analysis in history essay

How to Analyze a Primary Source

When you analyze a primary source, you are undertaking the most important job of the historian. There is no better way to understand events in the past than by examining the sources — whether journals, newspaper articles, letters, court case records, novels, artworks, music or autobiographies — that people from that period left behind.

Each historian, including you, will approach a source with a different set of experiences and skills, and will therefore interpret the document differently. Remember that there is no one right interpretation. However, if you do not do a careful and thorough job, you might arrive at a wrong interpretation.

In order to analyze a primary source you need information about two things: the document itself, and the era from which it comes. You can base your information about the time period on the readings you do in class and on lectures. On your own you need to think about the document itself. The following questions may be helpful to you as you begin to analyze the sources:

• Look at the physical nature of your source. This is particularly important and powerful if you are dealing with an original source (i.e., an actual old letter, rather than a transcribed and published version of the same letter). What can you learn from the form of the source? (Was it written on fancy paper in elegant handwriting, or on scrap-paper, scribbled in pencil?) What does this tell you?
• Think about the purpose of the source. What was the author’s message or argument? What was he/she trying to get across? Is the message explicit, or are there implicit messages as well?
• How does the author try to get the message across? What methods does he/she use?
• What do you know about the author? Race, sex, class, occupation, religion, age, region, political beliefs? Does any of this matter? How?
• Who constituted the intended audience? Was this source meant for one person’s eyes, or for the public? How does that affect the source?
• What can a careful reading of the text (even if it is an object) tell you? How does the language work? What are the important metaphors or symbols? What can the author’s choice of words tell you? What about the silences — what does the author choose NOT to talk about?

Now you can evaluate the source as historical evidence.

• Is it prescriptive — telling you what people thought should happen — or descriptive — telling you what people thought did happen?
• Does it describe ideology and/or behavior?
• Does it tell you about the beliefs/actions of the elite, or of “ordinary” people? From whose perspective?
• What historical questions can you answer using this source? What are the benefits of using this kind of source?
• What questions can this source NOT help you answer? What are the limitations of this type of source?
• If we have read other historians’ interpretations of this source or sources like this one, how does your analysis fit with theirs? In your opinion, does this source support or challenge their argument?

Remember, you cannot address each and every one of these questions in your presentation or in your paper, and I wouldn’t want you to. You need to be selective.

– Molly Ladd-Taylor, Annette Igra, Rachel Seidman, and others

• 3. Historical Analysis and Interpretation

One of the most common problems in helping students to become thoughtful readers of historical narrative is the compulsion students feel to find the one right answer, the one essential fact, the one authoritative interpretation. “Am I on the right track?” “Is this what you want?” they ask. Or, worse yet, they rush to closure, reporting back as self-evident truths the facts or conclusions presented in the document or text.

These problems are deeply rooted in the conventional ways in which textbooks have presented history: a succession of facts marching straight to a settled outcome. To overcome these problems requires the use of more than a single source: of history books other than textbooks and of a rich variety of historical documents and artifacts that present alternative voices, accounts, and interpretations or perspectives on the past.

Students need to realize that historians may differ on the facts they incorporate in the development of their narratives and disagree as well on how those facts are to be interpreted. Thus, “history” is usually taken to mean what happened in the past; but written history is a dialogue among historians, not only about what happened but about why and how events unfolded. The study of history is not only remembering answers. It requires following and evaluating arguments and arriving at usable, even if tentative, conclusions based on the available evidence.

To engage in  historical analysis and interpretation  students must draw upon their skills of historical comprehension . In fact, there is no sharp line separating the two categories. Certain of the skills involved in comprehension overlap the skills involved in analysis and are essential to it. For example, identifying the author or source of a historical document or narrative and assessing its credibility (comprehension) is prerequisite to comparing competing historical narratives (analysis). Analysis builds upon the skills of comprehension; it obliges the student to assess the evidence on which the historian has drawn and determine the soundness of interpretations created from that evidence. It goes without saying that in acquiring these analytical skills students must develop the ability to differentiate between expressions of opinion, no matter how passionately delivered, and informed hypotheses grounded in historical evidence.

Well-written historical narrative has the power to promote students’ analysis of historical causality–of how change occurs in society, of how human intentions matter, and how ends are influenced by the means of carrying them out, in what has been called the tangle of process and outcomes. Few challenges can be more fascinating to students than unraveling the often dramatic complications of cause. And nothing is more dangerous than a simple, monocausal explanation of past experiences and present problems.

Finally, well-written historical narratives can also alert students to the traps of  lineality and inevitability . Students must understand the relevance of the past to their own times, but they need also to avoid the trap of lineality, of drawing straight lines between past and present, as though earlier movements were being propelled teleologically toward some rendezvous with destiny in the late 20th century.

A related trap is that of thinking that events have unfolded inevitably–that the way things are is the way they had to be, and thus that individuals lack free will and the capacity for making choices. Unless students can conceive that history could have turned out differently, they may unconsciously accept the notion that the future is also inevitable or predetermined, and that human agency and individual action count for nothing. No attitude is more likely to feed civic apathy, cynicism, and resignation–precisely what we hope the study of history will fend off. Whether in dealing with the main narrative or with a topic in depth, we must always try, in one historian’s words, to “restore to the past the options it once had.”

HISTORICAL THINKING STANDARD 3

The student engages in historical analysis and interpretation:

Therefore, the student is able to:

• Compare and contrast differing sets of ideas , values, personalities, behaviors, and institutions by identifying likenesses and differences.
• Consider multiple perspectives  of various peoples in the past by demonstrating their differing motives, beliefs, interests, hopes, and fears.
• Analyze cause-and-effect relationships  bearing in mind  multiple causation including (a)  the importance of the individual  in history; (b)  the influence of ideas , human interests, and beliefs; and (c) the role of chance, the accidental and the irrational.
• Draw comparisons across eras and regions in order to define enduring issues as well as large-scale or long-term developments that transcend regional and temporal boundaries.
• Distinguish between unsupported expressions of opinion and informed hypotheses grounded in historical evidence.
• Compare competing historical narratives.
• Challenge arguments of historical inevitability  by formulating examples of historical contingency, of how different choices could have led to different consequences.
• Hold interpretations of history as tentative , subject to changes as new information is uncovered, new voices heard, and new interpretations broached.
• Evaluate major debates among historians  concerning alternative interpretations of the past.
• Hypothesize the influence of the past , including both the limitations and opportunities made possible by past decisions.

Interesting links

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Before we get into how to write a history essay, let's first understand what makes one good. Different people might have different ideas, but there are some basic rules that can help you do well in your studies. In this guide, we won't get into any fancy theories. Instead, we'll give you straightforward tips to help you with historical writing. So, if you're ready to sharpen your writing skills, let our history essay writing service explore how to craft an exceptional paper.

What is a History Essay?

A history essay is an academic assignment where we explore and analyze historical events from the past. We dig into historical stories, figures, and ideas to understand their importance and how they've shaped our world today. History essay writing involves researching, thinking critically, and presenting arguments based on evidence.

Moreover, history papers foster the development of writing proficiency and the ability to communicate complex ideas effectively. They also encourage students to engage with primary and secondary sources, enhancing their research skills and deepening their understanding of historical methodology.

History Essay Outline

The outline is there to guide you in organizing your thoughts and arguments in your essay about history. With a clear outline, you can explore and explain historical events better. Here's how to make one:

Introduction

• Hook: Start with an attention-grabbing opening sentence or anecdote related to your topic.
• Background Information: Provide context on the historical period, event, or theme you'll be discussing.
• Thesis Statement: Present your main argument or viewpoint, outlining the scope and purpose of your history essay.

Body paragraph 1: Introduction to the Historical Context

• Provide background information on the historical context of your topic.
• Highlight key events, figures, or developments leading up to the main focus of your history essay.

Body paragraphs 2-4 (or more): Main Arguments and Supporting Evidence

• Each paragraph should focus on a specific argument or aspect of your thesis.
• Present evidence from primary and secondary sources to support each argument.
• Analyze the significance of the evidence and its relevance to your history paper thesis.

Counterarguments (optional)

• Address potential counterarguments or alternative perspectives on your topic.
• Refute opposing viewpoints with evidence and logical reasoning.
• Summary of Main Points: Recap the main arguments presented in the body paragraphs.
• Restate Thesis: Reinforce your thesis statement, emphasizing its significance in light of the evidence presented.
• Reflection: Reflect on the broader implications of your arguments for understanding history.
• Closing Thought: End your history paper with a thought-provoking statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader.

References/bibliography

• List all sources used in your research, formatted according to the citation style required by your instructor (e.g., MLA, APA, Chicago).
• Include both primary and secondary sources, arranged alphabetically by the author's last name.

Notes (if applicable)

• Include footnotes or endnotes to provide additional explanations, citations, or commentary on specific points within your history essay.

History Essay Format

Adhering to a specific format is crucial for clarity, coherence, and academic integrity. Here are the key components of a typical history essay format:

Font and Size

• Use a legible font such as Times New Roman, Arial, or Calibri.
• The recommended font size is usually 12 points. However, check your instructor's guidelines, as they may specify a different size.
• Set 1-inch margins on all sides of the page.
• Double-space the entire essay, including the title, headings, body paragraphs, and references.
• Avoid extra spacing between paragraphs unless specified otherwise.
• Align text to the left margin; avoid justifying the text or using a centered alignment.

Title Page (if required):

• If your instructor requires a title page, include the essay title, your name, the course title, the instructor's name, and the date.
• Center-align this information vertically and horizontally on the page.
• Include a header on each page (excluding the title page if applicable) with your last name and the page number, flush right.
• Some instructors may require a shortened title in the header, usually in all capital letters.
• Center-align the essay title at the top of the first page (if a title page is not required).
• Use standard capitalization (capitalize the first letter of each major word).
• Avoid underlining, italicizing, or bolding the title unless necessary for emphasis.

Paragraph Indentation:

• Indent the first line of each paragraph by 0.5 inches or use the tab key.
• Do not insert extra spaces between paragraphs unless instructed otherwise.

Citations and References:

• Follow the citation style specified by your instructor (e.g., MLA, APA, Chicago).
• Include in-text citations whenever you use information or ideas from external sources.
• Provide a bibliography or list of references at the end of your history essay, formatted according to the citation style guidelines.
• Typically, history essays range from 1000 to 2500 words, but this can vary depending on the assignment.

How to Write a History Essay?

Historical writing can be an exciting journey through time, but it requires careful planning and organization. In this section, we'll break down the process into simple steps to help you craft a compelling and well-structured history paper.

Analyze the Question

Before diving headfirst into writing, take a moment to dissect the essay question. Read it carefully, and then read it again. You want to get to the core of what it's asking. Look out for keywords that indicate what aspects of the topic you need to focus on. If you're unsure about anything, don't hesitate to ask your instructor for clarification. Remember, understanding how to start a history essay is half the battle won!

Now, let's break this step down:

• Read the question carefully and identify keywords or phrases.
• Consider what the question is asking you to do – are you being asked to analyze, compare, contrast, or evaluate?
• Pay attention to any specific instructions or requirements provided in the question.
• Take note of the time period or historical events mentioned in the question – this will give you a clue about the scope of your history essay.

Develop a Strategy

With a clear understanding of the essay question, it's time to map out your approach. Here's how to develop your historical writing strategy:

• Brainstorm ideas : Take a moment to jot down any initial thoughts or ideas that come to mind in response to the history paper question. This can help you generate a list of potential arguments, themes, or points you want to explore in your history essay.
• Create an outline : Once you have a list of ideas, organize them into a logical structure. Start with a clear introduction that introduces your topic and presents your thesis statement – the main argument or point you'll be making in your history essay. Then, outline the key points or arguments you'll be discussing in each paragraph of the body, making sure they relate back to your thesis. Finally, plan a conclusion that summarizes your main points and reinforces your history paper thesis.
• Research : Before diving into writing, gather evidence to support your arguments. Use reputable sources such as books, academic journals, and primary documents to gather historical evidence and examples. Take notes as you research, making sure to record the source of each piece of information for proper citation later on.
• Consider counterarguments : Anticipate potential counterarguments to your history paper thesis and think about how you'll address them in your essay. Acknowledging opposing viewpoints and refuting them strengthens your argument and demonstrates critical thinking.
• Set realistic goals : Be realistic about the scope of your history essay and the time you have available to complete it. Break down your writing process into manageable tasks, such as researching, drafting, and revising, and set deadlines for each stage to stay on track.

Start Your Research

Now that you've grasped the history essay topic and outlined your approach, it's time to dive into research. Here's how to start:

• Ask questions : What do you need to know? What are the key points to explore further? Write down your inquiries to guide your research.
• Explore diverse sources : Look beyond textbooks. Check academic journals, reliable websites, and primary sources like documents or artifacts.
• Consider perspectives : Think about different viewpoints on your topic. How have historians analyzed it? Are there controversies or differing interpretations?
• Take organized notes : Summarize key points, jot down quotes, and record your thoughts and questions. Stay organized using spreadsheets or note-taking apps.
• Evaluate sources : Consider the credibility and bias of each source. Are they peer-reviewed? Do they represent a particular viewpoint?

