what sort of ideas are they, exactly? A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Theories are repeatedly checked against the world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory.

A hypothesis is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests Figure 2.5 .

To see how this process works, let’s consider a specific theory and a hypothesis that might be generated from that theory. As you’ll learn in a later chapter, the James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotional experience relies on the physiological arousal associated with the emotional state. If you walked out of your home and discovered a very aggressive snake waiting on your doorstep, your heart would begin to race and your stomach churn. According to the James-Lange theory, these physiological changes would result in your feeling of fear. A hypothesis that could be derived from this theory might be that a person who is unaware of the physiological arousal that the sight of the snake elicits will not feel fear.

A scientific hypothesis is also falsifiable , or capable of being shown to be incorrect. Recall from the introductory chapter that Sigmund Freud had lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors ( Figure 2.6 ). However, a major criticism of Freud’s theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable; for example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego—the three elements of personality described in Freud’s theories. Despite this, Freud’s theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts because of their historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and these remain the root of all modern forms of therapy.

In contrast, the James-Lange theory does generate falsifiable hypotheses, such as the one described above. Some individuals who suffer significant injuries to their spinal columns are unable to feel the bodily changes that often accompany emotional experiences. Therefore, we could test the hypothesis by determining how emotional experiences differ between individuals who have the ability to detect these changes in their physiological arousal and those who do not. In fact, this research has been conducted and while the emotional experiences of people deprived of an awareness of their physiological arousal may be less intense, they still experience emotion (Chwalisz, Diener, & Gallagher, 1988).

Scientific research’s dependence on falsifiability allows for great confidence in the information that it produces. Typically, by the time information is accepted by the scientific community, it has been tested repeatedly.

As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases.

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

• Authors: Rose M. Spielman, William J. Jenkins, Marilyn D. Lovett
• Publisher/website: OpenStax
• Book title: Psychology 2e
• Publication date: Apr 22, 2020
• Location: Houston, Texas
• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction
• Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/2-1-why-is-research-important

© Jan 6, 2024 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.

• Privacy Policy

Buy Me a Coffee

Home » Research Problem – Examples, Types and Guide

Research Problem – Examples, Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Research Problem

Definition:

Research problem is a specific and well-defined issue or question that a researcher seeks to investigate through research. It is the starting point of any research project, as it sets the direction, scope, and purpose of the study.

Types of Research Problems

Types of Research Problems are as follows:

Descriptive problems

These problems involve describing or documenting a particular phenomenon, event, or situation. For example, a researcher might investigate the demographics of a particular population, such as their age, gender, income, and education.

Exploratory problems

These problems are designed to explore a particular topic or issue in depth, often with the goal of generating new ideas or hypotheses. For example, a researcher might explore the factors that contribute to job satisfaction among employees in a particular industry.

Explanatory Problems

These problems seek to explain why a particular phenomenon or event occurs, and they typically involve testing hypotheses or theories. For example, a researcher might investigate the relationship between exercise and mental health, with the goal of determining whether exercise has a causal effect on mental health.

Predictive Problems

These problems involve making predictions or forecasts about future events or trends. For example, a researcher might investigate the factors that predict future success in a particular field or industry.

Evaluative Problems

These problems involve assessing the effectiveness of a particular intervention, program, or policy. For example, a researcher might evaluate the impact of a new teaching method on student learning outcomes.

How to Define a Research Problem

Defining a research problem involves identifying a specific question or issue that a researcher seeks to address through a research study. Here are the steps to follow when defining a research problem:

• Identify a broad research topic : Start by identifying a broad topic that you are interested in researching. This could be based on your personal interests, observations, or gaps in the existing literature.
• Conduct a literature review : Once you have identified a broad topic, conduct a thorough literature review to identify the current state of knowledge in the field. This will help you identify gaps or inconsistencies in the existing research that can be addressed through your study.
• Refine the research question: Based on the gaps or inconsistencies identified in the literature review, refine your research question to a specific, clear, and well-defined problem statement. Your research question should be feasible, relevant, and important to the field of study.
• Develop a hypothesis: Based on the research question, develop a hypothesis that states the expected relationship between variables.
• Define the scope and limitations: Clearly define the scope and limitations of your research problem. This will help you focus your study and ensure that your research objectives are achievable.
• Get feedback: Get feedback from your advisor or colleagues to ensure that your research problem is clear, feasible, and relevant to the field of study.

Components of a Research Problem

The components of a research problem typically include the following:

• Topic : The general subject or area of interest that the research will explore.
• Research Question : A clear and specific question that the research seeks to answer or investigate.
• Objective : A statement that describes the purpose of the research, what it aims to achieve, and the expected outcomes.
• Hypothesis : An educated guess or prediction about the relationship between variables, which is tested during the research.
• Variables : The factors or elements that are being studied, measured, or manipulated in the research.
• Methodology : The overall approach and methods that will be used to conduct the research.
• Scope and Limitations : A description of the boundaries and parameters of the research, including what will be included and excluded, and any potential constraints or limitations.
• Significance: A statement that explains the potential value or impact of the research, its contribution to the field of study, and how it will add to the existing knowledge.

Research Problem Examples

Following are some Research Problem Examples:

Research Problem Examples in Psychology are as follows:

• Exploring the impact of social media on adolescent mental health.
• Investigating the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy for treating anxiety disorders.
• Studying the impact of prenatal stress on child development outcomes.
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to addiction and relapse in substance abuse treatment.
• Examining the impact of personality traits on romantic relationships.

Research Problem Examples in Sociology are as follows:

• Investigating the relationship between social support and mental health outcomes in marginalized communities.
• Studying the impact of globalization on labor markets and employment opportunities.
• Analyzing the causes and consequences of gentrification in urban neighborhoods.
• Investigating the impact of family structure on social mobility and economic outcomes.
• Examining the effects of social capital on community development and resilience.

Research Problem Examples in Economics are as follows:

• Studying the effects of trade policies on economic growth and development.
• Analyzing the impact of automation and artificial intelligence on labor markets and employment opportunities.
• Investigating the factors that contribute to economic inequality and poverty.
• Examining the impact of fiscal and monetary policies on inflation and economic stability.
• Studying the relationship between education and economic outcomes, such as income and employment.

Political Science

Research Problem Examples in Political Science are as follows:

• Analyzing the causes and consequences of political polarization and partisan behavior.
• Investigating the impact of social movements on political change and policymaking.
• Studying the role of media and communication in shaping public opinion and political discourse.
• Examining the effectiveness of electoral systems in promoting democratic governance and representation.
• Investigating the impact of international organizations and agreements on global governance and security.

Environmental Science

Research Problem Examples in Environmental Science are as follows:

• Studying the impact of air pollution on human health and well-being.
• Investigating the effects of deforestation on climate change and biodiversity loss.
• Analyzing the impact of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems and food webs.
• Studying the relationship between urban development and ecological resilience.
• Examining the effectiveness of environmental policies and regulations in promoting sustainability and conservation.

Research Problem Examples in Education are as follows:

• Investigating the impact of teacher training and professional development on student learning outcomes.
• Studying the effectiveness of technology-enhanced learning in promoting student engagement and achievement.
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to achievement gaps and educational inequality.
• Examining the impact of parental involvement on student motivation and achievement.
• Studying the effectiveness of alternative educational models, such as homeschooling and online learning.

Research Problem Examples in History are as follows:

• Analyzing the social and economic factors that contributed to the rise and fall of ancient civilizations.
• Investigating the impact of colonialism on indigenous societies and cultures.
• Studying the role of religion in shaping political and social movements throughout history.
• Analyzing the impact of the Industrial Revolution on economic and social structures.
• Examining the causes and consequences of global conflicts, such as World War I and II.

Research Problem Examples in Business are as follows:

• Studying the impact of corporate social responsibility on brand reputation and consumer behavior.
• Investigating the effectiveness of leadership development programs in improving organizational performance and employee satisfaction.
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful entrepreneurship and small business development.
• Examining the impact of mergers and acquisitions on market competition and consumer welfare.
• Studying the effectiveness of marketing strategies and advertising campaigns in promoting brand awareness and sales.

Research Problem Example for Students

An Example of a Research Problem for Students could be:

“How does social media usage affect the academic performance of high school students?”

This research problem is specific, measurable, and relevant. It is specific because it focuses on a particular area of interest, which is the impact of social media on academic performance. It is measurable because the researcher can collect data on social media usage and academic performance to evaluate the relationship between the two variables. It is relevant because it addresses a current and important issue that affects high school students.

To conduct research on this problem, the researcher could use various methods, such as surveys, interviews, and statistical analysis of academic records. The results of the study could provide insights into the relationship between social media usage and academic performance, which could help educators and parents develop effective strategies for managing social media use among students.

Another example of a research problem for students:

“Does participation in extracurricular activities impact the academic performance of middle school students?”

This research problem is also specific, measurable, and relevant. It is specific because it focuses on a particular type of activity, extracurricular activities, and its impact on academic performance. It is measurable because the researcher can collect data on students’ participation in extracurricular activities and their academic performance to evaluate the relationship between the two variables. It is relevant because extracurricular activities are an essential part of the middle school experience, and their impact on academic performance is a topic of interest to educators and parents.

To conduct research on this problem, the researcher could use surveys, interviews, and academic records analysis. The results of the study could provide insights into the relationship between extracurricular activities and academic performance, which could help educators and parents make informed decisions about the types of activities that are most beneficial for middle school students.

Applications of Research Problem

Applications of Research Problem are as follows:

• Academic research: Research problems are used to guide academic research in various fields, including social sciences, natural sciences, humanities, and engineering. Researchers use research problems to identify gaps in knowledge, address theoretical or practical problems, and explore new areas of study.
• Business research : Research problems are used to guide business research, including market research, consumer behavior research, and organizational research. Researchers use research problems to identify business challenges, explore opportunities, and develop strategies for business growth and success.
• Healthcare research : Research problems are used to guide healthcare research, including medical research, clinical research, and health services research. Researchers use research problems to identify healthcare challenges, develop new treatments and interventions, and improve healthcare delivery and outcomes.
• Public policy research : Research problems are used to guide public policy research, including policy analysis, program evaluation, and policy development. Researchers use research problems to identify social issues, assess the effectiveness of existing policies and programs, and develop new policies and programs to address societal challenges.
• Environmental research : Research problems are used to guide environmental research, including environmental science, ecology, and environmental management. Researchers use research problems to identify environmental challenges, assess the impact of human activities on the environment, and develop sustainable solutions to protect the environment.

Purpose of Research Problems

The purpose of research problems is to identify an area of study that requires further investigation and to formulate a clear, concise and specific research question. A research problem defines the specific issue or problem that needs to be addressed and serves as the foundation for the research project.

Identifying a research problem is important because it helps to establish the direction of the research and sets the stage for the research design, methods, and analysis. It also ensures that the research is relevant and contributes to the existing body of knowledge in the field.

A well-formulated research problem should:

• Clearly define the specific issue or problem that needs to be investigated
• Be specific and narrow enough to be manageable in terms of time, resources, and scope
• Be relevant to the field of study and contribute to the existing body of knowledge
• Be feasible and realistic in terms of available data, resources, and research methods
• Be interesting and intellectually stimulating for the researcher and potential readers or audiences.

Characteristics of Research Problem

The characteristics of a research problem refer to the specific features that a problem must possess to qualify as a suitable research topic. Some of the key characteristics of a research problem are:

• Clarity : A research problem should be clearly defined and stated in a way that it is easily understood by the researcher and other readers. The problem should be specific, unambiguous, and easy to comprehend.
• Relevance : A research problem should be relevant to the field of study, and it should contribute to the existing body of knowledge. The problem should address a gap in knowledge, a theoretical or practical problem, or a real-world issue that requires further investigation.
• Feasibility : A research problem should be feasible in terms of the availability of data, resources, and research methods. It should be realistic and practical to conduct the study within the available time, budget, and resources.
• Novelty : A research problem should be novel or original in some way. It should represent a new or innovative perspective on an existing problem, or it should explore a new area of study or apply an existing theory to a new context.
• Importance : A research problem should be important or significant in terms of its potential impact on the field or society. It should have the potential to produce new knowledge, advance existing theories, or address a pressing societal issue.
• Manageability : A research problem should be manageable in terms of its scope and complexity. It should be specific enough to be investigated within the available time and resources, and it should be broad enough to provide meaningful results.

