role models about education

Role Models In Education: 20 Reasons Why They’re So Important

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When it comes to education, we all want the best for our children. We want them to have positive role models and experiences, and we want to do everything we can to help them succeed. But what about those who came before us? What did they do to set the stage for today’s educators?

20 Reasons Why Role Models are Important in Education?

1. they provide a role model for students to look up to and aspire to..

Role models in education are incredibly important. They provide a role model for students to look up to and aspire to. They offer hope and inspiration and can help students develop positive habits and strengths. Some of the most famous role models in history include scientists, politicians, athletes, etc. However, any person can be a role model for someone else if they have the right qualities. For example, a teacher could be a great role model for their students if they are patient, caring, and provide clear instructions.

2. They help students learn how to behave in a professional setting.

Role models in education are essential to helping students learn how to behave in a professional setting. They provide an example of how to act and carry themselves, which can be invaluable when starting out in a career. Role models can also help students develop a strong work ethic, as they see the importance of completing tasks on time and following through with commitments. Ultimately, role models in education help students develop the skills they need to succeed in any field.

3. They can help students develop healthy personal habits.

Role models in education are important for a number of reasons. First, they can help students develop healthy personal habits. Second, they can provide inspiration and guidance to students as they pursue their educational goals. Third, role models can demonstrate what is possible and how to achieve success in life. Finally, role models can provide comfort and support to students when times are tough. All of these factors can have a profound impact on students’ lives, both academically and personally.

4. They can provide guidance on how to deal with difficult situations.

Role models in education are essential for providing guidance on how to deal with difficult situations. They can provide examples of how to handle difficult situations, offer words of encouragement, and help teach children about appropriate ways to behave. Throughout their lives, children will encounter many different types of situations. If they have role models that they can look to for guidance, it will make the process of dealing with difficult situations much easier.

5. They can teach students about important life values.

Role models in education are oftentimes the people who have accomplished the most in their lives. They can teach students about important life values such as hard work, determination, and responsibility. Oftentimes, these role models will share their experiences with their students to help them learn from their mistakes. By listening to and learning from these role models, students can develop a stronger set of personal values that will help them succeed in life.

6. They can provide advice on how to succeed in life.

Role models can provide advice on how to succeed in life. They can also show students how to work hard and be responsible. Some of the most famous role models are athletes, politicians, and scientists. These people have shown students that it is possible to achieve great things even if they have difficulty starting out. By following in the footsteps of these role models, students can learn valuable life skills that will help them succeed in any situation.

7. They can show students how to be responsible citizens.

Role models in education are extremely important because they can show students how to be responsible citizens. Many times, when students see someone who is successful, they want to emulate that behavior. However, it is also important for students to see different kinds of success so that they can learn from the mistakes made by others.

A good role model in education will demonstrate both professional and personal qualities, which will help students learn how to be successful in both their professional and personal lives.

8. They can help students develop a positive self-image.

Role models play an important role in education. They can help students develop a positive self-image. They can also teach them how to behave in different situations. By following in the footsteps of a positive role model, students can learn how to be successful in their own life.

9. They can help students become better problem-solvers.

Role models in education are important for two reasons. First, they can help students become better problem-solvers. Second, they can provide guidance and support during difficult times. When students have role models to look up to, they are more likely to achieve success in their educational endeavors.

10. They can encourage students to think critically and creatively.

Role models in education can encourage students to think critically and creatively. They can also provide guidance and support as students explore new areas of interest or challenge themselves further in their current academic pursuits. In addition, role models can serve as positive examples for students to follow.

11. They can develop a sense of teamwork and cooperation within a classroom setting.

Role models in education are important because they can help develop a sense of teamwork and cooperation within a classroom setting. They can also help teach students how to be responsible adults, how to behave respectfully, and how to behave ethically.

By having role models in the classroom, students can learn from experience and hopefully become better people overall.

12. They can show students how to be responsible for their own education.

Role models in education are vital for young students. They can show students how to be responsible for their own education and what it takes to achieve their goals. For some, a role model may be someone they look up to or admire. Other students may find role models through teachers or other adults in their lives. Regardless of the source, these individuals can provide invaluable guidance and support as they strive to become successful adults.

13. They can help students develop discipline skills and habits.

Role models in education are important for a variety of reasons. First, they can help students develop discipline skills and habits. Second, they can provide guidance and support when students are struggling or facing difficult situations. Finally, role models can inspire students to pursue their dreams and goals. By providing support and guidance, role models can help students reach their full potential.

14. They can help students learn about different cultures and religions.

Role models in education can play a very important role in helping students learn about different cultures and religions. Teachers can use role models to help students understand the customs and traditions of other countries, as well as the religious beliefs of different groups of people.

Additionally, role models can provide students with examples of successful people who have overcome difficult challenges. By learning from these individuals, students are more likely to achieve success in their own lives.

15. Role models provide an important example for students to follow, both in their personal lives and in the classroom setting.

Role models provide an important example for students to follow, both in their personal lives and in the classroom setting. They provide a model for proper conduct and can help foster a love of learning. As students observe the appropriate behavior exhibited by their role models, they are more likely to adopt similar attitudes and behaviors in their own lives. In addition, role models can provide guidance and support when it comes to educational endeavors.

By following the advice of positive role models, students are more likely to succeed in school and in life.

16. Role models can help to establish a positive school culture.

Role models can play an important role in establishing a positive school culture. When students see positive examples of behavior, they are more likely to adopt similar attitudes and behaviors. This can encourage a sense of community and support within the school environment, which can lead to increased academic achievement.

A good role model can also provide guidance and support during difficult times. When students have someone they can look up to, they are more likely to find strength in the face of adversity. This can help them develop resilience and learn how to manage stress effectively.

In short, role models are essential for creating a positive school culture. They provide inspiration and guidance for students from all walks of life, helping them to develop strong character traits that will serve them well throughout their lives.

17. Role models can play an important role in shaping the future of our world.

Role models can play an important role in shaping the future of our world. They provide us with an example to follow and often provide us with the skills and knowledge we need to succeed in life. A good role model can show us how to be successful in school, work, or any other area of our lives. They can also teach us about honesty, hard work, and perseverance. In short, a good role model can help us to become the person we want to be.

18. A role model can help children form healthy relationships and develop a strong sense of self and identity.

Role models in education can help children form healthy relationships and develop a strong sense of self and identity. They can provide guidance, support, and positive role models. A role model can help a child learn about themselves and their abilities. They can also teach values, morals, and skills that will help them succeed in life. When a child has a strong sense of who they are and what they want to be, they are more likely to succeed in school and in life.

19. A role model can serve as a mentor and guide children through the challenges of adolescence.

In today’s society, it is more important than ever for children to have role models in their lives. A role model can serve as a mentor and guide children through the challenges of adolescence. Some of the key benefits of having a role model are that they can provide direction, encouragement, and support during difficult times.

They can also offer insight and knowledge about various topics, which can help young people grow in their personal and professional lives. Ultimately, having a good role model is essential for developing healthy attitudes and habits, both inside and outside of the home.

20. Encourage a love of learning

Role models in education are incredibly important for a number of reasons. They can encourage a love of learning in young students, and they can also help older students remember the importance of learning. Furthermore, role models can provide guidance and support to students as they progress through their education.

In short, role models in education can have a significant impact on the lives of young people.

Who Were Some of the Most Impactful Role Models in Education?

Some of the most impactful role models in education have been educators such as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Maya Angelou, and Eleanor Roosevelt. These educators helped change the way people view education and helped push for social justice. Other notable role models in education include scientists like Albert Einstein and a businessman like Bill Gates, athletes like Michael Jordan and LeBron James, and a politician like John F. Kennedy.

Check out more of our articles in our blog page.

It’s important for us as educators to remember that we are not alone. There have been many great educators who have come before us, and we can draw inspiration from their work. By encouraging our children to follow in their footsteps, we can create a better future for ourselves and our students.

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• Open access
• Published: 02 December 2021

Which role models are effective for which students? A systematic review and four recommendations for maximizing the effectiveness of role models in STEM

• Jessica R. Gladstone 1   nAff2 &
• Andrei Cimpian   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3553-6097 1  

International Journal of STEM Education volume  8 , Article number:  59 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Is exposing students to role models an effective tool for diversifying science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)? So far, the evidence for this claim is mixed. Here, we set out to identify systematic sources of variability in STEM role models’ effects on student motivation: If we determine which role models are effective for which students , we will be in a better position to maximize role models’ impact as a tool for diversifying STEM. A systematic narrative review of the literature (55 articles) investigated the effects of role models on students’ STEM motivation as a function of several key features of the role models (their perceived competence, their perceived similarity to students, and the perceived attainability of their success) and the students (their gender, race/ethnicity, age, and identification with STEM). We conclude with four concrete recommendations for ensuring that STEM role models are motivating for students of all backgrounds and demographics—an important step toward diversifying STEM.

Introduction

In the United States, STEM fields fail to attract and retain women and racial/ethnic minorities in numbers proportional to their share of the population (e.g., National Science Foundation, 2017 ). Concerned about this inequity, many researchers, teachers, and policymakers have been seeking ways to increase the gender and racial/ethnic diversity of the STEM workforce. A popular tool for this purpose is to introduce students to STEM role models, which we define here as individuals who can positively shape a student’s motivation by acting as a successful exemplar. Well captured by the slogan “you can’t be what you can’t see” (variously attributed to Gloria Steinem, Sally Ride, and Marian Wright Edelman, founder of the Children’s Defense Fund), the use of role models is often billed as the one-stop solution for increasing diversity in STEM (e.g., Dean, 2014 ; Levere, 2018 ). And role models seem like a promising tool indeed—for instance, exposure to role models is relatively low-cost (Herrmann et al., 2016 ) and is flexible and adaptable to a wide range of contexts and student ages (Lawner et al., 2019 ).

However, the empirical evidence for the effectiveness of role models as a means of motivating diverse students to pursue STEM is sparse and not altogether straightforward. For example, a 2007 practice guide released by the Institute of Education Sciences on means to encourage girls in math and science concluded that there is a “low” level of empirical evidence for the recommendation to expose girls to role models (Halpern et al., 2007 ). Although this guide was released more than a decade ago, the empirical evidence for role models as a means of increasing diversity in STEM remains complex and contradictory (e.g., Lawner et al., 2019 ). Yet, these nuances have not blunted excitement among educators and the general public about role models as a motivational tool—if anything, enthusiasm for role models has probably increased in the intervening time.

Thus, our goal here was to provide an accessible and brief, but at the same time systematic (Siddaway et al., 2019 ), review of the current literature on role models to assess their effectiveness as a motivational tool for diversifying STEM. However, rather than focusing on the general question of whether role models can motivate diverse groups of students (the answer to which likely depends on many specifics), we set out to answer a more targeted set of questions about which role models are effective for which students in STEM. Specifically, we examined two types of potential moderators of role models’ effectiveness: (1) the features of the role models themselves (which we term “role model moderators”), and (2) the characteristics of the students exposed to the role models (which we term “student moderators”). We briefly unpack each of these categories of moderators before describing the theoretical frameworks that anchored this research.

With respect to role model moderators, our systematic review aimed to identify which features of a role model are effective in motivating STEM pursuits and, conversely, which features of a role model backfire, lowering student motivation. We used prominent theories of motivation to identify the features of role models that might be expected a priori (on theoretical grounds) to influence their effectiveness as motivational tools. Specifically, we focused on social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977 , 1986 , 1997 ), expectancy–value theory (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ), mindset theory (Dweck, 1999 , 2006 ; Dweck & Leggett, 1988 ), and attribution theory (Graham, 2020 ; Weiner, 1985 ) and drew out each theory’s implications for the features a role model should have to be effective. We then assessed the level of evidence in the literature for each of these theoretically-motivated role model moderators.

With respect to student moderators, our systematic review investigated how students’ gender and race/ethnicity moderated the effects of role models, consistent with the focus of our review on diversifying STEM. In addition, we investigated whether role models vary in their effectiveness as a function of student age, from elementary school to college. The final student moderator that was considered here was students’ attitudes toward STEM: Students who have not yet identified with this domain (which is likely true of many students from underrepresented backgrounds) may have different concerns, and as a result, may be motivated by different types of role models, than students who are farther along in their STEM educational trajectory (Drury et al., 2011 ). In other words, the qualities of a role model that can help attract a student to STEM in the first place and make them more likely to identify with this domain may be different from the qualities of a role model that can help retain a student and solidify their identification with STEM.

To maximize the usefulness of this systematic review for the education research and practice community, we conclude with a set of concrete recommendations extracted from our review of the literature. These recommendations are intended to increase the effectiveness of role-model interventions as a tool for diversifying STEM. We hope these guidelines will be useful not just for researchers and policymakers who are considering large-scale interventions that involve role models but also for educators who might want to use role models in their classrooms.

Defining role models

Above, we defined role models as individuals who can positively shape a student’s motivation by acting as a successful exemplar. To arrive at a more precise definition, it is helpful to further differentiate role models from mentors and sponsors (e.g., Crosby, 1999 ; Downing et al., 2005 ; Gibson, 2004 ). Although all three types of career guides can be helpful to students, role models are distinguished from the other two types of career guides by the fact that they need not (and in fact often do not) have any prior relationship with the students whom they are influencing. In contrast, mentors and sponsors must have a prior relationship with the students to qualify as such, with the difference between them being that mentors provide counseling and general encouragement, whereas sponsors provide practical guidance (e.g., Downing et al., 2005 ). Thus, for purposes of our systematic review, we focused exclusively on empirical evidence concerning the motivational effects of exposure to STEM experts with whom students have no prior relationship. This distinction ensures that the conclusions we draw from our systematic review pertain to role models per se rather than capturing a more diffuse mix of role models, mentors, and sponsors.

Role model moderators: What features do effective role models possess?

To inform our systematic review, we look to four well-established theories of motivation that have direct implications for the features that a role model should embody to be motivating. We briefly summarize each theory before drawing out its implications with respect to role models. To clarify, our analysis of these theories is not part of the systematic review per se—it simply lays the conceptual groundwork for the systematic review of the empirical evidence, which provided a test of the features highlighted here. It is also important to note that we are not the first to identify these role model features. Inspired in part by the same theoretical frameworks we integrate here, previous studies have explored how some of these features (e.g., a role model’s competence; Marx & Roman, 2002 ) relate to students’ motivation. Thus, the contribution of the present work does not lie in identifying the role model moderators per se but rather in systematically reviewing the evidence for them, which to our knowledge has never been done. The section below simply provides a theoretical anchor for the systematic review that follows. One final caveat: In this section, we discuss which features make role models motivating in a general sense, without factoring in whether these motivational effects vary as a function of students’ own characteristics; the latter issue is tackled in the section on student moderators.

Social cognitive theory

At the heart of Bandura’s social cognitive theory (Bandura,  1977 , 1986 , 1997 ) is the motivational construct of self-efficacy—one’s perceived ability to learn and do well in a domain. There is a large and growing body of work that demonstrates that self-efficacy is an important predictor of various student outcomes, including students’ choice of activities, their persistence in a task or domain, and their achievement (Bandura, 1997 ; Klassen & Usher, 2010 ; Schunk & Usher, 2019 ). Another central tenet of social cognitive theory is that students’ self-efficacy is shaped by their social environments (Schunk & Usher, 2019 ) and that engaging in observational learning is part of the process by which students’ own self-efficacy develops (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2016 , 2020 ).

Social cognitive theory’s connection to role models is straightforward. In fact, Bandura (e.g., 2001 ) explicitly stated that a key source of self-efficacy is observing a relatable role model succeed on a similar task. Specifically, there are at least three features of the role model that can affect students’ self-efficacy and achievement (Bandura & Walters, 1963 ; Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020 ). The first feature is the perceived competence of the role model Footnote 1 : Students who observe others perform successfully on a task may believe that they can also be successful on the task. In other words, students may believe they can emulate a role model’s performance, which then raises their own self-efficacy (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020 ; Schunk & Usher, 2019 ). The second feature is the perceived similarity (or relatability) of the role model to the self (i.e., the student). According to Schunk and Usher ( 2019 ), students who perceive the role model to be similar to themselves are more likely to be influenced by the model. This is because sharing a degree of similarity makes the role model’s success more informative about the students’ own chances of succeeding in the future (Bandura, 1986 ; Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020 ). Third, students’ self-efficacy should benefit to the extent that they perceive the role model’s success to be attainable. If what the role model has achieved feels out of reach for a student, their self-efficacy in the relevant domain may suffer.

The third feature (perceived attainability) is related to the second (perceived similarity) insofar as the success of a model who is perceived as similar to the self may thereby also be perceived as more attainable. However, a role model’s success can be perceived as attainable for other reasons as well (e.g., the steps to achieve it are clear), regardless of the student’s similarity to the model. The first feature we discussed (perceived competence) has implications for attainability as well. Although portraying the role model as successful may inspire a student to believe that they can succeed as well, an extraordinary level of success might feel unattainable and therefore be demotivating (e.g., “she can do that, but I can’t!”).

In summary, social cognitive theory suggests that role models can increase students’ self-efficacy, an important motivational variable. Extrapolating from this theory of motivation, we argue that the features of a role model that are key for students’ self-efficacy are the perceived competence of the role model, the perceived similarity to the role model, and the perceived attainability of the role model’s success.

Expectancy–value theory

According to expectancy–value theory, newly labeled situated expectancy–value theory (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ), students’ motivation to pursue an activity is a function of students’ beliefs about the likelihood of success in that activity (“expectancy”) and the value they perceive that activity to have for them (“value”) (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002 , 2020 ). Consistent with this claim, students’ expectancies for success in a domain (e.g., STEM) and the subjective value they attach to that domain are strong predictors of outcomes such as achievement, course enrollment intentions, and college aspirations (e.g., Lauermann et al., 2017 ; Nagengast et al., 2011 ; Perez et al., 2014 ). Relevant for our purposes here, expectancy–value theory proposes that students’ expectancies for success and subjective task values are shaped by various socialization factors, including role models (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ; Parsons et al., 1982 ; Simpkins et al., 2015 ; see also Morgenroth et al., 2015 ). In what follows, we extrapolate from expectancy–value theorizing the features that should make a role model motivating, focusing in turn on expectancies for success and subjective values.

With respect to expectancies, the arguments that we made in the context of social cognitive theory apply here as well. This is so because students’ self-efficacy in a domain shapes their expectancies for success in that domain (see Wigfield & Eccles, 2000 , for some nuances); thus, the features of a model that increase students’ self-efficacy should increase their perceived likelihood of success as well. With respect to subjective values, we argue that the model’s similarity to the self may be particularly effective in boosting the value that students assign to a particular domain. If students see someone who is meaningfully like them pursue a STEM career, for example, they may infer that STEM careers are a good fit for people like them—that these careers allow people like them to pursue goals that are important to them and express core aspects of their selves. Such inferences should increase the value of a STEM career in students’ eyes. Footnote 2 In addition, these inferences seem particularly likely if students perceive the role model to be similar at a deeper, psychological level (“who they are as a person”)—not merely in terms of surface-level demographic characteristics (“what they look like”).

In summary, although expectancy–value theory and social cognitive theory focus on different aspects of motivation, they converge on similar desirable features in a role model: Extrapolating from expectancy–value theory, we argue that the features of a role model that are key for boosting students’ expectancies for success in STEM and their STEM subjective value are the perceived competence of the role model, students’ perceived similarity to the model, and the perceived attainability of the model’s success. A role model’s ability to boost the subjective value of STEM may depend in particular on their psychological (vs. merely demographic) similarity to the student, which highlights STEM as a good match with students’ deeper selves/identities and with their long-term goals and aspirations.

Mindset theory

The term “mindsets” refers to students’ beliefs about the malleability (vs. fixedness) of ability in a domain (e.g., Dweck, 1999 , 2006 ; Dweck & Leggett, 1988 ). Specifically, a growth mindset is the belief that ability in a domain can be developed over time, whereas a fixed mindset is the belief that ability is fixed and stable over time. Growth mindsets put students in the “driver’s seat”—they give students a sense of control over their outcomes and promote the belief that success is attainable regardless of one’s current ability level, which in turn emboldens students to seek challenges and use setbacks as opportunities to learn (e.g., Blackwell et al., 2007 ; Cimpian et al., 2007 ; Mueller & Dweck, 1998 ; Porter et al., 2022 ; Yeager et al., 2019 ).

Students’ mindsets are shaped by messages from those around them, such as teachers and parents (e.g., Cimpian et al., 2007 ; Gunderson et al., 2013 ). Extrapolating from mindset theory, we argue that role models are motivating when they project the message that the abilities needed for success in STEM can be developed (rather than being fixed quantities that only some students possess), which should foster a growth mindset toward this domain. Because the upshot of these growth-oriented messages is to make success appear within reach for all students, we classify this feature of a role model under the broader category of perceived attainability. Although a role model’s STEM success may seem attainable for other reasons as well, the role model’s growth-oriented messages (e.g., that they have failed and learned from it) should be powerful motivators from the viewpoint of mindset theory.

Attribution theory

The predictions of mindset theory with respect to role models are aligned with those of another classic framework for understanding motivation: attribution theory (Graham, 2020 ; Weiner, 1985 ). According to attribution theory, student motivation is influenced by how students explain the causes of success and failure in a domain, with certain causal attributions being particularly likely to maintain or even increase motivation and others decreasing motivation instead (for a recent review, see Graham, 2020 ).

Concerning role models, the key question from the perspective of attribution theory is this: How do students explain the role model’s success in STEM? (Or, as the case may be, how does the role model explain their own success to students?) Some attributions might make the role model’s success seem more attainable than others and might thereby boost students’ own motivation to pursue this domain. Extrapolating from attribution theory, we argue that attributions to internal, unstable, and controllable factors (e.g., effort) are most likely to convey to students that they too can achieve success in STEM. This combination of causal features is necessary, we claim, for a role model to be effective from the viewpoint of attribution theory. If the role model’s success is instead portrayed as being due to, say, external factors (e.g., luck) or factors beyond the student’s control (e.g., innate ability), many students may justifiably doubt that they can duplicate the role model’s success, which would, in turn, undermine their motivation. Given that the recommendation we derived from mindset theory also promotes a focus on an internal, unstable, and controllable attribute (i.e., malleable STEM ability), the two theories are largely in agreement about what makes a role model effective. Footnote 3

Interim summary

Our analysis of four theories of motivation suggested several features of a role model that should be motivating to students. Specifically, a role model’s perceived competence, their perceived similarity to the student, and the seeming attainability of their STEM career should each increase students’ own motivation to pursue STEM. We used these features to structure our systematic review of the literature on role models, assessing the level of evidence for each feature.

Student moderators: Do student characteristics moderate the effect of role models?