Establish a Viewpoint

By establishing a clear viewpoint and supporting arguments, you'll lay the foundation for your compelling historical writing:

• Review your research : Reflect on the information gathered. What patterns or themes emerge? Which perspectives resonate with you?
• Formulate a thesis statement : Based on your research, develop a clear and concise thesis that states your argument or interpretation of the topic.
• Consider counterarguments : Anticipate objections to your history paper thesis. Are there alternative viewpoints or evidence that you need to address?
• Craft supporting arguments : Outline the main points that support your thesis. Use evidence from your research to strengthen your arguments.
• Stay flexible : Be open to adjusting your viewpoint as you continue writing and researching. New information may challenge or refine your initial ideas.

Structure Your Essay

Now that you've delved into the depths of researching historical events and established your viewpoint, it's time to craft the skeleton of your essay: its structure. Think of your history essay outline as constructing a sturdy bridge between your ideas and your reader's understanding. How will you lead them from point A to point Z? Will you follow a chronological path through history or perhaps dissect themes that span across time periods?

And don't forget about the importance of your introduction and conclusion—are they framing your narrative effectively, enticing your audience to read your paper, and leaving them with lingering thoughts long after they've turned the final page? So, as you lay the bricks of your history essay's architecture, ask yourself: How can I best lead my audience through the maze of time and thought, leaving them enlightened and enriched on the other side?

Create an Engaging Introduction

Creating an engaging introduction is crucial for capturing your reader's interest right from the start. But how do you do it? Think about what makes your topic fascinating. Is there a surprising fact or a compelling story you can share? Maybe you could ask a thought-provoking question that gets people thinking. Consider why your topic matters—what lessons can we learn from history?

Also, remember to explain what your history essay will be about and why it's worth reading. What will grab your reader's attention and make them want to learn more? How can you make your essay relevant and intriguing right from the beginning?

Develop Coherent Paragraphs

Once you've established your introduction, the next step is to develop coherent paragraphs that effectively communicate your ideas. Each paragraph should focus on one main point or argument, supported by evidence or examples from your research. Start by introducing the main idea in a topic sentence, then provide supporting details or evidence to reinforce your point.

Make sure to use transition words and phrases to guide your reader smoothly from one idea to the next, creating a logical flow throughout your history essay. Additionally, consider the organization of your paragraphs—is there a clear progression of ideas that builds upon each other? Are your paragraphs unified around a central theme or argument?

Conclude Effectively

Concluding your history essay effectively is just as important as starting it off strong. In your conclusion, you want to wrap up your main points while leaving a lasting impression on your reader. Begin by summarizing the key points you've made throughout your history essay, reminding your reader of the main arguments and insights you've presented.

Then, consider the broader significance of your topic—what implications does it have for our understanding of history or for the world today? You might also want to reflect on any unanswered questions or areas for further exploration. Finally, end with a thought-provoking statement or a call to action that encourages your reader to continue thinking about the topic long after they've finished reading.

Reference Your Sources

Referencing your sources is essential for maintaining the integrity of your history essay and giving credit to the scholars and researchers who have contributed to your understanding of the topic. Depending on the citation style required (such as MLA, APA, or Chicago), you'll need to format your references accordingly. Start by compiling a list of all the sources you've consulted, including books, articles, websites, and any other materials used in your research.

Then, as you write your history essay, make sure to properly cite each source whenever you use information or ideas that are not your own. This includes direct quotations, paraphrases, and summaries. Remember to include all necessary information for each source, such as author names, publication dates, and page numbers, as required by your chosen citation style.

Review and Ask for Advice

As you near the completion of your history essay writing, it's crucial to take a step back and review your work with a critical eye. Reflect on the clarity and coherence of your arguments—are they logically organized and effectively supported by evidence? Consider the strength of your introduction and conclusion—do they effectively capture the reader's attention and leave a lasting impression? Take the time to carefully proofread your history essay for any grammatical errors or typos that may detract from your overall message.

Furthermore, seeking advice from peers, mentors, or instructors can provide valuable insights and help identify areas for improvement. Consider sharing your essay with someone whose feedback you trust and respect, and be open to constructive criticism. Ask specific questions about areas you're unsure about or where you feel your history essay may be lacking.

History Essay Example

In this section, we offer an example of a history essay examining the impact of the Industrial Revolution on society. This essay demonstrates how historical analysis and critical thinking are applied in academic writing. By exploring this specific event, you can observe how historical evidence is used to build a cohesive argument and draw meaningful conclusions.

FAQs about History Essay Writing

How to write a history essay introduction, how to write a conclusion for a history essay, how to write a good history essay.

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How to Write a History Essay

Last Updated: December 27, 2022 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Emily Listmann, MA . Emily Listmann is a private tutor in San Carlos, California. She has worked as a Social Studies Teacher, Curriculum Coordinator, and an SAT Prep Teacher. She received her MA in Education from the Stanford Graduate School of Education in 2014. There are 8 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 242,887 times.

Writing a history essay requires you to include a lot of details and historical information within a given number of words or required pages. It's important to provide all the needed information, but also to present it in a cohesive, intelligent way. Know how to write a history essay that demonstrates your writing skills and your understanding of the material.

Preparing to Write Your Essay

• The key words will often need to be defined at the start of your essay, and will serve as its boundaries. [2] X Research source
• For example, if the question was "To what extent was the First World War a Total War?", the key terms are "First World War", and "Total War".
• Do this before you begin conducting your research to ensure that your reading is closely focussed to the question and you don't waste time.

• Explain: provide an explanation of why something happened or didn't happen.
• Interpret: analyse information within a larger framework to contextualise it.
• Evaluate: present and support a value-judgement.
• Argue: take a clear position on a debate and justify it. [3] X Research source

• Your thesis statement should clearly address the essay prompt and provide supporting arguments. These supporting arguments will become body paragraphs in your essay, where you’ll elaborate and provide concrete evidence. [4] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source
• Your argument may change or become more nuanced as your write your essay, but having a clear thesis statement which you can refer back to is very helpful.
• For example, your summary could be something like "The First World War was a 'total war' because civilian populations were mobilized both in the battlefield and on the home front".

• Pick out some key quotes that make your argument precisely and persuasively. [5] X Research source
• When writing your plan, you should already be thinking about how your essay will flow, and how each point will connect together.

Doing Your Research

• Primary source material refers to any texts, films, pictures, or any other kind of evidence that was produced in the historical period, or by someone who participated in the events of the period, that you are writing about.
• Secondary material is the work by historians or other writers analysing events in the past. The body of historical work on a period or event is known as the historiography.
• It is not unusual to write a literature review or historiographical essay which does not directly draw on primary material.
• Typically a research essay would need significant primary material.

• Start with the core texts in your reading list or course bibliography. Your teacher will have carefully selected these so you should start there.
• Look in footnotes and bibliographies. When you are reading be sure to pay attention to the footnotes and bibliographies which can guide you to further sources a give you a clear picture of the important texts.
• Use the library. If you have access to a library at your school or college, be sure to make the most of it. Search online catalogues and speak to librarians.
• Access online journal databases. If you are in college it is likely that you will have access to academic journals online. These are an excellent and easy to navigate resources.
• Use online sources with discretion. Try using free scholarly databases, like Google Scholar, which offer quality academic sources, but avoid using the non-trustworthy websites that come up when you simply search your topic online.
• Avoid using crowd-sourced sites like Wikipedia as sources. However, you can look at the sources cited on a Wikipedia page and use them instead, if they seem credible.

• Who is the author? Is it written by an academic with a position at a University? Search for the author online.
• Who is the publisher? Is the book published by an established academic press? Look in the cover to check the publisher, if it is published by a University Press that is a good sign.
• If it's an article, where is published? If you are using an article check that it has been published in an academic journal. [8] X Research source
• If the article is online, what is the URL? Government sources with .gov addresses are good sources, as are .edu sites.

• Ask yourself why the author is making this argument. Evaluate the text by placing it into a broader intellectual context. Is it part of a certain tradition in historiography? Is it a response to a particular idea?
• Consider where there are weaknesses and limitations to the argument. Always keep a critical mindset and try to identify areas where you think the argument is overly stretched or the evidence doesn't match the author's claims. [9] X Research source

• Label all your notes with the page numbers and precise bibliographic information on the source.
• If you have a quote but can't remember where you found it, imagine trying to skip back through everything you have read to find that one line.
• If you use something and don't reference it fully you risk plagiarism. [10] X Research source

Writing the Introduction

• For example you could start by saying "In the First World War new technologies and the mass mobilization of populations meant that the war was not fought solely by standing armies".
• This first sentences introduces the topic of your essay in a broad way which you can start focus to in on more.

• This will lead to an outline of the structure of your essay and your argument.
• Here you will explain the particular approach you have taken to the essay.
• For example, if you are using case studies you should explain this and give a brief overview of which case studies you will be using and why.

Writing the Essay

• Try to include a sentence that concludes each paragraph and links it to the next paragraph.
• When you are organising your essay think of each paragraph as addressing one element of the essay question.
• Keeping a close focus like this will also help you avoid drifting away from the topic of the essay and will encourage you to write in precise and concise prose.
• Don't forget to write in the past tense when referring to something that has already happened.

• Don't drop a quote from a primary source into your prose without introducing it and discussing it, and try to avoid long quotations. Use only the quotes that best illustrate your point.
• If you are referring to a secondary source, you can usually summarise in your own words rather than quoting directly.
• Be sure to fully cite anything you refer to, including if you do not quote it directly.

• Think about the first and last sentence in every paragraph and how they connect to the previous and next paragraph.
• Try to avoid beginning paragraphs with simple phrases that make your essay appear more like a list. For example, limit your use of words like: "Additionally", "Moreover", "Furthermore".
• Give an indication of where your essay is going and how you are building on what you have already said. [15] X Research source

• Briefly outline the implications of your argument and it's significance in relation to the historiography, but avoid grand sweeping statements. [16] X Research source
• A conclusion also provides the opportunity to point to areas beyond the scope of your essay where the research could be developed in the future.

Proofreading and Evaluating Your Essay

• Try to cut down any overly long sentences or run-on sentences. Instead, try to write clear and accurate prose and avoid unnecessary words.
• Concentrate on developing a clear, simple and highly readable prose style first before you think about developing your writing further. [17] X Research source
• Reading your essay out load can help you get a clearer picture of awkward phrasing and overly long sentences. [18] X Research source

• When you read through your essay look at each paragraph and ask yourself, "what point this paragraph is making".
• You might have produced a nice piece of narrative writing, but if you are not directly answering the question it is not going to help your grade.

• A bibliography will typically have primary sources first, followed by secondary sources. [19] X Research source
• Double and triple check that you have included all the necessary references in the text. If you forgot to include a reference you risk being reported for plagiarism.

Sample Essay

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• ↑ http://www.historytoday.com/robert-pearce/how-write-good-history-essay
• ↑ https://www.hamilton.edu/academics/centers/writing/writing-resources/writing-a-good-history-paper
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/thesis_statement_tips.html
• ↑ http://history.rutgers.edu/component/content/article?id=106:writing-historical-essays-a-guide-for-undergraduates
• ↑ https://guides.lib.uw.edu/c.php?g=344285&p=2580599
• ↑ http://www.hamilton.edu/documents/writing-center/WritingGoodHistoryPaper.pdf
• ↑ http://www.bowdoin.edu/writing-guides/
• ↑ https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/hppi/publications/Writing-History-Essays.pdf

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To write a history essay, read the essay question carefully and use source materials to research the topic, taking thorough notes as you go. Next, formulate a thesis statement that summarizes your key argument in 1-2 concise sentences and create a structured outline to help you stay on topic. Open with a strong introduction that introduces your thesis, present your argument, and back it up with sourced material. Then, end with a succinct conclusion that restates and summarizes your position! For more tips on creating a thesis statement, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Creating and Administering a Primary Source Analysis

John Buchkoski, Mikal B. Eckstrom, Holly Kizewski, and Courtney Pixler | Jan 1, 2015

H undreds of students pass through the introductory history courses of the University of Nebraska–Lincoln each semester with various backgrounds and skill levels. Although some of them have faced a primary source assessment, perhaps in the Advanced Placement Document Based Question Exam, our department had no universal assessment tool to evaluate student learning and skill development. In January 2014, William G. Thomas, our chair, and Margaret Jacobs, the chancellor’s professor of history, asked us to write and administer an exam for all introductory American history courses. Our goal was to construct new pedagogical tools that integrated more primary source analysis into our survey courses.

Collaboration was key to our success, and our different backgrounds and teaching experiences were vitally important in identifying the most significant components of history writing. We agreed that these components were a clear thesis statement, the number of sources used, organization, and analysis. We worked together to ensure that primary sources were similar for the pre- and post-1877 US exams in that they presented issues dealing with race, class, and gender. For example, we incorporated the Utmost Good Faith Clause from the Northwest Ordinance on the pre-1877 test and the Burton-Wheeler Act on the post-1877 test to demonstrate legal decisions regarding Native Americans and land. We chose sources that students were unlikely to have seen before and worked with the instructors to make sure the students would know the context in which the source had been created.