Advantages of Research Problem

The advantages of a well-defined research problem are as follows:

• Focus : A research problem provides a clear and focused direction for the research study. It ensures that the study stays on track and does not deviate from the research question.
• Clarity : A research problem provides clarity and specificity to the research question. It ensures that the research is not too broad or too narrow and that the research objectives are clearly defined.
• Relevance : A research problem ensures that the research study is relevant to the field of study and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. It addresses gaps in knowledge, theoretical or practical problems, or real-world issues that require further investigation.
• Feasibility : A research problem ensures that the research study is feasible in terms of the availability of data, resources, and research methods. It ensures that the research is realistic and practical to conduct within the available time, budget, and resources.
• Novelty : A research problem ensures that the research study is original and innovative. It represents a new or unique perspective on an existing problem, explores a new area of study, or applies an existing theory to a new context.
• Importance : A research problem ensures that the research study is important and significant in terms of its potential impact on the field or society. It has the potential to produce new knowledge, advance existing theories, or address a pressing societal issue.
• Rigor : A research problem ensures that the research study is rigorous and follows established research methods and practices. It ensures that the research is conducted in a systematic, objective, and unbiased manner.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Institutional Review Board – Application Sample...

Evaluating Research – Process, Examples and...

Ethical Considerations In Psychology Research

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research. We have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from harm.

However important the issue under investigation, psychologists must remember that they have a duty to respect the rights and dignity of research participants. This means that they must abide by certain moral principles and rules of conduct.

What are Ethical Guidelines?

In Britain, ethical guidelines for research are published by the British Psychological Society, and in America, by the American Psychological Association. The purpose of these codes of conduct is to protect research participants, the reputation of psychology, and psychologists themselves.

Moral issues rarely yield a simple, unambiguous, right or wrong answer. It is, therefore, often a matter of judgment whether the research is justified or not.

For example, it might be that a study causes psychological or physical discomfort to participants; maybe they suffer pain or perhaps even come to serious harm.

On the other hand, the investigation could lead to discoveries that benefit the participants themselves or even have the potential to increase the sum of human happiness.

Rosenthal and Rosnow (1984) also discuss the potential costs of failing to carry out certain research. Who is to weigh up these costs and benefits? Who is to judge whether the ends justify the means?

Finally, if you are ever in doubt as to whether research is ethical or not, it is worthwhile remembering that if there is a conflict of interest between the participants and the researcher, it is the interests of the subjects that should take priority.

Studies must now undergo an extensive review by an institutional review board (US) or ethics committee (UK) before they are implemented. All UK research requires ethical approval by one or more of the following:

• Department Ethics Committee (DEC) : for most routine research.
• Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC) : for non-routine research.
• External Ethics Committee (EEC) : for research that s externally regulated (e.g., NHS research).

Committees review proposals to assess if the potential benefits of the research are justifiable in light of the possible risk of physical or psychological harm.

These committees may request researchers make changes to the study’s design or procedure or, in extreme cases, deny approval of the study altogether.

The British Psychological Society (BPS) and American Psychological Association (APA) have issued a code of ethics in psychology that provides guidelines for conducting research.  Some of the more important ethical issues are as follows:

Informed Consent

Before the study begins, the researcher must outline to the participants what the research is about and then ask for their consent (i.e., permission) to participate.

An adult (18 years +) capable of being permitted to participate in a study can provide consent. Parents/legal guardians of minors can also provide consent to allow their children to participate in a study.

Whenever possible, investigators should obtain the consent of participants. In practice, this means it is not sufficient to get potential participants to say “Yes.”

They also need to know what it is that they agree to. In other words, the psychologist should, so far as is practicable, explain what is involved in advance and obtain the informed consent of participants.

Informed consent must be informed, voluntary, and rational. Participants must be given relevant details to make an informed decision, including the purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits. Consent must be given voluntarily without undue coercion. And participants must have the capacity to rationally weigh the decision.

Components of informed consent include clearly explaining the risks and expected benefits, addressing potential therapeutic misconceptions about experimental treatments, allowing participants to ask questions, and describing methods to minimize risks like emotional distress.

Investigators should tailor the consent language and process appropriately for the study population. Obtaining meaningful informed consent is an ethical imperative for human subjects research.

The voluntary nature of participation should not be compromised through coercion or undue influence. Inducements should be fair and not excessive/inappropriate.

However, it is not always possible to gain informed consent.  Where the researcher can’t ask the actual participants, a similar group of people can be asked how they would feel about participating.

If they think it would be OK, then it can be assumed that the real participants will also find it acceptable. This is known as presumptive consent.

However, a problem with this method is that there might be a mismatch between how people think they would feel/behave and how they actually feel and behave during a study.

In order for consent to be ‘informed,’ consent forms may need to be accompanied by an information sheet for participants’ setting out information about the proposed study (in lay terms), along with details about the investigators and how they can be contacted.

Special considerations exist when obtaining consent from vulnerable populations with decisional impairments, such as psychiatric patients, intellectually disabled persons, and children/adolescents. Capacity can vary widely so should be assessed individually, but interventions to improve comprehension may help. Legally authorized representatives usually must provide consent for children.

Participants must be given information relating to the following:

• A statement that participation is voluntary and that refusal to participate will not result in any consequences or any loss of benefits that the person is otherwise entitled to receive.
• Purpose of the research.
• All foreseeable risks and discomforts to the participant (if there are any). These include not only physical injury but also possible psychological.
• Procedures involved in the research.
• Benefits of the research to society and possibly to the individual human subject.
• Length of time the subject is expected to participate.
• Person to contact for answers to questions or in the event of injury or emergency.
• Subjects” right to confidentiality and the right to withdraw from the study at any time without any consequences.

Debriefing after a study involves informing participants about the purpose, providing an opportunity to ask questions, and addressing any harm from participation. Debriefing serves an educational function and allows researchers to correct misconceptions. It is an ethical imperative.

After the research is over, the participant should be able to discuss the procedure and the findings with the psychologist. They must be given a general idea of what the researcher was investigating and why, and their part in the research should be explained.

Participants must be told if they have been deceived and given reasons why. They must be asked if they have any questions, which should be answered honestly and as fully as possible.

Debriefing should occur as soon as possible and be as full as possible; experimenters should take reasonable steps to ensure that participants understand debriefing.

“The purpose of debriefing is to remove any misconceptions and anxieties that the participants have about the research and to leave them with a sense of dignity, knowledge, and a perception of time not wasted” (Harris, 1998).

The debriefing aims to provide information and help the participant leave the experimental situation in a similar frame of mind as when he/she entered it (Aronson, 1988).

Exceptions may exist if debriefing seriously compromises study validity or causes harm itself, like negative emotions in children. Consultation with an institutional review board guides exceptions.

Debriefing indicates investigators’ commitment to participant welfare. Harms may not be raised in the debriefing itself, so responsibility continues after data collection. Following up demonstrates respect and protects persons in human subjects research.

Protection of Participants

Researchers must ensure that those participating in research will not be caused distress. They must be protected from physical and mental harm. This means you must not embarrass, frighten, offend or harm participants.

Normally, the risk of harm must be no greater than in ordinary life, i.e., participants should not be exposed to risks greater than or additional to those encountered in their normal lifestyles.

The researcher must also ensure that if vulnerable groups are to be used (elderly, disabled, children, etc.), they must receive special care. For example, if studying children, ensure their participation is brief as they get tired easily and have a limited attention span.

Researchers are not always accurately able to predict the risks of taking part in a study, and in some cases, a therapeutic debriefing may be necessary if participants have become disturbed during the research (as happened to some participants in Zimbardo’s prisoners/guards study ).

Deception research involves purposely misleading participants or withholding information that could influence their participation decision. This method is controversial because it limits informed consent and autonomy, but can provide otherwise unobtainable valuable knowledge.

Types of deception include (i) deliberate misleading, e.g. using confederates, staged manipulations in field settings, deceptive instructions; (ii) deception by omission, e.g., failure to disclose full information about the study, or creating ambiguity.

The researcher should avoid deceiving participants about the nature of the research unless there is no alternative – and even then, this would need to be judged acceptable by an independent expert. However, some types of research cannot be carried out without at least some element of deception.

For example, in Milgram’s study of obedience , the participants thought they were giving electric shocks to a learner when they answered a question wrongly. In reality, no shocks were given, and the learners were confederates of Milgram.

This is sometimes necessary to avoid demand characteristics (i.e., the clues in an experiment that lead participants to think they know what the researcher is looking for).

Another common example is when a stooge or confederate of the experimenter is used (this was the case in both the experiments carried out by Asch ).

According to ethics codes, deception must have strong scientific justification, and non-deceptive alternatives should not be feasible. Deception that causes significant harm is prohibited. Investigators should carefully weigh whether deception is necessary and ethical for their research.

However, participants must be deceived as little as possible, and any deception must not cause distress.  Researchers can determine whether participants are likely distressed when deception is disclosed by consulting culturally relevant groups.

Participants should immediately be informed of the deception without compromising the study’s integrity. Reactions to learning of deception can range from understanding to anger. Debriefing should explain the scientific rationale and social benefits to minimize negative reactions.

If the participant is likely to object or be distressed once they discover the true nature of the research at debriefing, then the study is unacceptable.

If you have gained participants’ informed consent by deception, then they will have agreed to take part without actually knowing what they were consenting to.  The true nature of the research should be revealed at the earliest possible opportunity or at least during debriefing.

Some researchers argue that deception can never be justified and object to this practice as it (i) violates an individual’s right to choose to participate; (ii) is a questionable basis on which to build a discipline; and (iii) leads to distrust of psychology in the community.

Confidentiality

Protecting participant confidentiality is an ethical imperative that demonstrates respect, ensures honest participation, and prevents harms like embarrassment or legal issues. Methods like data encryption, coding systems, and secure storage should match the research methodology.

Participants and the data gained from them must be kept anonymous unless they give their full consent.  No names must be used in a lab report .

Researchers must clearly describe to participants the limits of confidentiality and methods to protect privacy. With internet research, threats exist like third-party data access; security measures like encryption should be explained. For non-internet research, other protections should be noted too, like coding systems and restricted data access.

High-profile data breaches have eroded public trust. Methods that minimize identifiable information can further guard confidentiality. For example, researchers can consider whether birthdates are necessary or just ages.

Generally, reducing personal details collected and limiting accessibility safeguards participants. Following strong confidentiality protections demonstrates respect for persons in human subjects research.

What do we do if we discover something that should be disclosed (e.g., a criminal act)? Researchers have no legal obligation to disclose criminal acts and must determine the most important consideration: their duty to the participant vs. their duty to the wider community.

Ultimately, decisions to disclose information must be set in the context of the research aims.

Withdrawal from an Investigation

Participants should be able to leave a study anytime if they feel uncomfortable. They should also be allowed to withdraw their data. They should be told at the start of the study that they have the right to withdraw.

They should not have pressure placed upon them to continue if they do not want to (a guideline flouted in Milgram’s research).

Participants may feel they shouldn’t withdraw as this may ‘spoil’ the study. Many participants are paid or receive course credits; they may worry they won’t get this if they withdraw.

Even at the end of the study, the participant has a final opportunity to withdraw the data they have provided for the research.

Ethical Issues in Psychology & Socially Sensitive Research

There has been an assumption over the years by many psychologists that provided they follow the BPS or APA guidelines when using human participants and that all leave in a similar state of mind to how they turned up, not having been deceived or humiliated, given a debrief, and not having had their confidentiality breached, that there are no ethical concerns with their research.

But consider the following examples:

a) Caughy et al. 1994 found that middle-class children in daycare at an early age generally score less on cognitive tests than children from similar families reared in the home.

Assuming all guidelines were followed, neither the parents nor the children participating would have been unduly affected by this research. Nobody would have been deceived, consent would have been obtained, and no harm would have been caused.

However, consider the wider implications of this study when the results are published, particularly for parents of middle-class infants who are considering placing their young children in daycare or those who recently have!

b)  IQ tests administered to black Americans show that they typically score 15 points below the average white score.

When black Americans are given these tests, they presumably complete them willingly and are not harmed as individuals. However, when published, findings of this sort seek to reinforce racial stereotypes and are used to discriminate against the black population in the job market, etc.

Sieber & Stanley (1988) (the main names for Socially Sensitive Research (SSR) outline 4 groups that may be affected by psychological research: It is the first group of people that we are most concerned with!

• Members of the social group being studied, such as racial or ethnic group. For example, early research on IQ was used to discriminate against US Blacks.
• Friends and relatives of those participating in the study, particularly in case studies, where individuals may become famous or infamous. Cases that spring to mind would include Genie’s mother.
• The research team. There are examples of researchers being intimidated because of the line of research they are in.
• The institution in which the research is conducted.

salso suggest there are 4 main ethical concerns when conducting SSR:

• The research question or hypothesis.
• The treatment of individual participants.
• The institutional context.
• How the findings of the research are interpreted and applied.

Ethical Guidelines For Carrying Out SSR

Sieber and Stanley suggest the following ethical guidelines for carrying out SSR. There is some overlap between these and research on human participants in general.