In keeping with the present focus on role models as a tool for diversifying STEM, our systematic review first examined students’ gender and race/ethnicity as potential moderators of role models’ effectiveness; these two dimensions are particularly relevant to efforts to diversify STEM (e.g., Leslie, Cimpian, et al., 2015 ). Several patterns of results are possible. We might find, for example, that the features identified in the preceding section make a role model equally motivating for all students, regardless of their gender and race/ethnicity. In this case, role models could still serve as a tool for making STEM more diverse since they may bring underrepresented-group students closer to the threshold where they could envision a career in these fields. Alternatively, these features might be differentially effective in motivating underrepresented- and majority-group students, in part because the experiences of these groups in STEM contexts are different as well—for instance, students from underrepresented groups feel less welcome and supported in these contexts (e.g., Boston & Cimpian, 2018 ; Cheryan et al., 2015 ; Chestnut et al., 2018 ). Of course, it is also possible that exposure to role models could backfire, among students more generally or among underrepresented-group students specifically. The latter possibility is more concerning and perhaps also more likely, since students from underrepresented groups may more often perceive STEM role models as dissimilar to themselves and pursuit of these careers as beyond their reach.

In addition to gender and race/ethnicity, we also considered student age as a moderator of role models’ effects. Since STEM-related motivational variables undergo considerable change over the course of childhood and adolescence (e.g., Weidinger et al., 2017 ), as do students’ more general achievement-related beliefs and attitudes (e.g., Butler, 2005 ; Cimpian, 2017 ), it is important to examine the effectiveness of role models across a broad age range. Such an examination can potentially answer a range of fundamental questions about role models as a motivational tool: What is the earliest age at which role models have been documented to be effective? Does their overall effectiveness vary with student age? Do role model features vary in their importance with student age? If so, which features are most motivating for students of various ages?

The final student moderator on which our systematic review focused was students’ identification with STEM. Footnote 4 Briefly, students who identify with a domain see that domain as an important part of who they are, such that their sense of self-worth is to some extent linked with their outcomes in that domain (Boaler, 2002 ; Cobb et al., 2009 ; Martin, 2000 ; Steele, 1997 ). Whether or not a student has identified with STEM may matter because students with differing levels of STEM identification tend to have different concerns in the STEM classroom (Cheryan & Plaut, 2010 ; Easterbrook & Hadden, 2021 ; Steele, 1997 ). In particular, students who have not yet identified with STEM are typically less concerned with negative stereotypes about their ability and are more concerned with belonging than students who have already identified with STEM domains (Cheryan & Plaut, 2010 ; Drury et al., 2011 ; Steele, 1997 ). As a result, students who have not identified with STEM might be more effectively motivated by role models who foster a sense of belonging (that is, of being accepted and valued by others) in STEM, whereas students who have already identified with STEM might benefit most from exposure to role models who can decrease concerns about negative stereotypes, allowing them to maintain and strengthen their identification with STEM.

Distinctive theoretical and empirical contributions of the present research

Before describing our methods and findings, we differentiate the present systematic review from two recent articles that have also sought to summarize segments of the evidence on role models: a 2018 qualitative review by Olsson and Martiny and a 2019 meta-analysis by Lawner and colleagues. How does the present work build on these previous reviews to make a distinctive contribution?

First, Olsson and Martiny ( 2018 ) and Lawner et al. ( 2019 ) did not structure their reviews to investigate which specific features of a role model explain their effects on students’ motivation. Rather, these previous reviews focused on aggregate categories such as counterstereotypical role models (Olsson & Martiny, 2018 ) or ingroup role models (Lawner et al., 2019 ), which are undoubtedly important but may also miss systematic variability in the effectiveness of a role model. Here, we unpacked these categories into specific features or dimensions that can more precisely identify the reasons why role models are effective or ineffective. For instance, an ingroup role model may be either motivating or demotivating depending on the level of competence they project and whether their success seems attainable to the students.

Second, we extended what was previously reviewed to include a broader range of students and role models. Olsson and Martiny ( 2018 ) focused their review on the effects of role model exposure on girls and women, whereas we included a broader range of students. Lawner et al. ( 2019 ) focused on ingroup role models—that is, role models who share students’ group membership—whereas we included results obtained with outgroup role models as well. The breadth along these two dimensions (students and role models) was essential considering that our guiding question is, “Which role models are effective for which students?”.

Third, we anchored our review in the education research on motivation because this research has the potential to be informative about the psychological mechanisms that underlie role models’ effects. By situating our review in the motivation literature, we sought to provide a theoretical framework that can adequately explain when role models motivate (or fail to motivate) and maximize the relevance and usefulness of our review for the education research and practice communities.

A fourth and final distinctive feature of our review is that we distilled a summary of take-aways from the role model literature for use by researchers or practitioners who wish to implement role model interventions in their local contexts. Given the enduring enthusiasm about role models as a tool for diversifying STEM, it is important to extract digestible recommendations from this unwieldy literature. Formulating such recommendations, even if they are tentative, is preferable to the current state of affairs, in which most educators are forced to rely on their intuitions about what works when introducing their students to role models.

The present systematic review

To summarize, our goal here was to provide a systematic review of the literature on role models in STEM in order to answer the key question of which role models are effective for which students. The answer to this question is likely to provide an accessible tool for diversifying STEM. Our review of this literature was organized in terms of three role model moderators (the role model’s perceived competence, their similarity to the student, and the attainability of their STEM career) and four student moderators (gender, race/ethnicity, age, and identification with STEM). We then used this review to formulate practical recommendations for maximizing the benefits of exposing diverse students to STEM role models.

The choice of a systematic review, rather than a traditional narrative review or a meta-analysis, was motivated by two considerations. First, unlike traditional narrative reviews, systematic reviews are characterized by a “methodical, replicable, and transparent approach” (Siddaway et al., 2019 , p. 749). The methodical, comprehensive nature of systematic reviews lowers the likelihood of bias in selecting and summarizing research, and their transparently reported methodology (e.g., search terms, inclusion criteria) facilitates reproducibility by enabling other researchers to verify the authors’ conclusions. Second, a meta-analysis was not feasible here because our key research goal—namely, identifying which role models are effective for which students—led us to include studies whose methodologies (in terms of research design, outcome variables, etc.) were too diverse for quantitative summarization via meta-analysis.

Our methodology in conducting this systematic review followed the most recent guidelines provided in the literature (Moher et al., 2015 ; Siddaway et al., 2019 ), as we describe next.

Search process

Multiple databases were searched to obtain relevant research studies: PsycINFO, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection (EBSCO), ERIC, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. The following search terms were used in this electronic database search: (“role model” or “role models”) AND (math* OR science OR “STEM”). These electronic databases were searched through August 13, 2019, and 1562 articles were generated from the electronic database search.

Because researchers use a variety of terms to refer to role models (e.g., Lawner et al., 2019 ), in a second step, we broadened our search to include other, related terms: (“role model” or “role models” OR ingroup mentor OR ingroup expert OR ingroup peer) AND (math* OR science OR “STEM”). Although our definition of role models explicitly differentiates them from mentors, not everyone follows this terminological distinction, so we included the term “mentor” in this broader list to identify relevant research that simply used different terminology. We found 14 additional articles through this broader search. Any of these articles that did not match our definition of a role model (e.g., because the STEM expert had a prior relationship with the students) were excluded during the screening process, as detailed below.

We additionally performed a search on Google Scholar using the two sets of search terms above to ensure we were not missing any articles that may not have come up in the other databases. We found 13 additional articles to include in the screening process through this search.

Screening process

To be included, studies had to (a) expose participants to a role model, (b) be conducted in a STEM-relevant domain (e.g., math), and (c) include STEM-specific outcome variables (e.g., performance, interest, sense of belonging). In addition, (d) the full text had to be available and in English. We did not make random assignment an inclusion criterion because this would have excluded a large number of field studies and program evaluations that did not randomly assign participants to conditions. However, following the definition of a role model articulated above, (e) we excluded any studies that examined parents, teachers, or other individuals with whom students were personally acquainted as role models.

We first screened the titles and abstracts of the articles according to these inclusion/exclusion criteria. However, due to the limited information provided in abstracts and titles, articles were excluded at this stage only if the given information was sufficient to clearly conclude that a criterion was not fulfilled (e.g., the research did not concern a STEM domain). This process narrowed down the list of potential articles to 394 records.

After eliminating duplicates ( n  = 37), a set of 357 articles were subjected to full-text screening. The first author and two trained research assistants went through these texts and determined whether they met the inclusion criteria (inter-rater agreement = 94%; disagreements were resolved via discussion). Articles were excluded because participants were not exposed to a role model ( n  = 208), because the studies were not conducted in a STEM domain ( n  = 10), because no STEM-specific student outcome was assessed ( n  = 31), because the full text was not available ( n  = 16), or because the STEM expert had a prior relationship with students ( n  = 37). After this last screening step, the first author and the research assistants agreed that 55 articles met the inclusion criteria (see Fig.  1 for screening flowchart). A complete list of the articles included is provided in Additional file 1 .

Flowchart of the steps in the screening process

Data extraction and synthesis process

For each of the moderators of interest, two research assistants (the same as those involved in inclusion/exclusion coding) and the first author examined the 55 articles in the final sample to extract relevant results. The articles relevant to a moderator were divided into those that pertained to a single level of the moderator (e.g., a high level of role model competence) vs. those that compared across levels of the moderator (e.g., high vs. low levels of role model competence). Studies that provide comparisons are more informative about the effects of a moderator and were thus privileged at the synthesis stage. The three researchers worked independently and then came together to arrive at a consensus for each moderator via discussion, in consultation with the second author. The first author then synthesized the output of this data extraction process into a narrative summary that the second author double-checked for accuracy against the original text of the articles and revised accordingly.

Additional methodological considerations

Implementing the data extraction and synthesis process above led us to omit from consideration an additional moderator that we had initially intended to examine: the type of outcome measured. Given the wide range of motivation-related outcomes measured in the literature on role models, especially relative to the somewhat modest size of this literature, it was not feasible to draw robust conclusions about the effects of specific role model features (e.g., competence) on specific outcome variables such as self-efficacy or interest. Footnote 5 Thus, we use the umbrella term “motivation” to synthesize the results of the articles in our target sample, except in cases where a more specific term was useful. Notably, we also included achievement outcomes (e.g., grades, test performance) under this umbrella. Although achievement and motivation are distinct constructs, motivational variables reliably influence achievement (e.g., Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ; Schunk & Usher, 2019 ; Yeager et al., 2019 ), so it is likely that role model features that affect motivation will also affect achievement.

In addition, we made an a priori decision not to formally assess study quality as a moderator. Although still common, the practice of scoring study quality has come under increasing scrutiny because of a general lack of agreement on which elements of a study speak to its quality (e.g., Sanderson et al., 2007 ) and—more fundamentally—on what is even meant by “quality” (e.g., Valentine & Cooper, 2005 ), as well as because of evidence that existing tools for measuring study quality are not valid (e.g., Jüni et al., 1999 ). Instead of using a formal measure of study quality, we followed Siddaway et al.’s ( 2019 ) recommendation to adopt a presentation style that includes information about the sample and methods whenever possible, which enables readers to form their own conclusions about the quality of the evidence being synthesized.

Results and discussion

We organize our synthesis of the findings into two sections. First, we discuss evidence pertinent to role model moderators—that is, features of role models that might increase vs. decrease students’ STEM motivation—focusing in particular on the three features identified through our analysis of prominent theories of motivation: role models’ competence, their similarity to the students, and the attainability of their STEM career. Second, we discuss evidence pertinent to student moderators, focusing in particular on students’ gender, race/ethnicity, age, and their identification with STEM. Table 1 summarizes the evidence described in more detail below.

Throughout, our discussion of each moderator is often limited to evidence on its “main effects” (e.g., does the perceived competence of the role model make a difference?). We acknowledge, however, that these moderators likely interact with each other in complex ways. We were occasionally able to incorporate this interactive complexity into our synthesis of the literature, especially when relating role model moderators to student moderators—an important part of answering the question of which role models are effective for which students. Nevertheless, there are many other interactive relationships among these moderators that we do not discuss because they have not yet been investigated in the literature. Thus, the present summary of the effects of role models as tools for diversifying STEM is by necessity (over)simplified.

Role model moderators

Most articles in our sample presented students with a successful, competent STEM role model—unsurprisingly, since being successful is a key reason why someone would be considered a role model. For our purposes, however, the most informative studies are those in which role models of varying competence levels are presented; without variability in this feature, we cannot assess its relationship to student motivation. The relevant studies suggest that this relationship likely has an inverted-U shape: Describing the role model as competent is likely to increase student motivation and performance—especially if other features are in place as well, such as a certain degree of similarity between the student and role model—but only up to a point. When a role model’s competence is described as exceptional, exposure to the role model can backfire and demotivate (see also Lockwood & Kunda, 1997 ).

Illustrating the positive slope of the inverted-U function, several studies suggested that exposure to an ingroup role model who is portrayed as competent (vs. of ambiguous competence) has beneficial effects on students’ motivation and performance (Buunk et al., 2007 ; Marx & Roman, 2002 ; Marx et al., 2013 ; McIntyre et al., 2005 , 2011 ), particularly when the role model’s background is also similar to students’ own backgrounds (e.g., grew up in the same place, enjoyed the same types of activities; Marx & Ko, 2012 ).

Evidence for the negative slope of the inverted-U (at more extreme levels of role model competence) is relatively sparse but suggestive. Woodcock ( 2012 ) found that exposure to female STEM role models described as “exemplary students with exceptional grades” (p. 21) decreased identification with math (measured implicitly, but not explicitly; Study 2) and math performance (Study 3) among female undergraduates compared to exposure to a role model of average competence. Similarly, Ziegler and Stoeger ( 2008 ) found that exposure to a female role model who was “extremely” competent (p. 512) decreased confidence and interest in STEM among girls with low (but not high) baseline levels of interest in STEM compared to exposure to a role model that was “discernibly untalented” (p. 509).

We caution that our claim of an inverted-U-shaped relationship between role model competence and student motivation in STEM is extrapolated from a (small) set of studies that were quite different in terms of their design, dependent variables, etc. This claim should thus be viewed as tentative until further empirical tests are performed. It is also important to keep in mind that most of the studies reviewed in this section focused on the effects of role models’ competence on ingroup students (e.g., female students exposed to a female role model). The few that also examined outgroup students (e.g., male students exposed to a female role model) suggest a different pattern of results—either no consistent effects of the outgroup role model (e.g., Ziegler & Stoeger, 2008 ; male participants in Study 1 of Marx and Roman ( 2002 )) or a reverse pattern whereby performance is facilitated at low levels of role model competence (e.g., Study 2 of Marx and Roman ( 2002 )). These results serve as a reminder that the features of a role model often act in tandem to influence student motivation, with the effects of one feature (e.g., competence) sometimes varying as a function of the values of another (e.g., similarity).

Similarity to students

We now synthesize the results pertaining to whether the STEM role model’s similarity to students is motivating. Two distinct types of similarity between role models and students emerged in our review (e.g., Eby et al., 2013 ; Hernandez et al., 2017b ). The first is demographic similarity. A role model is demographically similar to a student if the two share a social identity—most important for our purposes here, gender or race/ethnicity. The second type of similarity is psychological. A role model is psychologically similar to a student to the extent that the two share certain preferences, values, struggles, etc., regardless of whether they also share any social identities. While the two types of similarity are correlated, they also have distinct relationships with student motivation. We discuss each in turn.

Demographic similarity. Anecdotally, it is often assumed that a role model must be demographically similar to students in order to motivate them. For instance, the slogan “you can’t be what you can’t see” presupposes a match of (visible) social identities between the role model and the student. While our review is operating with a broader notion of role models, the literature nevertheless reflects this narrower view: Many articles in our sample simply matched participants and role models in their demographics—specifically, gender and/or race/ethnicity (Bamberger, 2014 ; Betz & Sekaquaptewa, 2012 ; Davis, 2001 ; Dubetz & Wilson, 2013 ; Ferreira, 2001 ; Fox, 1976 ; Gilbert, 2015 ; Goldberg & Sedlacek, 1995 ; Hammrich et al., 1999 ; Herrmann et al., 2016 ; Holmes et al., 2012 ; Johnson, 1989 ; Kant et al., 2018 ; Liu et al., 2014 ; Mbano & Nolan, 2017 ; Murray et al., 2009 ; O’Brien et al., 2017 ; Phelan et al., 2017 ; Rosenthal et al., 2013 ; Schriver et al., 1995 ; Scott, 2013 ; Swindell & Phelps, 1991 ). Most of these studies used versions of a pre- vs. post-test design to assess the effects of exposure to demographically similar role models on students’ motivation for STEM, finding a preponderance of positive results on outcomes such as confidence, interest, identity, course-taking intentions, and achievement (for exceptions, see Bamberger, 2014 ; Betz & Sekaquaptewa, 2012 ; Holmes et al., 2012 ).

However, as in the preceding section, in the absence of a comparison (demographically similar vs. dissimilar role model), it is difficult to attribute these positive effects to the similarity between the role model and the students. Thus, we next looked to the subset of studies in our sample that varied the demographic match between role models and students and that also reported the results separately for the students who matched vs. mismatched the role models’ demographics. Footnote 6

This set of studies revealed an interesting asymmetry in the breadth of role models’ positive effects depending on their demographics: When the role models belonged to groups that are underrepresented in STEM (such as women or Black people), they often had broad positive effects on students, regardless of demographic match vs. mismatch between the role model and the students (Bagès & Martinot, 2011 ; Conner & Danielson, 2016 ; Evans et al., 1995 ; Plant et al., 2009 ; Smith & Erb, 1986 ; Ziegler & Stoeger, 2008 ; for an exception, see Hoffman & Kurtz-Costes, 2019 ). For instance, Evans et al. ( 1995 ) found that exposure to female role models improved attitudes toward science among girls and (to a lesser extent) boys in a sample of 964 ninth-grade students. Conner and Danielson ( 2016 ) reported similar findings in a sample of 231 students in grades 2–6, except that some of their effects were actually stronger for boys than for girls. In a smaller number of studies, underrepresented-group STEM role models had a positive effect on ingroup students, but no effect on the outgroup (i.e., majority-group) students (McIntyre et al., 2005 ; Stout et al., 2011 )—or the models’ effects on majority-group students were not measured (Johnson et al., 2019 ; Shapiro et al., 2013 ). Notably, a “bonus feature” of underrepresented-group STEM role models is that—beyond their effects on students’ own motivation—they also seem to reduce students’ stereotypes against marginalized minorities in STEM (Plant et al., 2009 ; Smith & Erb, 1986 ).

Although STEM role models from underrepresented groups often motivate majority-group students, the converse is not true: In many of the studies that reported the relevant comparisons, majority-group STEM role models (e.g., men, White people) did not motivate students from underrepresented groups (Dennehy & Dasgupta, 2017 ; Shapiro et al., 2013 ; Stout et al., 2011 ) and were sometimes demotivating (Marx & Roman, 2002 ; Stout et al., 2011 ). Exposure to majority-group role models had broader positive effects only in a restricted range of circumstances: In particular, these broader effects emerged when the majority-group models displayed additional features or behaviors that increased their similarity and appeal to students—for instance, when they were young, attractive, and “cool” (Plant et al., 2009 ), when they were friendly toward students (e.g., nodding, smiling; Krämer et al., 2016 ), when their success was explained as a function of malleable factors such as their efforts (Bagès et al., 2016 ), or when they contradicted the stereotype of STEM professionals as “nerdy loners” (e.g., the models reported liking to play sports rather than video games; Cheryan et al., 2011 , 2013 ). We return to this issue in the section on psychological similarity.

It may be that majority-group STEM role models are less-than-effective motivators for marginalized students because they highlight the stereotypes that make this domain unwelcoming for students like them (e.g., that STEM is a masculine domain). In contrast, underrepresented-group STEM role models may not activate similar threats in majority-group students, who are generally unlikely to question their place in STEM and might therefore see the role model simply as an inspiring adult whose success they can try to emulate.

This asymmetry in the role of demographic similarity, whereby role models belonging to groups that are traditionally underrepresented in STEM are more broadly motivating (regardless of their demographic similarity to students) than majority-group models, has important practical implications: Because most classrooms consist of students with a mix of social identities and backgrounds, one might reasonably worry that exposing an entire classroom to a role model (e.g., a female scientist) might demotivate the subset of students who do not share that role model’s social identities (e.g., the boys). In light of this research, it seems that exposure to role models from underrepresented groups avoids this potential issue and is likely to result in a net motivation gain on average while also not being discouraging to any subsets of students.

Psychological similarity. Students can feel similar to a STEM role model—and thus be inspired by the role model’s success—not just because they are part of the same group but also because they perceive the role model to be “like them” at a deeper, psychological level. Our analysis of the articles in our sample revealed two distinct strategies for leveraging psychological similarity to increase the effectiveness of role models. The first strategy targets the role models, highlighting a subset of their psychological characteristics that students may be likely to identify as similar to their own. The second strategy targets the students, asking them to reflect on the role models’ characteristics and identify similarities to themselves. We discuss each of these strategies in turn. We should also note that, as before, only some of the articles included a comparison between the effects of role models in the presence vs. absence of strategies to leverage psychological similarity; we mark these articles, which are particularly informative, with an asterisk in the two subsections that follow.

Strategy targeting the role models. Our review revealed that the role model characteristics that were highlighted for students tended to fall at the intersection of two categories. First, the highlighted role model characteristics tended to be ones that most people share (e.g., a preference for spending time with close others rather than alone). Highlighting this category of broadly shared characteristics is potentially beneficial because it maximizes the probability that students will perceive the role models as similar to themselves from a psychological standpoint. Second, the role model characteristics that were highlighted for students tended to be ones that contradicted common stereotypes of scientists (e.g., the stereotype that they prefer solitude and are innately brilliant; Boston & Cimpian, 2018 ; Cheryan et al., 2015 ). Highlighting this category of characteristics is potentially beneficial because it corrects students’ mistaken assumptions about scientists, portraying scientists as more psychologically similar to the “average person” than students might have otherwise assumed them to be.

Specifically, the studies in our sample highlighted two role model characteristics that fell at the intersection of these categories, both of which had positive effects on student motivation: (1) STEM role models’ preference to be around and help other people (Cheryan et al., 2011 *,  2013 *; Marx & Ko, 2012 *; Plant et al., 2009 ; Tan-Wilson & Stamp, 2015 ), a preference that is common in the general population and stereotypically assumed to be rare among scientists, and (2) STEM role models’ history of working hard and persisting in the face of failure (Bagès & Martinot, 2011 *; Bagès et al., 2016 *; Hernandez et al., 2017a ; Herrmann et al., 2016 ; Hong & Lin-Siegler, 2012 *; Lin-Siegler et al., 2016 *; Shin et al., 2016 ), which—again—is common in students’ lives and stereotypically assumed to be rare in scientists’ lives (given their supposed brilliance).