It is impossible to design a “one size fits all” exam that caters to the learning style of each student, but our mix of textual and visual sources helped make our exam more accessible. In order to prepare the students for the exam, the team led a workshop in each of the eight classrooms that focused on how to use primary sources. By working through a sample question and documents in the classroom, we modeled the best strategies for succeeding on the exam. We focused on how to write an effective essay, with a strong thesis statement and a cohesive structure guided by topic sentences. To ensure that online or absent students could review the information covered, the project team used Camtasia, a digital audio-recording tool, to record a podcast of the workshop, which we provided online along with a PowerPoint presentation.

The primary source assessment (PSA) team realized that the students’ teachers used a wide variety of teaching styles and presented very different course content. Each team member served as a liaison between two US history instructors and the PSA team. Faculty reaction to the PSA was varied; some instructors were enthusiastic, while others were initially skeptical. Two factors—clearly discussing the goals of the project and being available for further discussions—helped allay many of the faculty’s concerns. The instructors often found ways to adapt our lecture to fit the themes of the class and their teaching styles. Feedback from the instructors was particularly essential to the success of our workshops, as we were able to incorporate their suggestions over the course of eight lectures. This flexibility on our part helped us to adapt to the challenges that come with stepping into someone else’s classroom.

Because the members of the PSA team had varied historical interests and specializations, each contributed a different perspective to the exam. After choosing the American Revolution and the New Deal as the exam topics for each half of the survey, we eventually selected seven or eight sources. We decided to keep our questions somewhat simple in order to encourage argumentative thesis writing and broad use of evidence. For the first half of the survey, we asked, “Did all Americans benefit equally from the American Revolution?” and used sources covering women, Native Americans, and African Americans to provide a wide range of evidence. Likewise, for the second half of the survey, we asked, “Did all Americans benefit equally from the New Deal of the 1930s?”; we provided sources on African Americans, Native Americans, Mexican Americans, and working-class individuals. In order to remain objective in grading, we designed a rubric. We graded some of the exams together and frequently communicated about the grading process to ensure consistency.

The PSA team assessed the exams using four categories—thesis, sources, analysis, and organization—and tracked the results on a rubric (see sidebar). We then extrapolated various data sets from over four hundred exams. The HIST 110 (American history to 1877) classes averaged 83% for every category except the analysis category (77%). HIST 111 courses averaged higher (82%) in three categories (thesis, sources, and organization), but the analysis was still lower (79%). The averages for both American survey courses were as follows: thesis (83.4%), sources (83%), analysis (79%), and organization (82.2%).

We were pleased to discover that students taking the courses online scored comparably to those in traditional classrooms, leading us to believe that the PSA is effective in both environments. We were also pleased that the students focused on creating precise, argumentative theses and that almost every student provided a thesis statement. Additionally, most used at least six or seven of the documents we provided as evidence in support of their arguments. In the category of organization, a majority of students used a five-paragraph structure with topic sentences, which showed ability to effectively group evidence within a fluent argument. The PSA also indicated to our department the areas in which students could most improve. The analysis portion resulted in the lowest scores. We found that students referred to the sources in their essays but struggled to connect the context of the documents to their argument.

On the question about the American Revolution, in particular, we noted that students’ arguments often did not match the sources. Some students were reluctant to state that the Revolution did not result in total equality, incorrectly arguing that slaves and women became full members of the new Republic. Although students were more willing to be critical of the New Deal policies, we nevertheless encountered essays that argued for the fairness of repatriation and Indian removal. Many students relied on a predetermined narrative that was some variation of American exceptionalism and that clouded their ability to judiciously examine the sources we provided.

The exam also unexpectedly revealed that some students lacked a historical context for understanding race in American history. Documents and questions provided to students highlighted the entanglement of race with US history. During the workshops, the team discussed the interplay of race, class, and gender as a primary analytical tool for assessing the sources. Still, some students wrote that when African Americans are unable to receive Social Security, it is due to laziness, rather than to the historical legacy of the Jim Crow South and the institutional discrimination of the New Deal. When describing Native Americans in the New Deal Era, students adopted the “lazy Indian” trope. Others argued that the government should have taken Indian lands to boost the struggling economy. A few students also grafted current racialized debates onto the documents. For example, when analyzing documents on 1930s Mexican repatriados, one student wrote, “I think the New Deal was a little too fair for Mexicans wishing to return back [sic] to Mexico and take all their goods back. I don’t think illegal immigrants deserve this.” By couching their arguments in current issues of citizenship and migration, this student disregarded historical context. Finally, some students used problematic language found within the documents, such as the word negro .

As troubling as this was, the team agreed that the problematic essays were clearly not malicious. Rather, they seemed to be based on current political issues and a reluctance to criticize celebrated American policies. Although these problems were few in number, the department developed strategies to help students think about race as a construction, in and out of the classroom. One faculty member had advised against using the term negro in his syllabus and in class, and students from his class consistently used culturally appropriate language for African Americans in their essays. In spring 2014, the department discussed teaching about race in a previously planned workshop for faculty and graduate students. We were able to use our findings at this workshop to demonstrate the continuing need for critical race analysis in our classrooms.

Our department-wide efforts to bring a primary source assessment to our introductory classes produced mostly positive results. We were excited to discover that our survey-level students effectively produced structured, argumentative responses to primary sources. We also learned that, going forward, our focus should be on promoting critical analysis. The PSA team learned how to navigate the complexities of large-scale assessments and set the groundwork within our department for similar examinations in the future. Based on our results, the department is considering extending this assessment to other introductory surveys in the future.

The authors are graduate students in history at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln.

Grading the Primary Source Assessment

Thesis: 25%

Number of Sources: 25%

Analysis of Evidence: 25%

Organization: 25%

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How to Write a Good History Essay. A Sequence of Actions and Useful Tips

Before you start writing your history essay, there is quite a lot of work that has to be done in order to gain success.

You may ask: what is history essay? What is the difference between it and other kinds of essays? Well, the main goal of a history essay is to measure your progress in learning history and test your range of skills (such as analysis, logic, planning, research, and writing), it is necessary to prepare yourself very well.

Your plan of action may look like this. First of all, you will have to explore the topic. If you are going to write about a certain historical event, think of its causes and premises, and analyze what its impact on history was. In case you are writing about a person, find out why and how he or she came to power and how they influenced society and historical situations.

The next step is to make research and collect all the available information about the person or event, and also find evidence.

Finally, you will have to compose a well-organized response.

During the research, make notes and excerpts of the most notable data, write out the important dates and personalities. And of course, write down all your thoughts and findings.

It all may seem complicated at first sight, but in fact, it is not so scary! To complete this task successfully and compose a good history essay, simply follow several easy steps provided below.

Detailed Writing Instruction for Students to Follow

If you want to successfully complete your essay, it would be better to organize the writing process. You will complete the assignment faster and more efficient if you divide the whole work into several sections or steps.

• Introduction

Writing a good and strong introduction part is important because this is the first thing your reader will see. It gives the first impression of your essay and induces people to reading (or not reading) it.

To make the introduction catchy and interesting, express the contention and address the main question of the essay. Be confident and clear as this is the moment when you define the direction your whole essay will take. And remember that introduction is not the right place for rambling! The best of all is, to begin with, a brief context summary, then go to addressing the question and express the content. Finally, mark the direction your essay about history will take.

Its quality depends on how clear you divided the whole essay into sections in the previous part. As long as you have provided a readable and understandable scheme, your readers will know exactly what to expect.

The body of your essay must give a clear vision of what question you are considering. In this section, you can develop your idea and support it with the evidence you have found. Use certain facts and quotations for that. When being judicial and analytical, they will help you to easily support your point of view and argument.

As long as your essay has a limited size, don’t be too precise. It is allowed to summarize the most essential background information, for example, instead of giving a precise list of all the issues that matter.

It is also good to keep in mind that each paragraph of your essay’s body must tell about only one issue. Don’t make a mess out of your paper!

It is not only essential to start your essay well. How you will end it also matters. A properly-written conclusion is the one that restates the whole paper’s content and gives a logical completion of the issue or question discussed above. Your conclusion must leave to chance for further discussion or arguments on the case. It’s time, to sum up, give a verdict.

That is why it is strongly forbidden to provide any new evidence or information here, as well as start a new discussion, etc.

After you finish writing, give yourself some time and put the paper away for a while. When you turn back to it will be easier to take a fresh look at it and find any mistakes or things to improve. Of course, remember to proofread your writing and check it for any grammar, spelling and punctuation errors. All these tips will help you to learn how to write a history essay.

Module 1: Westward Expansion (1840-1900)

Analyzing documents using the happy analysis, learning objectives.

• Analyze primary source documents using the HAPPY Analysis

The H.A.P.P.Y. Analysis

Because we will be looking at primary sources so often in this course, it is helpful to use a consistent pattern for analyzing the documents. There are several strategies to help you analyze documents, but no matter which technique you use, the important thing is to simply take the time to read documents carefully and look for the information you need. You want to read historical sources like an investigator—looking for information that might reveal clues about a person, event, or time period. In longer texts, this often includes using headers to help you, reading the introduction, looking up confusing words, and considering the viewpoint from which the primary source originates. One strategy for analyzing primary sources is known as H.A.P.P.Y.

The H.A.P.P.Y. analysis consists of:

H : Historical Context

• Where and when was this source produced? Focus on how place and time affect its impact, message, and genesis.
• Place it in the appropriate context – connect it with ideas before and after, or related events.

A : Audience

• Who is the author’s intended audience?
• How does the audience affect the validity of the document and its message? For example, how might their message have been modified or shaped to suit their audience?

P : Purpose

• What is the author’s purpose and/or motivation for creating this source?
• Is this intended to persuade or inform? Is this some sort of propaganda?
• How does the purpose affect reliability and validity?

P : Point of View

• What do you know about the author’s background?
• How does the author’s role in society and hierarchy affect their perspective?
• How does this affect the reliability and validity of the source?

Y : Why? (Significance)

• What is the main idea the source is trying to convey?
• Why is this source important to history?
• Why does this source relate to your thesis and/or the prompt? (Remember to explain this in your writing)

H.A.P.P.Y Analysis of the Extermination of the American Bison (1889)

Let’s practice the HAPPY Analysis by taking a careful look at the document by  William T. Hornady on the Extermination of the American Bison (1889). William Hornady, Superintendent of the National Zoological Park, wrote a detailed account of the near-extinction of the American bison in the late-nineteenth century.

Figure 1 . Photograph from 1892 of a pile of American bison skulls in Detroit (MI) waiting to be ground for fertilizer or charcoal.

Of all the quadrupeds that have lived upon the earth, probably no other species has ever marshaled such innumerable hosts as those of the American bison. It would have been as easy to count or to estimate the number of leaves in a forest as to calculate the number of buffaloes living at any given time during the history of the species previous to 1870. Even in South Central Africa, which has always been exceedingly prolific in great herds of game, it is probable that all its quadrupeds taken together on an equal area would never have more than equaled the total number of buffalo in this country forty years ago.…

Between the Rocky Mountains and the States lying along the Mississippi River on the west, from Minnesota to Louisiana, the whole country was one vast buffalo range, inhabited by millions of buffaloes. One could fill a volume with the records of plainsmen and pioneers who penetrated or crossed that vast region between 1800 and 1870, and were in turn surprised, astounded, and frequently dismayed by the tens of thousands of buffaloes they observed, avoided, or escaped from. They lived and moved as no other quadrupeds ever have, in great multitudes, like grand armies in review, covering scores of square miles at once. They were so numerous they frequently stopped boats in the rivers, threatened to overwhelm travelers on the plains, and in later years derailed locomotives and cars, until railway engineers learned by experience the wisdom of stopping their trains whenever there were buffaloes crossing the track. …

No wonder that the men of the West of those days, both white and red, thought it would be impossible to exterminate such a mighty multitude. The Indians of some tribes believed that the buffaloes issued from the earth continually, and that the supply was necessarily inexhaustible. And yet, in four short years the southern herd was almost totally annihilated…

It will be doubly deplorable if the remorseless slaughter we have witnessed during the last twenty years carries with it no lessons for the future. A continuation of the record we have lately made as wholesome game butchers will justify posterity in dating us back with the mound-builders and cave-dwellers, when man’s only known function was to slay and eat.

The primary cause of the buffalo’s extermination, and the one which embraced all others, was the descent of civilization, with all its elements of destructiveness, upon the whole of the country inhabited by that animal. From the Great Slave Lake to the Rio Grande the home of the buffalo was everywhere overrun by the man with a gun; and, as has ever been the case, the wild creatures were gradually swept away, the largest and most conspicuous forms being the first to go.

The secondary causes of the extermination of the buffalo may be catalogued as follows:

• Man’s reckless greed, his wanton destructiveness, and improvidence in not husbanding such resources as come to him from the hand of nature ready made.
• The total and utterly inexcusable absence of protective measures and agencies on the part of the National Government and of the Western States and Territories.
• The fatal preference on the part of hunters generally, both white and red, for the robe and flesh of the cow over that furnished by the bull.
• The phenomenal stupidity of the animals themselves, and their indifference to man.
• The perfection of modern breech-loading rifles and other sporting fire-arms in general.