Privacy : This refers to people rather than data. Asking people questions of a personal nature (e.g., about sexuality) could offend.

Confidentiality: This refers to data. Information (e.g., about H.I.V. status) leaked to others may affect the participant’s life.

Sound & valid methodology : This is even more vital when the research topic is socially sensitive. Academics can detect flaws in methods, but the lay public and the media often don’t.

When research findings are publicized, people are likely to consider them fact, and policies may be based on them. Examples are Bowlby’s maternal deprivation studies and intelligence testing.

Deception : Causing the wider public to believe something, which isn’t true by the findings, you report (e.g., that parents are responsible for how their children turn out).

Informed consent : Participants should be made aware of how participating in the research may affect them.

Justice & equitable treatment : Examples of unjust treatment are (i) publicizing an idea, which creates a prejudice against a group, & (ii) withholding a treatment, which you believe is beneficial, from some participants so that you can use them as controls.

Scientific freedom : Science should not be censored, but there should be some monitoring of sensitive research. The researcher should weigh their responsibilities against their rights to do the research.

Ownership of data : When research findings could be used to make social policies, which affect people’s lives, should they be publicly accessible? Sometimes, a party commissions research with their interests in mind (e.g., an industry, an advertising agency, a political party, or the military).

Some people argue that scientists should be compelled to disclose their results so that other scientists can re-analyze them. If this had happened in Burt’s day, there might not have been such widespread belief in the genetic transmission of intelligence. George Miller (Miller’s Magic 7) famously argued that we should give psychology away.

The values of social scientists : Psychologists can be divided into two main groups: those who advocate a humanistic approach (individuals are important and worthy of study, quality of life is important, intuition is useful) and those advocating a scientific approach (rigorous methodology, objective data).

The researcher’s values may conflict with those of the participant/institution. For example, if someone with a scientific approach was evaluating a counseling technique based on a humanistic approach, they would judge it on criteria that those giving & receiving the therapy may not consider important.

Cost/benefit analysis : It is unethical if the costs outweigh the potential/actual benefits. However, it isn’t easy to assess costs & benefits accurately & the participants themselves rarely benefit from research.

Sieber & Stanley advise that researchers should not avoid researching socially sensitive issues. Scientists have a responsibility to society to find useful knowledge.

• They need to take more care over consent, debriefing, etc. when the issue is sensitive.
• They should be aware of how their findings may be interpreted & used by others.
• They should make explicit the assumptions underlying their research so that the public can consider whether they agree with these.
• They should make the limitations of their research explicit (e.g., ‘the study was only carried out on white middle-class American male students,’ ‘the study is based on questionnaire data, which may be inaccurate,’ etc.
• They should be careful how they communicate with the media and policymakers.
• They should be aware of the balance between their obligations to participants and those to society (e.g. if the participant tells them something which they feel they should tell the police/social services).
• They should be aware of their own values and biases and those of the participants.

Arguments for SSR

• Psychologists have devised methods to resolve the issues raised.
• SSR is the most scrutinized research in psychology. Ethical committees reject more SSR than any other form of research.
• By gaining a better understanding of issues such as gender, race, and sexuality, we are able to gain greater acceptance and reduce prejudice.
• SSR has been of benefit to society, for example, EWT. This has made us aware that EWT can be flawed and should not be used without corroboration. It has also made us aware that the EWT of children is every bit as reliable as that of adults.
• Most research is still on white middle-class Americans (about 90% of research is quoted in texts!). SSR is helping to redress the balance and make us more aware of other cultures and outlooks.

Arguments against SSR

• Flawed research has been used to dictate social policy and put certain groups at a disadvantage.
• Research has been used to discriminate against groups in society, such as the sterilization of people in the USA between 1910 and 1920 because they were of low intelligence, criminal, or suffered from psychological illness.
• The guidelines used by psychologists to control SSR lack power and, as a result, are unable to prevent indefensible research from being carried out.

American Psychological Association. (2002). American Psychological Association ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. www.apa.org/ethics/code2002.html

Baumrind, D. (1964). Some thoughts on ethics of research: After reading Milgram’s” Behavioral study of obedience.”.  American Psychologist ,  19 (6), 421.

Caughy, M. O. B., DiPietro, J. A., & Strobino, D. M. (1994). Day‐care participation as a protective factor in the cognitive development of low‐income children.  Child development ,  65 (2), 457-471.

Harris, B. (1988). Key words: A history of debriefing in social psychology. In J. Morawski (Ed.), The rise of experimentation in American psychology (pp. 188-212). New York: Oxford University Press.

Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (1984). Applying Hamlet’s question to the ethical conduct of research: A conceptual addendum. American Psychologist, 39(5) , 561.

Sieber, J. E., & Stanley, B. (1988). Ethical and professional dimensions of socially sensitive research.  American psychologist ,  43 (1), 49.

The British Psychological Society. (2010). Code of Human Research Ethics. www.bps.org.uk/sites/default/files/documents/code_of_human_research_ethics.pdf

Further Information

• MIT Psychology Ethics Lecture Slides

BPS Documents

• Code of Ethics and Conduct (2018)
• Good Practice Guidelines for the Conduct of Psychological Research within the NHS
• Guidelines for Psychologists Working with Animals
• Guidelines for ethical practice in psychological research online

APA Documents

APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2023 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

Basic Research in Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Basic research—also known as fundamental or pure research—refers to study and research meant to increase our scientific knowledge base. This type of research is often purely theoretical, with the intent of increasing our understanding of certain phenomena or behavior. In contrast with applied research, basic research doesn't seek to solve or treat these problems.

Basic Research Examples

Basic research in psychology might explore:

• Whether stress levels influence how often students engage in academic cheating
• How caffeine consumption affects the brain
• Whether men or women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression
• How attachment styles among children of divorced parents compare to those raised by married parents

In all of these examples, the goal is merely to increase knowledge on a topic, not to come up with a practical solution to a problem.

The Link Between Basic and Applied Research

As Stanovich (2007) noted, many practical solutions to real-world problems have emerged directly from basic research. For this reason, the distinction between basic research and applied research is often simply a matter of time. As social psychologist Kurt Lewin once observed, "There is nothing so practical as a good theory."

For example, researchers might conduct basic research on how stress levels impact students academically, emotionally, and socially. The results of these theoretical explorations might lead to further studies designed to solve specific problems. Researchers might initially observe that students with high stress levels are more prone to dropping out of college before graduating. These first studies are examples of basic research designed to learn more about the topic.

As a result, scientists might then design research to determine what interventions might best lower these stress levels. Such studies would be examples of applied research. The purpose of applied research is specifically focused on solving a real problem that exists in the world. Thanks to the foundations established by basic research, psychologists can then design interventions that will help students effectively manage their stress levels , with the hopes of improving college retention rates.

Why Basic Research Is Important

The possible applications of basic research might not be obvious right away. During the earliest phases of basic research, scientists might not even be able to see how the information gleaned from theoretical research might ever apply to real-world problems. However, this foundational knowledge is essential. By learning as much as possible about a topic, researchers are able to gather what they need to know about an issue to fully understand the impact it may have.

"For example, early neuroscientists conducted basic research studies to understand how neurons function. The applications of this knowledge were not clear until much later when neuroscientists better understood how this neural functioning affected behavior," explained author Dawn M. McBride in her text The Process of Research in Psychology . "The understanding of the basic knowledge of neural functioning became useful in helping individuals with disorders long after this research had been completed."

Basic Research Methods

Basic research relies on many types of investigatory tools. These include observation, case studies, experiments, focus groups, surveys, interviews—anything that increases the scope of knowledge on the topic at hand.

Frequently Asked Questions

Psychologists interested in social behavior often undertake basic research. Social/community psychologists engaging in basic research are not trying to solve particular problems; rather, they want to learn more about why humans act the way they do.

Basic research is an effort to expand the scope of knowledge on a topic. Applied research uses such knowledge to solve specific problems.

An effective basic research problem statement outlines the importance of the topic; the study's significance and methods; what the research is investigating; how the results will be reported; and what the research will probably require.

Basic research might investigate, for example, the relationship between academic stress levels and cheating; how caffeine affects the brain; depression incidence in men vs. women; or attachment styles among children of divorced and married parents.

By learning as much as possible about a topic, researchers can come to fully understand the impact it may have. This knowledge can then become the basis of applied research to solve a particular problem within the topic area.

Stanovich KE.  How to Think Straight About Psychology . 8th edition. Boston, MA: Pearson Allyn and Bacon; 2007.

McCain KW. “Nothing as practical as a good theory” Does Lewin's Maxim still have salience in the applied social sciences? Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology . 2015;52(1):1-4. doi:10.1002/pra2.2015.145052010077

McBride DM. The Process of Research in Psychology . 3rd edition . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2015.

Committee on Department of Defense Basic Research. APPENDIX D: Definitions of basic, applied, and fundamental research . In: Assessment of Department of Defense Basic Research. Washington, D.C.: The National Academic Press; 2005.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

How psychologists help solve real-world problems in multidisciplinary research teams: Introduction to the special issue

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Psychological Sciences.
• 2 Department of Psychology.
• PMID: 30945890
• DOI: 10.1037/amp0000458

Real-world problems are not confined to a single discipline. Multidisciplinary team research combines the methods and theories from different disciplines to achieve a common goal. It fosters collaboration among researchers with different expertise, which can lead to novel solutions and new discoveries that could not be achieved otherwise. This special issue of the American Psychologist consists of 10 articles that cover a range of research areas within the discipline of psychology. The authors of the articles describe the content of the research conducted by their teams and the ways in which the teams operate. In this introductory article, an overview of the topics covered in the special issue is provided. The overview shows that most areas of psychology are involved in the various multidisciplinary projects and emphasizes the fact that psychologists have many skills that put them in a good position for collaborating with specialists from other disciplines. This introduction to the special issue also highlights key points from the lessons learned covered in the articles and discusses tradeoffs of specific recommendations made by the authors. The conclusion reached is that there is much value in conducting multidisciplinary research and that the benefits of such research far outweigh the challenges that may be encountered along the way. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Publication types

• Introductory Journal Article
• Cooperative Behavior*
• Interdisciplinary Research*
• Psychology*

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Modeling the relationship between depression in people with cancer and perceived stress, with the mediating role of eating problems, sexual satisfaction, emotion regulation and self-compassion.

• Department of Clinical Psychology, School of Behavioral Sciences and Mental Health (Tehran Institute of Psychiatry), Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Aim: With the rising prevalence of cancer and the adverse physical and psychological experiences endured by affected individuals, this study aims to establish a model illustrating the relationship between depression in people with cancer and perceived stress. Additionally, it examines the mediating influence of eating problems, sexual satisfaction, emotional regulation, and self-compassion.

Method: This study employs a descriptive-correlational research method, utilizing structural equation analysis (modeling) to explore the role of mediators. The research sample comprised 200 individuals diagnosed with cancer, selected based on predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Participants completed Beck’s 13-item depression questionnaire, a 10-item perceived stress questionnaire, an 8-item appetite measurement questionnaire, a 25-item sexual satisfaction questionnaire, a 10-item emotion regulation questionnaire, and a 12-item compassion questionnaire. The data were subsequently analyzed using SPSS-24 and Lisrel 80/8 software.

Findings: The research findings indicate a significant positive relationship between perceived stress and depression in people with cancer. Furthermore, eating problems exhibited a mediating role in the relationship between perceived stress and depression, with a direct effect coefficient of ( t = 0.28, ß = 0.02). However, the path from perceived stress to depression, mediated by sexual satisfaction, was found to be statistically insignificant, with a standard coefficient of 0.01 at the p < 0.05 level. Emotion regulation demonstrated a direct effect coefficient of ( t = −3.52, ß = –0.33) on depression. Likewise, self-compassion exhibited a direct effect coefficient of ( t = −3.08, ß = –0.28) on depression, while the path from perceived stress to depression was mediated by self-compassion, with a standard coefficient of 0.12 at the p < 0.05 level.

Conclusion: In conclusion, this study sheds light on the interplay between depression and perceived stress in individuals with cancer, revealing a significant positive association. Eating problems emerged as a mediating factor, directly influencing the manifestation of depressive symptoms. However, the mediation pathway through sexual satisfaction was found to be statistically insignificant. Emotion regulation and self-compassion were identified as influential factors, with direct effects on depression and self-compassion also serving as a mediator in the relationship between perceived stress and depression. The findings emphasize the importance of targeted interventions addressing eating problems, enhancing emotion regulation, and fostering self-compassion to alleviate the impact of depression and perceived stress in individuals facing cancer-related challenges. Further research is encouraged to refine and expand upon these insights, advancing holistic care for this population.