A couple of caveats are in order here. First, Lawner ( 2014 *) is an exception to the pattern that psychological similarity to a role model boosts STEM motivation; Lawner’s experimental studies found no effect of messages that STEM role models work with and help others. Second, some of these studies included other cues that could have increased role models’ psychological similarity to the students, beyond their other-oriented preferences and the hard work they put in to succeed. These cues included hobbies and other leisure preferences (e.g., reading Rolling Stone magazine rather than Electronic Gaming Monthly ; Cheryan et al., 2011 *, 2013 *) and aspects of the role models’ personal histories intended to match the students’ own (e.g., growing up in the same region; Marx & Ko, 2012 *). Thus, while we are confident in the conclusion that psychological similarity is a reliable moderator of role models’ effects, the specific (combinations of) features that are sufficient to induce this sense of similarity is a matter that deserves further investigation.

Strategy targeting the students. The goal of increasing the perceived psychological similarity between role models and students can be achieved not only by highlighting select characteristics of the role model (as described in the preceding section) but also by prompting the students to reflect on the ways in which they are similar to the role models. Indeed, the experimental studies that adopted versions of this strategy generally found positive effects on students’ STEM attitudes (Gilbert, 2015 ; O’Brien et al., 2017 *; Van Camp et al., 2019 *; for an exception, see Hoffman & Kurtz-Costes, 2019 ). Arguably, role model- and student-focused strategies could be combined as well, which might further enhance their effectiveness in promoting STEM motivation.

Attainable success

Is perceiving a role model’s success as attainable (i.e., within reach) motivating for students? Because the features that determine a role model’s motivational effects are interrelated, several patterns of results described in previous sections are relevant to understanding the role of attainability as well. First, the inverted-U-shaped relationship between a role model’s competence and their ability to motivate students is relevant here because extreme levels of competence are also less attainable. Second, the findings concerning the importance of the perceived similarity (demographic and psychological) between role models and students are relevant here because the career of a role model who seems similar to the self may thereby also appear more attainable. Thus, these two sets of findings can be reasonably interpreted as providing evidence for the claim that the attainability of a role model’s success is positively related to student motivation.

A distinct dimension of attainability identified in our review pertains to role models’ ability to fill in informational gaps about the wide range of STEM careers that exist, the specific responsibilities that come with such jobs, and the concrete steps that a student might take to pursue them. Studies in which role models provided such information, thus making the possibility of a STEM career less hazy and more attainable, seemed to generally benefit students’ motivation to pursue STEM (Hughes et al., 2013 ; Johnson, 1989 ; Kant et al., 2018 ; Mbano & Nolan, 2017 ; Mills & Katzman, 2015 ; Newbill, 2005 ; Phelan et al., 2017 ; Wyss et al., 2012 ).

Finally, we also note that, in the articles in our sample, every instance in which exposure to a role model backfired—lowering STEM motivation (vs. increasing it or having no effect)—was linked in some way to the perceived unattainability of the role model’s career. There are many reasons why role models’ success can appear to students to be too difficult to match. In addition to the examples already discussed that involved extreme competence (Woodcock, 2012 ; Ziegler & Stoeger, 2008 ), Bamberger ( 2014 ) reported that their sample of Israeli ninth-grade girls were “frightened” (p. 557) by their interactions with female scientists and engineers from a nearby technology company, perhaps in part because the role models used complex scientific concepts that the students were unfamiliar with or because they described some of the challenges involved in working in a male-dominated environment (which may have made their jobs seem undesirable in addition to unattainable). In contrast, the backfire effect reported by Betz and Sekaquaptewa ( 2012 ) in their sample of US middle-school girls had a different source: Female STEM role models were demotivating when they also displayed stereotypically feminine features (e.g., wearing pink clothes and makeup). Footnote 7 The success of a feminine-presenting woman in a domain that is both male-dominated and (stereotypically) unfeminine may have seemed too difficult to emulate. Considering the elevated risk that accompanies this role model moderator, it seems important to carefully calibrate the extent to which a role model’s success will appear attainable to students in any future interventions, regardless of scale.

Student moderators

We now discuss whether role models’ effectiveness varies as a function of four student characteristics. We first focus on students’ (1) gender and (2) racial/ethnic background as potential moderators of role models’ effects, in part because these demographic dimensions are particularly relevant to the goal of making STEM more diverse. Next, we address the question of whether role models may be differentially effective for (3) students of different ages and for (4) students who have vs. have not identified with STEM as a domain.

Gender and race/ethnicity

Our ability to assess the moderating effects of student gender and race/ethnicity was constrained by the fact that 69% of studies in our sample included as participants only members of groups that are underrepresented in STEM—in particular, most of these studies included only girls or women, and the rest included only Black and/or Latinx students. Although this is a reasonable design decision considering that a key goal of this literature is to understand how to increase the representation of these groups in STEM, it does make it more difficult to discern whether, and in what ways, role models are differentially effective depending on students’ demographics.

Even so, aggregating across the subset of papers that reported separate results by gender and race/ethnicity, an important conclusion emerges—the flip side of the earlier conclusion about the breadth of role models’ effects as a function of their demographics: The range of role models that are motivating for students from groups that are underrepresented in STEM is narrower than that for majority-group students, and the probability of backfire effects is also greater among underrepresented-group students.

This difference can be seen most clearly when examining the effects of outgroup role models. While outgroup role models are usually motivating for majority-group students (e.g., Bagès & Martinot, 2011 ; Conner & Danielson, 2016 ), their effects on underrepresented-group students are much more mixed (Johnson et al., 2019 ; Marx & Roman, 2002 ; Shapiro et al., 2013 ; Stout et al., 2011 ). This is not to say that outgroup models cannot motivate students from underrepresented groups—the bar is simply higher, in that outgroup role models need to display some additional features that increase their relatability (e.g., Bagès et al., 2016 ; Cheryan et al., 2011 , 2013 ; Krämer et al., 2016 ). We also are not claiming that ingroup role models are always motivating for students from underrepresented groups. In fact, in the preceding section, we discussed several striking instances where exposure to female role models demotivated girls (e.g., Bamberger, 2014 ; Betz & Sekaquaptewa, 2012 ; see also Hoffman & Kurtz-Costes, 2019 ). Note, however, that no studies in our sample reported that exposure to an ingroup model demotivated majority-group students. Footnote 8 Thus, these additional datapoints are consistent with the claim that the set of circumstances under which role models are motivating for underrepresented-group students is smaller (and, conversely, that the set of circumstances under which role models are demotivating for these students is larger). This pattern of findings is not unexpected considering the reality of belonging to a group that is underrepresented and stigmatized in STEM contexts: For these students, the range of day-to-day STEM environments where they feel psychologically “safe” is narrower (e.g., Schmader & Hall, 2014 ), and the findings of our systematic review likely reflect this simple but powerful fact.

Among the studies in our sample, 9% focused on elementary school students, 25% focused on middle school students, 24% focused on high school students, and 42% focused on college students. Thus, the literature is skewed toward older students, and studies on elementary school students are relatively rare.

There was no noticeable difference in the extent to which role models were effective as a function of student age. Role models were as likely to motivate elementary school students as they were to motivate undergraduates. This conclusion is consistent with prior findings, in that Lawner and colleagues’ ( 2019 ) meta-analysis did not find evidence of moderation by student age either.

However, the conclusion that age is not a moderator of role models’ effects is also qualified by several limitations of the evidence. Most critically, almost all studies included only a narrow age range and thus could not compare the effectiveness of role models for students of different ages. Only two studies reported age/grade comparisons (Conner & Danielson, 2016 ; Wyss et al., 2012 ), and neither found age differences. Although these two null effects are consistent with our overall conclusion of no moderation by age, the possibility remains that this conclusion is confounded by methodological differences between studies with younger vs. older students. For example, as many as 80% of the studies with elementary school students exposed students to the role models “live” (i.e., in person), whereas only 25% of the studies with college students did so. In addition, more of the studies with younger children were broader interventions to boost STEM motivation that included elements other than role models (e.g., hands-on activities). In contrast, more of the studies on college studies were lab-based experiments that manipulated only aspects of students’ exposure to role models. It is also noteworthy that role models were generally closer in age (i.e., more demographically similar) to the participants in studies with college students (which always used other adults as role models) than in studies with younger students (which also used mostly adults as role models).

In summary, the data provided qualified support for the conclusion that student age does not moderate the effectiveness of STEM role models as motivational tools. However, our review also revealed gaps in the evidence needed to establish this conclusion with a high degree of confidence. In particular, more work is needed that conducts closely matched, within-study comparisons of the effects of role models on students of different ages.

Identification with STEM

As a reminder, the rationale for looking at identification with STEM as a moderator of the effects of role models is that students with differing levels of identification with STEM have different concerns in the classroom and may therefore be looking to role models to fulfill different psychological needs. According to prominent arguments (e.g., Drury et al., 2011 ), a salient question for students who are not (yet) identified with STEM is whether they fit in with people in this field (e.g., Bian et al., 2018 ; Cheryan & Plaut, 2010 ). As a result, role models should be able to boost motivation to pursue STEM among these students to the extent that they lead students to anticipate fitting in and belonging. In principle, a broad range of role models should be able to convey this sense of belonging in STEM, not just ones that are demographically similar to the students (i.e., from the same social group) but also ones that are only similar at a psychological level, in the sense of sharing students’ own goals, preferences, values, etc. In contrast, once a student has identified with STEM and decided to pursue a career in this domain, the question that rises to the fore is whether they will be able to succeed. For students from groups that are underrepresented in STEM, the negative stereotypes that target their groups are a particular source of concern, so these students may derive unique benefits from exposure to demographically similar role models, who have succeeded in spite of these stereotypes. To summarize, this argument predicts that a general sense of similarity to people in STEM, regardless of whether this similarity is demographic or psychological, might be sufficient to attract students to STEM in the first place, whereas at subsequent stages, demographic similarity to successful role models might take on particular importance—especially for students from underrepresented groups, who have to contend with negative perceptions about their groups.

A direct test of this argument would involve exposing students who are high vs. low in STEM identification to role models who are high vs. low in demographic similarity to the students and, orthogonally, high vs. low in psychological similarity to the students. As far as we know, this study has not been conducted—at the very least, it was not in our analytic sample. However, some of the studies examined here provide partial support for this prediction. For instance, several studies on non-STEM-identified students suggested that, for these students, psychological similarity to a role model was at least as motivating as demographic similarity (Bagès & Martinot, 2011 ; Bagès et al., 2016 ; Cheryan et al., 2011 , 2013 ; Hong & Lin-Siegler, 2012 ), consistent with the argument that providing a general sense of fitting in is often sufficient at the recruitment stage. Also consistent with this argument, studies that focused on STEM-identified students highlighted the benefits of exposure to demographically similar role models (Marx & Roman, 2002 ; Stout et al., 2011 ).

On the other hand, we did not find any evidence that demographic similarity is particularly important for STEM-identified students, largely because the relevant comparisons were absent in our sample (and likely in the literature more generally). Somewhat relevant, one study that included STEM-identified students suggested that psychological similarity continues to be beneficial, above and beyond demographic similarity, even at this later stage (Marx & Ko, 2012 ). However, in this study, students’ STEM identification was analyzed as a covariate rather than a moderator, so the finding reported technically pertains to students with average (rather than high) levels of STEM identification. The take-away here is that, despite a few promising hints, much more research is needed before we can confidently describe how students’ identification with STEM moderates the effects of exposure to role models.

How do we maximize the motivating effects of STEM role models? Four tentative recommendations

Based on our synthesis of the evidence (see Table 1 for a summary), we formulated a set of concrete recommendations that the education research and practice community can consider when exposing students from diverse backgrounds to role models as a means of boosting their STEM motivation. Certainly, the evidence base for these recommendations could be stronger; as we have pointed out throughout, many questions still await systematic investigation. However, given that the enthusiasm for role model interventions among educators and the general public continues to run ahead of the research, the benefits of formulating a set of recommendations on the evidence so far, limited as it is, outweigh the potential drawbacks. To enable readers to share these recommendations with others, we have created an infographic (see Fig.  2 ) that we have also made available in several high-resolution formats via Figshare: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.5681674.v1 .

Four recommendations to consider when exposing students to role models as a means of boosting their STEM motivation. High-resolution versions of this infographic in .eps, .jpg, .pdf, and .png formats are freely available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.5681674.v1

First, we recommend that role models are portrayed as being competent and successful. The preponderance of the evidence reviewed suggested that these features are motivating in a role model. However, portraying extreme levels of role model competence or success can backfire, demotivating students. Although it may be tempting to make the role model seem like a super(wo)man in terms of what they have achieved, more is not always better in this respect because students may conclude “I could never do all that” and look elsewhere for a career.

Second, we recommend that role models are portrayed as being meaningfully similar to the students. Although the fact that a role model belongs to the same social group as they do may in and of itself be motivating to some students, the role model’s motivational effects can be broadened by highlighting other ways in which the role model is similar to students (e.g., the model worked hard for their success rather than being effortlessly brilliant; the model likes to do “regular person” things in their spare time). Asking students to reflect on similarities to the role model might help as well.

Third, we recommend prioritizing exposure to role models who belong to groups that are traditionally underrepresented in STEM, especially in cases where only a small number of role models can be presented. Role models from underrepresented groups are likely to have the broadest positive effects on students, regardless of students’ own social identities. To avoid imposing an additional burden on scientists from underrepresented groups, they could be introduced to students via videos or printed materials (rather than live) because these materials can be presented to large numbers of students without any additional effort on the role model’s part and are at least as effective as live interactions (Lawner et al., 2019 ).

Fourth, we recommend that role models’ success is portrayed as attainable. To the fullest extent possible, information should accompany the exposure to the role model that makes it clear how the students could also achieve what the role model has achieved. Perhaps the greatest risk of demotivating students arises when a role model’s career success seems unattainable to students.

Limitations and future directions

The conclusions of the present systematic review are somewhat tentative, in part because the evidential base is still limited. This literature may also suffer from publication bias. For example, Lawner and colleagues’ ( 2019 ) meta-analysis found that lab studies from this literature that had small sample sizes produced larger effects than expected, suggesting a file-drawer problem. In addition, we caution that some of the studies in our target sample (especially those conducted outside the lab) included enrichment activities beyond exposure to role models. Discerning the separate benefits of role models vs. these other activities is impossible when interpreting the results of these studies.

Another limitation of the present systematic review is that we considered motivation- and achievement-related outcomes together rather than separately. The decision to do so was motivated both by practical considerations—the sparsity of the research on each moderator meant that we could not feasibly analyze the data separately by outcome—and by theoretical considerations, insofar as motivation is a causal antecedent of achievement (e.g., Eccles & Wigfield, 2020 ; Schunk & Usher, 2019 ; Yeager et al., 2019 ). In addition, Lawner and colleagues’ ( 2019 ) meta-analysis found that interest (a motivational variable) and performance were affected to similar degrees by exposure to role models, which suggests that combining these outcomes is defensible. However, motivation is not the only antecedent of achievement, so it is possible that certain role model or student moderators affect motivation and performance differently. Future research on this topic would be valuable.

Relatively few of the studies we identified through our search focused on students from racial/ethnic minority groups that are underrepresented in STEM. None focused on students with disabilities or on students who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer (LGBTQ), groups that are also underrepresented in STEM careers (e.g., Freeman, 2018 ; National Science Foundation, 2017 ). Broadening the scope of research in this literature to include overlooked social identities would be beneficial. Greater attention to the question of effective role models for students who embody multiple identities that are underrepresented in STEM is needed as well. Only one of the 55 articles in our sample focused on this important issue (Johnson et al., 2019 ).

At a more conceptual level, we caution that focusing on role models as a solution for increasing diversity in STEM risks sending the message that diversifying STEM is simply a matter of motivating students to pursue it. The problem with this message is that it overlooks the systemic biases present in STEM contexts (e.g., racism, sexism, heterosexism, ableism), which make it difficult for some students to succeed regardless of how motivated or capable they are. Although it may be intuitively appealing and cost-effective to intervene by exposing students to role models, this strategy can only succeed if it is part of a broader set of measures to make STEM more welcoming to all students who might choose it as a career path.

The idea of inspiring students—particularly female and racial/ethnic minority students—to pursue STEM by exposing them to role models is ever popular. Here, we systematically reviewed the literature on this topic to identify strategies for maximizing the motivational impact of role models: Which role models are effective for which students? Our findings, which we distilled into four simple take-aways, provide a bird’s-eye view of the literature for researchers and a practical guide for any educators and policymakers who might want to implement role-model interventions in their local contexts. Our review also identified open questions about why and for whom role models are motivating, questions that we hope will guide future research on this topic.

Availability of data and materials

This is a systematic review of prior literature. All articles we reviewed here are either openly available via Google Scholar or accessible through a library subscription. A complete list of the papers included in the systematic review is provided in the supplementary online materials. The infographic summarizing our recommendations for maximizing the effectiveness of role models in STEM (see Fig.  2 ) is available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.5681674.v1 .

What matters for student motivation is not whether a role model objectively possesses a certain feature such as competence but rather whether students subjectively perceive the model to possess that feature. Thus, our use of the term “role model features” in this section (and throughout the paper) is intended to stand in for “perceived role model features.”.

This argument pertains to attainment and utility value most directly (Eccles and Wigfield, 2020 ). The term “attainment value” refers to perceived importance of an activity that is somehow tied to a student’s sense of self and to their identity (e.g., a student who has identified with STEM is likely to place high attainment value on this domain). “Utility value” refers to the perceived usefulness of a particular activity for a student’s goals, regardless of whether these goals reflect the student’s deeper self/identity (e.g., a student who wants a job in STEM because STEM careers are lucrative is likely to place high utility value on taking advanced math courses).

However, mindset theorists and attributional theorists disagree in how they conceptualize ability per se (e.g., Graham, 2020 ): Attributional theorists typically view ability as stable and uncontrollable (akin to aptitude), whereas mindset theory is premised on the existence of multiple perspectives on ability (as stable and uncontrollable [fixed mindset] vs. unstable and controllable [growth mindset]).

This variable is correlated with age: Students who have identified with STEM are likely to be older on average than students who have not. However, STEM identification is also meaningfully distinct from age, not just statistically (in that one can find STEM-identified and non-STEM-identified students in any age group) but also conceptually (in that STEM identification is a psychological, attitudinal variable, whereas age is a demographic one).

We also note that previous attempts to draw such distinctions between outcomes did not find that outcomes were differentially sensitive to role model exposure (Lawner et al., 2019 ).

Of course, students can match the role model’s demographics on one dimension (e.g., gender) and mismatch them on another dimension (e.g., race). With a single exception (Johnson et al., 2019 ), no studies in our sample explicitly examined the effects of a match vs. mismatch along multiple social identities. Johnson and colleagues found that Black women students who were exposed to a Black woman or a Black man as a role model had greater feelings of belonging in STEM compared to Black women students who saw either a White woman or White man as a role model; there was no difference between the two White role models. In this instance, it appears that a demographic match along the race/ethnicity dimension mattered more for Black women students’ motivation than a match along the gender dimension. We return to the issue of how few studies examine multiple social identities in the later section on limitations.

This effect was only present among girls who did not identify with STEM.

It is important to keep in mind, however, that fewer studies included majority-group students in the first place.

Abbreviations

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

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Acknowledgements

We thank Tanner LeBaron Wallace, Shanette Porter, Allan Wigfield, the other Inclusive Mathematics Environments Fellows, and the members of the Cognitive Development Lab at New York University for insightful feedback on this work. We also thank Gabrielle Applebaum and Theodora Simons for their assistance with screening the manuscripts and synthesizing the evidence.

This work was supported by an Inclusive Mathematics Environments Early Career Fellowship from the Mindset Scholars Network, with the support of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, to JRG. The funder played no part in the design of the study and collection, analysis, and interpretation of data.

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Gladstone, J.R., Cimpian, A. Which role models are effective for which students? A systematic review and four recommendations for maximizing the effectiveness of role models in STEM. IJ STEM Ed 8 , 59 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-021-00315-x

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Teacher Role Models: How to Help Students Who Need It Most

Being a teacher is the best job in the world but also very difficult. Each day brings new challenges, and each year brings new students. Getting to be a role model for these students has always been something I don’t take lightly.

I teach at a district where students don’t always have the best role models at home, and the eight hours they spend with me each day means so much. Teaching students how to treat others and how to react in situations and conflict is something I try and do each and every day.

There will always be students who don’t like school, and the last thing they want to do is sit there and learn. It is our job as educators to show them that learning is fun, and it can take you to amazing places in your future. Showing students how important education is can be hard when they don’t have those role models in their lives outside of school.

Lastly, as an educator I try and teach my students to be leaders.

Being a Role Model for Students in Need

While teachers are role models for all their students, it can be most important for those who have a rough home life. For the past two years, I’ve worked in districts that have 100% of students on free and reduced breakfast and lunch. A lot of them live in a small, run-down apartment or house with more than five children. Some live with grandparents or spend most of their time with them because their parents are working or not capable of caring for them.

One way to start the year off right and make students feel safe and comfortable in your classroom is to make it feel like a home. Show the students you put time into making your classroom for them! When I set my classroom up each August, I like to make it as homey and inviting as possible. This year, I went with a farmhouse and light blue theme, probably my favorite yet.

I love turning corners of my room into places where students can cuddle up on a beanbag chair with a good book. I want students to know how much I care about their learning environment when they walk in my classroom. Students notice the time you put in, and it helps you start to build that relationship with them from the first day of school.

The next step to building that relationship is to make each student feel like an important part of your class. Getting to know what they like, what sports they play, how many siblings they have, their hobbies and more. There are two easy things I would suggest to any teacher to really connect with their students. The first is I like to show my students I want to know more about them by inviting them to eat lunch with me in the room. I’ll pick two students who are friends and bring them up to the room. They love it. It gives them time to talk your ear off for 30 minutes without being interrupted by anyone or anything else. If you like your lunch quiet to work, then you can use this same concept but instead keep two helpers back during specials. They love to help in the room, and you can chat while doing it.

The second thing is show up to their events. If they play football, go to their games. If they sing in the school choir, go to the concert. If they are in a play, go watch the performance. The look on their face when they see you after will make it worth the time it takes up on your Saturday morning. Whenever I go to my students’ events, it is always the first thing they want to share with the class the next day during circle time. Even the kids who act too cool to say hi after their games will come up to you and say, “Miss Curtis, remember when you came to my football game?” during the last week of school. This shows them that you care about their lives outside of learning in your classroom.