Each of these causes acted against the buffalo with its full force, to offset which there was not even one restraining or preserving influence, and it is not to be wondered at that the species went down before them. Had any one of these conditions been eliminated the result would have been reached far less quickly. Had the buffalo, for example, possessed one-half the fighting qualities of the grizzly bear he would have fared very differently, but his inoffensiveness and lack of courage almost leads one to doubt the wisdom of the economy of nature so far as it relates to him…

The buffalo supplied the Indian with food, clothing, shelter, bedding, saddles, ropes, shields, and innumerable smaller articles of use and ornament. In the United States a paternal government takes the place of the buffalo in supplying all these wants of the red man, and it costs several millions of dollars annually to accomplish the task…

The Indians of what was once the buffalo country are not starving and freezing, for the reason that the United States Government supplies them regularly with beef and blankets in lieu of buffalo. Does any one imagine that the Government could not have regulated the killing of buffaloes, and thus maintained the supply, for far less money than it now costs to feed and clothe those 54,758 Indians?…

There is reason to fear that unless the United States Government takes the matter in hand and makes a special effort to prevent it, the pure-blood bison will be lost irretrievably….

Source: Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1889).

Historical Context

For historical documents, reading critically means placing the author, audience, and message into their historical context. The author and the audience may have lived in times and places very different than our own. Their lives, their knowledge, and their assumptions might be very different than our own. So you need to carefully construct a mental picture of their world, and then relate what they say and what they do to your knowledge of that world.

Ask yourself, based on your readings, what do you know of the historical events surrounding the source? Was there a war? A plague? A technological innovation? A social change? How was society structured? What part of it did the author and audience occupy? How might that affect their viewpoints?

This can be quite tricky. Our guesses about the past might be wrong. But such imaginative reconstructions are necessary to fully appreciate historical sources.

Comprehending an author’s message is only the first step in reading critically. You still need to figure out why the author sent it: the message’s intended audience, its purpose, and its context. This analysis is the exciting part of the process, and the most useful.

Every piece of writing has an author, an audience, and a message. As you read, you should think about each of these pieces simultaneously.

Who does the author expect will be reading their work? If you are reading a historical document, to whom is it addressed? If the author doesn’t say, can you guess? Is the audience part of the author’s own group (whatever that is) or an outsider? How does the author seem to feel about his audience? Is he or she hostile? Condescending? Flattering? How does he or she seem to feel the audience will regard him or her in turn?

For academic writing, this question is less urgent, but you may notice a difference in content between articles specialists write for each other and articles written for students or for a general audience.

Every piece of writing has a purpose. Even a simple grocery list serves the purpose of reminding me what to buy. Much writing aims to convince someone to adopt an opinion or to perform an action. What action does the author want the audience to perform? What view do they want them to adopt?

Look at how the author constructs their message. What arguments do they employ to convince their audience? Why do they think these arguments might be persuasive? Do they make an emotional appeal? What emotions do they invoke, why, and how?

You may ask yourself: who benefits if the author gets what they want? Human motivations are complex and not always immediately obvious; you should perhaps be skeptical whether the author has some hidden purpose.

Some of our historical documents will have huge, raw messages: to declare a war, to destroy an enemy, or to promote a religion. Others may be more mundane: to describe an event or convince the audience to purchase a product. Regardless, your job as a critical reader is to figure out what that purpose is.

Even academic writing has a message, although it is often more subtle than historical documents. In articles and books, scholars want to convince their peers that their theories are correct or that they should adopt a particular point of view about a historical event. Textbooks, by their selection of material, aim not only to convey raw data, but to provide a convincing interpretation of that data.

Point of View

Who is writing? For historical documents, this is hugely important. A document written by a king will be very different than a document written by a farmer or a priest.

When you read a historical document, try to find out as much as you can about the author. Many primary source readers will contain a small biography at the start of the selection. You could also look up the author’s background online. What suppositions can you make about the author based on his or her background? How is it likely to affect their knowledge or other resources available to them? How is it likely to shape their attitudes, prejudices, and goals?

What can you tell about the author just based on his or her own statements? Often, an author’s choice of words reveals a great deal about their mental world and goals.

The same questions apply to modern authors as well. Historians may be liberal or conservative, religious or secular, or favor one group over another in their analysis. Even the authors of textbooks have a background and point of view that affects their selection of facts.

Y? or Significance

This last component of the HAPPY Analysis includes thinking about the significance, or the importance of the document. Consider the following questions:

• What makes this event or source memorable?
• What does this reveal about the time period?
• What are the results of the event?
• What is its relevance today?
• Why does this source relate to your thesis and/or the prompt?

Fill out this HAPPY chart for the primary source reading below. This is an open-ended exercise, but you can use the spaces below to jot down your ideas.

Primary Source: Chief Joseph of the Nez Percé tribe on Indian Affairs

H: Historical Context

A: Audience

• How does the audience affect the validity of the document and its message? E.g., how might their message have been modified or shaped to suit their audience?
• How does this affect reliability and validity?

P: Point of View

Y: Why? (Significance)

• Why does this source relate to your thesis and/or the prompt? (Remember to explain this in your writing.)
• Modification, adaptation, and original content. Authored by : Megan Coplen for Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Authored by : Mr. Erfurth. Located at : https://erfurth.co/history-handbook/primary-sources-happy-analysis . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Analyzing Documents. Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-ushistory1/chapter/reading-documents-the-happy-analysis/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Bison skull pile. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bison_skull_pile_edit.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 5 steps to write a great analytical essay.

General Education

Do you need to write an analytical essay for school? What sets this kind of essay apart from other types, and what must you include when you write your own analytical essay? In this guide, we break down the process of writing an analytical essay by explaining the key factors your essay needs to have, providing you with an outline to help you structure your essay, and analyzing a complete analytical essay example so you can see what a finished essay looks like.

What Is an Analytical Essay?

Before you begin writing an analytical essay, you must know what this type of essay is and what it includes. Analytical essays analyze something, often (but not always) a piece of writing or a film.

An analytical essay is more than just a synopsis of the issue though; in this type of essay you need to go beyond surface-level analysis and look at what the key arguments/points of this issue are and why. If you’re writing an analytical essay about a piece of writing, you’ll look into how the text was written and why the author chose to write it that way. Instead of summarizing, an analytical essay typically takes a narrower focus and looks at areas such as major themes in the work, how the author constructed and supported their argument, how the essay used literary devices to enhance its messages, etc.

While you certainly want people to agree with what you’ve written, unlike with persuasive and argumentative essays, your main purpose when writing an analytical essay isn’t to try to convert readers to your side of the issue. Therefore, you won’t be using strong persuasive language like you would in those essay types. Rather, your goal is to have enough analysis and examples that the strength of your argument is clear to readers.

Besides typical essay components like an introduction and conclusion, a good analytical essay will include:

• A thesis that states your main argument
• Analysis that relates back to your thesis and supports it
• Examples to support your analysis and allow a more in-depth look at the issue

In the rest of this article, we’ll explain how to include each of these in your analytical essay.

How to Structure Your Analytical Essay

Analytical essays are structured similarly to many other essays you’ve written, with an introduction (including a thesis), several body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Below is an outline you can follow when structuring your essay, and in the next section we go into more detail on how to write an analytical essay.

Introduction

Your introduction will begin with some sort of attention-grabbing sentence to get your audience interested, then you’ll give a few sentences setting up the topic so that readers have some context, and you’ll end with your thesis statement. Your introduction will include:

• Brief background information explaining the issue/text
• Your thesis

Body Paragraphs

Your analytical essay will typically have three or four body paragraphs, each covering a different point of analysis. Begin each body paragraph with a sentence that sets up the main point you’ll be discussing. Then you’ll give some analysis on that point, backing it up with evidence to support your claim. Continue analyzing and giving evidence for your analysis until you’re out of strong points for the topic. At the end of each body paragraph, you may choose to have a transition sentence that sets up what the next paragraph will be about, but this isn’t required. Body paragraphs will include:

• Introductory sentence explaining what you’ll cover in the paragraph (sort of like a mini-thesis)
• Analysis point
• Evidence (either passages from the text or data/facts) that supports the analysis
• (Repeat analysis and evidence until you run out of examples)

You won’t be making any new points in your conclusion; at this point you’re just reiterating key points you’ve already made and wrapping things up. Begin by rephrasing your thesis and summarizing the main points you made in the essay. Someone who reads just your conclusion should be able to come away with a basic idea of what your essay was about and how it was structured. After this, you may choose to make some final concluding thoughts, potentially by connecting your essay topic to larger issues to show why it’s important. A conclusion will include:

• Paraphrase of thesis
• Summary of key points of analysis
• Final concluding thought(s)

5 Steps for Writing an Analytical Essay

Follow these five tips to break down writing an analytical essay into manageable steps. By the end, you’ll have a fully-crafted analytical essay with both in-depth analysis and enough evidence to support your argument. All of these steps use the completed analytical essay in the next section as an example.

#1: Pick a Topic

You may have already had a topic assigned to you, and if that’s the case, you can skip this step. However, if you haven’t, or if the topic you’ve been assigned is broad enough that you still need to narrow it down, then you’ll need to decide on a topic for yourself. Choosing the right topic can mean the difference between an analytical essay that’s easy to research (and gets you a good grade) and one that takes hours just to find a few decent points to analyze

Before you decide on an analytical essay topic, do a bit of research to make sure you have enough examples to support your analysis. If you choose a topic that’s too narrow, you’ll struggle to find enough to write about.

For example, say your teacher assigns you to write an analytical essay about the theme in John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath of exposing injustices against migrants. For it to be an analytical essay, you can’t just recount the injustices characters in the book faced; that’s only a summary and doesn’t include analysis. You need to choose a topic that allows you to analyze the theme. One of the best ways to explore a theme is to analyze how the author made his/her argument. One example here is that Steinbeck used literary devices in the intercalary chapters (short chapters that didn’t relate to the plot or contain the main characters of the book) to show what life was like for migrants as a whole during the Dust Bowl.

You could write about how Steinbeck used literary devices throughout the whole book, but, in the essay below, I chose to just focus on the intercalary chapters since they gave me enough examples. Having a narrower focus will nearly always result in a tighter and more convincing essay (and can make compiling examples less overwhelming).

#2: Write a Thesis Statement

Your thesis statement is the most important sentence of your essay; a reader should be able to read just your thesis and understand what the entire essay is about and what you’ll be analyzing. When you begin writing, remember that each sentence in your analytical essay should relate back to your thesis

In the analytical essay example below, the thesis is the final sentence of the first paragraph (the traditional spot for it). The thesis is: “In The Grapes of Wrath’s intercalary chapters, John Steinbeck employs a variety of literary devices and stylistic choices to better expose the injustices committed against migrants in the 1930s.” So what will this essay analyze? How Steinbeck used literary devices in the intercalary chapters to show how rough migrants could have it. Crystal clear.

#3: Do Research to Find Your Main Points

This is where you determine the bulk of your analysis--the information that makes your essay an analytical essay. My preferred method is to list every idea that I can think of, then research each of those and use the three or four strongest ones for your essay. Weaker points may be those that don’t relate back to the thesis, that you don’t have much analysis to discuss, or that you can’t find good examples for. A good rule of thumb is to have one body paragraph per main point

This essay has four main points, each of which analyzes a different literary device Steinbeck uses to better illustrate how difficult life was for migrants during the Dust Bowl. The four literary devices and their impact on the book are:

• Lack of individual names in intercalary chapters to illustrate the scope of the problem
• Parallels to the Bible to induce sympathy for the migrants
• Non-showy, often grammatically-incorrect language so the migrants are more realistic and relatable to readers
• Nature-related metaphors to affect the mood of the writing and reflect the plight of the migrants

#4: Find Excerpts or Evidence to Support Your Analysis

Now that you have your main points, you need to back them up. If you’re writing a paper about a text or film, use passages/clips from it as your main source of evidence. If you’re writing about something else, your evidence can come from a variety of sources, such as surveys, experiments, quotes from knowledgeable sources etc. Any evidence that would work for a regular research paper works here.

In this example, I quoted multiple passages from The Grapes of Wrath  in each paragraph to support my argument. You should be able to back up every claim you make with evidence in order to have a strong essay.

#5: Put It All Together

Now it's time to begin writing your essay, if you haven’t already. Create an introductory paragraph that ends with the thesis, make a body paragraph for each of your main points, including both analysis and evidence to back up your claims, and wrap it all up with a conclusion that recaps your thesis and main points and potentially explains the big picture importance of the topic.

Analytical Essay Example + Analysis

So that you can see for yourself what a completed analytical essay looks like, here’s an essay I wrote back in my high school days. It’s followed by analysis of how I structured my essay, what its strengths are, and how it could be improved.