Introduction

Cancer represents a leading cause of mortality worldwide. According to the World Health Organization, the number of new cancer cases in 2020 reached 19 million, with over 10 million resulting in death. In essence, one out of every six deaths is attributable to cancer. The most prevalent types of cancer include breast cancer in women, as well as lung, colon, prostate, skin, and stomach cancer ( Bray et al., 2018 ). These statistics are equally alarming within our country, with current registered cases numbering 112,000, projected to increase by 43% to 160,000 cases by the year 2026, according to Iranian researchers. Stomach cancer and breast cancer among men and women, respectively, exhibit the highest prevalence, a trend expected to persist until 2026 ( Roshandel et al., 2021 ). The impact of cancer manifests in various physical and psychological aspects, including depression, anxiety, quality of life, sexual function, fatigue, coping and adaptation skills, and body image ( Saeedi et al., 2019 ). Psychological distress and psychiatric disorders commonly afflict cancer patients, severely compromising their quality of life. Moreover, psychological disorders can engender behaviors that heighten the risk of cancer ( Miovic and Block, 2007 ; Sartorius et al., 2014 ).

Among these psychological issues, mood disorders, particularly depression, prevail as the most common conditions associated with cancer ( Kissane et al., 2004 ). Recent studies have underscored the augmented risk of depression in individuals experiencing heightened perceived stress ( Alagizy et al., 2020 ).

Notably, cancer patients, exhibit perceived stress alongside depression and anxiety ( Cristóbal-Narváez et al., 2022 ). Prior investigations have examined the relationship between depression in cancer patients and perceived stress, employing mediators such as self-esteem ( Lee et al., 2013 ) and mental adjustment ( Li et al., 2015 ). Consequently, interventions aimed at addressing perceived stress can effectively ameliorate depression in people with cancer, thus improving their overall well-being ( Hur and Song, 2008 ). Perceived stress levels in cancer patients also significantly correlate with their self-care behaviors, including crucial aspects such as healthy eating habits ( Abdollahi et al., 2020 ).

Healthy eating habits, encompassing the regulation of appetite and the resolution of eating problems, constitute a pivotal component of self-care behaviors in individuals grappling with depression ( Mischoulon et al., 2011 ; Lee et al., 2013 ). Multiple studies have demonstrated a substantial association between perceived stress and eating disorders ( Asghari et al., 2017 ), as well as eating behaviors ( Asberg and Wagaman, 2010 ; Roy et al., 2021 ).

The impact of stress on sexual components has been explored, elucidating the connection between stress and sexual performance ( Grønli et al., 2005 ), behaviors ( Tavares et al., 2019 ), and well-being ( Lin et al., 2022 ). Women with cancer, especially those affected in their sexual organs, may encounter various sexual problems that can persist even a year after recovery ( Hamilton and Meston, 2013 ). Depression also exhibits a pronounced association with sexual problems, including sexual dissatisfaction resulting from fatigue and diminished pleasure ( Peleg-Sagy and Shahar, 2013 ; Din et al., 2019 ). Consequently, this aspect warrants further investigation.

Emotion regulation emerges as a significant variable, correlating notably with perceived stress and depression in cancer patients ( Boyle et al., 2017 ). Given the significant relationship between perceived stress levels and the employment of emotion regulation strategies ( Zahniser and Conley, 2018 ), as well as the connection between emotion regulation and depression, this component holds promise as a mediator between stress perception and depression in cancer patients ( Joormann and Stanton, 2016 ).

Self-compassion, encompassing the three subscales of self-compassion versus self-blame, human commonality versus isolation, and mindfulness versus identification, functions as a protective factor against depression in individuals diagnosed with cancer ( Zhu et al., 2019 ). Notably, this component exhibits a significant relationship with perceived stress ( Homan and Sirois, 2017 ), qualifying it for examination as a mediator between perceived stress and depression in cancer patients.

Despite numerous studies exploring various factors contributing to depression in cancer patients, a comprehensive model has yet to be presented. This research seeks to establish a model that systematically examines the relationships between depression in people with cancer and perceived stress. To achieve this, we will consider the mediating effects of eating problems, sexual satisfaction, emotional regulation, and self-compassion. The proposed model is depicted in Figure 1 .

Figure 1 . Assumed model.

Research questions include:

1. Can eating problems play a mediating role in the relationship between depression in people with cancer and perceived stress?

2. Can sexual satisfaction play a mediating role in the relationship between depression in people with cancer and perceived stress?

3. Can emotion regulation play a mediating role in the relationship between depression in people with cancer and perceived stress?

4. Can self-compassion play a mediating role in the relationship between depression in people with cancer and perceived stress?

5. Does the assumed model have a good fit?

The current research utilized a descriptive-correlational design to examine the mediating role of eating problems, sexual satisfaction, emotion regulation, and self-compassion in the relationship between depression and perceived stress in cancer patients. Structural equation analysis (modeling) was employed for data analysis.

To ensure the inclusion of relevant variables, the study focused on cancer patients with blood, bone, liver, lung, breast, mouth, Lymphoma, skin, and thyroid cancer. This targeted sampling approach was chosen due to the significant impact of certain cancer types, such as stomach and intestine cancer, on variables like sexual satisfaction and eating problems ( Kline, 2023 ). According to Klein’s studies, the required sample size was 200 people for the significance of the studies using the modeling method. The population of this research included people with cancer undergoing treatment in hospitals and clinics in Tehran in 2023.

The study utilizes various instruments, namely the Beck Depression Questionnaire, Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), the Council on Nutrition Appetite Questionnaire (CNAQ), Larson’s Sexual Satisfaction Questionnaire, ERQ Questionnaire, and the Short Form of the Self-Compassion Questionnaire. Subsequent paragraphs will provide detailed discussions on each of these instruments.

After obtaining the necessary permits from the Iran University of Medical Sciences and Health Services and receiving the code of ethics, the oncology department of Hazrat Rasool Akram Hospital and Shahid Hasheminejad Kidney and Urinary Tract Hospital in Tehran was referred to collect data. At this stage, the paper-pencil version of the questionnaires was used to collect data, and by visiting the relevant hospitals and explaining the research objectives and making the necessary arrangements, cancer patients, both inpatients and outpatients to receive chemotherapy drugs (to injection) were invited to participate in the study. The objectives of the research, the condition of informed consent and the possibility of withdrawing from the study were explained to them, and in case of written consent, the questions were provided to them. At first, explanations about the questionnaire questions and how to complete them were provided to the patients, they were assured that the names will not be written on the questionnaire and only the researcher will have access to the data from the questionnaire. At the end, the patients were requested to complete the questions carefully and not to leave any question unanswered. Eleven people withdrew from the research due to personal reasons and 12 questionnaires were incompletely completed, which were excluded from the analysis, and the final sample consisted of 200 subjects.

Statistical data analysis involved the use of both descriptive and inferential analysis methods. SPSS-24 software was utilized to analyze mean, standard deviation, frequency percentage, and correlation. Additionally, Lisrel 80.8 software was employed for structural equation modeling.

Instruments

Depression questionnaire.

The Beck depression questionnaire, initially developed by Beck and colleagues in 1961, was utilized. The short version of this questionnaire consists of 13 questions graded on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 3. The total score ranges from 0 to 39, with negative affect toward oneself measured by questions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 10, and unpleasantness assessed through questions 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, and 13. This questionnaire demonstrates acceptable internal reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.86 among psychiatric patients and 0.81 for non-psychiatric patients. Furthermore, it exhibits a satisfactory correlation with the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HRSD) ( Beck et al., 1988 ). The Persian version of the questionnaire, standardized by Ghasemzadeh et al., showcases a high internal consistency score of Cronbach’s alpha 0.87 and a notable pre-test and post-test validity with r = 0.74 ( Ghassemzadeh et al., 2005 ).

Perceived stress questionnaire

The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), introduced by Cohen et al. in 1983, was employed. This questionnaire comprises 16 items graded on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 4. It measures two main subscales: perceived self-efficacy and perceived helplessness. The internal consistency coefficient reported in Cohen’s study for each subscale and the overall score ranged from 0.84 to 0.86 ( Cohen et al., 1983 ). In the Persian version, standardized by Safaei and Shokri, the internal consistency coefficients for perceived self-efficacy, perceived helplessness, and the overall score of perceived stress were Cronbach’s alpha 0.80, 0.60, and 0.76, respectively ( Safaei and Shokri, 2014 ).

Eating problems questionnaire

The Council on Nutrition Appetite Questionnaire (CNAQ) was utilized, developed by Wilson et al. in 2005. This measurement scale includes eight questions with five Likert options. Scores range from 8 (worst) to 40 (best), with higher scores indicating better nutritional status. The questionnaire demonstrates high similarity with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.72 ( Wilson et al., 2005 ). In the standardized Persian version by Sajadi et al., the questionnaire exhibits acceptable homogeneity with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.5 ( Sajadi Hezaveh et al., 2023 ).

Sexual satisfaction questionnaire

The sexual satisfaction questionnaire by Larson was utilized, consisting of 25 questions, with 13 negative and 12 positive items. Participants responded using a five-option Likert method. Scores ranged from 25 to 125, where scores below 50 indicated no sexual satisfaction, 51–75 indicated low satisfaction, 76–100 indicated moderate satisfaction, and scores above 100 indicated high satisfaction. The internal consistency was reported as alpha 0.91 ( Hudson et al., 1981 ; Larson et al., 1998 ). In the Persian version standardized by Bahrami et al., the internal consistency was calculated using Cronbach’s alpha, yielding a value greater than 0.7 ( Bahrami et al., 2016 ).

Emotion regulation questionnaire

The ERQ questionnaire was developed by Gross and John in 2003, consisting of 10 questions that measure two subscales: cognitive reappraisal (six items) and expressive suppression (four items). Participants responded on a seven-point Likert scale, with higher scores indicating better emotional regulation ability. The internal correlation for the cognitive reappraisal subscale was 0.79, while for expressive suppression, it was 0.73 ( Gross and John, 2003 ). In the Persian sample of this questionnaire, Bigdeli et al. reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.83 for cognitive reappraisal and 0.79 for expressive suppression ( Bigdeli et al., 2013 ).

Self-compassion questionnaire

The self-compassion questionnaire (short form) consisted of 12 questions graded on a five-point Likert scale. It measured three subscales: self-compassion against self-blame, human commonality against isolation, and mindfulness against identification. The retest reliability for this scale was reported as 0.92 ( Raes et al., 2011 ). The Persian version, standardized by Khanjani et al., reported alpha coefficients of 0.79 for the total scale and 0.68, 0.71, and 0.86 for the subscales of self-compassion against self-blame, human commonality against isolation, and mindfulness against extreme identification, respectively ( Khanjani et al., 2016 ).

In this comprehensive study, a diverse group of 200 individuals spanning a wide range of ages, from 19 to 69 years, actively took part. The participants, characterized by an average age of 49.64 and a standard deviation of ±11.66, were carefully selected to ensure a representative sample. To provide further insights into the demographics, please refer to Table 1 , which showcases the various characteristics of the research sample.

Table 1 . Demographic characteristics.

Descriptive results

Table 2 shows the minimum, maximum, mean and standard deviation of the scores of the research variables.

Table 2 . Minimum, maximum, average and standard deviation.

Inferential results

In order to thoroughly validate the inferential findings, a comprehensive assessment of the path analysis defaults was conducted. Moving forward, the hypotheses and research questions were subjected to rigorous testing using both Pearson’s moment correlation coefficient tests and path analysis. To ensure the robustness of the analyses, various diagnostic tests were performed, including evaluations of univariate and multivariate normality assumptions, identification of potential multiple collinearity issues, examination of outliers, and scrutiny of missing data. Specifically, the assumption of univariate normality was assessed using the Smirnov Kolmograph test, and the results were meticulously analyzed. Table 3 presents the z statistic values obtained from this test, revealing that none of the calculated Smirnov Kolmograph test statistics reached significance ( p > 0.05). This compelling outcome conclusively supports the notion that the variables’ scores follow a normal distribution, thereby affirming the appropriateness of employing parametric tests for subsequent analyses.

Table 3 . The results of Smirnov Kolmograph test.

In this research, the assumption of normality of several variables was thoroughly evaluated by calculating Merdia’s coefficient index. The resulting coefficient value was 2.362 for the hypothetical model. Taking into consideration that the critical value of the t for this coefficient is less than 2.58, it can be confidently concluded that the multivariate normality assumption holds true. This finding adds strength to the validity of the research.