Being a Role Model in Education

One day in class, I asked my students to raise their hand if their parents went to college. Most of them didn’t even know. Being a role model for students can mean many things, and talking about the importance of education is something you can do the first day of school.

Something as simple as hanging a flag of the college you attended by your desk can start the conversation very easily. Students always want to know more about college because, for most of them, it isn’t something talked about at home. I like to share stories about the classes I took in college to become a teacher or the fun things, like making new friends and going to sporting events, to get them thinking about college.

Grow Your Teaching Skills and Career

The fully online teaching degrees at CU cover a wide variety of topics, from associate level to master’s and certificates. As a student in these programs, you’ll learn to become a role model from leaders in the field.

I don’t just try to be a role model for my students; I also like to give students good examples of role models in other career options. It is easy to take a topic you are doing and change it into a career. One I use each year is construction. I decorate the room with construction signs and cones, and I have a friend who is a project manager come in and talk to the students about how he uses math in his architecture drawings every day. The students are always so interested when you bring other people in to talk about what they do.

Another easy theme is a restaurant. You can introduce students to all the different career options such as a chef, a manager or talk about opening your own business. When you do this with older students, you can do things like market day and have students create their own service or product to sell. The more options we talk about for their future, the more students are going to see themselves in one of those positions.

Teaching Students to be Leaders

Building a classroom community can be tough, but it challenges students to be a leader, a team player, patient with others and so much more. One thing I wish I learned more about in my undergrad classes was how to teach students to take ownership of their learning.

To work on that, every day I do a morning circle. Students are asked a question of the day and are able to share. Sometimes, I do a simple getting-to-know-you question, but sometimes, it’s more difficult, such as, “What does it mean to respect others?”

Showing each student that their opinion matters helps them come out of their shell and feel more comfortable sharing. In my classroom, we also do project-based learning where students are work in groups. This is one of my favorite ways to see who steps up to lead.

Group work is not easy for students; it’s always where the most conflict occurs. Students need it to be modeled before they jump in. Teaching students to listen to each other and try ideas that are different from their own is something I try to do often. Giving students roles in group work has been a game changer.

For example, someone is the project manager, and they make sure everyone in the group is doing their job and being heard. Someone is the recorder, and they write down everything that happens for the project. Someone gets to be the person who asks the teacher any questions, which is a huge help so you aren’t having a stampede of questions. Depending on the project, you could implement many more jobs.

Become a Role Model for Students

I have a quote by Nicholas A. Ferroni hanging on the bulletin board by my desk that says, “Students who are loved at home come to school to learn. Students who aren’t loved at home come to school to be loved.”

I keep this quote in mind daily. One of my favorite educators, Kim Bearden, talks about how there is always something going on with our students that we don’t know about. If we as teachers can show them we are here for them and listen to them, it will be one of the greatest examples of a role model they get to see.

I try to come to work every day expecting that it won’t be perfect but that I’ll grow through all the challenges. I try to remember there are always 40 little eyes watching me, and they’ll remember the role I play in their education.

The question is, what are they going to say they remember about you?

Our goal as teachers should always be to empower and inspire our students, and that’s exactly what Campbellsville University believes. Their online teaching degrees cover a wide variety of topics, from associate level to master’s and certificates. As a student in these programs, you’ll learn to become a role model from leaders in the field. The fully online programs were developed by practicing teachers, counselors and principals, ensuring that you receive the best possible education in the field.

This blog post was written by guest contributor Courtney Curtis of Miss Curtis Classroom. Courtney is a third-grade math and science teacher in Cincinnati, Ohio. You can follow her on her on Instagram @misscurtisclassroom .

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The potential of role-model education

The potential of role-model education. in this article daniel rose examines the role and potential of the educator as a role-model within both formal and informal education..

contents: introduction · the influence of the role model on moral identity · role model education and informal education · role-model education as a basis for mentoring · a  critique of role-model education · conclusion · bibliography · how to cite this article

No printed word, nor spoken plea can teach young minds what they should be. Not all the books on all the shelves – but what the teachers are themselves. Rudyard Kipling

What exactly is role-model education? I can think of no clearer way of explaining this most effective of all educational tools than     Kipling’s words (above). Children, especially during adolescence – their most vulnerable and impressionable age – are in need of role models, and take them from all areas that are close at hand, whether mass media, parents and family, or their teachers.

Role model education is not concerned with the imparting of knowledge and information, as one might expect from an educational context. Rather, its aim is to expose its target groups to specific attitudes, lifestyles and outlooks, and, in particular, to individuals in which these attitudes and lifestyles are embodied. This educational tool is stressed in informal education settings such as youth movements, where the sometimes charismatic educational youth leader embodies the values that he or she is espousing, and therefore provides a frame of reference for the children. Aliah Schleifer provides us with an example of this from the Muslim home. He asserts that the mother has an incredibly important role to play in the education of her child, simply because she embodies the values that he or she is learning about. He or she now has a chance to experience the ideals that he or she learns about in school. For instance “the child “begins to learn the importance of cleanliness when he sees that she makes wudu before prayer” (Schleifer 1988: 36).

Not only is there no reason for teachers not to utilise these ideas, but rather the teacher has a responsibility to use them, and to be wary of the power behind this concept. Children of this age are incredibly perceptive, and will automatically see through a teacher who tries to convince them of something they are not convinced of themselves. (I have seen this at first hand, in a school with a strong ethos that not all the teachers embody in their personal lives, such as a religious denominational school, where non-practising teachers are forced to lead or facilitate prayer services.)

Role model education can be seen as effective because it bridges the gap between the ideal and reality. Education becomes experiential , as students learn a little about their teachers’ lives, and how they embody the values they are trying to pass on and explore. The gap between theory and practice is bridged, as ideological concepts become realities before the eyes of the students. Once they have truly understood an idea because they have seen it at first hand through teacher’s expression of it in the way they conduct themselves, they are only then in a true position to judge its validity to their life, and then make the relevant lifestyle decision.

The influence of the role model on moral identity

Anton A. Bucher asserts that “Models are one of the most important pedagogical agents in the history of education”. He continues; “ Plato mentioned their impact in forming moral consciousness. He warned against bad models, especially gods and heroes in Homer’s epic poems. Young people would imitate their immoral behaviour and adopt their immoral values and attitudes” (Bucher 1997: 620). He goes on to suggest that over the centuries educators have been sensitive to the need for good role models in order to shape desirable moral attitudes in young people, and cites Jesus as the ultimate and most widespread role model from ancient times, through the middle ages, until modern times.

To support his theories of role models and the effect that they had on youth, Bucher collected data from 1150 pupils between the ages of 10 and 18 from Austria and Germany, 53% girls, pupils in each country attending different schools. The data on preferred models was collected in the form of a questionnaire. This included both an open-ended question (What persons are your personal models? Why?), as well as a list of 40 persons (musicians, movie stars, sports figures, intellectuals, politicians, religious persons, as well as persons of social nearness such as parents and siblings). The participants were asked to rate each personality on a scale of 1 (“no model whatever”) to 4 (“a very important model for me”). The results from both types of questions contained in the questionnaire were clear. Those personalities of social nearness to the participants had the greatest “model effect” for them. Mothers, fathers, and relatives were mentioned with the greatest frequency. After that came religious models, and only then mass media personalities such as movie and television stars, and sports figures.

These results were surprising for many people working in pedagogical fields, who had assumed that well-known stars and not parents would be those influencing our youth. In his analysis of these results, Bucher ( ibid 625) refers to Mitscherlich who explains that it is “a psychoanalytic commonplace that identification with first referenced persons is more imprinting (also with respect to the moral values and attitudes) than the identification with the heroes of TV and other mass media”. For us, as educators, this enlightens us tremendously as to our capacity to influence our students. Educators can be considered to have near to the same status of social nearness to the children as their own parents. Children, when faced with worthy models at this proximity, will latch on to them and their ideals, and fully consider them as role models.

We can also learn from the mass media models that these children did choose after their models from social nearness. Models included super heroes and film stars that played the role of the “good guy” fighting evil. Bucher (ibid: 624) suggests “these answers demonstrate the distinct manner by which the identity of children and adolescents can be influenced by models, also their moral identity. Several children remembered models who were well suited to their moral universe, characterised by a strong distinction between good and evil.”  This surely suggests a thirst within adolescents for a strong positive role model to inspire them in the ways that they know are moral and right. We must conclude that this places the teacher and informal educator in an ideal position to fulfil this role.

This is strongly reflected in the Muslim approach to teachers and their role, as presented in Hasan Langgulung’s essay entitled “Teacher’s Role and Some Aspects of Teaching Methodology: Islamic Approach” . Langgulung suggests that “the position of the teacher as protagonist in the domain of moral values is not limited to direct teacher-pupil interaction in the classroom. The teacher who never marks written exercises or wears indecent type of dress is characterising the notions of duty and responsibility in certain ways. The teacher who openly shows disrespect to some colleagues or the principal is sending across messages unawares about authority and the notions of respect of human beings…we always behave as a good model to the students in conduct and character, because it is part of our obligation and everyone expects us to do so and we have come to expect this of ourselves. It is part of our role of being a teacher.”

Role model education and informal education

In defining informal Jewish education , Barry Chazan identifies eight formal attributes that characterise informal Jewish education. His second attribute is the Centrality of Experience. He says “The notion of experience in education derives from the idea that participating in an event or a moment through the senses and the body enables one to understand a concept, fact or belief in a direct and unmediated way… The focus on experience results in a pedagogy that attempts to create settings which enable values to be experienced personally and events to be experienced in real time and in genuine venues, rather than their being described to the learner. Over the years this notion of experiencing has become closely identified with “experiential education,” often seen as the “calling card” of informal education.”

His eighth attribute of informal Jewish education is the holistic educator . “The informal Jewish educator is a total educational personality who educates by words, deeds, and by shaping a culture of Jewish values and experiences…the informal Jewish educator needs to be an educated and committed Jew. This educator must be knowledgeable since one of the values he/she comes to teach is talmud torah— Jewish knowledge. He/she must be committed to these values since teaching commitment to the Jewish people, to Jewish life, and Jewish values is at the heart of the enterprise. Commitment can only be learned if one sees examples of it up close”.

According to Chazan, central to informal education is experience. It is the job of the holistic educator to provide these experiential educational experiences, and one of the ways that s/he does this is through the educators very essence, personality and lifestyle, which is all on offer to the participant to interact with and be inspired by. At the core of informal education is role-model education, and the most natural educational context that provides the ideal forum for role-model education is of course informal education. These two educational concepts go hand in hand and go some way to explain the success that informal education achieves in its stated goals. In their discussion of informal education, Jeffs and Smith (1999: 82-5) have also stressed these elements – and the significance of attention to the moral authority of informal educators.

Role-model education as a basis for mentoring

The concept of mentoring as a tool in the development of young people is becoming more and more popular and commonplace. Mentoring is classically defined as a young person is inducted into the world of adulthood with the help of a voluntarily accepted older more experienced guide, who can help ease the young person through that transition via a mixture of support and challenge (Hamilton, 1991; Freedman, 1995). I would argue that fundamental to this process is the younger person learning not just from the experiences of the older person, but also learning and being inspired by the older person his/herself. The intimacy and dynamic caused by the interaction of two persons giving the mutual respect necessary in the context of mentoring, will more often than not lead to the younger person relating not just to the information and experiences transmitted by the older person, but the actual essence of the older person, and this can be a potent ingredient for the development of the younger person.

Interestingly, Kate Philip suggests that there are many different styles of natural mentoring models in operation besides the classic one as defined. These include peer mentoring, unofficial adults, friend to friend and group or team mentoring (Hendry and Philip 1996) (see Philip on mentoring and young people and Jean Rhodes (2001) on mentoring programmes in the US). It is possible to suggest from these observations, that role models are not just those in positions of authority or increased age/experience. Young people can choose their role models from any and every context including their peers. This is clearly seen in peer-led informal educational contexts such as peer-led youth clubs and movements , and can and should impact on our policy when facilitating these institutions.

A critique of role-model education

Although we have seen the efficacy of such an approach to values and moral education, there are problems that may be encountered, both on a practical level for the teachers who have this responsibility as role models, as well as on a theoretical level.

As has been stated, children can be most perceptive, sometimes far more than adults, and will see through the lack of integrity of any educator. This places a tremendous pressure on an educator to live up to the values and ethos of their school, subject, or educational message. If a particular educator does not live up to this, their power as a role model is largely diminished. Rejection of the entire message and package is also risked, if children see even the slightest inconstancies in the role model. This may also have the effect of discouraging prospective educators from entering the profession. Educators must also be vigilant in their personal lives to some extent, to ensure it is not publicly at variance with their educational message. Is this after-hours pressure that few other jobs involve, fair on the educator?

Further to this question, is a more difficult one. Does a school or educational organisation have the right not to employ a teacher because their personal life does not coincide with the ethos of the institution? For example, the tension an institution such as a denominational school experiences when considering the employment of either a teacher from a different faith, or from the same faith but with lesser degree of religious practice in their personal life.

The very practical issue of informality is a problematic one when considering role model education within formal schooling. For a student to link in to the personality and way of life of the teacher, the teacher must to some extent lower some barriers in order to let the child catch a glimpse of what he or she is about. This may lead to obvious dangers such as feelings and emotions towards the teacher and compromise the teacher’s desire for distance to forestall problems of over-familiarity. Role model education thrives on informality – and this is not always possible or appropriate in a classroom context – although with the right balance, can and will be effective even with this formal teacher-student relationship. However, as mentioned earlier, this is one of the very strengths of informal education, with role-model education central to its efficacy.

It can be challenged that role model education will stand in the way of true impartiality. It is arguably the goal of every teacher or educator to explore an impartial curriculum, presenting divergent opinions, providing students with the skills to make decisions for themselves, even if within the boundaries of specific ideologies and belief systems. This is especially the case for concepts as subjective as values and morals, which often find themselves the focus of informal education. The participants may have difficulty forming their own opinions and acknowledging the impartiality of the curriculum if the teacher has become a strong role model for them. The educators own lifestyle and value system may become front runner in competing for the attention of the students. (This of course becomes less of a problem for denominational schools, where the lifestyle and outlook of the teacher is the same as that of the ethos and message of the school. However, this can also be seen as an oversimplification, for there can be many different approaches and outlooks within one denomination.)

On a grand and theoretical plain, Bucher (1997: 620) worries about role models and the power of influence that they wield, and potential for evil misuse as seen by totalitarian systems such as National Socialism. He also refers to thinkers who fear there is a “lack of compatibility between models and education on behalf of children’s self-realisation. They believe that models would prevent the development  of an autonomous moral identity.”

All educators, whether formal or informal, bear the burden of role-model education equally. However, to see it as a burden, misses the powerful potential and exciting educational opportunities that it can provide. Role-model education allows those values and ideas that are central to our curriculum to become an experiential educational experience, merely through “hanging out with the educator”. This is arguably the essence of informal education, and in fact all effective education.

This paper therefore recommends added exposure to the educator in all educational contexts. Informal education will do this more naturally than formal, but there is no reason to suggest that it is inappropriate in either context. Let us try to facilitate natural “encounters” between students and educators, both within and without of the educational context.

We discussed briefly the concept of mentoring. Let me suggest some further examples of allowing the role-model to be a powerful educational tool through these “ encounters ”. This will take place in any opportunity where the educator can play a more natural informal role, such as weekend retreats, educational trips and visits, extra-curricular programmes such as sports and recreational events.

Obviously, informal education lends itself better and more naturally to this mode of education, and it is harder to think of contexts from the school where it can be equally utilised. However, a perfect forum for the increased informality necessary for role-model education within the formality of the teacher/student relationship would be on an educational visit/school trip.

On a school trip, whether a one-day trip to a museum, or a month in a foreign country, everything about the student/teacher relationship has the potential to become less formal, while still being professional and controlled. From hiking to kayaking, walking through ancient archaeological remains to travelling for hours on buses, interaction is far easier and more natural. Conversations involve all sorts of topics, and students are afforded the opportunity to gain an inkling as to whom the teacher actually is, rather than merely what he or she tries to convey. This allows them to see that the values espoused in the classroom do not stay in the classroom, but are inherent in the life and lifestyle of the teacher.

It is just these types of encounters that we should be providing for our charges in order to maximise ourselves and our colleagues as role-models to these youth, in order to develop them as people and further our educational goals.

Bibliography

A. A. Bucher (1997) ‘The Influence of Models in Forming Moral Identity’, International Journal of Educational Research Vol. 27 No. 7.

P. Burnard (1991) Experiential Learning in Action , Avebury, Aldershot.

B. Chazan (2002) ‘The Philosophy of Informal Jewish Education’ (Commissioned article for the Jewish Agency for Israel, December 2002) available in the informal education archives .

C. Criticos (ed.) (1989) Experiential Learning in Formal and Non-Formal Education , Media Resource Centre, Department of Education, University of Durban.

M. Freedman (1993) The Kindness of Strangers : adult mentors, urban youth and the new voluntanism , San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass.

S. F. Hamilton (1991) Unrelated Adults in Adolescent Lives , New York: Cornell University

J. Hammond et al. (1990) New Methods in RE: An Experiential Approach , London: Oliver and Boyd.

P. Harling (1984) New Directions in Educational Leadership , The Falmer Press.

J. Hull (1982) New Directions in Religious Education , The Falmer Press.

T. Jeffs and M. K. Smith  (1999) Informal Education. Conversation, democracy and learning , Ticknall: Education Now Books.

D. Kolb (1984) Experiential Learning , Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

H. Langgulung (1983) ‘Teacher’s Role and Some Aspects of Teaching Methodology: Islamic Approach’, Muslim Educational Quarterly (Vol. 1 No. 1.

A. Mitscherlich (1963) Auf dem Weg zur vaterlosen Gesselschaft. Ideen zur Sozialpsychologie. Munchen:Piper

National Curriculum Council (1993) Spiritual and Moral Development – A Discussion Paper , London: N.C.C.

OFSTED (1994) Spiritual, Moral, Social and Cultural Development , London: OFSTED.

Philip, K. and Hendry, L. B. (1996) ‘Young People and Mentoring: Towards a Typology?’ Journal of Adolescence, 19:189-201.

Rhodes, J. (2001) ‘Youth Mentoring in Perspective’, The Center Summer. Republished in the encylopedia of informal education , www.infed.org/learningmentors/youth_mentoring_in_perspective.htm .

SCAA (1995) Spiritual and Moral Development (SCAA Discussion Papers No. 3), London: SCAA.

SCAA (1996) Education for Adult Life: The Spiritual and Moral Development of Young People ( SCAA Discussion Papers No. 6), London: SCAA.

SCAA (1996) A Guide to the National Curriculum (School Curriculum and Assessment Authority) , London: SCAA.

SCAA (1996) Religious Education, Model Syllabuses; Model One – Living Faiths Today , London: School Curriculum and Assessment Authority

SCAA (1996) Religious Education, Model Syllabuses; Model One – Questions and Teachings , London: School Curriculum and Assessment Authority.

A. Schleifer (1988) ‘The Role of the Muslim Mother in Education in Contemporary Society’, Muslim Educational Quarterly Vol. 5 No.2.

R. J. Starratt  (1993) The Drama of Leadership , The Falmer Press.

H. Thelen (1954) The Dynamics of Groups at Work , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

S. Warner Weil and I. McGill  (ed.) (1989) Making Sense of Experiential Learning , Buckingham: Open University Press.

Education Reform Act 1988 , London: HMSO.

Education (Schools) Act 1992, London: HMSO

Daniel Rose was born and bred in London and moved to Israel in September 1999. With a background in formal (High School Jewish Studies Teacher in London area) and informal Jewish education (youth movements and synagogue organisations in U.K. and Israel), he presently lectures 18-19 year olds’ from Britain, America, and Israel, on a gap year programme in Israel, teaching classical Jewish texts, modern Jewish history, and Informal Jewish education and youth leadership. His undergraduate degree is from Jews’ College, London University, in Jewish Studies and has a PGCE and Masters in Religious Education from the Institute of Education, London University. He has just begun a doctorate in Jewish education at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem.

Acknowledgement : Picture: Family portrait by CRASH:candy. Sourced from flickr – crash-candy/559294697 – and reproduced under a Creative Commons  Attribution-NonCommercial 2.0 Generic (CC BY-NC 2.0) licence.

How to cite this article : Rose, D. (2004). ‘The potential of role-model education, The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education.  [ https://infed.org/mobi/the-potential-of-role-model-education/ . Retrieved: insert date ].

© Daniel Rose 2004

Last Updated on April 4, 2013 by infed.org

Ask a Psychologist

Helping students thrive now.

Angela Duckworth and other behavioral-science experts offer advice to teachers based on scientific research. To submit questions, use this form or #helpstudentsthrive. Read more from this blog.

‘Someone Like Me’: The Surprising Power of Role Models

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This is the last in a three-part series on the legacy of Albert Bandura. Read the first one here and the second one here .

Why do some students set ambitious goals and others don’t?

It’s hard to think you can do something if you haven’t seen someone who looks like you do it. Here’s something I wrote recently about the topic for Character Lab as a Tip of the Week :

“Angela, do you think the United States will elect a female president in your lifetime?”

Years ago, this was the last question of the last interview for a scholarship that, alas, I didn’t win. Reflexively, I frowned and shook my head no.

As the interview ended, I sensed that I’d given an answer the committee found disappointing. “Yes, of course there will be a female president in my lifetime,” they wanted me to say with a confident smile. “And I hope I have your vote.”

Where does the audacity to set ambitious goals and strive for them come from?

A decade before I was born, a young psychologist at Stanford named Al Bandura asked the same question. He randomly assigned preschool children to three groups . One watched adults play aggressively with an inflatable clown called a Bobo doll, another watched adults play quietly with a different toy while ignoring the Bobo doll, and a third had no exposure to these adult role models. Next, each of the children was left alone with the Bobo doll.

The results were striking. Only the children who watched adults play aggressively later imitated what they’d seen. They did so with eerie precision, punching and kicking the Bobo doll, hitting it with a mallet, and sitting on it just as they had seen the adult do.

Like most children, my first role models were in my family. My dad had a Ph.D. in chemistry. Most of my uncles—and countless cousins—were doctors or scientists. So if you’d asked me in, say, 3rd grade, “Angela, could you become a college professor someday, if you tried?” Without a shred of evidence that I’d be any good at such a career, I’d have nodded my head. “Sure. Why not?”

If, instead, you’d asked me, “Angela, do you think you could become an Olympic swimmer, if you tried?” I would have shaken my head. After all, nobody in my family was a professional athlete, and for the most part, the athletes on television didn’t look like me.