One way Steinbeck illustrates the connections all migrant people possessed and the struggles they faced is by refraining from using specific titles and names in his intercalary chapters. While The Grapes of Wrath focuses on the Joad family, the intercalary chapters show that all migrants share the same struggles and triumphs as the Joads. No individual names are used in these chapters; instead the people are referred to as part of a group. Steinbeck writes, “Frantic men pounded on the doors of the doctors; and the doctors were busy.  And sad men left word at country stores for the coroner to send a car,” (555). By using generic terms, Steinbeck shows how the migrants are all linked because they have gone through the same experiences. The grievances committed against one family were committed against thousands of other families; the abuse extends far beyond what the Joads experienced. The Grapes of Wrath frequently refers to the importance of coming together; how, when people connect with others their power and influence multiplies immensely. Throughout the novel, the goal of the migrants, the key to their triumph, has been to unite. While their plans are repeatedly frustrated by the government and police, Steinbeck’s intercalary chapters provide a way for the migrants to relate to one another because they have encountered the same experiences. Hundreds of thousands of migrants fled to the promised land of California, but Steinbeck was aware that numbers alone were impersonal and lacked the passion he desired to spread. Steinbeck created the intercalary chapters to show the massive numbers of people suffering, and he created the Joad family to evoke compassion from readers.  Because readers come to sympathize with the Joads, they become more sensitive to the struggles of migrants in general. However, John Steinbeck frequently made clear that the Joads were not an isolated incident; they were not unique. Their struggles and triumphs were part of something greater. Refraining from specific names in his intercalary chapters allows Steinbeck to show the vastness of the atrocities committed against migrants.

Steinbeck also creates significant parallels to the Bible in his intercalary chapters in order to enhance his writing and characters. By using simple sentences and stylized writing, Steinbeck evokes Biblical passages. The migrants despair, “No work till spring. No work,” (556).  Short, direct sentences help to better convey the desperateness of the migrants’ situation. Throughout his novel, John Steinbeck makes connections to the Bible through his characters and storyline. Jim Casy’s allusions to Christ and the cycle of drought and flooding are clear biblical references.  By choosing to relate The Grapes of Wrath to the Bible, Steinbeck’s characters become greater than themselves. Starving migrants become more than destitute vagrants; they are now the chosen people escaping to the promised land. When a forgotten man dies alone and unnoticed, it becomes a tragedy. Steinbeck writes, “If [the migrants] were shot at, they did not run, but splashed sullenly away; and if they were hit, they sank tiredly in the mud,” (556). Injustices committed against the migrants become greater because they are seen as children of God through Steinbeck’s choice of language. Referencing the Bible strengthens Steinbeck’s novel and purpose: to create understanding for the dispossessed.  It is easy for people to feel disdain for shabby vagabonds, but connecting them to such a fundamental aspect of Christianity induces sympathy from readers who might have otherwise disregarded the migrants as so many other people did.

The simple, uneducated dialogue Steinbeck employs also helps to create a more honest and meaningful representation of the migrants, and it makes the migrants more relatable to readers. Steinbeck chooses to accurately represent the language of the migrants in order to more clearly illustrate their lives and make them seem more like real paper than just characters in a book. The migrants lament, “They ain’t gonna be no kinda work for three months,” (555). There are multiple grammatical errors in that single sentence, but it vividly conveys the despair the migrants felt better than a technically perfect sentence would. The Grapes of Wrath is intended to show the severe difficulties facing the migrants so Steinbeck employs a clear, pragmatic style of writing.  Steinbeck shows the harsh, truthful realities of the migrants’ lives and he would be hypocritical if he chose to give the migrants a more refined voice and not portray them with all their shortcomings. The depiction of the migrants as imperfect through their language also makes them easier to relate to. Steinbeck’s primary audience was the middle class, the less affluent of society. Repeatedly in The Grapes of Wrath , the wealthy make it obvious that they scorn the plight of the migrants. The wealthy, not bad luck or natural disasters, were the prominent cause of the suffering of migrant families such as the Joads. Thus, Steinbeck turns to the less prosperous for support in his novel. When referring to the superior living conditions barnyard animals have, the migrants remark, “Them’s horses-we’re men,” (556).  The perfect simplicity of this quote expresses the absurdness of the migrants’ situation better than any flowery expression could.

In The Grapes of Wrath , John Steinbeck uses metaphors, particularly about nature, in order to illustrate the mood and the overall plight of migrants. Throughout most of the book, the land is described as dusty, barren, and dead. Towards the end, however; floods come and the landscape begins to change. At the end of chapter twenty-nine, Steinbeck describes a hill after the floods saying, “Tiny points of grass came through the earth, and in a few days the hills were pale green with the beginning year,” (556). This description offers a stark contrast from the earlier passages which were filled with despair and destruction. Steinbeck’s tone from the beginning of the chapter changes drastically. Early in the chapter, Steinbeck had used heavy imagery in order to convey the destruction caused by the rain, “The streams and the little rivers edged up to the bank sides and worked at willows and tree roots, bent the willows deep in the current, cut out the roots of cottonwoods and brought down the trees,” (553). However, at the end of the chapter the rain has caused new life to grow in California. The new grass becomes a metaphor representing hope. When the migrants are at a loss over how they will survive the winter, the grass offers reassurance. The story of the migrants in the intercalary chapters parallels that of the Joads. At the end of the novel, the family is breaking apart and has been forced to flee their home. However, both the book and final intercalary chapter end on a hopeful note after so much suffering has occurred. The grass metaphor strengthens Steinbeck’s message because it offers a tangible example of hope. Through his language Steinbeck’s themes become apparent at the end of the novel. Steinbeck affirms that persistence, even when problems appear insurmountable, leads to success. These metaphors help to strengthen Steinbeck’s themes in The Grapes of Wrath because they provide a more memorable way to recall important messages.

John Steinbeck’s language choices help to intensify his writing in his intercalary chapters and allow him to more clearly show how difficult life for migrants could be. Refraining from using specific names and terms allows Steinbeck to show that many thousands of migrants suffered through the same wrongs. Imitating the style of the Bible strengthens Steinbeck’s characters and connects them to the Bible, perhaps the most famous book in history. When Steinbeck writes in the imperfect dialogue of the migrants, he creates a more accurate portrayal and makes the migrants easier to relate to for a less affluent audience. Metaphors, particularly relating to nature, strengthen the themes in The Grapes of Wrath by enhancing the mood Steinbeck wants readers to feel at different points in the book. Overall, the intercalary chapters that Steinbeck includes improve his novel by making it more memorable and reinforcing the themes Steinbeck embraces throughout the novel. Exemplary stylistic devices further persuade readers of John Steinbeck’s personal beliefs. Steinbeck wrote The Grapes of Wrath to bring to light cruelties against migrants, and by using literary devices effectively, he continuously reminds readers of his purpose. Steinbeck’s impressive language choices in his intercalary chapters advance the entire novel and help to create a classic work of literature that people still are able to relate to today. 

This essay sticks pretty closely to the standard analytical essay outline. It starts with an introduction, where I chose to use a quote to start off the essay. (This became my favorite way to start essays in high school because, if I wasn’t sure what to say, I could outsource the work and find a quote that related to what I’d be writing about.) The quote in this essay doesn’t relate to the themes I’m discussing quite as much as it could, but it’s still a slightly different way to start an essay and can intrigue readers. I then give a bit of background on The Grapes of Wrath and its themes before ending the intro paragraph with my thesis: that Steinbeck used literary devices in intercalary chapters to show how rough migrants had it.

Each of my four body paragraphs is formatted in roughly the same way: an intro sentence that explains what I’ll be discussing, analysis of that main point, and at least two quotes from the book as evidence.

My conclusion restates my thesis, summarizes each of four points I discussed in my body paragraphs, and ends the essay by briefly discussing how Steinbeck’s writing helped introduce a world of readers to the injustices migrants experienced during the dust bowl.

What does this analytical essay example do well? For starters, it contains everything that a strong analytical essay should, and it makes that easy to find. The thesis clearly lays out what the essay will be about, the first sentence of each of the body paragraph introduces the topic it’ll cover, and the conclusion neatly recaps all the main points. Within each of the body paragraphs, there’s analysis along with multiple excerpts from the book in order to add legitimacy to my points.

Additionally, the essay does a good job of taking an in-depth look at the issue introduced in the thesis. Four ways Steinbeck used literary devices are discussed, and for each of the examples are given and analysis is provided so readers can understand why Steinbeck included those devices and how they helped shaped how readers viewed migrants and their plight.

Where could this essay be improved? I believe the weakest body paragraph is the third one, the one that discusses how Steinbeck used plain, grammatically incorrect language to both accurately depict the migrants and make them more relatable to readers. The paragraph tries to touch on both of those reasons and ends up being somewhat unfocused as a result. It would have been better for it to focus on just one of those reasons (likely how it made the migrants more relatable) in order to be clearer and more effective. It’s a good example of how adding more ideas to an essay often doesn’t make it better if they don’t work with the rest of what you’re writing. This essay also could explain the excerpts that are included more and how they relate to the points being made. Sometimes they’re just dropped in the essay with the expectation that the readers will make the connection between the example and the analysis. This is perhaps especially true in the second body paragraph, the one that discusses similarities to Biblical passages. Additional analysis of the quotes would have strengthened it.

Summary: How to Write an Analytical Essay

What is an analytical essay? A critical analytical essay analyzes a topic, often a text or film. The analysis paper uses evidence to support the argument, such as excerpts from the piece of writing. All analytical papers include a thesis, analysis of the topic, and evidence to support that analysis.

When developing an analytical essay outline and writing your essay, follow these five steps:

Reading analytical essay examples can also give you a better sense of how to structure your essay and what to include in it.

What's Next?

Learning about different writing styles in school? There are four main writing styles, and it's important to understand each of them. Learn about them in our guide to writing styles , complete with examples.

Writing a research paper for school but not sure what to write about? Our guide to research paper topics has over 100 topics in ten categories so you can be sure to find the perfect topic for you.

Literary devices can both be used to enhance your writing and communication. Check out this list of 31 literary devices to learn more !

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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Title: uni-smart: universal science multimodal analysis and research transformer.

Abstract: In scientific research and its application, scientific literature analysis is crucial as it allows researchers to build on the work of others. However, the fast growth of scientific knowledge has led to a massive increase in scholarly articles, making in-depth literature analysis increasingly challenging and time-consuming. The emergence of Large Language Models (LLMs) has offered a new way to address this challenge. Known for their strong abilities in summarizing texts, LLMs are seen as a potential tool to improve the analysis of scientific literature. However, existing LLMs have their own limits. Scientific literature often includes a wide range of multimodal elements, such as molecular structure, tables, and charts, which are hard for text-focused LLMs to understand and analyze. This issue points to the urgent need for new solutions that can fully understand and analyze multimodal content in scientific literature. To answer this demand, we present Uni-SMART (Universal Science Multimodal Analysis and Research Transformer), an innovative model designed for in-depth understanding of multimodal scientific literature. Through rigorous quantitative evaluation across several domains, Uni-SMART demonstrates superior performance over leading text-focused LLMs. Furthermore, our exploration extends to practical applications, including patent infringement detection and nuanced analysis of charts. These applications not only highlight Uni-SMART's adaptability but also its potential to revolutionize how we interact with scientific literature.

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As a first generation Indian in America, my upbringing shaped my view of diversity

• My upbringing played a key role in the launch of Nations in Our Neighborhood, an initiative that was designed to connect our diverse communities through cuisine.

As we commemorate another heritage month , Women’s History Month, let’s remember why it was established. It is to honor the achievements of women, ensure gender parity and address biases in the community and in the workplace.

Among the greatest ways to stretch personal growth is putting ourselves in situations out of our comfort zone and embracing vulnerability.

As Brené Brown states, vulnerability is the birthplace of innovation, creativity and change.

I was fortunate to have an upbringing where I was exposed to many diverse cultures through my father’s position at the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, which included academic advising to international students.

I am first generation Indian and watched my empathetic parents nurture homesick students with my mom’s authentic Indian homecooked meals. I was unknowingly taught empathy and accept those who were very different from me as we broke bread together.

Let’s invite our neighbors into spaces outside their comfort zones

My upbringing played a key role in the launch of Nations in Our Neighborhood , an initiative that was designed to connect our diverse communities through cuisine.

The deeper goal of the program was to defy prejudice, racism, and bigotry. I partnered with dedicated students from   Vanderbilt’s Owen Graduate School to help launch the program.

The self-guided tours consisted of a kickoff party, where attendees picked up their “passport,” which listed all the participating restaurants. I would hear of new friendships formed as groups trekked through Music City together, discovering the ethnic cuisine in our own backyard.

Huseyin Ustunkaya, owner of Anatolia and Chateau West , shared how it is good for Nashville to invite neighbors into places they may not have otherwise heard of. Through the tour, guests were taken to places other than Nashville’s globally renowned hot chicken and BBQ joints and marginalized groups felt the warmth and acceptance of engaging “passport” holders.

How we can help bridge diverse groups through better approaches

The entire program was a remarkable demonstration of communities embracing different cultures. While this can be a bit more challenging in the workplace, it can be done.