Multiple collinearities, referring to the presence of high correlations between obvious variables, were meticulously examined. One of the widely accepted approaches to assess multiple collinearities is by scrutinizing the correlation matrix among these variables. A comprehensive analysis of the correlation matrix clearly indicated the absence of any significant multiple collinearities among the variables under investigation. The correlation coefficients for the hypothetical model ranged from 0.01 to 0.54. It is noteworthy that correlation coefficients exceeding 0.85 tend to hinder the accurate estimation of the model due to the problem of multiple collinearities. Thus, the assumption of the non-existence of multiple collinearities holds true, further ensuring the reliability of the study.

To identify univariate outlier data for the obvious variables, a frequency table and box plot were employed. Additionally, multivariate outlier data were identified by calculating Mahalanobis distances for each individual. Consequently, one participant was excluded from the analysis. Moreover, Table 4 displays the correlation matrix of the research variables, providing a comprehensive overview of the relationships among them.

Table 4 . Correlation matrix.

Question 1: Can eating problems play a mediating role in the relationship between depression in people with cancer and perceived stress?

The fit indices as a result of the test of the proposed model are shown in Table 5 , which shows that the proposed model has a good fit. As you can see in Figure 2 , perceived stress has a direct effect ( t = 0.32, ß = –3.79) on eating problems. The coefficient has a direct effect ( ß = 0.61, t = 0.61) on depression. Also, eating problems have a direct effect on depression ( ß = 0.28, t = 0.02). Considering that in the structural model, the significance of the path coefficient is determined using the value of t, if the value of t is more than 1.96, the relationship between the two structures is significant.

Table 5 . Fit indices of the mediation model of eating problems in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

Figure 2 . Mediation model of eating problems in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

Table 6 shows the standardized coefficients, limits of the Bootstrap test and the estimation error of the indirect path (the mediation model of eating problems in the relationship between perceived stress and depression).

Table 6 . Indirect path coefficients of the mediation model of eating problems in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

In the present study, the Bootstrap test was used to evaluate the mediation relationship. Bootstrap provides the most powerful and logical method to obtain indirect effects. As a result of this method, if the highest and lowest limits for the mediating path are of the same sign (both positive or both negative) or the zero value is not placed between these two limits, then the indirect causal path is significant. As you can see in Table 6 , the highest and lowest limits of the Bootstrap test in the model of eating problems as a mediator between perceived stress and depression were obtained as 0.13 and 0.03, respectively, due to the same sign of these Two limits, the path of perceived stress to depression with the mediation of eating problems is significant with a standard coefficient of 0.08 at the p < 0.05 level.

In response to the first research question, it can be said that eating problems can play a mediating role in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

Question 2: Can sexual satisfaction play a mediating role in the relationship between depression in people with cancer and perceived stress?

The fit indices as a result of the test of the proposed model are listed in Table 7 , which shows that the proposed model has a good fit. As you can see in Figure 3 , perceived stress has a direct effect coefficient ( t = −0.39, ß = –0.03) on sexual satisfaction and a direct effect coefficient ( t = 7.15, ß = 0.61) has depression. Also, sexual satisfaction has a direct effect coefficient ( t = −0.83, ß = –0.05) on depression. Considering that in the structural model, the significance of the path coefficient is determined by using the t value, if the t value is more than 1.96, the relationship between the two structures is significant.

Table 7 . Fit indices of the mediation model of sexual satisfaction in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

Figure 3 . Mediation model of sexual satisfaction in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

Table 8 shows the standard coefficients, limits of the Bootstrap test and the estimation error of the indirect path (the mediating role of sexual satisfaction in the relationship between perceived stress and depression).

Table 8 . Indirect path coefficients for the mediation model of sexual satisfaction in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

As you can see in Table 8 , the highest and lowest limits of the Bootstrap test in the mediation model of sexual satisfaction between perceived stress and depression were obtained at 0.03 and −0.03, respectively. Due to the non-significance of these two extremes, the path of perceived stress to depression with the mediation of sexual satisfaction is not significant with a standard coefficient of 0.01 at the p < 0.05 level.

In response to the second research question, it can be said: sexual satisfaction cannot play a mediating role in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

Question 3: Can emotion regulation play a mediating role in the relationship between depression in people with cancer and perceived stress?

The fit indices as a result of the test of the proposed model are shown in Table 9 , which shows that the proposed model has a good fit. As you can see in Figure 4 , perceived stress has a direct effect coefficient ( t = −4.64, ß = –0.48) on emotion regulation and a direct effect coefficient ( t = −5.42, ß = –0.45) has depression. Likewise, emotion regulation has a direct effect coefficient ( t = −3.52, ß = –0.33) on depression. Considering that in the structural model, the significance of the path coefficient is determined by using the t value, if the t value is more than 1.96, the relationship between the two structures is significant.

Table 9 . fit indices of the mediation model of emotion regulation in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

Figure 4 . Mediation model of emotion regulation in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

Table 10 shows the standard coefficients, limits of the Bootstrap test and the estimation error of the indirect path (the mediating role of emotion regulation in the relationship between perceived stress and depression).

Table 10 . Indirect path coefficients for the mediation model of emotion regulation in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

As you can see in Table 10 , the highest and lowest limits of the Bootstrap test in the mediation model of emotion regulation between perceived stress and depression were obtained as 0.09 and 0.02, respectively. The path of perceived stress to depression with the mediation of emotion regulation is significant with a standard coefficient of 0.01 at the p < 0.04 level.

In response to the third research question, it can be said that emotion regulation can play a mediating role in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

Question 4: Can self-compassion play a mediating role in the relationship between depression in people with cancer and perceived stress?

The fit indices as a result of the test of the proposed model are listed in Table 11 , which shows that the proposed model has a good fit. As you can see in Figure 5 , perceived stress has a direct effect coefficient ( t = −4.71, ß = –0.50) on self-compassion and a direct effect coefficient ( t = 5.38, ß = 0.47) on depression. Also, self-compassion has a direct effect coefficient ( t = −3.08, ß = –0.28) on depression. Considering that in the structural model, the significance of the path coefficient is determined by using the t value, if the t value is more than 1.96, the relationship between the two structures is significant.

Table 11 . Fit indices of the mediation model of self-compassion in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

Figure 5 . Mediation model of self-compassion in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

Table 12 shows the standardized coefficients, limits of the Bootstrap test and the estimation error of the indirect path (the mediating role of self-compassion in the relationship between perceived stress and depression).

Table 12 . Indirect path coefficients for the mediation model of self-compassion in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

As you can see in Table 12 , the highest and lowest limits of the Bootstrap test in the mediation model of self-compassion between perceived stress and depression were obtained as 0.19 and 0.04, respectively, due to the co-sign of these two limits. The path of perceived stress to depression with the mediation of self-compassion is significant with a standard coefficient of 0.12 at the p < 0.05 level.

In response to the fourth research question, it can be said: self-compassion can play a mediating role in the relationship between perceived stress and depression.

Question 5: Does the assumed model of the research have a good fit or not?

The fit indices as a result of the test of the proposed model are listed in Table 13 , which shows that the proposed model has a relatively favorable fit. As you can see in Figure 6 , perceived stress has a direct effect coefficient ( t = 4.33, ß = 0.29) on eating problems, direct coefficient ( t = 0.71, ß = 0.05) on Sexual satisfaction, direct coefficient ( t = −1.30, ß = –0.10) on emotion regulation, direct coefficient ( t = −3.32, ß = –0.23) on self-compassion and direct effect coefficient ( t = 0.47, ß = 0.05) on depression. Eating problems have a direct effect coefficient ( t = 1.82, ß = 0.12) on depression. Sexual satisfaction has a direct effect coefficient ( t = −1.07, ß = –0.06) on depression. Emotion regulation has a direct effect coefficient ( t = −4.11, ß = –0.25) on depression. Self-compassion has a direct effect coefficient ( t = −6.06, ß = –0.39) on depression. Considering that in the structural model, the significance of the path coefficient is determined by using the t -value, if the t- value is more than 1.96, the relationship between the two structures is significant.

Table 13 . Fit indices of the assumed research model.

Figure 6 . Assumed model.

The findings of the current study revealed a significant mediating role of eating problems in the relationship between perceived stress and depression. This aligns with previous studies conducted by Khoshnevis et al. (2012) and Sun et al. (2020) suggesting that cancer-related pressures and tensions can lead individuals to engage in harmful behaviors as a short-term coping mechanism. However, in the long run, these behaviors exacerbate the situation. When individuals perceive stress negatively, the likelihood of developing eating problems increases ( Khoshnevis et al., 2012 ). Highly distressing and uncomfortable situations motivated by perceived stress prompt individuals to seek immediate relief. Unfortunately, especially when individuals lack the self-confidence to effectively manage stress, avoidance behaviors become activated. This avoidance, aimed at reducing pain and alleviating suffering, ultimately gives rise to problematic eating behaviors ( Sun et al., 2020 ).

Contrary to expectations, sexual satisfaction was found to not play a mediating role in the relationship between perceived stress and depression. This finding contradicts the research conducted by Molavi et al. (2015) , Zahniser and Conley (2018) , and Lin et al. (2022) . Cancer patients often experience a multitude of challenges that negatively impact their quality of life and sexual performance, such as the psychological and emotional effects associated with the disease and its treatment measures, as well as stress ( Zahniser and Conley, 2018 ). Due to the various consequences of the disease, cancer patients’ perception of their physical attractiveness undergoes a change, leading them to no longer view themselves as physically and sexually attractive. Consequently, this cognitive shift results in reduced sexual satisfaction compared to their previous experiences ( Molavi et al., 2015 ).

However, several factors may explain the lack of significance in the role of sexual satisfaction in the present study. The broad age range of the sample, coupled with the taboo nature of sexual topics in our society, and individuals’ reluctance to disclose issues in this realm, despite the researcher’s emphasis on confidentiality, may have contributed to inconsistent findings. Furthermore, cultural and ethnic influences on sexual activity and performance might have limited the information gathered by the questionnaire, consequently impacting the research outcomes.

On the other hand, the current study’s results indicate the mediating role of emotional regulation in the relationship between perceived stress and depression, consistent with previous research by Azizi and Mohamadi (2015) , Mahin Islami Shahrbabaki (2015) , Boyle et al. (2017) , and Teng et al. (2022) . Cancer challenges individuals’ perception of life as a structured and continuous process, which can have profound psychological consequences. Pain, suffering, concerns for the future of family members, fear of death, treatment complications, functional decline, disruption in body image, and sexual problems all contribute to the mental distress experienced by cancer patients. The crises brought on by cancer disrupt the harmony of mind, body, and psyche ( Mahin Islami Shahrbabaki, 2015 ). Moreover, cancer patients go through various emotional reactions, such as shock, fear, disbelief, despair, anxiety, depression, and anger, toward themselves or the disease. These reactions are accompanied by a loss of control, autonomy, physical and social integration, and can lead to feelings of loneliness and guilt. Each of these factors can disrupt emotional control and expression, ultimately paving the way for mental disorders ( Azizi and Mohamadi, 2015 ).

The cognitive strategies employed by cancer patients to regulate their emotions play a significant role in determining their overall health. Individuals who adopt adaptive emotion regulation strategies in the face of stressful events report lower levels of depression and, consequently, a higher quality of life. The negative relationship between adaptive strategies and depression can be attributed to the fact that these strategies allow individuals to view negative events from a different perspective, focusing on the positive aspects and potential benefits in the long run. As a result, they experience less distress and tension, effectively coping with the situation ( Teng et al., 2022 ).

The findings of this study suggest that self-compassion plays a crucial role in mediating the relationship between perceived stress and depression. These findings are consistent with previous studies conducted by Sharifi Saki et al. (2018) , Zhu et al. (2019) , Narimani and Eyni (2020) , and Williamson et al. (2022) . One possible explanation for this finding is that individuals with cancer often experience a multitude of negative emotions. To cope with these emotions, it becomes necessary to find relief and resolution, ultimately overcoming these negative experiences ( Narimani et al., 2020 ). Self-compassion serves as a potential response to personal suffering and failure, encompassing a protective and understanding attitude toward oneself while accepting limitations as a natural part of the human experience. By fostering self-compassion, individuals are able to create caring and compassionate inner processes, leading to positive changes that can be viewed as a physiological-psychological-neural treatment, thus inversely related to depression ( Zhu et al., 2019 ).

Another explanation for these findings is that individuals with higher levels of self-compassion tend to experience fewer negative emotions when faced with unpleasant events, recognizing that illness and challenges are part of the human condition. As most negative emotions stem from ruminations following negative experiences, practicing mindfulness can reduce these emotions by minimizing rumination ( Williamson et al., 2022 ).