In the Bobo doll study, trends in the data suggest that boys were more likely to imitate the behavior of men, and girls were more likely to imitate the behavior of women. Likewise, in a more recent study , college students who were assigned to teaching assistants of similar race or ethnicity were more likely to attend office hours and discussion sections. This match also led to improved student performance in sequenced courses and positively influenced decisions on college majors.

Don’t assume that children know they can be anything they want when they grow up.

Do go out of your way to expose the young people in your life to inspiring role models they can relate to, whether it’s an Olympic athlete or a local entrepreneur. And now that we have our first female vice president, can the first female president be far behind?

The opinions expressed in Ask a Psychologist: Helping Students Thrive Now are strictly those of the author(s) and do not reflect the opinions or endorsement of Editorial Projects in Education, or any of its publications.

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Role modelling—making the most of a powerful teaching strategy

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• Peer review
• Sylvia R Cruess , professor of medicine ,
• Richard L Cruess , professor of surgery ,
• Yvonne Steinert , professor of family medicine
• 1 Centre for Medical Education, McGill University, 1110 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, QC, Canada H3A 1A3
• Correspondence to: S R Cruess sylvia.cruess{at}mcgill.ca

Teachers need to be aware of the conscious and unconscious components of learning from role modelling, so that the net effect of the process is positive

Role modelling is a powerful teaching tool for passing on the knowledge, skills, and values of the medical profession, but its net effect on the behaviour of students is often negative rather than positive

By analysing their own performance as role models, individuals can improve their personal performance

Strategies are available to help doctors become better role models:

Being aware of the impact of what we are modelling (be it positive or negative)

Protecting time to facilitate dialogue, reflection, and debriefing with students

Making a conscious effort to articulate what we are modelling, and to make the implicit explicit

Educating future generations of physicians is one of the privileges and obligations of the medical profession. As an important part of this process, doctors historically have patterned their activities on those of practitioners whom they respect and trust. These have been called role models, “individuals admired for their ways of being and acting as professionals.” 1 Both consciously and unconsciously, we model our activities on such individuals. 2

“ We must acknowledge . . . that the most important, indeed the only, thing we have to offer our students is ourselves. Everything else they can read in a book.” – D C Tosteson 19

Although role modelling is at the heart of “character formation,” 3 medical students and junior doctors have observed that many clinical teachers are poor role models. In one study less than half of the teachers were identified as positive role models. 4 In another, half of the clinical clerks and a third of the residents surveyed felt that their teachers were not good role models for doctor-patient relationships. 1 Clearly, this is a situation that should concern us and the institutions in which we work.

Learning from role models occurs through observation and reflection, and is a complex mix of conscious and unconscious activities (fig 1 ⇓ ). 5 We are all aware of the conscious observation of behaviours, but understanding the power of the unconscious component is essential. Active reflection on the process can convert an unconscious feeling into conscious thought that can be translated into principles and action. In an equally powerful process, observed behaviours are unconsciously incorporated into the belief patterns and behaviours of the student.

Fig 1 The process of role modelling 7

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Role models differ from mentors. 6 Role models inspire and teach by example, often while they are doing other things. Mentors have an explicit relationship with a student over time, and they more often direct the student by asking questions and giving advice freely. 7

What makes for an effective role model?

As teachers we are capable of wide variation in our performance as role models, and we can demonstrate both positive and negative behaviours in a single encounter, as illustrated in the first vignette (box 1).

Box 1 Role modelling vignettes

1: in the middle of the night.

A house doctor on duty in the intensive care unit at night pages the consultant on call, Dr Smith, to inform her that a postoperative patient is not doing well. The consultant is obviously annoyed at being called in the middle of the night. Although she answers the questions and finally agrees to come in, the conversation is unpleasant and filled with tension, as Dr Smith is abrupt to the point of rudeness.

2: In the cafeteria

In the cafeteria, students and their mentor overhear Dr Reed, a senior surgeon, describing a patient in derogatory terms, using the patient’s name. The mentor asks to speak to Dr Reed privately, and reminds him that he is in a public place, violating patient confidentiality and failing to show respect.

3: In the clinic

A final year medical student on rotation in a general practitioner’s office finds that a patient with metastatic breast cancer is extremely upset and worried about her future. The general practitioner, Dr Jones, is extremely busy, with many patients waiting. Nevertheless, he enters the consultation room with the student, sits down and takes the patient’s hand, empathises with her concerns, and explains that he is very pressed for time; he also arranges a special appointment with her at a later date when he will have time to reassure her and answer her questions.

The characteristics of role models have been well documented 1 3 4 8 9 10 (fig 2 ⇓ ) and can be divided into three categories:

Clinical competence encompasses knowledge and skills, communication with patients and staff, and sound clinical reasoning and decision making. All of these skills must be modelled as they lie at the heart of the practice of medicine.

Teaching skills are the tools required to transmit clinical competence. A student centred approach incorporating effective communication, feedback, and opportunities for reflection is essential to effective role modelling.

Personal qualities include attributes that promote healing, such as compassion, honesty, and integrity. Effective interpersonal relationships, enthusiasm for practice and teaching, and an uncompromising quest for excellence are equally important.

Fig 2 Characteristics of role models

Where does role modelling take place?

Medical education is complex and students can observe role models in a variety of educational settings. We now understand that there is a formal, an informal, and a hidden curriculum. 10 Role models function in all three.

The formal curriculum is outlined in mission statements and course objectives, detailing what faculty members believe they are teaching. Role modelling certainly takes place here, and the conduct of medical teachers at this level can have a profound effect. Teachers who show passion and enthusiasm for medicine can be extremely effective; failing to do so is to miss a valuable opportunity.

The informal curriculum, which consists of unscripted, unplanned, and highly interpersonal forms of teaching and learning, is very powerful. All role models, from peers to senior doctors, function in the informal curriculum, 10 11 and many of the corrosive effects of negative role modelling are experienced here. 4 12 As shown in the second vignette (box 1), conversations in both formal and informal settings reveal and transmit important attitudes and values.

Finally, a set of influences, which are largely hidden, function at the level of the organisational culture and structure of the institution. The influence of this hidden curriculum on role modelling can be profound, as many of the barriers to effective role modelling can be found here. For example, an institutional culture that promotes overwork, leaving insufficient time for harried clinical teachers to promote the type of reflective practice needed to demonstrate best practices among students, is detrimental to effective role modelling. Similarly, a culture that tolerates inadequate clinical care or poor interpersonal relationships inhibits positive modelling, as do administrative decisions that fail to show appreciation and support, both financial and non-financial, of those who are trying to be exemplary.

How can role modelling be improved?

The desire to better our own performance is a necessary first step in improving role modelling. Two areas need to be addressed: the personal level, where we analyse our own strengths and weaknesses as role models, and the organisational level, where we consider the impact of the institutional culture in which we teach.

Strategies to improve personal performance

Doctors can improve their teaching skills and possibly their effectiveness as role models. 2 13 Box 2 lists some strategies that can help to improve role modelling.

Box 2 Strategies to improve role modelling

Be aware of being a role model

Demonstrate clinical competence

Protect time for teaching

Show a positive attitude for what you do

Implement a student centred approach to teaching

Facilitate reflection on clinical experiences and what has been modelled

Encourage dialogue with colleagues

Engage in pertinent staff development

Work to improve the institutional culture

Whenever possible be explicit about what you are modelling

Awareness of being a role model

The conscious recognition of the importance of role modelling as a teaching and learning strategy, and the positive or negative impact of what we are modelling, is fundamental to improving performance. For example, is Dr Smith (vignette 1) aware of the impact of her “rude behaviour”—or of the fact that she is condoning it? We are role models at all times—when we are teaching and when we are in social situations. 9 We must also share our awareness with our students. For example, it is important for Dr Jones (vignette 3) to explain the encounter with the patient so that the student will reflect on and understand some of the lessons learnt.

Time to teach

Despite the challenges of clinical demands, we must “protect time” in order to facilitate dialogue, reflection, and debriefing, all of which are needed to make the lessons learnt through role modelling apparent to the learner. 14 15 For example, had Dr Smith (vignette 1) talked about her personal distress in the middle of the night, she would have given an important—and positive—message to the student. The lack of conversation led to a missed opportunity for learning.

Negative attitudes, such as those shown by Dr Smith (vignette 1) and Dr Reed (vignette 2), are as powerful as the positive ones demonstrated by the mentor in vignette 2 and Dr Jones in vignette 3. Consciously modelling competence, positive attitudes, and enthusiasm for the practice of medicine, as Dr Jones demonstrates, can be transformative. 1 4 However, we need to ensure that the behaviours being modelled are made explicit to the learner.

The importance of reflection: making the implicit explicit

The ability to be conscious of, and reflect on, the behaviours and attributes that we are demonstrating is crucial to effective role modelling. Whenever possible, we should examine and explain what we do in the presence of students, junior doctors, and colleagues. This has been called “reflection in action.” 14 It is also helpful to discuss with students the impact of the encounter on the patient, the student, and oneself after it has occurred—“reflection on action.” If we then relate this experience to future actions, we are engaged in “reflection for action.”

Many situations include a mix of positive and negative role modelling; reflecting on these experiences provides valuable lessons to students. For example, the mentor in vignette 2 demonstrates positive modelling through self regulation. The fact that Dr Smith (vignette 1) does come in during the middle of the night shows both commitment and altruism. However, without thinking about these events, students may not learn from what they have observed. Although important components of role modelling will always remain implicit, a conscious effort to articulate what we are modelling, and to make the implicit explicit, will benefit both the student and role model.

Participating in staff development

Staff development programmes designed to improve teaching skills are now widely available, both within institutions and at scientific meetings. 16 17 Some universities offer programmes specifically designed to improve role modelling. These can be of great value if they encourage reflection by the role models. Volunteering to participate in such activities indicates a desire to improve.

Strategies to improve the institutional culture

Given the multitude of factors that impact role modelling, working to improve the institutional culture in which we work cannot be ignored. The important institutional barriers to effective role modelling include an organisational structure that encourages overwork, resulting in insufficient time for teaching 15 ; a lack of institutional support for teaching 10 11 ; and a culture that accepts inadequate patient care or poor relationships between members of the healthcare team. 11 As individuals dedicated to student learning, we must work to overcome these barriers and take advantage of opportunities that can help to improve the environment in which we teach. Methods for doing so depend on the local organisation and culture; they include raising awareness, pointing out deficiencies, reinforcing strengths, analysing the local environment, and proposing remedial action, which will often include staff development. The object is to create an environment that supports positive role modelling.

In conclusion, role models do not only function at the bedside, in the clinic, or in an office. Role models in medicine fulfil their roles in virtually any situation in which a student can observe a clinical teacher. 18 In doing so, it is important to model a lifestyle characteristic of a professional. We must also recall that being an effective role model is an ideal to be pursued. No one is a perfect role model at all times. Our objective is to be as consistently good as we can be.

This series provides an update on practical teaching methods for busy clinicians who teach. The series advisers are Peter Cantillon, senior lecturer in the department of general practice at the National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland, and Yvonne Steinert, professor of family medicine, associate dean for faculty development, and director of the Centre for Medical Education at McGill University, Montreal.

Contributors: All authors contributed equally to conceptualising and writing the manuscript.

Competing interests: None declared.

Provenance and peer review: Commissioned; not externally peer reviewed.

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25 Ways Teachers Can Be Role Models

Reviewed by Jon Konen, District Superintendent

There are many reasons why students think of teachers as role models. One of the biggest reasons is the desire to become a role model for students to look up to, to learn from, and to remember for the rest of their lives. Everyone has felt the power and lasting presence of an effective teacher, who also had a bigger impact. Whether it’s learning the value of community service, discovering a love for a particular subject, or how to tap the confidence to speak in public, teachers are the ones who light the way for us in this world.

Teachers being role models is not a new concept, and has inspired students to go into this field for ages. If you are thinking about becoming a teacher, good for you! We are here to root you on and help you make the right decision. Your next step would be speaking with schools in your area. Luckily, we have relationships with schools in every state with education programs. Just use the simple search function at the top of this page, or browse the listings below.

Before we start talking about things that make us thing of educators as role models, we are well aware this list is not complete. If you have any additional ideas or inspirational stories to share, we would love to hear from you!

Here are 25 ways of the importance of teachers

1.) Be humble. There is nothing that teaches a child or young adult mature behavior like modeling it yourself. This isn’t just true when you are right. You also have to show your students what it is like to be wrong, and admit it. This is never easy, no matter how old you are. Especially when you are in front of several students who look up to you. And let’s face it, there are some students who aren’t going to feel sorry for you. But that’s life. And you have to show them that right is right, and wrong is wrong – no matter what.

2.) Encourage them to think for themselves. Treat your classroom like a group of individuals, and celebrate their diversity. Create activities and discussions that foster conversations and discovery about who they are, and how they can appreciate the differences between each other. This type of focus from time-to-time will build a stronger bond between your students. Also, an environment of trust will build, which can relax the atmosphere and help students focus more on learning. It’s also important to help students understand the way they learn, and encourage them to explore those parts of themselves as well.

3.) Perform volunteer work. Find a way to incorporate community service into one of your lessons, and discuss how you contribute to the community you live in. Ask your students to tell you ways you could perform community service as a group. Many schools will give students a certain amount of time off if they are doing an activity that falls into this category. See if you can organize a community service event with your class. For example, if you are a music teacher, you can take your class caroling at a retirement home. Or, you can have your class pick up litter on a stretch of road. There are many ways you can instill a sense of pride in giving back among your students.

4.) Show empathy. When we think of teachers as role models, we imagine sympathetic mentors who listen to their students. Sounds simple, right? All you have to do is show that you care? It may sound simple, but we have all had teachers that we didn’t connect with. Students can tell when a teacher is tuned in or tuned out, and disconnected from them. On the opposite end of the spectrum, we have all had teachers who went out of their way to show they care about us, and want to see us succeed. We all have different personalities, and you should be authentic. But be mindful that your students are looking up to you as an adult with life experience they don’t have. As they try to figure out how to move into adulthood, make sure they know you’ve got their back.

5.) Point out the positive. Create a culture in your classroom that rewards kind behavior. The importance of teachers is apparent in the link between positive reinforcement and their confidence and behavior. Teach them to be constructive with their criticism, pointing out positives before negative, or suggestions for improvement. Practice with exercises that allows the students to be positive and critical towards each other. This is the kind of respect that debate class exercises can teach children – how to agree to disagree. Teaching children to get in the habit of looking for good in others is never a bad role model for behavior.

6.) Celebrate the arts. Teachers being role models by helping students appreciate the arts isn’t the first thing that comes to people’s minds. But helping children connect with their own inner children by tapping into the arts. Even if you do not teach a creative subject, you can incorporate music, discussions about art, and give students artistic assignments that reflect the curriculum they are learning. Mixing it up every once in a while will keep their minds fresh, and encourage them to look at life a little differently. Many students are obsessed with music, art, literature and other forms of creative expression. Give bonus points for students who pursue an independent art project that goes along with a teaching.

7.) Send a positive note home to their parents twice a year. Showing your students that you appreciate them in a direct way is important. But indirect forms of gratitude can be a boost to their confidence, and model positive behavior. Most parents never expect to get a note in their kid’s bag saying what a pleasure they are to have in class. So why not give your kids a boost and let mom and dad know you care? Every parent knows, we just want our kids to do well and succeed, no matter where they are in life. This will help your relations with them as well. And we have a feeling your students will appreciate any effort you make to let their parents know they’re doing alright.

8.) Fulfill your promises. Hey, remember last fall when you said you would buy the class a turtle if they earned all those stars? Well, it’s been six months since they earned em and school is almost over… Okay, don’t be that teacher. We’re all busy. Even your students. That’s why you need to follow through on your promises when you make them. We don’t want to them to think it’s okay to say one thing, and then completely disregard it. And if you fail to keep a particular promise, be honest about it. Don’t make up an excuse. And try to make up for it. Your students will see how to deal with their own shortcomings, and will respect you more for your honesty.

9.) Dress appropriately. Look, we know how young and hip you still are. No one wants to be uncool. But teachers being role models means remembering you are in a professional environment. And it’s not your job to fit in with the cool kids. It’s your job to stand at the head of the class and foster a sense of mutual respect. After all, you want to model professional behavior for your students from day one. This will help with classroom management issues. Dressing in a professional way will keep students from thinking of you in a less respectful way. This goes for cleanliness and hygiene as well. Just make sure you take your job seriously when you show up. This is not only good to model for your students, but important in the eyes of your principal and other administrators as well.

10.) Stay away from social media with students. Educators as role models on social media is a new and important topic. Do not mix on social media with your students. And be careful what you have out there on your personal accounts. We are all too familiar with the stories of teachers and other professionals doing something unprofessional and getting fired for it. Have a policy to connect with students on the channels that your school sets up for you. Remember, parents are looking at you as well, and know that you are in a role model position with their children. When you post on social media, just realize that your students’ parents could see your words as well. Just be careful.

11.) Encourage physical activity. The importance of teachers extends to the physical fitness of their students. It doesn’t matter if every student is inclined to be physically active. Encouraging physical activity is good for all groups of students. Even if you do not teach a physical education class, you can still talk about physical activities when you lecturing or performing other activities. Even weaving the topic into your lectures or conversations can help plant the seeds in students’ minds that they should look for ways to exercise.

12.) Give lectures about role models. When you are discussing a period in history, or introducing a new subject to your students, find a way to incorporate a hero story into the lesson. For instance, if you are going to talk about French history and the Hundred Years War, you would talk about the bravery of Joan of Arc. Or you could find stories about other unlikely heroes, and those who shaped history. When you do, have your students discuss ways they can be heroes in their own lives. Even if it’s just stepping up in small ways to help others or do things they didn’t think possible.

13.) Have them read Profiles in Courage. When we think of teachers as role models, we think of the classic novels and literature they shared with us. John F. Kennedy’s Nobel Prize winning book chronicles the acts of courage by several figures throughout American history. These characters were brave enough to make tough choices in hard times, putting their country before themselves, and their personal safety. Other books can be great options, such as To Kill A Mockingbird or movies like Good Will Hunting, when you want to give your kids a break, and teach them a lesson in doing the right thing. Being a good role model for kids means showing them how to point their moral compass in the right direction no matter what. The importance of teachers cannot be overstated when it comes to reading.

14.) Hold a fundraiser. Pick a local charity and tell your students you have a goal to raise a certain amount of money within a certain period of time. You will all make a game of raising the most money and giving it to a charity. It can even be a non-organized charity. Let’s say you hear about someone in your community who lost their home to a fire. You could raise the money and give them a gift card or something they may need. There are all sorts of ways you can incorporate the idea of fundraising and charity. Be sure to include all your students in the process somehow. These types of exercises can also help give them leadership and business skills.

15.) Discuss world events. Every Monday, or on some kind of schedule, spark discussions about world events. See what they know, and ask questions that make them think. Teachers being role models includes showing students how to make sense of the world, and express different ideas in a peaceful way. This can model for students how they should act when they speak with others, and how to actively listen to other points of view. Many students will not have heard about some of the events you are speaking about. Don’t let them sit back quietly. Find ways to involve them too, by asking questions that can draw them in.

16.) Have a pot luck. Every once in a while, have a meal with your students that celebrates you time together. Yes, food is another way students can see educators as role models. So have fun with this one. After all, we all love food! Tell your students that they are welcome to bring a dish from home, or you can provide a cheap set of snacks. This can be a good way to talk about cooking with your students. Many kids aren’t involved in with the cooking at their homes. Some parents teach their kids about food, but it’s probably the exception, not the norm. So, be that teacher that shows them that they can learn to cook and eat healthy foods. You can show them that good food can also be good for you!

17.) Work extracurricular activities. When your students see you working outside of the classroom to help your school function, it says you go the extra mile. It also shows that you have a strong work ethic, and you are doing a job that you’re passionate about. That is the kind of feeling you want your students to have from their careers later in life. Show them that you enjoy your job, and it will pay off in the classroom. And, if you were once a star athlete and have coaching skills, you can be a role model for the students playing sports in a similar way.

18.) Be organized and on time. You want to present yourself in a professional way as much as possible. This means more than looking the part and acting the part, it means being the part. The best way you can show your students how to execute their work is to show up on time and be ready to teach. Plus, if you have a clear vision for how you want the lesson to go, then you will be more effective in delivering your message.

19.) Practice random acts of kindness. Here’s an idea for teachers as role models: How about you put an apple on every one of your students’ desks on the first day of school? How would that be for a proactive show of appreciation from the get-go with your class. That would also put them on notice that you are the type of teacher who will surprise them from time to time. This teaches children to go out of their way to show appreciate – even if it’s just for the heck of it.

20.) Ask for input. You know that suggestion box that companies sometimes have for employees to make recommendations? These can be ideas for lectures, field trips, and other things the students think may add to the learning environment. The importance of teachers in showing students how to participate in conversations is essential to their growth. Giving them a feeling of ownership and participation in the class decisions and idea generating process will give them a sense of pride they may not have otherwise; especially if you agree to test their idea out.

21.) Apply democratic ideals to class discussions. Just because your students may not be old enough to vote, doesn’t mean they can’t get a feel for our democratic processes. Teachers being role models to show how our democracy works can be a great lesson for students. Hold votes on decisions that reflect discussions you are having on topics to see where people stand. Then encourage debate and explain to them how our system is supposed to work. No matter where your students might fall on the political spectrum, you can set a good example by engaging them with our core values.

22.) Invite guest lecturers. Find role models in the community that do good work, or perform some kind of public service. This can be small business owners, individuals, city officials, and other notable figures who can inspire the children to do good in their lives. Plus, it’s always fun for students to learn from other people than just their own teacher. Kids need lots of role models in their lives. Plus, whoever you invite will get to share a personal story from their life, or show them how they work in their profession. There are just too many reasons why this can be a great idea!

23.) Make them keep journals. You can inspire your students to understand that it helps to keep track of your thoughts as a way of organizing your goals, connecting with your feelings, and making sense of the world around you. Your students will improve on their own communication skills through their writing practice, and have a safe space to explore their thoughts, during an otherwise hectic daily routine. When you teach students to understand themselves a little better, they will start to see educators as role models.

24.) Start a class garden. Many schools have room for classes to start their own small garden. If not, check with your county office to see if there is any land available where you can make a community garden. This can teach students about growing food, and how people have to work together to sustain our standards of living.

25.) Make them give a presentation on one of their role models. Lastly, have your students think about what makes a good role model, and present their findings to the class. It can be a famous example, or anyone who inspires your student to present. Try not to create too many rules for your students to abide by. See where their minds go, and what qualities they associate with the term.

In what ways do you think you can be a role model to your students?

There must be a million ways teachers can be stand-up role models for their students. Surely, you have a few bouncing around in your head, right? If so, share them with us on social media. Or, leave a comment below.

If you’re ready to learn more about making an impact in students’ lives as a teacher, just use our directory of schools to find out more about programs near you. All you have to do is choose your state to narrow your options.