Common tools include the traditional unconscious bias workshops, which have been proven to not be as effective. However, companies as Microsoft and Starbucks are leading the way with innovative techniques that are working.

Within Harvard Business Review’s “ Unconscious Bias Training That Works ,”these companies  guide employees toovercome denial; increase awareness; develop the empathy that combats bias; and diversify their networks in order to help team members overcome biases .

Through ongoing outreach and engagement strategies in the community and in the workplace, we can bridge diverse groups. By learning to recognize our biases through a spirit of vulnerability, we can cultivate a healthy environment and celebrate our differences.

Renuka Christoph is founder of Nations in Our Neighborhood and chief marketing and communications officer for WeGo.

• Introduction
• Conclusions
• Article Information

The salient features and findings of all 31 idelalisib trials with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), small lymphocytic leukemia (SLL), and follicular lymphoma (FL) indications are shown in context of the regulatory history of idelalisib. Data are grouped into 3 notable periods of time including the premarketing period, the initial postmarketing period, and the premarketing withdrawal period (after safety concerns were raised). Note that in each time period, total trials indicates all trials that were active during that period, and ongoing trials are those that continue into the next time period. Thus, some trials are counted in more than 1 period. Trials completing or terminating within 2 months after the time period are considered in the prior time period. PMR indicates postmarketing requirements.

A chronological depiction of all idelalisib trials with small lymphocytic leukemia (SLL) and/or follicular lymphoma (FL) indications shown in relation to key dates including date of accelerated approval for SLL and FL indications, date when multiple trials were terminated due to safety concerns, and date of voluntary withdrawal of SLL and FL indications. The trial that led to accelerated approval and those that were required for regular approval are highlighted.

a Trial that led to accelerated approval.

b Initial postmarketing requirement.

c Additional postmarketing requirement.

A, Forest plots of cumulative risk of serious adverse events; B, fatal adverse events; and C, death are shown for all idelalisib randomized clinical trials comparing idelalisib with placebo. Because this is a cumulative analysis, each data point includes results from the study listed to the left and all studies above. Gilead’s cumulative earnings from the drug are also shown. NA indicates not applicable; RR, risk ratio.

eFigure 1. Flowchart of Trial Selection Process for Analysis

eFigure 2. Cumulative Gilead Earning for Zydelig (2014-2021)

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Banerjee T , Kim MS , Haslam A , Prasad V. Clinical Trials Portfolio and Regulatory History of Idelalisib in Indolent Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma : A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis . JAMA Intern Med. 2023;183(5):435–441. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2023.0190

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Clinical Trials Portfolio and Regulatory History of Idelalisib in Indolent Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma : A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

• 1 Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland
• 2 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco

Question   What was the regulatory oversight and evidence generation for idelalisib between accelerated approval and voluntary withdrawal?

Findings   In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we found 20 trials that investigated idelalisib in indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL): 3 were phase 3 trials in indolent NHL, 2 of which were terminated due to increased mortality, and 1 recruited only 96 patients prior to voluntary withdrawal. No efficacy results were published for these trials; Gilead reported cumulative sales revenue of $842 million during market authorization.

Meaning   Periodic assessment of regulatory effectiveness of the accelerated approval pathway is needed.

Importance   Idelalisib is a first-in-class phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor that received US Food and Drug Administration accelerated approval in July 2014 as a single-agent treatment for relapsed follicular lymphoma (FL) and small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL). Serious adverse effects were reported in 2016 leading to termination of postmarketing registry trials. However, idelalisib remained on the market until 2022 when Gilead voluntarily withdrew the drug for the accelerated approval indication.

Objective   Evaluate the regulatory oversight of the accelerated approval pathway and evidence generation for idelalisib during premarketing (2008-2014), postmarketing (2014-2016), and premarketing withdrawal periods (2016-2022).

Data Sources   ClinicalTrials.gov, FDA.gov, PubMed database.

Study Selection   Clinical trials investigating the safety and effectiveness of idelalisib.

Data Extraction and Synthesis   Study characteristics and relative risk (RR) of safety outcomes were abstracted. Data were pooled using random effects meta-analysis. The analysis was performed in October of 2022.

Main Outcomes and Measures   Trial status, recruitment status, publication status, serious adverse events (SAEs), fatal adverse events (FAEs), and all-cause mortality.

Results   Overall, 31 idelalisib trials met selection criteria. In total, 20 of 30 (65%) included SLL and/or FL; 13 (42%) trials were completed, 13 (42%) had published results, and 7 (23%) were randomized clinical trials (RCTs). Overall, 6 RCTs of idelalisib had publicly available data on safety outcomes. By the initial postmarketing period (2016), the cumulative RR for SAEs was 1.86 (95% CI, 1.63-2.11), for FAEs was 3.30 (95% CI, 1.56-7.00), and for death was 1.35 (95% CI, 0.85-2.12). In the premarketing withdrawal period, only a single phase 3 trial was enrolling patients for FL and was terminated. However, idelalisib was not withdrawn from the market until 2022. Gilead reported cumulative sales revenue of $842 million during market authorization (2014-2022) and annual sales had a steady decline from $168 million to $62 million during the premarketing withdrawal period (2016-2021).

Conclusions and Relevance   Findings of this systematic review and meta-analysis show that serious risks of SAE, FAE, and death with idelalisib treatment were evident by 2016. However, idelalisib remained on the market for another 6 years, with minimal evidence generation. It was voluntarily withdrawn for FL and SLL accelerated approval indications coinciding with decreasing revenue generation. Closer attention for safety and effectiveness of drugs reaching market by accelerated approval is needed.

Since the inception of the accelerated approval pathway in 1992, it has been an increasingly used strategy for drug approvals in oncology and hematologic malignant diseases. Between 1992 and 2017, 93 new oncology indications were approved under the accelerated pathway. 1 , 2 Most accelerated approvals in oncology are based on surrogate end points, such as response rates (87%), and are required to do postmarketing requirements (PMR) studies to confirm clinical benefit. Completion of these requirements is often delayed. For example, of 93 accelerated approvals between 1992 and 2017, 37 (40%) had not completed PMR by 2018 and 5 (5%) drugs that received accelerated approval had been withdrawn. 1 , 2

Several drugs in the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor class have received accelerated approval. The PI3K pathway has been of specific interest because of its central role in multiple cellular functions and signaling pathways in tumor development, and consequently, is a target for antitumor drugs. 3 Idelalisib is a first-in-class PI3K inhibitor that received accelerated approval in July 2014 by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a single-agent treatment for relapsed follicular lymphoma (FL) and small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL). Subsequently, additional PI3K inhibitors, including copanlisib, duvelisib, and umbralisib, were approved. 4 However, during the first 2 years after approval, concerns about safety began to emerge, including risk of drug-related mortality. 4 In 2022—7 years after the initial approval and more than 5 years after initial safety concerns were raised—Gilead Sciences, Inc voluntarily withdrew the idelalisib indications for FL and SLL, citing poor enrollment in confirmatory studies. 5 This was followed by further withdrawals of next-in-class PI3K agents because further concerns were raised over the safety of the entire class of drugs. 6

Idelalisib, a first-in-class drug, demonstrated early promising results and was granted accelerated approval, yet longer follow-up resulted in the manifestation of serious risks. Review of the regulatory history of idelalisib is instructive and offers lessons for improving oversight of the accelerated approval pathway. To address questions regarding the overall safety of idelalisib, the timing of its approval, and how decisions by both the FDA and Gilead Sciences coincided with the reporting and dissemination of safety data, we performed a cumulative meta-analysis of the evidence that emerged during market authorization and reviewed the regulatory response by the FDA. We focused on the sequence of events from accelerated approval to voluntary withdrawal of SLL and FL indications by Gilead Sciences and investigated the historical revenue generated by idelalisib within that time frame. We focused on 3 distinct time periods: the premarketing period (2008 to approval in 2014), initial postmarketing period (2014-2016, when safety concerns were raised), and premarketing withdrawal (2016 to withdrawal in 2022). We sought to understand what was known regarding the safety of idelalisib by the end of each of these 3 time periods by characterizing study designs, whether studies were completed, and evidence regarding safety, to determine whether its withdrawal could have occurred sooner. We also estimated the trajectory in revenue generated by sales of idelalisib over time.

A systematic review, including a cumulative meta-analysis, was performed by 1 reviewer (T.B.) for all clinical trials investigating the efficacy of idelalisib for indications that received regular or accelerated FDA approval. We searched ClinicalTrials.gov using the search term idelalisib and study type interventional , and PubMed with search term idelalisib and lymphoma and study type clinical trials to identify all idelalisib trials. Searches were from database inception through August 2022. All trials were reviewed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses ( PRISMA ) reporting guidelines, and only trials with a clinical indication for chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), SLL, or FL were included for analysis. 7 For each trial, we abstracted the national clinical trial (NCT) number, title, start and end dates, phase, indication, trial status, and publication status. Studies listed as active, not recruiting were considered complete if results were published or shared on ClinicalTrials.gov, and the date on which the study status was changed from recruiting to not recruiting was noted instead of end date.

Analysis was performed on phase 3 randomized clinical trials (RCTs), excluding 1 extension study comparing 2 dose levels of idelalisib and 1 study comparing idelalisib to chlorambucil instead of placebo. From this set, we collected safety data reported on ClinicalTrials.gov. Data on the size of treatment and placebo groups, number of deaths, and number of serious adverse events (SAEs) for the placebo and treatment arms were collected. The number of SAEs was found under Study Results on ClinicalTrials.gov. Per their definition, SAEs are adverse events that are life-threatening or result in death, require an extend hospitalization, result in significant incapacity, or cause a congenital anomaly. All-cause mortality and rates of fatal adverse events (FAEs) not available on ClinicalTrials.gov were obtained from publications, if available. For trials that were terminated without reported results, data were collected from the FDA Briefing Document for the April 21, 2022, Oncologic Drugs Advisory Committee meeting discussing PI3K inhibitors. 8 For all-cause mortality, the hazard ratio for death and confidence intervals (CIs) were obtained in addition to number of deaths.

Frequencies of trial characteristics such as phase, indication, status, and availability of published results were calculated. A timeline was created using the trial start and end dates for trials with SLL and FL indications. For the analysis of RCTs, cumulative risk ratios (RRs) of all-cause mortality, SAEs, and FAEs for the placebo and treatment arms were calculated based on the reported deaths, SAEs, and total participants. Using R statistical software (package meta, R Foundation), forest plots were then created from the calculated cumulative RRs for all-cause mortality, SAEs, and FAEs. The analysis was performed in October of 2022.

Worldwide sales revenue from idelalisib, reported by Gilead, was collected from the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Annual Filings. We searched Gilead in the company search page of SEC.gov and reviewed the 10-K filings from 2014 to 2021 for reported worldwide idelalisib sales. The US-specific sales data were also collected when available.

In accordance with 45 CFR §46.102(f), this review was not human participants research and was not submitted to an institutional review board and did not require informed consent procedures.

We identified 62 trials on ClinicalTrials.gov with search term idelalisib and study type interventional . An additional search of PubMed did not reveal additional studies. Of the 62 trials, 31 were excluded because they were for indications other than CLL, SLL, or FL, did not include idelalisib, were withdrawn prior to any patient recruitment, or were extension studies. The remaining 31 clinical trials were included in our analysis. Trial selection was notable for 31 trials in indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), 20 trials including SLL and/or FL, and 6 phase 3 RCTs (eFigure 1 in Supplement 1 ).

Among the 31 idelalisib trials for indolent NHL, we found that 11 (35%) were for CLL only but 20 (65%) included SLL and/or FL; the indications that have now been withdrawn. Most trials (23 [74%]) tested idelalisib in combination with other drugs.

Less than a quarter of studies were randomized trials (7 [23%]). Six (86%) of the RCTs compared idelalisib to placebo. Less than half (13 [42%]) of trials were completed and 13 (42%) had results published. 9 - 14 Herein we analyze the characteristics and results of these trials in context of the regulatory history of idelalisib.

Between June 2008 and July 2014, 15 trials studying idelalisib in CLL, SLL, and FL treatment were started. Most of these preapproval trials were early phase (phase 1 or 2) (9 of 15 [60%]) and 3 of 15 (20%) were completed ( Figure 1 ). Most (9 of 15 [60%]) of these trials included SLL and/or FL ( Figure 2 ). The completed trials included 1 phase 3 trial ( NCT01539512 ), which, in July 2014, led to traditional approval of idelalisib in combination with rituximab for relapsed CLL.

In July 2014, idelalisib was also granted accelerated approval by the FDA as a single -agent treatment for relapsed FL and SLL after 2 lines of therapy. The accelerated approvals for FL and SLL were based on the then-ongoing phase 2 DELTA trial ( NCT01282424 ), which showed a 54% overall response rate (ORR; complete + partial response) in 72 patients with FL and a 58% ORR in 26 patients with SLL, a surrogate unvalidated end point. 12 Continued approval was contingent on further confirmation of clinical benefit through PMR. The safety data of idelalisib monotherapy were based on 146 adults with indolent NHL who received idelalisib in single-arm clinical trials. From initial approval in 2014, idelalisib carried a boxed warning regarding potential for fatal and serious toxic effects including hepatic toxic effects, severe diarrhea, colitis, pneumonitis, infections, and intestinal perforation. In later studies, severe allergic and skin reactions were recorded as well as Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia and cytomegalovirus infections. 15 , 16 Based on the 1 phase 3 trial at this point, there was an RR for SAEs of 1.48 (95% CI, 1.12-1.96) with idelalisib treatment but no increased risk of death ( Figure 3 ).