In summary, the research findings unveil that eating problems play a significant mediating role in the intricate connection between perceived stress and depression among individuals with cancer, aligning with earlier studies. Contrarily, sexual satisfaction does not emerge as a mediator, contrary to expectations, potentially influenced by various factors such as societal taboos, reluctance to disclose, and cultural influences. The study confirms the mediating impact of emotional regulation, emphasizing the crucial role it plays in mitigating the psychological consequences of cancer-related challenges. Similarly, self-compassion emerges as a crucial mediator, aligning with previous research, as it acts as a protective response to personal suffering and failure. The comprehensive model, incorporating the mediating effects of eating problems, emotional regulation, and self-compassion, demonstrates a good fit in explaining the relationship between depression and perceived stress among individuals with cancer. Overall, these findings underscore the multifaceted influences on mental well-being in the context of cancer, providing valuable insights for tailored interventions to alleviate distress and enhance overall quality of life for affected individuals.

Research limitations

Despite the valuable insights gained from this research, it is essential to acknowledge its limitations. Firstly, the study sample was limited to individuals with cancer undergoing treatment in Tehran’s hospitals and clinics, which may limit the generalizability of the results. Secondly, as a cross-sectional study, it cannot establish causal mechanisms. Lastly, the study lacked control over external validity-threatening factors, such as participant fatigue.

Research suggestions

In light of these limitations, several suggestions for future research are proposed. Firstly, in addition to questionnaires, future studies should incorporate methods such as structured or semi-structured interviews for data collection. Furthermore, investigating the relationship between depression and perceived stress, with the mediation of eating problems, sexual satisfaction, emotional regulation, and self-compassion, should be conducted in a larger sample size and compared to the present study. Longitudinal studies would also be beneficial in clarifying the causal mechanisms between depression and perceived stress in individuals with cancer.

Practical suggestions

Turning to practical suggestions, it is recommended to include emotion regulation skills and the application of emotion regulation strategies in the treatment of cancer patients to reduce symptoms of depression. Additionally, considering the hardships faced by cancer patients, emphasizing the importance of self-compassion and teaching methods to strengthen it can contribute to their psychological well-being. To address the impact of perceived stress on depression levels in cancer patients, stress management training courses should be incorporated into their schedule. Finally, training workshops on self-compassion and emotional regulation for cancer specialists and therapists can enhance their awareness and help improve treatment outcomes, symptom management, and overall quality of life for patients.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Iran university of medical sciences. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

RM: Conceptualization, Investigation, Software, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. BG: Supervision, Writing – review & editing. KZ: Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Abdollahi, A., Taheri, A., and Allen, K. A. (2020). Self-compassion moderates the perceived stress and self-care behaviors link in women with breast cancer. Psycho-Oncology 29, 927–933. doi: 10.1002/pon.5369

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Alagizy, H., Soltan, M., Soliman, S., Hegazy, N., and Gohar, S. (2020). Anxiety, depression and perceived stress among breast cancer patients: single institute experience. Middle East Curr. Psychiatry 27, 1–10. doi: 10.1186/s43045-020-00036-x

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Asberg, K. K., and Wagaman, A. (2010). Emotion regulation abilities and perceived stress as predictors of negative body image and problematic eating behaviors in emerging adults. Am. J. Psychol. Res. 6, 193–2017.

Google Scholar

Asghari, F., Ghasemi Jobaneh, R., Yousefi, N., Saadat, S., and Rafiei, G. F. (2017). Role of perceived stress and coping styles on the eating disorders of high school students of Rasht city in 2013. Commun. Health J. 8, 28–38.

Azizi, A. M. F., and Mohamadi, J. (2015). Comparison of personality factors and cognitive emotional regulation in gastric and lung cancer patients and normal subjects. Razi J. Med. Sci. 22, 1–9.

Bahrami, N., Yaghoob Zadeh, A., Sharif Nia, H., Soliemani, M. A., and Haghdoost, A. A. (2016). Validity and reliability of the persian version of Larson sexual satisfaction questionnaire in couples. J. Kerman Univ. Med. Sci. 23, 344–356.

Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., and Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: psychometric properties. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 56, 893–897. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893

Bigdeli, I., Najafy, M., and Rostami, M. (2013). The relation of attachment styles, emotion regulation, and resilience to well-being among students of medical sciences. Iran. J. Med. Educ. 13, 721–729.

Boyle, C. C., Stanton, A. L., Ganz, P. A., Crespi, C. M., and Bower, J. E. (2017). Improvements in emotion regulation following mindfulness meditation: effects on depressive symptoms and perceived stress in younger breast cancer survivors. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 85, 397–402. doi: 10.1037/ccp0000186

Bray, F., Ferlay, J., Soerjomataram, I., Siegel, R. L., Torre, L. A., and Jemal, A. (2018). Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J. Clin. 68, 394–424. doi: 10.3322/caac.21492

Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., and Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. J. Health Soc. Behav. 24:385. doi: 10.2307/2136404

Cristóbal-Narváez, P., Haro, J. M., and Koyanagi, A. (2022). Longitudinal association between perceived stress and depression among community-dwelling older adults: findings from the Irish longitudinal study on ageing. J. Affect. Disord. 299, 457–462. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2021.12.041

Din, H. M., Akahbar, S. A. N., and Ibrahim, R. (2019). The association between depression and sexual satisfaction among Malay elderly in Malaysia. Heliyon 5:e01940. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01940

Ghassemzadeh, H., Mojtabai, R., Karamghadiri, N., and Ebrahimkhani, N. (2005). Psychometric properties of a Persian-language version of the Beck depression inventory-second edition: BDI-II-PERSIAN. Depress. Anxiety 21, 185–192. doi: 10.1002/da.20070

Grønli, J., Murison, R., Fiske, E., Bjorvatn, B., Sørensen, E., Portas, C. M., et al. (2005). Effects of chronic mild stress on sexual behavior, locomotor activity and consumption of sucrose and saccharine solutions. Physiol. Behav. 84, 571–577. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.02.007

Gross, J. J., and John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 85, 348–362. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348

Hamilton, L. D., and Meston, C. M. (2013). Chronic stress and sexual function in women. J. Sex. Med. 10, 2443–2454. doi: 10.1111/jsm.12249

Homan, K. J., and Sirois, F. M. (2017). Self-compassion and physical health: exploring the roles of perceived stress and health-promoting behaviors. Health Psychol. Open. 4:2055102917729542. doi: 10.1177/2055102917729542

Hudson, W. W., Harrison, D. F., and Crosscup, P. C. (1981). A short-form scale to measure sexual discord in dyadic relationships. J. Sex Res. 17, 157–174. doi: 10.1080/00224498109551110

Hur, H.-K., and Song, H.-Y. (2008). Comparison of effects of perceived stress and coping patterns on depression between cancer patients and healthy adults. J. Hospice Palliative Care 11, 91–98.

Joormann, J., and Stanton, C. H. (2016). Examining emotion regulation in depression: a review and future directions. Behav. Res. Ther. 86, 35–49. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2016.07.007

Khanjani, S., Foroughi, A. A., Sadghi, K., and Bahrainian, S. A. (2016). Psychometric properties of Iranian version of self-compassion scale (short form). Pajoohandeh J. 21, 282–289.

Khoshnevis, N., Shahid Sales, S., Alizadeh, M., and MirSadraei, M. (2012). Akbari, Mohammad Esmaeil. Nutritional assessment of cancer patients by PG-SGA questionnaire in Cancer research center (CRC) of Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran, 2010. Pejouhesh Pezeshki 36, 132–138.

Kissane, D. W., Grabsch, B., Love, A., Clarke, D. M., Bloch, S., and Smith, G. C. (2004). Psychiatric disorder in women with early stage and advanced breast cancer: a comparative analysis. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 38, 320–326. doi: 10.1080/j.1440-1614.2004.01358.x

Kline, R. B. (2023). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling Guilford Publications.

Larson, J. H., Anderson, S. M., Holman, T. B., and Niemann, B. K. (1998). A longitudinal study of the effects of premarital communication, relationship stability, and self-esteem on sexual satisfaction in the first year of marriage. J. Sex Marital Ther. 24, 193–206. doi: 10.1080/00926239808404933

Lee, J. S., Joo, E. J., and Choi, K. S. (2013). Perceived stress and self-esteem mediate the effects of work-related stress on depression. Stress. Health 29, 75–81. doi: 10.1002/smi.2428

Li, Y., Yang, Y., Zhang, R., Yao, K., and Liu, Z. (2015). The mediating role of mental adjustment in the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms in hematological cancer patients: a cross-sectional study. PLoS One 10:e0142913. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142913

Lin, H., Fu, H.-C., Wu, C.-H., Tsai, Y.-J., Chou, Y.-J., Shih, C.-M., et al. (2022). Evaluation of sexual dysfunction in gynecologic cancer survivors using DSM-5 diagnostic criteria. BMC Womens Health 22, 1–7. doi: 10.1186/s12905-021-01559-z

Mahin Islami Shahrbabaki, MH . Effectiveness of the training of emotion regulation strategies on children with cancer. Third international conference of psychology and sociology (2015).

Miovic, M., and Block, S. (2007). Psychiatric disorders in advanced cancer. Cancer 110, 1665–1676. doi: 10.1002/cncr.22980

Mischoulon, D., Eddy, K. T., Keshaviah, A., Dinescu, D., Ross, S. L., Kass, A. E., et al. (2011). Depression and eating disorders: treatment and course. J. Affect. Disord. 130, 470–477. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2010.10.043

Molavi, A., Hekmat, K., Afshari, P., and Hoseini, M. (2015). Evaluation of couples' sexual function and satisfaction after mastectomy. Iran. J. Obstetrics Gynecol. Infertility 17, 17–24. doi: 10.22038/ijogi.2015.3700

Narimani, M., and Eyni, S. (2020). Relationship between meaning of life, self- compassion and sense of coherence with perceived stress in cancer patients. Iran. J. Cancer Care. 1, 1–10. doi: 10.29252/ijca.1.3.1

Narimani, M., Ghasemkhanlo, A., and Sabri, V. (2020). The comparison of self-compassion, anxiety and depression inpatients with chronic pain and normal people. Anesthesiol. Pain. 11, 57–65.

Peleg-Sagy, T., and Shahar, G. (2013). The prospective associations between depression and sexual satisfaction among female medical students. J. Sex. Med. 10, 1737–1743. doi: 10.1111/jsm.12176

Raes, F., Pommier, E., Neff, K. D., and Van Gucht, D. (2011). Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the self-compassion scale. Clin. Psychol. Psychother. 18, 250–255. doi: 10.1002/cpp.702

Roshandel, G., Ferlay, J., Ghanbari-Motlagh, A., Partovipour, E., Salavati, F., Aryan, K., et al. (2021). Cancer in Iran 2008 to 2025: recent incidence trends and short-term predictions of the future burden. Int. J. Cancer 149, 594–605. doi: 10.1002/ijc.33574

Roy, S., Jahan, K., Alam, N., Rois, R., Ferdaus, A., Israt, S., et al. (2021). Perceived stress, eating behavior, and overweight and obesity among urban adolescents. J. Health Popul. Nutr. 40, 1–13. doi: 10.1186/s41043-021-00279-2

Saeedi, N. R., Sharbaf, H. A., Ebrahimabad, M. J. A., and Kareshki, H. (2019). Psychological consequences of breast cancer in Iran: a meta-analysis. Iran. J. Public Health 48:816. doi: 10.18502/ijph.v48i5.1796

Safaei, M., and Shokri, O. (2014). Assessing stress in cancer patients: factorial validity of the perceived stress scale in Iran. Iran. J. Psychiatric Nurs. 2, 13–22.

Sajadi Hezaveh, Z., Golafrouz, H., Piran, A., and Vafa, M. (2023). Validity and reliability of the persian version of the council on nutrition appetite questionnaire and its simplified version in iranian community-dwelling older adults. JNFS 8, 163–171.

Sartorius, N., Holt, R. I., and Maj, M. (2014). Comorbidity of mental and physical disorders Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers.