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The Importance of Role Models in Education

In today’s society, it is crucial for young people to have positive role models in their lives. Research studies have shown that adolescents with access to positive role models have higher self-esteem, better academic performance, and less likelihood of engaging in risky behaviours. Unfortunately, many children and adolescents do not have positive role models to look up to. In this article, we will explore the importance of positive role models for youth, what characteristics make a good role model, and how parents, educators, and community members can help young people access positive role models in their lives.

Role models play a crucial role in shaping the educational experience of students. They provide positive examples and inspire young people to strive for their goals. By emulating the behaviour and habits of role models, students can develop a strong work ethic and achieve academic success. Here are just a few reasons why having a role model is important:

• Shapes Work Ethic and Brings Academic Success – By observing and emulating the behaviours, habits, and attitudes of their role models, students can cultivate a strong work ethic that is conducive to academic achievement.
• Motivation to Strive for Goals – Role models serve as a source of inspiration, encouraging students to persevere and strive for their aspirations.
• Eliminates any self-doubt – Being young and inexperienced brings its own set of issues like self-doubt and low self-esteem, youth often feels overwhelmed by the expectations set by other people and themselves, role models can act as an example that there is light at the end of the tunnel that is younghood.

Key Figures That Act as Role-models

Parents, teachers, and other significant adults often act as the primary role models for students, exemplifying desirable behaviours, work ethics, and values.

Teachers, in particular, can inspire students by demonstrating commitment, hard work, and dedication to their subjects, setting a standard for success and perseverance.

The Role of Student Tutors as Mentors

Beyond mere academic tutoring, student mentors can offer invaluable support in personal and emotional aspects, especially crucial for students lacking positive home role models or facing personal challenges affecting their studies.

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Student tutors can serve as mentors, providing not just academic support but also personal and emotional guidance. This is especially important for students who may not have positive role models at home or who may struggle with personal challenges that impact their academic performance.

The Characteristics of Good Role Models in Education

When it comes to education, having a good role model can make a significant difference in a student’s academic and personal development. But what exactly makes a good role model in education? Let’s take a closer look at some of the key characteristics:

“We tend to become like those we admire” Thomas Monson

A good role model in education should be someone who has achieved success through hard work and dedication, and who can inspire students to do the same.

A good role model should have a genuine love for learning and should be able to convey that enthusiasm to their students. This can help students see the value of education and motivate them to pursue their academic goals.

Good role models should demonstrate professionalism and responsibility in their work, which are essential for success in any field. They should also model good behaviour and ethics, and hold themselves to high standards.

A good role model should have a positive attitude towards their students and their work and should encourage and support students in their academic and personal pursuits. This can help build confidence and self-esteem in students, and create a supportive learning environment.

In fact, research supports this. A study published in the “Journal of Educational Psychology” found that teachers’ positive attitudes and encouragement can significantly influence students’ engagement and achievement. The study highlighted that when teachers show enthusiasm and provide positive feedback, it can enhance students’ intrinsic motivation, leading them to engage more deeply with the subject matter. Additionally, a positive and supportive approach from educators helps to create a safe learning environment where students feel valued and confident to explore new ideas and take on challenges.

Good role models should have a strong understanding of their subject matter and be able to convey that knowledge effectively to students. They should also be open to learning from their students and willing to adapt their teaching methods as needed.

The Role of Role Models in Developing Good Habits and Behaviors

One of the most powerful aspects of having role models in education is the opportunity for students to learn good habits and behaviours. As the saying goes, “actions speak louder than words,” and when students see their role models consistently exhibiting positive behaviours, it can have a profound impact on their own development.

Good role models in education demonstrate a range of positive behaviours, including responsibility, respect, perseverance, and a strong work ethic. These behaviours not only help students excel academically but also prepare them for success in their future careers and personal lives.

For example, a student who observes a role model consistently meeting deadlines and taking responsibility for their work is more likely to develop similar habits themselves. Similarly, a student who sees a role model treating others with kindness and respect is more likely to exhibit those same behaviours towards their peers and teachers.

Moreover, role models can help students develop good habits beyond just academic or professional skills. For instance, a student who looks up to a role model who prioritises self-care , such as exercise or mindfulness practices, may be more likely to adopt similar habits themselves. By emulating the behaviours of their role models, students can learn to lead healthy, balanced lives.

Overcoming Challenges and Achieving Goals with the Help of Role Models

Role models can play a crucial role in helping students overcome challenges and achieve their goals. When students have positive role models to look up to, they can gain the confidence and motivation they need to tackle difficult tasks and overcome obstacles.

Good role models in education understand the importance of setting and achieving goals, and they can provide guidance and support to students to help them do the same. They can help students identify their strengths and weaknesses, and work with them to develop strategies for success . They can also share their own experiences of facing challenges and setbacks, and help students learn from these experiences.

Furthermore, role models can help students develop a growth mindset – the belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through hard work and dedication. This mindset can help students become more resilient and persistent in the face of challenges, and can ultimately lead to greater success in their academic and personal lives.

In conclusion, the importance of having positive role models in education cannot be overstated. Good role models not only provide students with academic support but also serve as mentors and sources of inspiration. They demonstrate key characteristics like hard work, responsibility, and perseverance, which can have a lasting impact on student’s development.

By mimicking the behaviours and attitudes of their role models, students can develop the habits and skills they need to succeed both in and out of the classroom. And when faced with challenges, students can draw on the guidance and support of their role models to overcome obstacles and achieve their goals.

Parents, teachers, and other adults play a critical role in providing positive examples for students, but the benefits of having student tutors or mentors as role models cannot be ignored. As exemplified by Edumentors Private Tutors , positive role models not only provide academic support but also serve as mentors and inspirations for students. With the guidance of positive role models, students can reach their full potential and shape their future.

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Leading by Example: Role Models in Education

Imagine a world where students are inspired not just by what they are taught, but by who teaches them. A world where educators serve as beacons of inspiration, leading by example and shaping the minds and hearts of the next generation.

In this world, role models in education play a pivotal role in the growth and development of students. But what does it mean to be an effective role model? How does the presence of a role model impact a student's educational journey? And how can teachers cultivate a culture of role modeling in schools?

Step into the realm of leading by example, where the answers to these questions await.

Key Takeaways

• Role models in education provide real-life examples of success and inspiration, motivating students to achieve their goals.
• Effective role models possess qualities such as empathy, integrity, and a growth mindset, fostering trust and admiration in students.
• Role models have a significant impact on student development, influencing positive behavior, academic performance, and personal growth.
• Teachers can lead by example by maintaining professionalism in actions and appearance, creating a culture of role modeling in schools through mentor relationships and exposure to diverse role models.

Importance of Role Models in Education

Role models play a crucial role in education by providing students with real-life examples of success and inspiration. The impact they have on student motivation is immense. When students see someone who has achieved their goals and overcome obstacles, it gives them the belief that they can do the same.

Role models show students that hard work, determination, and perseverance can lead to success. This motivation can be the driving force behind a student's desire to excel in their studies and reach their full potential.

In addition to motivating students, role models also play a significant role in building self-confidence. Seeing someone they admire and respect achieve their goals can give students the confidence to believe in themselves and their abilities. Role models serve as a reminder that success is attainable and that they too can accomplish great things.

Qualities of Effective Role Models

Effective role models possess specific qualities that make them influential and inspiring figures in the lives of students. Here are some key qualities that contribute to their effectiveness:

• Empathy : Effective role models have the ability to understand and share the feelings of their students. They're compassionate and supportive, providing a safe and nurturing environment for growth and development.
• Integrity : Role models with integrity act in alignment with their values and principles. They demonstrate honesty, fairness, and ethical behavior, serving as a moral compass for their students.
• Growth mindset : Effective role models embrace a growth mindset, believing that abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort and perseverance. They encourage their students to embrace challenges, learn from failures, and continuously strive for improvement.

These qualities foster trust, respect, and admiration in students, making them more likely to emulate the behavior and values of their role models. By embodying these qualities, effective role models inspire and empower their students to reach their full potential.

Impact of Role Models on Student Development

Role models have a significant influence on student growth, inspiring them to adopt positive behavior and attitudes. By observing the actions and values of role models, students are motivated to strive for excellence and make responsible choices.

Moreover, role models can also play a crucial role in enhancing students' academic performance by instilling a strong work ethic and a passion for learning.

Influence on Student Growth

Teachers who serve as positive role models have a significant impact on the growth and development of their students. They've the power to influence student motivation, inspiring them to strive for excellence and reach their full potential. By setting high expectations and demonstrating a strong work ethic, role model teachers show students the importance of hard work and dedication.

They also play a crucial role in fostering personal growth by providing guidance and support. Through their actions and behaviors, these teachers teach students valuable life skills such as resilience, perseverance, and integrity. Moreover, they serve as a source of inspiration, showing students that with determination and a positive mindset, they can overcome obstacles and achieve success in their academic and personal lives.

Inspiring Positive Behavior

As students observe their teachers' behavior and actions, they're inspired to adopt positive behaviors themselves, leading to their overall development and growth.

Teachers play a crucial role in inspiring motivation and fostering self-confidence in their students. When students witness their teachers displaying positive behaviors such as kindness, respect, and perseverance, it encourages them to follow suit.

By consistently demonstrating these qualities, teachers become role models who inspire their students to strive for excellence and make positive choices.

Moreover, teachers who show belief in their students' abilities instill a sense of self-confidence in them. This confidence empowers students to believe in themselves, take risks, and overcome challenges.

Ultimately, the influence of positive role models in education goes beyond academic development, shaping students into well-rounded individuals who are motivated, confident, and equipped to succeed in life.

Enhancing Academic Performance

Students who have positive role models in their education experience enhanced academic performance and overall personal development. Role models can have a significant impact on student motivation and success. Here are three ways in which role models enhance academic performance:

• Setting high expectations : Positive role models, such as teachers or mentors, inspire and challenge students to strive for excellence. By demonstrating their own dedication and passion for learning, role models encourage students to set high expectations for themselves.
• Providing guidance and support : Role models offer guidance and support to students, helping them navigate academic challenges. Their presence and involvement in a student's education can significantly impact their academic performance.
• Involving parents : Role models also play a crucial role in engaging parents in their child's education. When parents see the positive effects of role models on their child's academic performance, they're more likely to become actively involved in their education.

Strategies for Teachers to Lead by Example

To be an effective role model in education, there are several strategies teachers can employ.

First, maintaining a professional dress code sets a positive example for students and shows them the importance of presenting oneself in a professional manner.

Additionally, demonstrating professionalism in actions, such as being punctual and organized, teaches students the value of responsibility and professionalism.

Teacher Dress Code

Teachers play a crucial role in setting a positive example through their dress code choices. By adhering to a professional dress code, teachers demonstrate their commitment to professionalism and create a respectful learning environment.

Here are three key points to consider when it comes to teacher dress code:

• Appropriate attire : Teachers should dress in a manner that's appropriate for their educational setting. This means avoiding clothing that's too casual or revealing, and opting for clothing that's clean, neat, and modest.
• Role modeling : Teachers serve as role models for their students, and their attire can influence how students perceive and behave in the classroom. Dressing professionally can inspire students to take their own appearance and behavior more seriously.
• School policies : It's important for teachers to familiarize themselves with their school's dress code policies. By following these policies, teachers not only demonstrate respect for their institution, but also contribute to a cohesive and unified school community.

Professionalism in Actions

As teachers set a positive example through their dress code choices, they also have the opportunity to lead by example in their actions, demonstrating professionalism and inspiring students to follow suit.

Professionalism in actions encompasses ethical behavior and high standards of conduct in the classroom. By maintaining a respectful and inclusive learning environment, teachers can promote ethical behavior among their students. This includes treating all students with fairness and respect, actively listening and responding to their needs, and being consistent in their disciplinary approach.

Teachers should also demonstrate punctuality and preparedness, showing students the importance of being responsible and organized. By modeling professionalism in their actions, teachers can instill these valuable traits in their students, preparing them for success in their future endeavors.

Consistent Classroom Expectations

Consistently setting clear expectations in the classroom is essential for teachers to lead by example. By establishing consistent discipline, you create a structured environment where students know what's expected of them. This consistency helps students feel secure and allows them to focus on their learning. It also promotes a positive teacher-student relationship, as students understand that you're fair and consistent in your approach.

To ensure consistent classroom expectations, consider the following strategies:

• Clearly communicate your expectations : Use clear and concise language to outline your expectations for behavior, work completion, and participation.
• Reinforce expectations regularly : Remind students of the expectations consistently and provide positive reinforcement when they meet them.
• Model the behavior you expect : Show students how to meet the expectations by consistently demonstrating them yourself.

Promoting Diversity in Role Models

Promoting diversity in role models is essential for fostering an inclusive and equitable educational environment. Inclusion in representation is key to ensuring that all students feel seen, heard, and valued. By showcasing a diverse range of role models, educators can break stereotypes and challenge societal norms. When students see people who look like them, come from similar backgrounds, or have similar experiences, they're more likely to believe that they too can achieve greatness.

By promoting diversity in role models, we can help students expand their perspectives and gain a deeper understanding of the world around them. When students are exposed to role models from different races, cultures, genders, abilities, and socio-economic backgrounds, they learn to appreciate diversity and develop empathy for others. This not only prepares them for the diverse society they'll encounter outside of school, but also helps them become more well-rounded individuals.

Furthermore, promoting diversity in role models encourages students to challenge stereotypes and think critically about societal norms. When students see role models who defy expectations and succeed despite facing adversity, they're inspired to question limitations placed on them by society. This can lead to a greater sense of empowerment and motivation to overcome obstacles.

Creating a Culture of Role Modeling in Schools

By fostering a culture of role modeling in schools, students are provided with opportunities to learn from and be inspired by individuals who exemplify the qualities and values that promote success and personal growth. Creating a supportive environment where role models are celebrated and encouraged can have a profound impact on the development of students.

Encouraging mentor relationships:

Schools can actively promote mentorship programs where older students or community members are paired with younger students. These mentor relationships provide guidance, support, and a positive example for students to follow.

Showcasing diverse role models:

It's important to ensure that students are exposed to a wide range of role models from different backgrounds, cultures, and professions. This diversity helps students understand that success can come in various forms and encourages them to embrace their own unique qualities.

Recognizing and celebrating achievements:

Acknowledging and celebrating the accomplishments of both students and staff members can inspire others to strive for greatness. Recognizing role models within the school community reinforces the value of hard work, dedication, and perseverance.

In conclusion, having effective role models in education can greatly impact student development. Research shows that students who have positive role models are more likely to achieve academic success, develop strong character traits, and make positive life choices.

According to a study conducted by the University of California, students who had a role model in their lives were 52% more likely to graduate from high school and attend college. Therefore, it is crucial for teachers to lead by example and promote diversity in role models to create a culture of role modeling in schools.

The eSoft Editorial Team, a blend of experienced professionals, leaders, and academics, specializes in soft skills, leadership, management, and personal and professional development. Committed to delivering thoroughly researched, high-quality, and reliable content, they abide by strict editorial guidelines ensuring accuracy and currency. Each article crafted is not merely informative but serves as a catalyst for growth, empowering individuals and organizations. As enablers, their trusted insights shape the leaders and organizations of tomorrow.

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The Importance of Role Models in Education

Role Models in education are an important part of learning!

A role model/guide is someone worth imitating in character and lifestyle qualities. Every student needs a model to imitate and influence them to do better in their academic and life endeavors. This is one of the major reasons schools teach their learners about who and how to make the right choice of role guides.

Students and their parents can read role model paper examples to learn more about who a good role model is. Especially now that learners have to write quality essays about role guides to fulfill a better grade and GPA in school. So, why are role models important in academics today?

A good role model inspires and motivates learners to pursue their inner potentials by working hard and staying disciplined. And considering the vulgar exposure of the internet world today, very few prospects can be considered a good role guide. This is why parents seek ways to become good model prospects for their children. Do they know what it takes? Let’s check out!

Benefits of A Good Role Model in Education

Firstly, what are the qualities of a role model? Good guide prospects must have positive qualities to inspire and motivate another. Qualities like;

• Commitment to their life purpose.
• Show great concentration and focus on their purposes.
• Passion and clear personal values.
• Selflessness and acceptance.
• Honesty, discipline, and self-control for life purposes.

Considering all these qualities, we can now clearly prove that role guides are important in education by helping students;

• Cultivate the good characteristics of a successful person.
• Learn from their prospect’s life mistakes.
• Face life and overcome potential obstacles to success.
• Pursue their academic or life goal with more determination.

Now, we can see the benefits of these model prospects in students, especially college learners. But how can parents become the ideal role guide to their wards? Let’s discuss!

3 Ways Parents Can Be a Great Role Model to Their Wards

Instead of leaving wards to imitate a stranger, why not read about being a role model to your child. If you’re reading this and need a guide to becoming the best role guide for your wards, continue reading. Here are ways parents can become great model prospects for their kids;

Start Communicating Well

As a parent, you need to start speaking to your wards as individuals capable of making good and bad decisions by themselves. Most university learners don’t think of their parents as good model prospects. This is because of the communication barrier between the family.

Start speaking simply with an appropriate tone with them. Also, avoid critical discussions during resenting matters. Just try to be encouraging with an appropriate tone.

Express positivity, give them a chance to speak and show affection. This will open the children to share more information and try to find your opinion on their matters.

Cultivate Good Habits

From today, set good habits for yourself. Stop bad habits like smoking, drinking, or bad spending habits. Cultivate good habits and take responsibility for any action you take.

This teaches them a lesson that all their actions are their responsibilities. Start Communicating more openly around others. Also, cultivate the habits of managing negative emotions and try to be positive around them.

Avoid Negative Role Models

A parent must eradicate all forms of negative prospects. Parents can do this by limiting the influence of misleading celebrities in their ward’s life. Also, manage their peer groups.

By keeping good company, you give your ward chances to gain experiences that’ll guide them in life. More importantly, direct them to like good guides with great qualities you’ll like them to imitate.

Good role models steer and influence one’s actions and mindsets toward making life-benefiting choices to fulfill a better life. This is also a very important aspect of many youngsters, especially students that should be monitored.

Beneficially, a good model prospect will inspire and gear students toward fulfilling a greater academic performance and successful life.

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Role Modeling in Medical Education: A Twenty-First Century Learner’s Perspective

• Published: 24 October 2023
• Volume 33 , pages 1557–1563, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

• Raina Patel   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0002-7220-8102 1 ,
• Jacqueline Mirza   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3041-9980 1 ,
• J. M. Monica Van de Ridder 2 &
• Vijay Rajput   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5203-5342 1  

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Traditional role modeling is a complex process of observation and emulation delivered by experienced senior physicians with an unknown outcome. Role modeling through organized modalities has been utilized as an educational tool in medical school for years. However, effects of parenting, near peers, gender, race, and social media on role modeling in medical education have not been well characterized yet play a significant role in the development of modern clinicians. The aim of this paper is to encourage students as future medical and clinical educators through an in-depth analysis of role modeling, with the goal of improving their “role modeling consciousness.”

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A skill to be worked at: using social learning theory to explore the process of learning from role models in clinical settings

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Raina Patel is the first author, responsible for tables, literature review, and manuscript writing. Jacqueline Mirza is the second author and is responsible for literature review and manuscript writing. Corresponding author Vijay Rajput and supplemental author J.M. Monica van de Ridder gave input to the outline and editing of various drafts of the manuscript.

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Patel, R., Mirza, J., Van de Ridder, J.M.M. et al. Role Modeling in Medical Education: A Twenty-First Century Learner’s Perspective. Med.Sci.Educ. 33 , 1557–1563 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-023-01930-9

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Accepted : 19 October 2023

Published : 24 October 2023

Issue Date : December 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-023-01930-9

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Teachers' role model behavior and the quality of the student-teacher relationship as prerequisites for students' attitudes towards peers with learning difficulties provisionally accepted.

• 1 University of Paderborn, Germany

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The introduction of inclusive education in primary schools has raised many questions about the impact of teachers' role model behavior on the social participation of students with learning difficulties. Based on the "theory of social referencing", this study examines whether students' attitudes towards peers with learning difficulties are predicted by perceptions of their teachers' role model behavior and the quality of the student-teacher relationship in the classroom. A questionnaire was completed by N = 753 primary school students regarding their perceptions of the student-teacher relationship, their attitudes towards peers with learning difficulties, and their perceptions of teacher behavior towards students with learning difficulties. The results of a structural equation model indicate that students' attitudes towards peers with learning difficulties can be explained significantly by their perceptions of teacher behavior and their perceptions of the quality of the student-teacher relationship in the classroom. The effect of students' perceptions of teacher behavior on their attitudes towards peers with learning difficulties is mediated by their perceptions of the studentteacher relationship. Thus, students focus more on teacher behavior when they perceive a positive student-teacher relationship. Our findings emphasize the importance of teachers' role model behavior in inclusive classrooms and offer opportunities to enhance the social participation of students with learning difficulties in inclusive primary school education.

Keywords: learning difficulties, attitudes, Inclusive education, Social Participation, social referencing

Received: 13 Mar 2024; Accepted: 18 Apr 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Löper and Hellmich. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Dr. Marwin F. Löper, University of Paderborn, Paderborn, Germany

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Feminisation of Education

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The feminization of education is used to imply that there are significant and widespread effects on education caused by the predominance of female teachers.

Teaching, as a profession, has long been regarded as ‘female work.’ This is thought to have been the case since the introduction of elementary state education in the 19th century (Skelton, 2002).

Elementary and primary schools are considered to be feminized because the teachers are primarily female, so the practice and delivery of the curriculum, teachers’ expectations, and management strategies favor girls.

The predominance of female teachers, particularly in elementary schools, is recognized internationally. In North America and Western Europe, women comprise 84% of primary teachers; in East Asia and the Pacific, the figure is 60%; in Latin America and the Caribbean, 77% (Drudy, 2008).

Why do girls have more of an advantage in education?

The feminization of education is thought to give girls more of an advantage over boys. One reason is that the workforce”s general structure, organization, and construction are ‘female-biased’ (Skelton, 2002).

Since there are significantly more female teachers, especially in the formative years of children’s education, there are more female role models that young girls can look to. Girls may be likelier to listen to and seek advice from female teachers than boys.

Teachers’ interaction with their students may also give girls more of an advantage. Women teachers generally hold higher expectations for girls’ abilities and lower expectations of boys (Skelton, 2002).

Therefore, these teachers may be less concerned if boys fall behind, while girls may be more encouraged to raise their standards.

How the curriculum is delivered benefits girls’ learning styles (Delamont, 1999). There has been a general move from more individualized educational practices in the classroom to more collaborative and cooperative practices. This change may give girls an advantage over boys because they generally have stronger communication and collaborative skills.