The initial PMR to obtain regular approval included completion of (1) a dose optimization trial for stable disease by June 2019 ( NCT01539291 ), (2) a phase 3 trial comparing rituximab with or without idelalisib ( NCT01732913 ) by December 2017, and (3) a phase 3 trial comparing bendamustine and rituximab with or without idelalisib ( NCT01732926 ) by February 2019. All of these trials were started and ongoing at the time of accelerated approval.

Between July 2014 and March 2016, 21 trials were started or ongoing. Most of these trials were early phase trials (14 [67%]) ( Figure 1 ). Thirteen (62%) included SLL and/or FL indications ( Figure 2 ). Seven of these 21 trials were phase 3 RCTs and 3 of these 7 (43%) included SLL and FL indications. The 3 phase 3 RCTs included 2 of the original PMR trials and 1 that was established later.

In March 2016, the FDA issued an alert indicating that Gilead was stopping 6 clinical trials because of an increased risk of adverse events. 17 Two of these were PMR trials for the SLL and FL indications ( NCT01732913 and NCT01732926 ), and 5 of the 7 ongoing phase 3 RCTs during this time period were terminated. By the end of 2016, there were 4 completed/terminated RCTs comparing idelalisib vs placebo in indolent NHL. Based on data from those 4 studies, the cumulative RR for SAEs was 1.86 (95% CI, 1.63-2.11) and the cumulative RR for FAEs was 3.30 (95% CI, 1.56-7.00). Moreover, the cumulative RR for death by the end of 2016 was 1.35 (95% CI, 0.85-2.12) ( Figure 3 ).

The FDA responded to these findings in September 2016 in 3 ways. They issued a new safety alert, updated the boxed warning and safety information on the drug label, and also added a requirement for the sponsor to conduct an additional trial (ie, a new PMR). This new PMR was issued to conduct a trial establishing a safe and effective dosing regimen of idelalisib in patients with relapsed FL by April 2024. As a result, a phase 3 RCT ( NCT02536300 ) began in 2016, which compared 3 different doses of idelalisib.

During this initial postmarketing time period, Gilead’s year-over-year annual sales of idelalisib reached a peak of $168 million in 2016, with cumulative sales of $323 million (eFigure 2 in Supplement 1 ), which included sales for CLL in addition to FL and SLL indications.

Between March 2016 and January 2022, 16 trials were in progress. Given the termination of 5 phase 3 trials in the prior time period, 13 trials (81%) during this period were still early-phase trials ( Figure 1 ). Of the 16 trials that were ongoing during this time, 9 included SLL and FL indications and 4 of these trials were completed by 2022 ( Figure 2 ). There was only 1 phase 3 trial for SLL and FL indications in progress during this time.

Two phase 3 studies initiated prior to idelalisib approval in 2014 continued enrollment after 2016 ( NCT01659021 , NCT01569295 ). These were CLL-only studies, 1 completed and 1 terminated, both with results published. Only 1 other phase 3 trial enrolled patients and generated new data after 2016. This was the dose optimization study of idelalisib in FL ( NCT02536300 ), the new PMR established in 2016 following the termination of prior PMR trials.

This final PMR trial for dose optimization in FL was terminated in January 2022, after recruiting 96 patients. On January 14, 2022, Gilead Sciences, Inc, voluntarily withdrew the idelalisib indications for FL and SLL, citing poor enrollment to confirmatory studies. Since the initial accelerated approval based on a phase 2 trial, no phase 3 trials in patients with SLL and FL that compared idelalisib with placebo were completed, and only 2 dose finding trials were ongoing after 2016.

The cumulative RR for adverse events and mortality beyond 2016 was generated by trials in CLL only ( Figure 3 ). By 2018 the cumulative RR for mortality was noted to be higher for patients treated with idelalisib (RR, 1.54; 95% CI, 1.03-2.29) though this increased risk was not noted by the addition of the final CLL trial in 2019. However, by 2019, the cumulative RR of SAEs was 1.79 (95% CI, 1.63-1.97) and the cumulative RR of FAEs was 2.05 (95% CI, 1.36-3.09). Despite these concerns for safety, additional PI3K inhibitors received approval, including copanlisib in September 2017, duvelisib in September 2018, and umbralisib in February 2021.

Despite reports of increased mortality and FAEs, idelalisib continued to generate sales. Cumulative sales revenue by 2021 was $842 million (eFigure 2 in Supplement 1 ). The year-over-year annual sales revenue showed a steady decline starting in 2016, from a peak of $168 million in 2016 to $62 million in 2021. The US-specific sales data were available for 2016 to 2021 and accounted for 47% of all sales.

More than 7 years after the initial approval, Gilead Sciences, Inc, voluntarily withdrew idelalisib for indications for FL and SLL in January 2022, citing poor enrollment in confirmatory studies. In this systematic review and cumulative meta-analysis of clinical trials, we showed that only a single phase 3 trial was enrolling patients for FL after 2016: NCT02536300 , a PMR trial required by the FDA after the termination of 2 other registry trials for indolent NHL in 2016. This trial ended recruitment in January 2022 with only 96 enrolled participants, although Gilead revenue data suggest that many more patients continued to receive this drug outside of clinical trials through 2022. The low trial participation, yet increasing revenues for Gilead, are set against a backdrop of accumulating evidence of increased mortality and a voluntary withdrawal of FL and SLL indications.

Our investigation revealed 5 key findings about the clinical trials portfolio of idelalisib for the indications of CLL, FL, and SLL. First, we found that less than half of the 31 studies (7 [31%]) were RTCs. Second, 13 of all 31 trials (42%) had published results. Third, the limited phase 3 data available showed increasing RR of SAEs, FAEs, and death, notably including an increased RR for death of 1.35 (95% CI, 0.85-2.12) that was known by 2016 ( Figure 3 ). Fourth, this product was withdrawn for select indications in the US market following a 6-year period of insufficient data generation. Only 96 patients were enrolled in the single active phase 3 trial during this time. Fifth, during the years of marketing authorization, the company earned nearly a billion dollars, with an estimated 47% being US sales.

Could the drug have been withdrawn sooner to protect patients from a dangerous drug? Our analysis shows that the bulk of data had been accumulated by the end of the initial postmarketing period in 2016. From 2016 to 2022, patients were exposed to the toxic effects of the product, and physicians did not have access to critical data such as incidence of death or SAEs in terminated trials, while the drugs continued to have marketing authorization. From initial approval, idelalisib carried a boxed warning regarding potential for fatal and serious toxic effects. In March 2016, the FDA issued an additional warning about increased rates of adverse events and deaths in trials combining idelalisib with other cancer treatments after 6 trials were halted due to toxic effects and deaths. 17 The FDA set confirmatory requirements at initial accelerated approval in 2014 and again in 2016, but enforcement of these requirements was delayed. It was not until 2022 that the drug was voluntarily withdrawn for FL and SLL indications.

The withdrawal did not occur due to new data. In fact, there were few ongoing trials after 2016, by which point safety concerns had already been raised. The decision did coincide with a period of decreasing revenue for Gilead (eFigure 2 in Supplement 1 ). Idelalisib was a promising drug at the time of approval in 2014, with predicted sales of $1.2 billion per year by 2020. 18 Gilead purchased Calistoga Pharmaceuticals, which included idelalisib in its portfolio, for $375 million in 2011. Although the drug did not reach the highest blockbuster status, remaining on the market was more lucrative than withdrawal.

The case of idelalisib has implications for the entire class. During the 6 years between the time when safety concerns were raised and the withdrawal of the SLL and FL indications, the FDA approved several next-in-class drugs, including copanlisib, duvelisib, and umbralisib. The FDA decision to approve next-in-class drugs with a known safety signal for the parent is concerning. After the withdrawal of idelalisib, the accelerated approval for duvelisib was withdrawn in April 2022 and the accelerated approvals for umbralisib were withdrawn in June 2022.

The findings of our study suggest that patients would benefit from regulatory reform and increased oversight of the accelerated approval pathway. The Accelerated Approval Integrity Act, introduced in March 2022, would help protect patient safety by including an automatic expiration of accelerated approval status within 1 year if postapproval studies are not completed by the deadline. 19

This study had 2 important limitations. First, these results may not be generalizable to all drugs and disease entities benefiting from the accelerated approval process. Second, we used data that were publicly available and thus were dependent on the accuracy and completeness of these databases.

Idelalisib was voluntarily withdrawn for FL and SLL accelerated approval indications at a time of decreasing revenue generation. Six years prior to withdrawal there were already serious toxic effects concerns, and minimal evidence generation to show patient benefits. Evaluation of the effectiveness and integrity of accelerated approval pathway would improve patient safety.

Accepted for Publication: January 23, 2023.

Published Online: March 20, 2023. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2023.0190

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2023 Banerjee T et al. JAMA Internal Medicine .

Corresponding Author: Titas Banerjee, MD, Knight Cancer Institute OHSU, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd, OC14HO, Portland, OR 97239 ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Dr Banerjee had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Banerjee, Prasad.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: Banerjee, Kim, Haslam.

Drafting of the manuscript: Banerjee, Kim.

Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Banerjee, Haslam, Prasad.

Statistical analysis: Haslam.

Supervision: Prasad.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Prasad reported grants from Arnold Ventures during the conduct of the study; personal fees and/or royalties from Johns Hopkins Press, Medscape, MedPage, consulting fees from UnitedHealthcare and OptumRx, subscriber fees from Patreon, YouTube, and Substack outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: This study was funded by Arnold Ventures.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: Arnold Ventures had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .

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What to know about the crisis of violence, politics and hunger engulfing Haiti

A long-simmering crisis over Haiti’s ability to govern itself, particularly after a series of natural disasters and an increasingly dire humanitarian emergency, has come to a head in the Caribbean nation, as its de facto president remains stranded in Puerto Rico and its people starve and live in fear of rampant violence. 

The chaos engulfing the country has been bubbling for more than a year, only for it to spill over on the global stage on Monday night, as Haiti’s unpopular prime minister, Ariel Henry, agreed to resign once a transitional government is brokered by other Caribbean nations and parties, including the U.S.

But the very idea of a transitional government brokered not by Haitians but by outsiders is one of the main reasons Haiti, a nation of 11 million, is on the brink, according to humanitarian workers and residents who have called for Haitian-led solutions. 

“What we’re seeing in Haiti has been building since the 2010 earthquake,” said Greg Beckett, an associate professor of anthropology at Western University in Canada. 

What is happening in Haiti and why?

In the power vacuum that followed the assassination of democratically elected President Jovenel Moïse in 2021, Henry, who was prime minister under Moïse, assumed power, with the support of several nations, including the U.S. 

When Haiti failed to hold elections multiple times — Henry said it was due to logistical problems or violence — protests rang out against him. By the time Henry announced last year that elections would be postponed again, to 2025, armed groups that were already active in Port-au-Prince, the capital, dialed up the violence.

Even before Moïse’s assassination, these militias and armed groups existed alongside politicians who used them to do their bidding, including everything from intimidating the opposition to collecting votes . With the dwindling of the country’s elected officials, though, many of these rebel forces have engaged in excessively violent acts, and have taken control of at least 80% of the capital, according to a United Nations estimate. 

Those groups, which include paramilitary and former police officers who pose as community leaders, have been responsible for the increase in killings, kidnappings and rapes since Moïse’s death, according to the Uppsala Conflict Data Program at Uppsala University in Sweden. According to a report from the U.N . released in January, more than 8,400 people were killed, injured or kidnapped in 2023, an increase of 122% increase from 2022.

“January and February have been the most violent months in the recent crisis, with thousands of people killed, or injured, or raped,” Beckett said.

Armed groups who had been calling for Henry’s resignation have already attacked airports, police stations, sea ports, the Central Bank and the country’s national soccer stadium. The situation reached critical mass earlier this month when the country’s two main prisons were raided , leading to the escape of about 4,000 prisoners. The beleaguered government called a 72-hour state of emergency, including a night-time curfew — but its authority had evaporated by then.

Aside from human-made catastrophes, Haiti still has not fully recovered from the devastating earthquake in 2010 that killed about 220,000 people and left 1.5 million homeless, many of them living in poorly built and exposed housing. More earthquakes, hurricanes and floods have followed, exacerbating efforts to rebuild infrastructure and a sense of national unity.

Since the earthquake, “there have been groups in Haiti trying to control that reconstruction process and the funding, the billions of dollars coming into the country to rebuild it,” said Beckett, who specializes in the Caribbean, particularly Haiti. 