Sharifi Saki, S., Alipour, A., AghaYousefi, A. R., Mohammadi, M. R., Ghobari Bonab, B., and Anbiaee, R. (2018). Relationship of patience and self- compassion with depression in patients with breast Cancer. Iran. J. Breast Diseases 11, 36–45. doi: 10.30699/acadpub.ijbd.11.2.36

Sun, H., Sudip, T., Fu, X., Wen, S., Liu, H., and Yu, S. (2020). Cachexia is associated with depression, anxiety and quality of life in cancer patients. BMJ Support. Palliat. Care 13, e129–e135. doi: 10.1136/bmjspcare-2019-002176

Tavares, I. M., Schlagintweit, H. E., Nobre, P. J., and Rosen, N. O. (2019). Sexual well-being and perceived stress in couples transitioning to parenthood: a dyadic analysis. Int. J. Clin. Health Psychol. 19, 198–208. doi: 10.1016/j.ijchp.2019.07.004

Teng, S., Wang, M., Han, B., Ma, Y., Du, H., Ji, L., et al. (2022). The relationship between post-traumatic stress and negative emotions in patients with breast cancer: the mediating role of emotion regulation. J. Psychosoc. Oncol. 40, 506–518. doi: 10.1080/07347332.2021.1950885

Williamson, T. J., Garon, E. B., Shapiro, J. R., Chavira, D. A., Goldman, J. W., and Stanton, A. L. (2022). Facets of stigma, self-compassion, and health-related adjustment to lung cancer: a longitudinal study. Health Psychol. 41, 301–310. doi: 10.1037/hea0001156

Wilson, M.-M. G., Thomas, D. R., Rubenstein, L. Z., Chibnall, J. T., Anderson, S., Baxi, A., et al. (2005). Appetite assessment: simple appetite questionnaire predicts weight loss in community-dwelling adults and nursing home residents. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 82, 1074–1081. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/82.5.1074

Zahniser, E., and Conley, C. S. (2018). Interactions of emotion regulation and perceived stress in predicting emerging adults’ subsequent internalizing symptoms. Motiv. Emot. 42, 763–773. doi: 10.1007/s11031-018-9696-0

Zhu, L., Yao, J., Wang, J., Wu, L., Gao, Y., Xie, J., et al. (2019). The predictive role of self-compassion in cancer patients' symptoms of depression, anxiety, and fatigue: a longitudinal study. Psycho-Oncology 28, 1918–1925. doi: 10.1002/pon.5174

Keywords: depression, cancer, perceived stress, eating problems, sexual satisfaction, emotional regulation, self-compassion

Citation: Moniri R, Gharraee B and Zahedi Tajrishi K (2024) Modeling the relationship between depression in people with cancer and perceived stress, with the mediating role of eating problems, sexual satisfaction, emotion regulation and self-compassion. Front. Psychol . 15:1281347. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1281347

Received: 22 August 2023; Accepted: 19 March 2024; Published: 10 April 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Moniri, Gharraee and Zahedi Tajrishi. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Banafsheh Gharraee, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Using research to solve societal problems starts with building connections and making space for young people

Chief of Staff, Werth Institute for Entrepreneurship & Innovation, University of Connecticut

Professor of Biological Sciences, Boise State University

Associate Professor in Tropical Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Hawaii

Disclosure statement

Zoey England is currently completing a Use-Inspired Research Science Communications fellowship, funded through a grant from the National Science Foundation. She has also received funding from CTNext.

Jennifer Forbey receives funding from the National Science Foundation.

Michael Muszynski receives funding from the National Science Foundation. He is affiliated with the Maize Genetics Cooperation.

University of Connecticut and Boise State University provide funding as members of The Conversation US.

View all partners

Often, when scientists do research around a specific societal challenge, they hope their work will help solve that larger problem. Yet translating findings into long-lasting, community-driven solutions is much harder than most expect.

It seems intuitive that scientists studying living organisms, microbes and ecosystems could apply their findings to tackle food shortages, help keep environments healthy and improve human and animal health. But it’s not always that easy. Issues like climate change, renewable energy, public health and migration are complex , making direct solutions challenging to develop and implement.

As a group of researchers invested in helping scientists create meaningful impact with their work, we understand problems like these will need experts from different fields and industries to work together.

This means we might need to reevaluate certain aspects of the inquiry process and embrace fresh perspectives if we, as members of the scientific community, want to improve our capacity for producing solutions-oriented research.

Defining use-inspired research

Science does not occur in a vacuum. Factors including funding availability, access to advanced technologies and political or social contexts can influence the kinds of studies that get done. A framework called use-inspired research and engagement, or UIRE, acknowledges this fact.

In use-inspired research , the potential applications of findings for society shape the directions of exploration.

In UIRE, researchers work with members of a community to figure out what questions they should look into. They form partnerships with other stakeholders, including governments, businesses of all scales and nonprofits, to form a collaborative foundation. This way, researchers can tailor investigations from the outset to be useful to and usable by decision-makers.

Translational research , or intentionally grounding scientific exploration in practical applications, isn’t new . Use-inspired research expands on translational research, prioritizing building connections between practitioners and communities.

In the U.S., the passage of the CHIPS and Science Act in 2022 further codified use-inspired research. The act directed US$280 billion over the next 10 years toward funding scientific inquiry to boost domestic competitiveness, innovation and national security.

This legislation also authorized the establishment of the National Science Foundation’s Directorate for Technology, Innovation and Partnerships, called NSF TIP . TIP marks the agency’s first new directorate in over three decades, created with the aim of sparking the growth of diverse innovation and technology landscapes.

Producing science in partnership

In use-inspired research and engagement, collaboration is a big part of each project from the start, when the researchers are first deciding what to study. These cooperative partnerships continue throughout data collection and analysis. Together, these teams apply the results and develop products, implement behavior changes, or further inform community decision-making.

For example, a large hospital, an academic organization and several nonprofits may partner together to explore issues affecting health care accessibility in the region. Researchers collect data through surveys and interviews, and interpret the findings within the community’s specific circumstances. They can then coordinate data evaluation with the health care and nonprofit partners, which helps take socioeconomic status, cultural beliefs and built infrastructure like grocery stores and public transportation into account.

This approach brings together the broad perspectives of a large hospital network, academic expertise around survey creation and data analysis, and specialized knowledge held by nonprofits. These groups can then collaborate further to develop specific programs, such as educational initiatives and enhanced health care services. They can tailor these to the needs of the community they serve.

Use-inspired research matters because it looks at all the different issues facing a community holistically and keeps them in mind when investigating potential solutions. UIRE is not a substitute for basic, foundational research , which explores new questions to fundamentally understand a topic. Rather, it’s an approach centered around selecting questions and developing methods based on real-world importance.

UIRE creates a foundation for long-term, inclusive partnerships – and not just within academia. Government, community organizations, large companies and startups can all use the same principles of UIRE to share ideas and craft solutions to issues facing their communities. Individuals from all sorts of backgrounds are equally integral to the entire process, further amplifying the viewpoints present.

Use-inspired methods are not only relevant to improving research outcomes. A use-inspired approach drives innovation and technological advancements across sectors . When used in K-12 classrooms , UIRE leads to well-rounded students .

This approach can also improve learning in workforce development spaces, creating employees trained to build connections.

UIRE provides platforms for the general public to participate in conversations about issues impacting their lives that they may not have otherwise been a part of.

Harnessing early-career engagement

Use-inspired methods challenge not only how, but who contributes to and benefits from scientific inquiry. They also focus on making the findings accessible to those outside academia.

To craft necessary solutions for complex societal problems, institutions will need to continue backing traditional scholars who excel at pure basic research. At the same time, they can support training in use-inspired domains.

Early-career professionals across sectors will continue to play an important role in spreading and sustaining the cultural shifts necessary to embrace use-inspired research at a wider scale. These early-career professionals can bring fresh ideas to the table and craft innovative approaches to problems.

To support translational research long term, institutions and supervisors can support students in hands-on learning opportunities from the first year of undergraduate coursework to postgraduate fellowships. These opportunities can help students learn about UIRE and equip them with the skills needed to build cross-sector partnerships before entering the workforce.

By receiving mentorship from individuals outside academia, students and trainees can gain exposure to different career paths and find motivation to pursue opportunities outside traditional academic roles. This mentorship fosters creative problem-solving and adaptability.

UIRE provides a potential framework to addressing complex societal challenges. Creating opportunities for the ongoing involvement of young people will seed a vibrant future for use-inspired research and engagement.

• Climate change
• Science communication
• National Science Foundation
• Partnerships
• Science and society
• Societal impacts

Senior Enrolment Advisor

Associate Professor, Occupational Therapy

GRAINS RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION CHAIRPERSON

Faculty of Law - Academic Appointment Opportunities

Audience Development Coordinator (fixed-term maternity cover)

• International edition
• Australia edition
• Europe edition

Write down your thoughts and shred them to relieve anger, researchers say

Writing negative reactions on paper and shredding it or scrunching and throwing in the bin eliminates angry feelings, study finds

Since time immemorial humans have tried to devise anger management techniques.

In ancient Rome, the Stoic philosopher Seneca believed “my anger is likely to do me more harm than your wrong” and offered avoidance tips in his AD45 work De Ira (On Anger).

More modern methods include a workout on the gym punchbag or exercise bike. But the humble paper shredder may be a more effective – and accessible – way to decompress, according to research.

A study in Japan has found that writing down your reaction to a negative incident on a piece of paper and then shredding it, or scrunching it into a ball and throwing it in the bin, gets rid of anger.

“We expected that our method would suppress anger to some extent,” said Nobuyuki Kawai, lead researcher of the study at Nagoya University. “However, we were amazed that anger was eliminated almost entirely.”

The study, published in Scientific Reports on Nature , builds on research on the association between the written word and anger reduction as well as studies showing how interactions with physical objects can control a person’s mood. For instance, those wanting revenge on an ex-partner may burn letters or destroy gifts.

Researchers believe the shredder results may be related to the phenomenon of “backward magical contagion”, which is the belief that actions taken on an object associated with a person can affect the individuals themselves. In this case, getting rid of the negative physical entity, the piece of paper, causes the original emotion to also disappear.

This is a reversal of “magical contagion” or “celebrity contagion” – the belief that the “essence” of an individual can be transferred through their physical possessions.

Fifty student participants were asked to write brief opinions about an important social problem, such as whether smoking in public should be outlawed. Evaluators then deliberately scored the papers low on intelligence, interest, friendliness, logic, and rationality. For good measure, evaluators added insulting comments such as: “I cannot believe an educated person would think like this. I hope this person learns something while at the university.”

The wound-up participants then wrote down their angry thoughts on the negative feedback on a piece of paper. One group was told to either roll up the paper and throw it in a bin or keep it in a file on their desk. A second group was told to shred the paper, or put it in a plastic box.

Anger levels of the individuals who discarded their paper in the bin or shredded it returned to their initial state, while those who retained a hard copy of the paper experienced only a small decrease in their overall anger.

Researchers concluded that “the meaning (interpretation) of disposal plays a critical role” in reducing anger.

“This technique could be applied in the moment by writing down the source of anger as if taking a memo and then throwing it away,” said Kawai.

Along with its practical benefits, this discovery may shed light on the origins of the Japanese cultural tradition known as hakidashisara ( hakidashi sara refers to a dish or plate) at the Hiyoshi shrine in Kiyosu, just outside Nagoya. Hakidashisara is an annual festival where people smash small discs representing things that make them angry. The study’s findings may explain the feeling of relief that participants report after leaving the festival, the paper concluded.

More on this story

Fridge magnets can be cool aid to holiday memory recall, study finds

Want to skip that Christmas party? The host probably won’t mind, study shows

‘Succession syndrome’ prevalent among wealthy households, psychiatrists warn

Drugs and alcohol do not make you more creative, research finds

Why being rude to the waiter (or other staff) is the worst strategy

Authors of original dating profiles rated more attractive, research finds

I fear my children are overexposed to technology. Experts say I’m right to worry

I used to be ashamed of being a fangirl. Now I see how joyous and creative it was

Autistic scholar Temple Grandin: ‘The education system is screening out visual thinkers’

Human neurons transplanted into rats to help study brain disorders

Most viewed.

School suspensions and exclusions put vulnerable children at risk

Managing problematic student behaviour is one of the most persistent, challenging, and controversial issues facing schools today. Yet despite best intentions to build a more inclusive and punitive-free education system, school suspensions and expulsions remain.

Now, new research from the University of South Australia shows that exclusionary practices not only fail to identify the deep-rooted causes of challenging student behaviours but exacerbate negative issues rather than resolve them.

Lead researcher, UniSA's Professor Anna Sullivan, says schools face difficult decisions around suspensions and expulsions.

"Suspensions and expulsions have been the mainstay of schools' behaviour management practices for decades, regardless of research finding that they are ineffective for disciplining bad behaviours," Prof Sullivan says.

"In fact, there is a clear relationship between school suspensions and a range of detrimental health outcomes, including alienation from school, involvement with antisocial peers, use of alcohol and smoking, and a lower quality of school life -- and this contributes to a higher risk of dropping out of school and possible illegal behaviour.

"What makes things worse is that vulnerable students have a higher risk of being suspended or expelled, which in many cases exacerbates their circumstances and life chances.

"Boys, Aboriginal students, students from low SES backgrounds, and students with a disability are disproportionately excluded from schools.

"There is a distinct blind spot about how school suspensions and expulsions perpetuate wider social inequalities.

"Schools and policy makers must look beyond challenging behaviours to understand what is contributing to the cause -- rather than treating the effect -- and it's this missing information that's needed to develop new school policies."