The removal of gender stereotypes from textbooks, reading schemes and has removed a barrier to girls aspirations and achievement. In the 1970’s and 1980’s girls were portrayed as wives and mothers and textbooks would reinforce this image as well as putting  girls off science and maths.

Changes in how students are assessed may also give girls an advantage in education. It has been suggested that improvements in girls’ educational achievement coincide with the introduction of coursework. Evidence indicates that coursework favors girls, whereas examinations favor boys.

Girls are thought to have an advantage in coursework since they are more organized, conscientious, and more likely to seek help from teachers in planning and preparing their work (Mitsos & Browne, 1998).

What are the consequences for boys?

It is suggested that one of the main consequences of education being feminized is that boys may often disengage from education completely.

Boys are more likely to drop out of high school, fail to complete their degrees, and behave more violently. The number of boys enrolling in colleges and universities in the United States has also declined (Mulvey, 2010).

It has been recognized that boys can be unenthusiastic about doing their homework and may not study for their lessons, meaning that they often receive negative feedback, poorer grades, and lower performance than girls (Belaid & Sarnou, 2018).

A reason boys disengage from education could be that doing well in school is sometimes viewed as feminine. School lessons may be ‘too feminized,’ imposing feminine qualities that male students cannot relate to.

Boys’ interactions with their teachers, usually women, are more negative. One of the main reasons for this may be that boys are acting out traditional ‘macho’ or ‘laddish’ behaviors. Without male role models in education to develop an alternative way of being masculine, these conventional ways of being male will persist.

A lack of male teachers acting as role models is also believed to create problems for boys regarding motivation, discipline, and social interaction (Skelton, 2002).

It’s important to note that educational achievement for girls may only apply to certain types of girls. White girls from middle-class homes may be more likely to have academic success compared to working-class or girls from an ethnic minority background who face additional educational barriers (Abbott et al., 2006).

Although women primary teachers outnumber men by roughly 5:1, it continues to be the case that men are disproportionately represented at senior levels.

For example, approximately one in every four male primary teachers is likely to become headteachers, while the chance for a female teacher is one in thirteen (Skelton, 2002).

There are gender differences in the subjects taken by girls and boys, with girls being socialized into focusing on specific subjects and not encouraged to engage in others. There are fewer girls taking science, engineering, and technology degrees, with those that do often feeling marginalized in a male-dominated field (Abbott et al., 2006).

Likewise, when they enter the workforce, women often face issues with receiving promotions, sacrificing careers to have a family, and experiencing a gender wage gap.

So, while school may be feminized to favor girls, this does not mean they will be favored when they enter higher education or employment.

Radical feminists recognize that girls are achieving more but they emphasize that this is despite the patriarchal nature of the education system rather than due to major changes in education.

For example, women are hugely underrepresented in the curriculum, Wiener (1995) calls history a Women Free Zone.

There are still many more men in positions of authority in education such as Head Teachers, especially in secondary schools.

Abbott, P., Tyler, M., & Wallace, C. (2006). An introduction to sociology: Feminist perspectives . Routledge.

Belaid, L., & Sarnou, H. (2018). Feminisation of Schooling: Understanding the Detraditionalized Gender.  Brolly, 1 (1).

Delamont, S. (1999). Gender and the discourse of derision.  Research papers in Education, 14 (1), 3-21.

Drudy, S. (2008). Gender balance/gender bias: The teaching profession and the impact of feminisation.  Gender and education, 20 (4), 309-323.

Mitsos, E., & Browne, K. (1998). Gender differences in education: the underachievement of boys.  Sociology Review, 8 , 27-29.

Mulvey, J. (2010). The feminization of schools.  The Education Digest, 75 (8), 35.

Skelton, C. (2002). The “feminisation of schooling’ or ‘re-masculinising” primary education?[1].  International Studies in Sociology of Education, 12 (1), 77-96.

Wiener, J. (1995). History lesson. New Republic, 212 (1), 9-11.

Mentorship, leadership opportunities open world of possibility for education graduate

Breyana Wilson is graduating with a bachelor's degree in education and human development.

KALAMAZOO, Mich.—Teachers change lives. Breyana Wilson chose Western Michigan University because of the impact her middle school English teacher, alumna Stephanie Hampton , B.A.'10, M.A.'14., had on her. And now, after four years at Western, it's Wilson's turn to inspire future Broncos. 

The soon-to-be education and human development graduate secured a full-time job with the Kalamazoo Promise, months before graduation, as a pathway coach, mentoring high school seniors.

"It was initially an internship until I was hired in January," says Wilson, a Kalamazoo Promise recipient herself. "I really love it."

Wilson is working as a pathway coach for the Kalamazoo Promise.

It's an outcome Wilson didn't necessarily see in the cards when she first stepped on campus intent on pursuing a degree in special education. But a multitude of experiences and leadership opportunities have illuminated a new sense of purpose.

"When I transitioned to the education and human development degree, I was able to take classes in creative writing and African and African American studies—topics that I enjoy and that I was passionate about," she says. "I've learned a lot about myself. I'm really proud of the growth that I made."

Wilson attributes her thriving at Western to a deep support system, which she first found as a first-year student struggling to make the transition from high school to college courses at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. As part of the Humanities for Everybody bridge year program, Wilson had a mentor who advocated for her and set her up for success by connecting her with tutoring and other support services on campus.

"I wouldn't have had that anywhere else. Western has really allowed me to be connected, allowed me to reach out and to learn how to reach out," says Wilson. "It really gave me the ability to have the college experience in full and to be successful in my college experience. I was able to take advantage of everything and get the help and support I needed if I needed it."

SET UP FOR SUCCESS

Once Wilson hit her stride on campus, there was no looking back. She joined a number of registered student organizations, racking up leadership positions within the Black Student Union, Future Teachers of Color and Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority Inc.—the latter of which she calls a "monumental experience" in her college journey.

"A lot of the leadership experiences I've had have taught me how to … do the groundwork and create a foundation to build something," she says. "The work that I've done and the experiences I've had have allowed me to create a foundation for my professional life."

Wilson, second from left, was a leader in the Future Teachers of Color registered student organization.

Wilson also engaged in a number of opportunities to gain experience in the education field that not only bolstered her resume but also helped her fine-tune her future career plans. She worked in many youth-based organizations, including after-school programs, Communities in Schools and Gryphon Place’s restorative practice and suicide intervention training.

The experiences helped her learn she's more interested in working with older youth populations than in traditional elementary classroom settings.

"When I worked for Gryphon Place, I got to be more of a friend. I didn't have to be the leader or the support staff who's reprimanding children because they had a rough day at school," she says. 

"I know that I want to work in a school-adjacent capacity; my heart hasn't changed. I love learning and teaching and reading, and I'm super excited about literacy and youth and how those things work together to make a change in their lives."

Wilson is now considering pursuing a master's degree in higher education and student affairs . She says it's a career path she hadn't considered before Western, but it's one that a number of her mentors have recommended as they've seen her grow as a leader and social justice advocate.

" Dr. Luchara Wallace was one of the first people who really supported what I was trying to do at Western. Melissa Holman is another one; Sherrie Fuller , Dr. Deveta Gardner and a lot of the Black women on this campus really have a heart for empowerment and uplifting students," Wilson says. "Having role models and people to look up to that look like me makes it clear that I can do these things, because they paved the way and made it possible. It's very inspiring and motivating."

A role model in her own right, Wilson hopes her story of perseverance and growth will provide some encouragement for prospective students.

"I tell people all the things I'm involved in and that I was a full-time student and worked—multiple jobs sometimes—the entire time I was in school. It can be done. But I would not have been able to do that if I did not have the support that I received from Western faculty, the friends that I've made and the family I've come to know from Western," says Wilson. 

"You can come from any kind of background situation, you can come from nothing like what you're seeing here at Western, and create a completely different life for yourself."

For more WMU news, arts and events , visit WMU News online.

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Explaining Gender Inequality in Education – In School Factors

labelling, subcultures, the feminisation of teaching, coursework and boys’ overconfidence are all possible reasons.

Table of Contents

Last Updated on May 17, 2023 by Karl Thompson

In-school factors which may explain the gender gap in education include labelling, laddish subcultures and the feminisation of teaching. 

Teacher Labelling

Swann and Graddol (1994) found that teachers tend to see boys as unruly and disruptive and are more likely to spend time telling them off than helping them with schoolwork. Teachers have lower expectations of boys and so are less inclined to push them hard to achieve high standards. Because of their disruptive behaviour they are more likely to be excluded. Four out of five permanent exclusions are boys. With Ladette culture this may be changing (Jackson, 2006)

John Abraham (1986) asked teachers to describe a typical boy and a typical girl – The typical boy was described as not particularly bright, likes a laugh and always attention seeking, often by messing around. The typical girl is bright, well –behaved and hard working, being quiet and timid. As a result he found that boys were told off much more easily than girls.

Subcultures and ‘Laddishness’

Working class boys especially tend to form anti-school subcultures. Paul Willis (1977) found this with his research with the lads, Tony Sewell (1997) argues that there is a black –anti school masculinity and Diane Reay et al (2003) found that boys felt they had little control over their educational learning and so seek power through other negative strategies.

Unlike the anti-social subculture discovered by Paul Willis, some researchers such as Abrahams (1988) and Mirza (1992) have found evidence of pro-school female subcultures who actively encourage each other to study.

Carolyn Jackson (2006) – Found that laddish behaviour had important benefits – it made students seam cool and thus popular. She also argued that it was a response to the fear of failure – it made students seam unbothered about failing, so if they did FAIL they would not look bad. Furthermore, if lads and ladettes did well, they would be labelled as a genius – doing well with apparently no effort

Frosh and Phoenix – Mainly focus group interviews but some individual interviews Sample of 245 boys and 27girls in 12 schools Young Masculinities (2000) Found that few boys were able to be both popular and academically successful Conscientious boys who tried hard at school were often labelled as feminine or gay.

The Feminisation of teaching

There are more female than male teachers, especially in primary school where only 15% of teachers are male.

In line with women increasingly going into more professional careers, secondary schooling has also seen a rise in female teachers. This means that girls increasingly have positive role models while boys may fail to identify with female teachers.

One consequence of there being fewer male teachers working in primary schools is that the curriculum, teaching styles and means of assessment, are more appropriate to the learning styles of girls. Consequently government strategies of teacher recruitment now suggest that pupils will benefit from ‘gender-matching’ with teachers.

Some primary schools do not have any male staff members at all, and this can be especially problematic for boys with learning difficulties who tend to respond better to male staff.

The introduction of coursework

Coursework was introduced with the 1988 Education Act and this is precisely when girls started to outperform boys in education. Coursework may benefit girls in education because they are better organised and more likely to do work outside of lessons.

Boys’ overconfidence

Michael Barber (1996) showed that boys overestimate their ability, and girls underestimate theirs. Francis research in 3 London schools (1998-9) found that some boys thought it would be easy to do well in exams without having to put much effort in. When they fail they tend to blame the teacher or their own lack of effort, not ability and feel undervalued.

However, there is a counter argument to this (1). Boys with the same ability as girls tend to have better exam performance in specifically maths, and it seems that girls’ lack of confidence in what they perceive to be technically demanding subjects results in them being less likely to choose STEM subjects and perform less well than their intellectual peers in maths.

Limitations of in school factors in explaining differences in educational achievement

The introduction of coursework in 1988 seams to have had a major impact on girl’s surging ahead of boys because girls suddenly surged ahead at this time

Research by Skelton et al found that the Feminisation of teaching does not have a negative impact on educational performance of boys. They found that most pupils and teachers reported that matching pupils and teachers by gender did not significantly affect pupils’ educational experiences. Sixty-five per cent of children rejected the idea that the gender of the teacher mattered, with no major differences between girls and boys. The majority of pupils also believed that the behaviour of male and female teachers in the classroom was generally very similar in terms of fairness, encouragement and discipline.

Out of school factors must also play a role – boys learn to be ‘typical boys’ at home first of all and then their peers just reinforce this.

Don’t exaggerate the extent of male underachievement – boys are still improving in education and are now catching up with girls once more.

SignPosting

This post has been written primarily for students of A-level sociology and is one of the major topics within the sociology of education module .

In-school factors are usually contrasted to Home based factors which explain gender differences in educational achievement.

Another closely related topic within education is that of the relationship between education and gender identity .

(1) (1) Chiara Cavaglia, Stephen Machin, Sandra McNally, and Jenifer Ruiz-Valenzuela (2020)  Gender, achievement, and subject choice in English education

(2) Gender Trust: Gender Inequality in the British Education System

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3 thoughts on “Explaining Gender Inequality in Education – In School Factors”

• Pingback: How I Would’ve Answered Yesterday’s AS Sociology Exam Paper (7191/1 – Education) | ReviseSociology

The problem of the male crisis has “not been looked at” in terms of much differential treatment that increases as we go down the socioeconomic ladder and more time in those environments. If we look in those areas, we cannot help but see how the numbers of Male problems diminish greatly as we go up the socioeconomic ladder. Even in higher socioeconomic areas, those Males are also falling behind their female peers. As we go down the socioeconomic ladder, the numbers increase greatly. We need to look at “much differential treatment of boys and girls beginning from infancy through adulthood. It is amazing to me that such differential treatment has not been looked at by the researchers. I imagine there are two reasons: 1. The belief in genetics has blinded researchers to the great social, environmental causes of learning, motivation, and academics. 2. The present view of average stress sees stress only as occurring in some present situation, event, or work. We need to see how our average stress is made up many layers of past, present, future – experiences, fears, preparations for defense, needs, values of others, and a host of unresolved mental work that remains with us we each carry as individuals as an average that takes up real mental energy from thinking, learning, motivation to learn, and affects our mental/emotional health. To understand this we must redefine average stress as many layers of mental work that take up real mental energy. Picture an upright rectangle showing our full mental energy. Now begin at the bottom drawing in narrowly spaced, horizontal lines to represent many layers of past, present, future -experiences, *aggressions given children (that create long lasting mental conflict); values of self/others; anything creating unresolved mental work, needs, or anxiety both past and present. All of those layers are being mentally dealt with as layers of mental work. Stop about half way. The space leftover shows our leftover ability to think and learn. This shows just how environments and “differential treatment” greatly affect thinking and learning, not genetics. The Figure showing this will go to all on request. The problem is more complex than school curriculum or boy chemistry. We need to stop looking at where boys are in life, character, and behavior and begin seeing how boys are treated from infancy very differently from us as girls. We need to see how the more aggressive treatment they are given from infancy by parents, teachers, and peers is creating more learning problems and less than correct behavior or care for authority and school. To understand this, “we must redefine our average stress as many layers of mental work we carry with us that take away real mental energy leaving less mental energy to think, learn, concentrate, and enjoy the learning process”. This differential treatment creates very real differences in learning by individual and by group. The problem involves two entirely different treatments of Males and Females as early as one year of age and increases in differential treatment. This is creating the growing Male Crisis. The belief Males should be strong allows more aggressive treatment of Males as early as one year, designed to create more layers of agitation, fear, and tension, so they will be prepared to fight, defend, and be tough. This is coupled with much “less” kind, stable, (very little verbal interaction) and less mental/emotional/social support, knowledge, and skills for fear of coddling. It is this more aggressive, less supportive treatment that creates the toughness or maintained, higher average layers of – anger, fear, anxiety, preparation for defense, etc. This remains in the mind as higher average stress that take away real mental energy needed for academics. This increases over time and continued by society from parents, yes teachers, and others in society. This creates more social/emotional distance/distrust of others -parents and other authority figures who have knowledge; lags in communication, lower social vocabulary, poor sentence structure; also higher average stress: more layers of mental agitated conflicts and fears taking away real mental energy that hurt learning and motivation to learn. This also creates more activity due to need for stress relief from their higher average stress. It creates more defensiveness and wariness of others further limiting social and emotional growth. The higher average stress creates higher muscle tension (creating more pressure on the pencil and tighter grip) that hurts writing and motivation to write (hurting the writing and creating early fatigue). It creates much lag in development due to lack of care, creating a learned sense of helplessness in school. This differential treatment continues through adulthood, almost fixing many Males onto roads of failure and escape into more short-term areas of enjoyment. Also society gives Males love and honor (essential needs for self-worth) only on condition of some achievement or status. This was designed to keep Male esteem and feelings of self-worth low to keep them striving and even give their lives in time of war for small measures of love and honor. Males not achieving in school or other are given more ridicule and discipline to make them try harder. Support is not an option for fear of coddling. Many Males thus falling behind in academics then turn their attention toward video games, and sports to receive small measures of love and honor not received in the classroom. The belief boys should be strong and the false belief in genetics creates a mental denial of any connection with differential treatment and the lower academics, lower esteem, and other problems, removing all good sense when it comes to raising boys today. I feel there is an almost emotional cannibalism allowed upon Males by society, even young Males who appear weak, all to make them tough. Note, it is not just about feelings and more openness that is needed as it is more support and care in general from infancy. Remember it is the aggressive treatment that is increased for any sign of weakness and much wariness they feel for others, especially adults (parents and teachers) who feel it necessary – and more freely allowed to use more aggressive treatment for any sign of weakness or vulnerability. As for reading, we need high social vocabulary, social experience with sentence structure, and “lower average stress to perform the abstract skill of reading: decoding, visualizing, organizing, reaching back into our social vocabulary to learn new words in print, and enjoying the process. Boys are deprived in these areas due to much less care, verbal interaction, and more aggressive treatment. This hurts boys in many ways when it comes to reading. As for writing, we also need much social vocabulary to understand and put words into print. We also need lower average stress to create more ease of writing. The substantial higher average stress in boys creates significant higher muscle tension, which then creates a much tighter grip and much more pressure on their pencil or pen. This creates poor handwriting and early fatigue. This later kills off motivation to write, hence more two and three word sentences from boys and very little writing. I feel the shows of masculinity and misbehavior are pretty much copouts to both show separation from failure in school and to gleam small measures of love and honor from peers. The defensiveness from authority is really pretty straight forward, especially in lower socioeconomic areas where strength, power, and status hold very real currency in those areas. For those students it is not just misbehavior but a real tug of war or fight for minimum feelings of self-worth from a continual fight they feel outside the classroom as well as in. The suicide epidemic is the result of Males being deprived sufficiently from those essential feelings of self-worth of less love and honor simply for being boys or men. The training they are given from an early age is preventing many of them from competing in the information age and thus losing the means to secure legally – income, status, and power to earn in some way, love and honor from society. This is also creating many continual interactions with even more aggressive, less respectful treatment, which only increases their psychological suffering, which further wears down their feelings of self-worth or desire to live. This creates over time, psychological suffering that wears down their remaining feelings of self-worth to the point of suicide. There is no net provided for Male children and adults, all designed to make them tougher, even to the point of suicide. All persons given such treatment may escape in many ways given more harsh, less supportive treatment, and less respect over time. I feel we are seeing only Male suicides and not seeing all of the many harmful escapes many persons are using instead of suicide in the form of much drug and alcohol abuse, now mainly by Male children and adults. As girls, we are treated much better and so enjoy more hope and care from society. Since we as girls by differential treatment are given much more positive, continual, mental, emotional/social support verbal interaction and care from an early age onward this creates quite the opposite outcome for girls compared with boys. We enjoy much more continuous care and support from infancy through adulthood and receive love and honor simply for being girls. This creates all of the good things: lower average stress for more ease of learning. We do enjoy much freedom of expression from much protection that makes us look less stable at times. Of course we can also use that same freedom of expression to give verbal, silent abuse, and hollow kindness/patronization to our Male peers with impunity knowing we are protected. We enjoy lower muscle tension for better handwriting/motivation; higher social vocabulary; lower average stress for reading/motivation; much more positive, trust/communication with adults, teachers, peers; and much more support for perceived weaknesses. We are reaping a bonanza in the information age. The lower the socioeconomic bracket and time in that bracket the more amplified the differential treatment from a young age and increased and more differentiated over time. Now with girls and women taking over many areas of society, we are enjoying even more lavishing of love and honor, while boys and men are still treated to be tough are failing more and so are being given even more ridicule and abuse by society and yes, also by girls and women using our protected freeness of expression and now, even from false feelings of superiority. My learning theory and article on the Male Crisis will go to all on request or can be read from my home site.

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80 kindergartners, 5 adults: Could a new teaching model come to Michigan schools?

In February, as winter wore on across the Midwest, a group of Michigan school administrators found themselves in the desert.

Not on vacation — they rarely were afforded the chance to enjoy the Arizona sun at all, and one day during their visit it rained, they said. No, they mostly spent their time in classrooms. The Michigan administrators were on a quest for information, a search to bring an Arizona experiment back to some of the state's classrooms.

And a few think they found it: a model of teaching that involves a team of educators teaching a large group of students — sometimes as many as 100 students to five teachers. The concept recently took shape in Arizona schools, as a part of an idea developed by Arizona State University's Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College.

The idea is that students need more educators, not fewer. The way it's executed depends on the school. Some schools have large classrooms to accommodate as many as 100 students, while some schools have kids sorted into groups that circulate from one classroom attached to another. At Stevenson Elementary in Mesa, Arizona, 83 first and second graders filter into the same room in the mornings for a "family meeting," before breaking out into groups and visiting their different teachers throughout the day.

Is 83 first and second graders in the same room overwhelming for educators? No, said Tara Spielberger, lead teacher for the class. It's a blast. Sometimes the kids do morning yoga.

"I love family meeting," she said. "It's a lot of fun for the kids."

The goal of what ASU is calling the Next Education Workforce is to reduce teacher burnout, boost student achievement and encourage educators to stay in the classroom amid a teacher shortage. Measuring whether team teaching is successful will take several years, but ASU leaders say the data collected already is promising. Now, Michigan educators want to try it out, too, with at least one district, Concord Community Schools near Jackson, making plans to adapt the model for a school this fall.

"Teachers working in a team get to know students on a very personal level," said Rebecca Hutchinson, superintendent of Concord Community Schools, one of the superintendents who visited Arizona. "It feels more like a family versus a classroom and a teacher. So that type of relationship that's able to be built in a team allows for a sense of personalized learning and targeted support."

Teaching in teams

Team teaching isn't a new concept, it was a trendy idea in schools in the 1960s across the country, including in Michigan. Randolph Elementary in Livonia, along with other school buildings across southeast Michigan, was originally designed for team teaching, with folding walls, according to a Detroit Free Press article from 1966. A spokeswoman with the district says the school no longer has folding walls or uses a team teaching model. It's unclear why schools moved away from the model then.

But teacher shortages across the country have put the model back into focus, starting around 2019 when ASU first started helping schools execute team teaching models. Their work has expanded into 13 states and 30 different school systems since then, said Brent Maddin, executive director of Next Education Workforce.