Beckett said that control initially came from politicians and subsequently from armed groups supported by those politicians. Political “parties that controlled the government used the government for corruption to steal that money. We’re seeing the fallout from that.”

Many armed groups have formed in recent years claiming to be community groups carrying out essential work in underprivileged neighborhoods, but they have instead been accused of violence, even murder . One of the two main groups, G-9, is led by a former elite police officer, Jimmy Chérizier — also known as “Barbecue” — who has become the public face of the unrest and claimed credit for various attacks on public institutions. He has openly called for Henry to step down and called his campaign an “armed revolution.”

But caught in the crossfire are the residents of Haiti. In just one week, 15,000 people have been displaced from Port-au-Prince, according to a U.N. estimate. But people have been trying to flee the capital for well over a year, with one woman telling NBC News that she is currently hiding in a church with her three children and another family with eight children. The U.N. said about 160,000 people have left Port-au-Prince because of the swell of violence in the last several months. 

Deep poverty and famine are also a serious danger. Gangs have cut off access to the country’s largest port, Autorité Portuaire Nationale, and food could soon become scarce.

Haiti's uncertain future

A new transitional government may dismay the Haitians and their supporters who call for Haitian-led solutions to the crisis. 

But the creation of such a government would come after years of democratic disruption and the crumbling of Haiti’s political leadership. The country hasn’t held an election in eight years. 

Haitian advocates and scholars like Jemima Pierre, a professor at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, say foreign intervention, including from the U.S., is partially to blame for Haiti’s turmoil. The U.S. has routinely sent thousands of troops to Haiti , intervened in its government and supported unpopular leaders like Henry.

“What you have over the last 20 years is the consistent dismantling of the Haitian state,” Pierre said. “What intervention means for Haiti, what it has always meant, is death and destruction.”

In fact, the country’s situation was so dire that Henry was forced to travel abroad in the hope of securing a U.N. peacekeeping deal. He went to Kenya, which agreed to send 1,000 troops to coordinate an East African and U.N.-backed alliance to help restore order in Haiti, but the plan is now on hold . Kenya agreed last October to send a U.N.-sanctioned security force to Haiti, but Kenya’s courts decided it was unconstitutional. The result has been Haiti fending for itself. 

“A force like Kenya, they don’t speak Kreyòl, they don’t speak French,” Pierre said. “The Kenyan police are known for human rights abuses . So what does it tell us as Haitians that the only thing that you see that we deserve are not schools, not reparations for the cholera the U.N. brought , but more military with the mandate to use all kinds of force on our population? That is unacceptable.”  

Henry was forced to announce his planned resignation from Puerto Rico, as threats of violence — and armed groups taking over the airports — have prevented him from returning to his country.  

Now that Henry is to stand down, it is far from clear what the armed groups will do or demand next, aside from the right to govern. 

“It’s the Haitian people who know what they’re going through. It’s the Haitian people who are going to take destiny into their own hands. Haitian people will choose who will govern them,” Chérizier said recently, according to The Associated Press .

Haitians and their supporters have put forth their own solutions over the years, holding that foreign intervention routinely ignores the voices and desires of Haitians. 

In 2021, both Haitian and non-Haitian church leaders, women’s rights groups, lawyers, humanitarian workers, the Voodoo Sector and more created the Commission to Search for a Haitian Solution to the Crisis . The commission has proposed the “ Montana Accord ,” outlining a two-year interim government with oversight committees tasked with restoring order, eradicating corruption and establishing fair elections. 

For more from NBC BLK, sign up for our weekly newsletter .

CORRECTION (March 15, 2024, 9:58 a.m. ET): An earlier version of this article misstated which university Jemima Pierre is affiliated with. She is a professor at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, not the University of California, Los Angeles, (or Columbia University, as an earlier correction misstated).

Patrick Smith is a London-based editor and reporter for NBC News Digital.

Char Adams is a reporter for NBC BLK who writes about race.

Flashback: Your Weekly History Quiz, March 30, 2024

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Flashback: Your Weekly History Quiz

March 30, 2024, can you place 8 notable events in chronological order, from the upshot: what the data says, analysis that explains politics, policy and everyday life..

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CBSE 12th History Paper Analysis, Answer Key 2024: Check students and teachers’ reactions

Cbse 12th history paper analysis 2024: the students reviewed the cbse 12th history paper as easy and balanced. as per students, cbse class 12 history paper followed the paper pattern of sample papers, previous years' papers.

CBSE 12th History Paper Analysis 2024: The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) conducted the Class 12 History paper today, March 28. The students reviewed the CBSE 12th History paper as easy and balanced. CBSE Class 12 History exam was held for three hours, from 10:30 am to 1:30 PM. The total marks in the CBSE Class 12 History paper is 80.

CBSE 12th History Paper Analysis 2024: Students, teachers’ reactions

As per students, CBSE Class 12 History paper followed the paper pattern of sample papers, previous years’ papers. The MCQ part of CBSE Class 12 History Paper was scoring, the long-answer type questions were a bit lengthy, students said.

For students who wish to review their Class 12 History paper, they can check the solved answer papers, answer key available on the portals by coaching institute. Meanwhile, CBSE never releases solved answer papers on the official website- cbse.gov.in .

Teachers’ reactions 

Don Augustine- PGT History, VidyaGyan School- “History question paper demands a thorough understanding of the concepts. However, it was observed that the questions were largely reminiscent of previous years’ papers, which may lead students to anticipate scoring well. The paper exhibited balance, covering content from all three prescribed books and remaining within the syllabus. Overall, the paper was considered easy. Yet, some multiple-choice questions were noted to be a bit tricky. Both short and long-answer questions were direct and not confusing. Source-based questions were also easy to attempt. Map questions were within the syllabus.”

Priya Gupta, History teacher at Billabong High International School, Malad- “Today’s History paper covered the entire Syllabus with a few questions different in all the three sets( MCQ, Short and Long Answers) having internal Choice for short and Long answers. The paper was easy with reference to Case based Question and Map making questions. MCQ, Short and Long answers were with a mixture of all types of questions in terms of difficulty level. Across the three sets the Case based Question and Map making were common in all. Questions from chapters like Bricks, Beads and Bones, Bhakti Sufi, Kings, Caste and Class, Mahatma Gandhi and the National Movement, An Imperial Capital – Vijayanagara, Framing The Constitution and Revolt of 1857.”

Shruti Sharma, PGT History at Silverline Prestige School, Ghaziabad- “Question paper was as per CBSE guidelines. Questions had internal choice as per board pattern. MCQs were thought provoking.Map question was easy. Students were satisfied with the paper.”

CBSE 12th History Paper Analysis 2024: How to download answer key

To download CBSE Class 12 History answer key, students need to visit the private portals. Click on the CBSE 12th History answer key link. CBSE Class 12 History answer key PDF will appear on the screen for download. Save CBSE 12th History answer key PDF and take a print out.

CBSE 12th important papers

The remaining papers for CBSE Class 12 exams are- Sanskrit on March 30, April 1- Sociology, April 2- Computer Science, Informatics Practices, Information Technology.

CBSE 12th Result Date

CBSE Class 12 result is likely to be announced in May. Last year, the CBSE 12th result was announced on May 12. The students can download CBSE 12th exam 2024 scorecard on the official website- cbse.gov.in.

For details on CBSE Class 12 exam, please visit the official website- cbse.gov.in .

How to write an introduction for a history essay

Every essay needs to begin with an introductory paragraph. It needs to be the first paragraph the marker reads.

While your introduction paragraph might be the first of the paragraphs you write, this is not the only way to do it.

You can choose to write your introduction after you have written the rest of your essay.

This way, you will know what you have argued, and this might make writing the introduction easier.

Either approach is fine. If you do write your introduction first, ensure that you go back and refine it once you have completed your essay. 

What is an ‘introduction paragraph’?

An introductory paragraph is a single paragraph at the start of your essay that prepares your reader for the argument you are going to make in your body paragraphs .

It should provide all of the necessary historical information about your topic and clearly state your argument so that by the end of the paragraph, the marker knows how you are going to structure the rest of your essay.

In general, you should never use quotes from sources in your introduction.

Introduction paragraph structure

While your introduction paragraph does not have to be as long as your body paragraphs , it does have a specific purpose, which you must fulfil.

A well-written introduction paragraph has the following four-part structure (summarised by the acronym BHES).

B – Background sentences

H – Hypothesis

E – Elaboration sentences

S - Signpost sentence

Each of these elements are explained in further detail, with examples, below:

1. Background sentences

The first two or three sentences of your introduction should provide a general introduction to the historical topic which your essay is about. This is done so that when you state your hypothesis , your reader understands the specific point you are arguing about.

Background sentences explain the important historical period, dates, people, places, events and concepts that will be mentioned later in your essay. This information should be drawn from your background research . 

Example background sentences:

Middle Ages (Year 8 Level)

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15 th and 16 th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges.

WWI (Year 9 Level)

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe.

Civil Rights (Year 10 Level)

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success.

Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)  

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times.

2. Hypothesis

Once you have provided historical context for your essay in your background sentences, you need to state your hypothesis .

A hypothesis is a single sentence that clearly states the argument that your essay will be proving in your body paragraphs .

A good hypothesis contains both the argument and the reasons in support of your argument. 

Example hypotheses:

Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery.

Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare.

The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders.

Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1 st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state.

3. Elaboration sentences

Once you have stated your argument in your hypothesis , you need to provide particular information about how you’re going to prove your argument.

Your elaboration sentences should be one or two sentences that provide specific details about how you’re going to cover the argument in your three body paragraphs.

You might also briefly summarise two or three of your main points.

Finally, explain any important key words, phrases or concepts that you’ve used in your hypothesis, you’ll need to do this in your elaboration sentences.

Example elaboration sentences:

By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period.

Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined.

The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results.

While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period.

4. Signpost sentence

The final sentence of your introduction should prepare the reader for the topic of your first body paragraph. The main purpose of this sentence is to provide cohesion between your introductory paragraph and you first body paragraph .

Therefore, a signpost sentence indicates where you will begin proving the argument that you set out in your hypothesis and usually states the importance of the first point that you’re about to make. 

Example signpost sentences:

The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20 th century.

The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

Putting it all together

Once you have written all four parts of the BHES structure, you should have a completed introduction paragraph. In the examples above, we have shown each part separately. Below you will see the completed paragraphs so that you can appreciate what an introduction should look like.

Example introduction paragraphs: 

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15th and 16th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges. Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies, but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery. By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period. The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe. Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare. Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined. The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success. The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results. The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20th century.

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times. Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state. While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period. The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

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Topic modeling and BookNLP: Seeking the emotional turn in the history of eighteenth-century English fiction

Image of the first edition of "Robinson Crusoe" with data visualizations by Professor Hui.

Join us on April 2nd at between 12 and 1:30 pm for a paper presentation titled " Topic modeling and BookNLP: Seeking the emotional turn in the history of eighteenth-century English fiction" on topics modelling, emotions, and data visualizations by Professor Haifeng Hui from School of Foreign Languages, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China. Professor Hui is also currently a Visiting Scholar at Center for East Asian Studies at Stanford, and an affiliated researcher with CESTA. Lunch will be served for in person participants. If you cannot make it in person, we will have a Zoom option available as well. RSVP via this link to receive the Zoom link or to make sure that we have enough food.

Dr. Haifeng Hui (惠海峰 ) is Professor of English at the School of Foreign Languages, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China. He researches children’s literature from diverse theoretical perspectives, including narratology, stylistics, adaptation studies, and digital humanities. He serves as an Advisor Board member of International Research in Children's Literature, and an editor of Jeunesse: Young People, Texts, Cultures. He received his B.A. (2003), M.A. (2006) and Ph.D. (2012) from Peking University. He is also a visiting scholar at University of California at Los Angeles (2014-2015). Haifeng’s recent publications include Adaptation of British Literary Classics for Children (Peking University Press, 2019), “Canon Studies in China: Traditions, Modernization and Revisions in the Global Context,” Poetics Today (2021), “Embedded Mental States in Percy Jackson and the Lightning Thief and Uneven Distribution of Narratorial Attention,” Orbis Litterarrum (2023), “What Can Digital Humanities Do for Literary Adaptation Studies: Distant Reading of Children's Editions of Robinson Crusoe,” Digital Scholarship in the Humanities (2023).

Abstract of the Paper

While topic modeling has been widely used in NLP tasks, its application to literary texts has encountered challenges and dilemmas. In this seminar, I will begin by conducting topic modeling on a single novel, Robinson Crusoe , as a case study to demonstrate how we can use topic modeling for fiction analysis with the help of word2vec to differentiate different topic words in space, which makes it easier to interpret their significances. The result is further validated by readings of different editions of the novel through topic modeling. In the next step, I will apply topic modeling to the history of eighteenth-century English fiction, where I have found an interesting phenomenon of the topic of 'cry'. Following this clue, I have studied the evolution of emotional expression in English novels in the 18th century. By using BookNLP, I extract the usage of nouns and verbs related to emotions and feelings over the course of time, and explore how this trend is influenced by gender. The digital evidence amassed in this research contributes to understanding issues concerning the emergence of sentimentalism and emotions in literary works.