Analysing the recently reviewed NSW Student Behaviour Strategy, researchers found that while there was more behaviour support and management, the new iterations still included punitive practices.

"When a student is suspended or expelled from school, we're ultimately removing them from their education and limiting their life outcomes. And knowing that vulnerable groups are more at risk, these exclusion policies are ultimately discriminatory," Prof Sullivan says.

"We also see situations where children with disabilities -- some on prescribed medications -- are being excluded from school on the basis that 'they have problems already'. As a consequence, exclusion appears to be a reasonable solution given schools do not have the time, expertise or resources to manage complex and challenging behavioural needs.

"Adding to such deficit thinking is removing a 'problem child' from the learning environment of others. Instead of helping these students, the policies are exacerbating their struggles.

"What we need is more listening, more empathy to students at risk, and a willingness to challenge the impact of wider social inequalities including poverty, race, housing, and unemployment on the most vulnerable people in society. These things do not operate in isolation; they affect families and children and cannot simply be left at the school gate.

"It's time to look afresh at the complex and challenging circumstances in which many young people find themselves. Only then can we hope to create a more inclusive and fair education system."

Notes to editors:

• Published paper: Down, B., Sullivan, A., Tippett, N., Johnson, B., Manolev, J., & Robinson, J., (2024). What is missing in policy discourses about school exclusions?, Critical Studies in Education , DOI: 10.1080/17508487.2024.2312878

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Media contact: Annabel Mansfield M: + 61 479 182 489 E: @unisa.edu.au" title="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]

Researcher : Prof Anna Sullivan E: @unisa.edu.au" title="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]

• Educational Psychology
• K-12 Education
• Child Psychology
• Educational Policy
• Poverty and Learning
• STEM Education
• Education and Employment
• Sex education
• Intellectual giftedness
• Social movement
• Early childhood education
• Visual system
• Schizophrenia

Story Source:

Materials provided by University of South Australia . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Barry Down, Anna Sullivan, Neil Tippett, Bruce Johnson, Jamie Manolev, Janean Robinson. What is missing in policy discourses about school exclusions? Critical Studies in Education , 2024; 1 DOI: 10.1080/17508487.2024.2312878

Cite This Page :

Explore More

• Plastic Pollution Kills Ocean Embryos
• Most Massive Stellar Black Hole in Our Galaxy
• Coffee's Prehistoric Origin and It's Future
• Can Animals Count? New Rat Study
• A Single Atom Layer of Gold: Goldene
• Fool's Gold May Contain Valuable Lithium
• Exercise Cuts Stress-Related Brain Activity
• Microplastics Go from Gut to Other Organs
• Epilepsy Drug May Prevent Brain Tumors
• Evolution's Recipe Book

Trending Topics

Strange & offbeat.

share this!

April 10, 2024

This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:

fact-checked

trusted source

written by researcher(s)

Using research to solve societal problems starts with building connections and making space for young people

by Zoey England, Jennifer Forbey and Michael Muszynski, The Conversation

Often, when scientists do research around a specific societal challenge, they hope their work will help solve that larger problem. Yet translating findings into long-lasting, community-driven solutions is much harder than most expect.

It seems intuitive that scientists studying living organisms, microbes, and ecosystems could apply their findings to tackle food shortages, help keep environments healthy, and improve human and animal health . But it's not always that easy. Issues like climate change , renewable energy, public health, and migration are complex , making direct solutions challenging to develop and implement.

As a group of researchers invested in helping scientists create meaningful impact with their work, we understand problems like these will need experts from different fields and industries to work together.

This means we might need to reevaluate certain aspects of the inquiry process and embrace fresh perspectives if we, as members of the scientific community, want to improve our capacity for producing solutions-oriented research.

Defining use-inspired research

Science does not occur in a vacuum. Factors including funding availability, access to advanced technologies and political or social contexts can influence the kinds of studies that get done. A framework called use-inspired research and engagement, or UIRE, acknowledges this fact.

In use-inspired research , the potential applications of findings for society shape the directions of exploration.

In UIRE, researchers work with members of a community to figure out what questions they should look into. They form partnerships with other stakeholders, including governments, businesses of all scales and nonprofits, to form a collaborative foundation. This way, researchers can tailor investigations from the outset to be useful to and usable by decision-makers.

Translational research , or intentionally grounding scientific exploration in practical applications, isn't new . Use-inspired research expands on translational research, prioritizing building connections between practitioners and communities.

In the U.S., the passage of the CHIPS and Science Act in 2022 further codified use-inspired research. The act directed US$280 billion over the next 10 years toward funding scientific inquiry to boost domestic competitiveness, innovation and national security.

This legislation also authorized the establishment of the National Science Foundation's Directorate for Technology, Innovation and Partnerships, called NSF TIP . TIP marks the agency's first new directorate in over three decades, created with the aim of sparking the growth of diverse innovation and technology landscapes.

Producing science in partnership

In use-inspired research and engagement, collaboration is a big part of each project from the start, when the researchers are first deciding what to study. These cooperative partnerships continue throughout data collection and analysis. Together, these teams apply the results and develop products, implement behavior changes, or further inform community decision-making.

For example, a large hospital, an academic organization and several nonprofits may partner together to explore issues affecting health care accessibility in the region. Researchers collect data through surveys and interviews, and interpret the findings within the community's specific circumstances. They can then coordinate data evaluation with the health care and nonprofit partners, which helps take socioeconomic status, cultural beliefs and built infrastructure like grocery stores and public transportation into account.

This approach brings together the broad perspectives of a large hospital network, academic expertise around survey creation and data analysis, and specialized knowledge held by nonprofits. These groups can then collaborate further to develop specific programs, such as educational initiatives and enhanced health care services. They can tailor these to the needs of the community they serve.

Use-inspired research matters because it looks at all the different issues facing a community holistically and keeps them in mind when investigating potential solutions. UIRE is not a substitute for basic, foundational research, which explores new questions to fundamentally understand a topic. Rather, it's an approach centered around selecting questions and developing methods based on real-world importance.

UIRE creates a foundation for long-term, inclusive partnerships—and not just within academia. Government, community organizations, large companies and startups can all use the same principles of UIRE to share ideas and craft solutions to issues facing their communities. Individuals from all sorts of backgrounds are equally integral to the entire process, further amplifying the viewpoints present.

Use-inspired methods are not only relevant to improving research outcomes. A use-inspired approach drives innovation and technological advancements across sectors . When used in K-12 classrooms , UIRE leads to well-rounded students .

This approach can also improve learning in workforce development spaces, creating employees trained to build connections.

UIRE provides platforms for the general public to participate in conversations about issues impacting their lives that they may not have otherwise been a part of.

Harnessing early-career engagement

Use-inspired methods challenge not only how, but who contributes to and benefits from scientific inquiry. They also focus on making the findings accessible to those outside academia.

To craft necessary solutions for complex societal problems, institutions will need to continue backing traditional scholars who excel at pure basic research. At the same time, they can support training in use-inspired domains.

Early-career professionals across sectors will continue to play an important role in spreading and sustaining the cultural shifts necessary to embrace use-inspired research at a wider scale. These early-career professionals can bring fresh ideas to the table and craft innovative approaches to problems.

To support translational research long term, institutions and supervisors can support students in hands-on learning opportunities from the first year of undergraduate coursework to postgraduate fellowships. These opportunities can help students learn about UIRE and equip them with the skills needed to build cross-sector partnerships before entering the workforce.

By receiving mentorship from individuals outside academia, students and trainees can gain exposure to different career paths and find motivation to pursue opportunities outside traditional academic roles. This mentorship fosters creative problem-solving and adaptability.

UIRE provides a potential framework to addressing complex societal challenges. Creating opportunities for the ongoing involvement of young people will seed a vibrant future for use-inspired research and engagement.

Provided by The Conversation

Explore further

Feedback to editors

Study reveals substantial global cost of climate inaction

7 minutes ago

Spintronics: A new path to room temperature swirling spin textures

10 minutes ago

Mountain chickadees have remarkable memories. A new study explains why

20 minutes ago

New class of antimicrobials discovered in soil bacteria

40 minutes ago

Understanding climate warming impacts on carbon release from the tundra

53 minutes ago

A powerful technique for tracking a protein's fleeting shape changes

Scientists navigate the paradox of extreme cold events in a warming world

Unique field study shows how climate change affects fire-impacted forests

Molecular code stimulates pioneer cells to build blood vessels in the body

Neuronal gateway to essential molecules in learning and memory discovered on atomic scale

Relevant physicsforums posts, cover songs versus the original track, which ones are better.

2 hours ago

Interesting anecdotes in the history of physics?

4 hours ago

Biographies, history, personal accounts

14 hours ago

Who is your favorite Jazz musician and what is your favorite song?

Esoteric music recommendations.

19 hours ago

For WW2 buffs!

Apr 15, 2024

More from Art, Music, History, and Linguistics

Related Stories

Campus garden initiatives can help grow the next generation of environmental change-makers

Mar 7, 2024

Opinion: Person-centered health care means ensuring that affected communities are leaders and partners in research

Apr 2, 2024

Five ways to better build community with international students in Canada

Mar 20, 2024

Preparing for the next health crisis: COVID-19 showed the importance of community-engaged research

Apr 9, 2024

Students build science identity through immersive research experience

Jan 4, 2024

Expert tests if AI can help teach students accounting

Feb 27, 2024

Recommended for you

Study reveals how humanity could unite to address global challenges

18 hours ago

Building footprints could help identify neighborhood sociodemographic traits

Apr 10, 2024

Are the world's cultures growing apart?

First languages of North America traced back to two very different language groups from Siberia

Can the bias in algorithms help us see our own?

The 'Iron Pipeline': Is Interstate 95 the connection for moving guns up and down the East Coast?

Let us know if there is a problem with our content.

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

Search Cornell

Class Roster

Section menu.

• Toggle Navigation
• Summer 2024
• Spring 2024
• Winter 2024
• Archived Rosters

Last Updated

• Schedule of Classes - April 16, 2024 7:30PM EDT
• Course Catalog - April 16, 2024 7:07PM EDT

COMM 5300 Ethics in New Media, Technology, and Communication

Course description.

Course information provided by the Courses of Study 2023-2024 . Courses of Study 2024-2025 is scheduled to publish mid-June.

This course examines moral and ethical issues in communication, new media, and technology. Using theories and research in moral philosophy and psychology, we examine how people perceive and reason about ethical issues presented by media and technology, and how moral action is influenced by cognitive, emotional, and ethical belief systems. Issues of autonomy, transparency, harm, privacy, manipulation, justice, democracy, equality, and care are discussed. We analyze the consistency between personal and professional ethics, the importance of moral character and agency, and the translation of moral thought to ethical action, and address the development of professional and personal ethical codes of conduct and research for communication professionals in the areas of new media and technology.

When Offered Fall, Winter, Summer.

Distribution Category (CA-AG, KCM-AG)

Comments Credit hours reflect an intermission midway through each class period.

• Students will be able to increase awareness of moral and ethical issues in media, technology, and communication.
• Students will be able to explain moral psychology and ethical principles.
• Students will be able to examine moral reasoning and ethical responsibilities—both personal and professional—that affect people and society.
• Students will be able to examine issues and implications of ethical relativism and ethical principles.
• Students will be able to reason thoughtfully and ethically about current cases and news items in communication, media, and technology.

View Enrollment Information

  Regular Academic Session.   Combined with: COMM 4300 ,  INFO 4301 ,  INFO 5301

Credits and Grading Basis

3 Credits Stdnt Opt (Letter or S/U grades)

Class Number & Section Details

 2349 COMM 5300   SEM 101

Meeting Pattern

• T 11:15am - 1:45pm To Be Assigned
• Aug 26 - Dec 9, 2024

Instructors

Schrader, D

To be determined. There are currently no textbooks/materials listed, or no textbooks/materials required, for this section. Additional information may be found on the syllabus provided by your professor.

For the most current information about textbooks, including the timing and options for purchase, see the Cornell Store .

Additional Information

Instruction Mode: In Person Limited to Seniors and Graduate Students. Instructor consent required and application required to add the course. You must email Professor Schrader ([email protected]) to get the application to the course.

Instructor Consent Required (Add)

Or send this URL:

Available Syllabi

About the class roster.

The schedule of classes is maintained by the Office of the University Registrar . Current and future academic terms are updated daily . Additional detail on Cornell University's diverse academic programs and resources can be found in the Courses of Study . Visit The Cornell Store for textbook information .

Please contact [email protected] with questions or feedback.

If you have a disability and are having trouble accessing information on this website or need materials in an alternate format, contact [email protected] for assistance.

Cornell University ©2024