Classrooms are structured in different ways depending on a school's needs. Teams of educators should meet regularly to track how students are faring and teams may not just contain certified educators, but also student teachers, instructional aides and even community members with special expertise volunteering on a part-time basis.

Having multiple adults work with a large group of kids offers more flexibility around what teachers can do for students, Maddin said. Teachers can focus on subject areas where they really excel, and can do more intervention with students who need it.

"In a one teacher: one classroom model, a teacher is trying to do it all," he said. "The moment that you have multiple educators together, you can ... group and regroup kids in all sorts of really interesting ways."

At Stevenson, students in the grades five and six class have a period called "What I need" baked into their schedule, so teachers can work on personalizing intervention, according to Lindsay Pombier, one of the class' teachers. On a Monday morning in her reading classroom, students circulate trying to answer questions about words with multiple meanings. (For example: the word "saw" could be the past tense for "see" or the tool used for cutting materials.) Then, students grab pillows or stools to read independently while Pombier watches.

Pombier likes focusing on reading, she said. Before, in a traditional teaching model, she struggled teaching students different subjects all day.

"In traditional, I taught all the subjects, I had kids all day, and it's overwhelming trying to do everything and be the expert in everything because I just wasn't," she said. "I love that we kind of share that load."

Tackling a teacher shortage

Michigan's teacher shortage is particularly complicated right now . While research shows high turnover during the pandemic and schools report particular shortages in subject areas such as special education, some districts are in a financial pinch, which is only forecast to worsen as federal pandemic relief money dries up. And, student enrollment at public schools has declined while staffing levels have increased .

Still, state leaders say retaining educators and attracting more into the field is important.

Jack Elsey's full-time job is working to recruit and retain more full-time teachers into Michigan's schools. Elsey, a former Detroit public schools assistant superintendent, is the founder of the Michigan Educator Workforce Initiative. Part of the organization's mission is to transform classrooms to encourage more educators into the profession.

"How do we transform the profession enough that people get interested in it?" he asked. "The more people get interested in it, more people stay. But then also, obviously, the big goal here is: How do we serve kids better?"

Elsey had heard about ASU's work in other schools and asked a group of Michigan superintendents if they'd be interested in experimenting with the way they staff their schools. Leaders from about seven or eight districts eventually made their way to Arizona and Elsey's team continues to work with interested school leaders about putting the model into districts as soon as feasible.

For Hutchinson, doing something new to retain and recruit new teachers is a critical need. In the next three to five years, roughly 50% of her teaching workforce will be eligible for retirement, she said. Concord is a rural district, where attracting teachers to the small community is hard work.

"We are losing not only a person to teach, but we're also losing that experience and knowledge about our district systems, which are unique to us," she said.

That's a concern for Dan O'Connor's district, too. O'Connor is superintendent of Alcona Community Schools in northeast Michigan along Lake Huron. Alcona, also a rural district, has a lot of veteran teachers who O'Connor wants to mentor the next generation in Alcona, and work with student teachers, teachers early in their career and even school employees motivated to get their teaching degrees to eventually teach in the district. For the veteran teachers, it's a path to a leadership role.

Team teaching might help Michigan districts "as our workforce changes and the experience levels are very different currently than then what they typically are," he said.

As a former teacher, Elsey liked that the teachers he saw in Arizona weren't siloed. When he was a first-year teacher, Elsey remembered feeling very isolated and making a lot of mistakes. He wished he could have had more mentorship.

In a team teaching model, he said, "I wouldn't have felt so lonely and isolated and frankly like such a failure as a teacher because I failed a lot in my first year."

Is it successful?

At Stevenson, state test scores have not increased among all grades, but the performance data may also be impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, as students struggle to catch up, according to state data. Stevenson also largely serves students in low-income communities, and often student test scores coincide with poverty levels.

Maddin said ASU is particularly interested in measuring whether these models will impact student attendance rates at a time when chronic absenteeism across the country, including in Michigan , has skyrocketed.

"We need to be considering both educator outcomes and learner outcomes," he said.

Team teaching won't change school funding levels from the state, and won't solve what is often a major complaint among teachers, which is inadequate pay. But it may make teachers more satisfied with their jobs.

ASU is waiting on additional academic data to see how students have performed under team teaching models. A survey from Johns Hopkins University found educators collaborated more in the new setup, were more satisfied in their jobs and had more positive interactions with students, even though they saw more students in a day.

Stevenson teachers said the team model has transformed their workplace. Spielberger said she used to count the years until she could retire, after more than 20 years in the classroom. Now, not so much.

"I mean, still there's a lot of stress, there's a lot of pressure," she said. "But not like there used to be. I only have to develop one really good lesson a day. And I can focus on making that lesson the best that it can be as, whereas I was trying to spread myself thin over four or five different curriculums."

Mary Pierce, an ASU student set to graduate in May, has been a student teacher at Stevenson in the kindergarten classroom since the fall. On April 15, she read a storybook to the kindergartners and led the class, along with the head teacher, in a conversation about what she'd read.

Pierce likes that she gets to work with multiple teachers at a time and learn different styles.

"All of that has really helped prepare me as I go into my first year of teaching," she said.

Disclosure: The reporter teaches online communication classes at Arizona State University's communications school, but has no involvement with ASU's Teacher's College or the Next Education Workforce.

Contact Lily Altavena: [email protected].

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Role Modeling in Medical Education: The Importance of a Reflective Imitation

The medical literature almost uniformly addresses the positive aspects of role modeling. Still, some authors have questioned its educational value, a disagreement that is probably due to differing definitions of role modeling. If defined as demonstration of skills, provision of feedback, and emulation of specific professional behaviors, then role modeling is an important component of clinical training. However, if it is defined as a learner’s unselective imitation of role models and uncritical adoption of the messages of the learning environment, then the benefits of role modeling should be weighed against its unintended harm.

In this Perspective, the author argues that imitation of role models may initially help students adapt to the clinical environment. However, if sustained, imitation may perpetuate undesirable practices, such as doctor-centered patient interviewing, and unintended institutional norms, such as discrimination between private and public patients. The author suggests that the value of role modeling can be advanced not only by targeting role models and improving faculty performance but also by enhancing students’ reflective assessment of their preceptors’ behaviors, especially so that they can better discern those that are worth imitating. This student-centered approach may be accomplished by first, warning students against uncritically imitating preceptors who are perceived as role models; second, showing students that their preceptors share their doubts and uncertainties; third, gaining an insight into possible undesirable messages of the learning environment; and finally, developing policies for faculty recruitment and promotion that consider whether a clinical preceptor is a role model.

Medical students’ observations of behaviors, specifically those of their role models, are believed to affect learning more than formal teaching. 1 , 2 Research shows that, indeed, as many as 90% of medical graduates remember role models who shaped their professional attitudes. 3 The medical literature almost uniformly addresses role modeling as a powerful, 4 albeit underexploited, 5 teaching strategy. There is evidence that students can identify positive role models 6 ; student-identified role models agree with their students about what is important to model 7 ; and peer-identified, positive role models devote more time to teaching and stress the importance of the doctor–patient relationship and the psychosocial aspects of medicine. 8 Additional research has shown that exposure to physicians at various clinical settings affects students’ career choices 3 , 9 , 10 ; that viewing videotaped teacher performance changes learners’ attitudes 11 – 13 ; and that demonstrations, as opposed to lectures, promote students’ acquisition of skills. 13 – 15

Educators have interpreted these findings as an endorsement of role modeling’s value. They have suggested that students’ “pain of medical training” may be alleviated by role models with appropriate attitudes, 16 and by faculty development aimed at role model training that reinforces empathy, compassion, and caring. 17 , 18 Still, some authors have questioned the broader implications of role modeling, pointing out that its standards are elusive, and that “educators lack an adequate understanding of the process through which learners respond to models.” 5 Other authors have argued that role models merely reinforce views held at the start of training, and therefore, they exert little influence on students’ values 19 ; that some clinical tutors may show unethical behavior and cause students’ confusion 20 ; and that role modeling encourages imitative rather than active learning. 21 , 22

What, then, is the value of role modeling in medical education, and should students be encouraged to emulate role models? In this Perspective, I address these questions. I argue that faculty efforts to improve role modeling, first and foremost, should promote learners’ reflective assessment of their preceptors’ professional behaviors, especially so that they can better discern those that are worth imitating; second, identify and correct undesirable messages of the learning environment; third, show students that preceptors share their doubts and uncertainties; and only then, finally, develop role models with desirable professional attributes. I start by examining the various definitions attributed to role modeling, and then I consider the educational value of role modeling. Next, I examine how the learning environment can affect role modeling. I conclude with a discussion of reflectivity and how it can improve role modeling.

Definition of Role Models and Role Modeling

Role modeling eludes precise definition. Clearly, it is different from mentoring and teaching in the sense that “a teacher … facilitates learning, while role-models are persons from whom [one] wants to gain some of their attributes.” 23 Still, different authors have explicitly or implicitly used definitions with varying degrees of blurring the boundary between role modeling and effective teaching. Some authors have used the term role modeling to refer to deliberate teaching interventions, such as demonstration of skills 13 – 15 or behaviors, 24 , 25 which are intended to achieve specific learning objectives. This definition implies a conscious activity by both teachers and learners. Other authors define role modeling as either unconscious 5 , 26 or conscious 23 , 24 teaching by practicing physicians who are by default role models because they are observed by students, and as both unconscious and conscious learning by students through reflection and abstraction. 4 , 25 Still other authors have implied that role modeling is a predominantly unconscious adoption 18 , 26 or imitation 21 , 22 of the role models’ attributes by the learners.

A second ambiguity is related to the definition of the role models themselves. The term “role model” was first used to refer to a person who “occupies the social role to which an individual aspires.” 27 This definition is consistent with claims that medical students are drawn to figures of status 28 ; however, it is at variance with how medical education research defines a role model: a person who is considered as a standard of excellence to be imitated because of his or her professional attributes. 29

Studies of role modeling commonly use surveys 3 , 7 , 8 , 23 , 24 , 29 , 30 and focus groups 10 to gain insight into students’ reasons for recognizing role models as such, and into the role models’ self-reported attributes. Students’ reasons for identifying a positive role model have included personality, skills, competence, and teaching ability, but not research achievements and academic position. 3 , 31 Students perceived preceptors who appeared insensitive to patients as negative role models. 10 Role models’ self-reported attributes were their competence and teaching skills 23 ; respect for and personal interest in patients 24 ; enthusiasm for specialty, reasoning skills, and close doctor–patient relationships 7 , 32 ; and consideration of the psychosocial aspects of medicine. 8

These observations suggest that students perceive role models as such because of their personal and professional attributes. However, this conclusion is at odds with the claim that medical students emulate those doctors who have responsibility and status. 28 It is possible, therefore, that the reasons students provide for choosing role models are different from the real ones: Students may say they admire a head of a clinical service, for example, because of her competence, while actually emulating her, consciously or subconsciously, because they aspire to her social role. 26

The Educational Value of Role Modeling

The educational value of role modeling depends on how it is defined. If defined as a demonstration of skills and provision of feedback after observing students’ performance, then role modeling is a crucial component of clinical training. If defined as encouraging students to observe and reflect on the benefits and drawbacks of their preceptors’ behaviors and emulate those which they feel are important, then role modeling is similarly essential for students’ professional development. However, if role modeling refers to a conscious or unconscious unselective imitation of a role model’s behaviors and/or to an uncritical conformity with the formal (institutional culture) and unacknowledged (hidden curriculum) messages of the learning environment, then its benefits should be weighed against its unintended harm.

The benefit of imitation is that it helps students’ initial coping with the overwhelming challenges of clinical rotations, which have been described as “how to survive in a threatening environment and how to please authority figures.” 33 Treadway and Chatterjee 34 have claimed that “the rules governing the responses to [clinical] experiences are unclear … so students take their cues from the behaviors they observe.” In other words, just as children learn by imitating, so also role modeling meets an important need of medical students—namely, to take their cues from observed behaviors. Contrary to the claim that imitative learning is incompatible with active learning, Schon 35 has argued that although “we do not like imitating … we are continually doing it … the imitative reconstruction of an observed action is a kind of problem solving.”

However, although imitation is important for students’ initial adaptation to the clinical environment, sustained uncritical imitation of role models may “stifle students’ critical reflection” 5 and prevent students from responding to evolving ethical norms and patients’ needs. 26 It may also promote a judgmental right/wrong dualism towards values and behaviors. 36 Therefore, I suggest that faculty should warn students against the tendency to uncritically imitate one or more of their tutors, because none of them is error-proof, and none of them combines, at all times, all of the qualities of the ideal clinician. Rather, students should be encouraged to critically assess the attributes of their clinical preceptors, with an intention to select those attributes that are perceived useful and worth adopting.

Here again, the analogy with children’s learning seems appropriate. Children do not learn language through imitation alone because the language spoken around them is highly irregular, and because adults’ speech is often broken up and ungrammatical. Chomsky suggests that the principles of a language and its grammatical structures are “hard-wired” in the brain, thereby providing children with an ability to learn despite the irregularities in the language that is spoken around them. 37 Similarly, medical students should be trained to encode the principles of professional attitudes and behavior so that they are able to recognize and ignore instances when these principles are violated.

Indeed, there is evidence that not all doctors with teaching responsibilities have the attributes that students say they seek in role models. In one study, only 40% of the attending physicians were identified by one or more residents as role models, 8 and another survey found that as many as half of the clerks felt their teachers were not good role models. 38 Still, as pointed out by Skeff and Mutha, 39 “faculty members [who are] not generally identified as role models can still be important in reshaping and broadening learners’ views.” In other words, rather than being morally distressed by clinical preceptors’ unethical behavior, students should be encouraged to view such behavior as a learning opportunity and to critically assess the advantages and disadvantages of the observed behaviors. Instead of telling students that there is a right and a wrong way to interview patients, preceptors should urge students to discuss different interviewing techniques in an atmosphere characterized by respect for the techniques’ worth, critical assessment of various approaches, and student empowerment to choose for themselves the elements that they like best among the different interviewing styles. Finally, students should be encouraged to discriminate among behaviors, rather than among preceptors, and treat all of them with respect—rather than admiring “positive” role models, and deriding “bad” role models—because everybody can learn something from everybody else.

The Educational Value of the Learning Environment

Clinical training is delivered by clinical preceptors in a defined learning environment, both of which are interdependent and complementary, 4 , 5 , 18 and so it is sometimes impossible to discern between the influence of role modeling and that of the learning environment in general, and particularly of the hidden curriculum. The hidden curriculum affects the behavior of role models, and role models deliver its messages to students. Therefore, any discussion of role modeling must transcend individuals and examine the hidden curriculum and institutional culture.

The hidden curriculum may nega tively affect some clinical learning environments by enhancing rather than alleviating students’ fear of personal inadequacy, and by failing to mitigate students’ prejudice against mental illness. 40 The hidden curriculum may also perpetuate undesirable behaviors, such as doctor-centered patient interviewing in order to save time; humiliating students as a misguided attempt to encourage learning; and making disparaging remarks about primary care physicians, epidemiologists, and psychiatrists in an attempt to promote a biomedical approach to patient care. 5 , 41 , 42

Another disturbing aspect of the clinical learning environment is that some health care providers appear to unintentionally discriminate among patients. There is evidence that white patients have better access than African American patients to specialized services, 43 – 46 and white patients are more likely to be referred to single hospital rooms than African Americans with similar health insurance coverage. 47 The increasing proportion of privately insured patients in countries with universal medical insurance has further enhanced the inequalities in health care delivery. For example, it has been reported that in Israeli public hospitals that permit physicians to also admit private patients, the lead surgeon was of tenured rank in 99% of the most complex private cases, but only in 74% of the most complex public cases, 48 and that 87% of the private patients, but only 74% of the public patients, were satisfied with various aspects of their relationship with their physicians. 49

Because of the inevitable heterogeneity in the personal and professional attributes of clinical preceptors, as well as the undesirable aspects of the learning environment in some clinical teaching settings, efforts to improve role modeling should be targeted at students. Efforts to reduce the impact of a learning environment’s undesirable messages should complement those aimed at increasing the number of positive role models among clinical preceptors. First and foremost, though, faculty should encourage students to observe, criticize, and be selective in adopting the messages of their preceptors and learning environment. In other words, students’ reflectivity is the most important prerequisite for effective role modeling.

Definitions of Reflectivity and Difficulties in Promoting It

Reflectivity is an all-inclusive term for several overlapping constructs, defined below. “Reflective practitioners” think about what they do while doing, 35 particularly when confronting a new, unfamiliar problem. “Mindful practitioners” attend to their mental processes during everyday tasks, using critical self-reflection in order to recognize their own errors, and clarify their values. 50 Other concepts, such as self-awareness and introspection, refer to one’s understanding of one’s self; social intelligence and empathy refer to one’s understanding of others. Theory of Mind 51 and Reflective Function 52 include an understanding of both oneself and others. Finally, these concepts are related to a person’s intellectual 36 and moral 53 development, and tolerance of uncertainty. 54 , 55 Reflectivity 35 , 50 and tolerance of uncertainty 56 , 57 are relevant for clinical practice.

Perry’s 36 intellectual and ethical devel opment scale is a commonly used model to describe the development of reflectivity. According to Perry’s model, development occurs along a sequence of stages, which Perry called dualism, multiplicity, relativism, and commitment in relativism.

At the dualism stage, students believed in the existence of absolute truth and of a single correct answer for every question. They thought in terms of right and wrong, and made comments like “I disagree, and therefore, you are wrong.” The transition to the multiplicity stage began when students came across teachers / role models who answered “I don’t know.” Still, students’ belief in the existence of absolute truth remained unchallenged: Even if we do not know the right answer, in due time we shall know it. Until then, a multiplicity of opinions is legitimate, and therefore, “opinions can’t be judged.” Towards the end of the multiplicity stage, students realized that one can judge opinions, and that even in areas of uncertainty, a problem may have a limited number of legitimate solutions that are congruent with available data, and an unlimited number of illegitimate approaches, which are illogical and divorced from reality. This realization signaled their transition to relativism. Now students would say, “I disagree, but you may be right,” rather than, “I disagree and, therefore, you are wrong.” At this stage, the merits of each alternative appear so clearly that choosing among them became impossible. Students progressed to the final stage—com mitment in relativism—when they understood that, unless they were to remain frozen in indecision, they would have to commit themselves to a decision, even if they would regret it in light of future evidence. The development along Perry’s scheme may be seen as an increase in tolerance of uncertainty: Uncertainty was rejected in dualism, viewed as temporary in multiplicity, accepted as legitimate during relativism, and dealt with when students affirmed themselves in their commitments. The development along Perry’s scheme may be also seen as a transition from blind imitation of role models to a critical and selective adoption of specific role models’ behaviors and attitudes.

Studies of medical students’ reflectivity or related concepts have shown that most students believed that value judgments were either true or false 58 ; that their intellectual development was mainly at the dualism or multiplicity stage 59 ; that they expressed “predominantly simplistic levels of thinking” 60 ; that their reflective ability decreased over the course of the final academic year 61 ; and that there were no detectable differences in tolerance of uncertainty between junior and senior students. 54 , 62 , 63 Qualitative observations have suggested that medical students differ in their responses to observed inconsistencies in the communication styles of their clinical preceptors. Although some students thought that there was no excuse for a “poor” patient-interviewing technique, others attempted to reflect on, and understand, the reasons for the variability in their tutors’ communication styles. 64 Still other students have been reported to stick to “principles” that do not always apply to specific situations, or to express the cynical attitude of “give them what they want” 35 that characterizes Perry’s stage of multiplicity.

The evolution of a novice into a reflective practitioner is intellectually difficult and emotionally demanding. 36 The assumption that, in the uncertain realm of clinical practice, there is an absolute truth known to role models, is extremely attractive. Conformity with authority has been identified as a means by which medical students control anxieties generated by the complexity of the clinical environment. 65 In other words, it is easier to imitate role models than to grapple with the uncertainties inherent in clinical practice. Reflectivity necessitates more complex thinking than does a social code grounded in dominance, hierarchies, and conformity. 66 Furthermore, research suggests that certain aspects of reflectivity, such as self-awareness 67 and awareness of others’ feelings, 68 , 69 are associated with not only higher levels of interpersonal competence but also higher levels of psychological distress and a less favorable perception of one’s self. For all of these reasons, medical students need help maturing into reflective professionals. Students have to be provided with the knowledge and motivation that are needed for developing critical attitudes, for questioning the messages they receive from their clinical preceptors and from the hidden curriculum, and for moving away from the comfort inherent in conformity.

Several specific teaching interventions 70 , 71 have been suggested in order to promote students’ reflectivity and tolerance of uncertainty. Although such interventions are certainly worth exploring, I concur with the view that mindfulness cannot be taught explicitly but can be “modeled by mentors and cultivated in learners.” 50 Given Perry’s finding that the transition to the multiplicity stage began when students came across teachers who answered, “I don’t know,” it would appear to me that the main source of support in students’ intellectual and ethical development is the realization that they are not alone, and that their instructors share their doubts and uncertainties. 36 Therefore, I think that role models and role modeling are an important element of medical education. However, the main attribute of clinical role models is their openness in expressing their doubts and visibility in their deliberations. Seeing role models deliberate promotes students’ reflectivity, while students’ reflectivity is a prerequisite of effective role modeling.

Conclusions

Attempts to improve role modeling have been targeted primarily at the promotion of those personal attributes that learners and learner- or peer-identified role models identified as desirable. 4 , 5 , 18 In this Perspective, I have argued that these attempts alone are not likely to improve the educational value of role modeling. First, I know of no evidence that such attempts increase the proportion of clinical faculty who are “positive” role models. Second, it is uncertain whether the personal attributes, which learners say they admire, are those that they actually emulate. 26 Third, the heterogeneity in the strengths and weaknesses of individual faculty has, in and of itself, a unique educational value. 39

I believe that attempts to enhance the educational value of role modeling should include not only targeting the role models themselves and improving faculty performance but also targeting the students, with an intent to enhance their reflectivity and critical attitudes to their learning environment and clinical preceptors. Therefore, I suggest that faculty should, first, warn students against their tendency to uncritically imitate any of their preceptors; second, make students realize that their preceptors share their doubts and uncertainties; third, gain an insight into, and correct, undesirable features of the clinical setting’s hidden curriculum and institutional culture; and finally, develop policies for faculty recruitment and promotion that consider whether a clinical tutor is a “positive” role model only in the context of an overall evaluation of his or her strengths and weaknesses.

Funding/Support: None reported.

Other disclosures: None reported.

Ethical approval: Reported as not applicable.

Disclaimer: The opinions expressed in this article are those of the author alone and do not reflect the views of any institutions with which he was and is currently affiliated.