ap government research paper topics

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Lesson Plan: AP Government: Argumentative Essay Practice

The Federalist Papers

Boston College professor Mary Sarah Bilder gives a brief overview backgrounding the Federalist Papers

Description

This is intended as an end-of-course review activity for practice with the argumentative essay format included on the AP United States Government and Politics exam since the 2018 redesign. Eleven practice prompts are provided, reflecting content from Units 1-3.

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY PROMPT ANALYSIS

• Review the provided Argumentative Essay Prompts in either an individual or jigsaw format.
• Write a thesis statement for your selected prompt(s) and identify the selection you would make from the provided list and the second piece of evidence you would choose.
• If there are prompts for which you struggle to develop a thesis, or items on the bulleted lists with which you are not conversant, use the hyperlinked C-SPAN Classroom resources to extend your understanding of the required founding documents and SCOTUS cases that you found challenging.

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY

• Chose one or more of the provided Argumentative Essay Prompts , as assigned, and use the planning and exploration you did above to write a full essay in response to your designated prompt(s) in 25 or fewer minutes , since that's the time limit you'll face on the AP Exam!
• Exchange essays with a classmate and evaluate each others' work.
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AP Government- White and Stevens: American Government Issue Research Paper Process

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25 Essay Topics for American Government Classes

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If you are a teacher searching for essay topics to assign to your U.S. government or civics class or looking for ideas, do not fret. It is easy to integrate debates and discussions into the classroom environment. These topic suggestions provide a wealth of ideas for written assignments such as  position papers , compare-and-contrast essays , and  argumentative essays . Scan the following 25 question topics and ideas to find just the right one. You'll soon be reading interesting papers from your students after they grapple with these challenging and important issues.

• Compare and contrast what is a direct democracy versus representative democracy. 
• React to the following statement: Democratic decision-making should be extended to all areas of life including schools, the workplace, and the government. 
• Compare and contrast the Virginia and New Jersey plans. Explain how these led to the Great Compromise .
• Pick one thing about the U.S. Constitution including its amendments that you think should be changed. What modifications would you make? Explain your reasons for making this change.
• What did Thomas Jefferson mean when he said, "The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants?" Do you think that this statement still applies to today's world? 
• Compare and contrast mandates and conditions of aid regarding the federal government's relationship with states. For example, how has the Federal Emergency Management Agency delivered support to states and commonwealths that have experienced natural disasters?
• Should individual states have more or less power compared to the federal government when implementing laws dealing with topics such as the legalization of marijuana  and abortion ? 
• Outline a program that would get more people to vote in presidential elections or local elections.
• What are the dangers of gerrymandering when it comes to voting and presidential elections?
• Compare and contrast the major political parties in the United States. What policies are they preparing for upcoming elections?
• Why would voters choose to vote for a third party, even though they know that their candidate has virtually no chance of winning? 
• Describe the major sources of money that are donated to political campaigns. Check out the Federal Election Regulatory Commission's website for information.
• Should corporations be treated as individuals regarding being allowed to donate to political campaigns?  Look at the 2010 Citizens United v. FEC ruling on the issue. Defend your answer. 
• Explain the role of social media in connecting interest groups that have grown stronger as the major political parties have grown weaker. 
• Explain why the media has been called the fourth branch of government. Include your opinion on whether this is an accurate portrayal.
• Compare and contrast the campaigns of U.S. Senate and House of Representatives candidates.
• Should term limits be instituted for members of Congress? Explain your answer.
• Should members of Congress vote their conscience or follow the will of the people who elected them into office? Explain your answer.
• Explain how executive orders have been used by presidents throughout the history of the U.S. What is the number of executive orders issued by the current president?
• In your opinion, which of the three branches of the federal government has the most power? Defend your answer.
• Which of the rights guaranteed by the First Amendment do you consider the most important? Explain your answer. 
• Should a school be required to get a warrant before searching a student's property? Defend your answer. 
• Why did the Equal Rights Amendment fail? What kind of campaign could be run to see it passed?
• Explain how the 14th Amendment has affected civil liberties in the United States from the time of its passage at the end of the Civil War.
• Do you think that the federal government has enough, too much or just the right amount of power? Defend your answer.
• January Writing Prompts
• Key Election Terms for Students
• Voting Rights Background for Students
• Presidential Elections: ESL Lesson
• 501 Topic Suggestions for Writing Essays and Speeches
• Expository Essay Genre With Suggested Prompts
• Current Political Campaign Contribution Limits
• 50 Argumentative Essay Topics
• American Government Journal Topics
• Campaign Finance Laws: Definition and Examples
• 12 Interesting Ethical Topics for Essay Papers
• What Is Political Participation? Definition and Examples
• Fun March Writing Prompts for Journaling
• The Important Role of US Third Parties
• Why Puerto Rico Matters in the US Presidential Election
• What Is a Caucus? Definition and Examples

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What is AP Research and How Do I Find a Topic of Inquiry?

10 min read • december 22, 2021

Dylan Black

Introduction to AP Research

Welcome to the second class in the AP Capstone program! Fresh out of AP Seminar, you're ready to take on the next and final step in your journey to earning a Capstone Diploma: AP Research. AP Research is a class that is all about the students . That's right, the students. This class can be summed up in one word: individualistic . As will be seen in just a few minutes, the class truly is what you make of it. In this guide, we'll dive right into it with what AP Research is all about, what differs it from Seminar, and how to find the perfect topic of inquiry and research question .

Source: Tenor

What is AP Research?

AP Research is a beast 👹 of a course, and while this might be coming from my perspective as a veteran of the course, most students will agree that it is a TON of work, and only 8 to 9 months maximum to do it.

While AP Seminar consists of using collected, already established evidence to prove points, AP Research has you collecting your own data. Meaning you'll need to conduct a study, analyze content, experiment, or whatever you want.

Seriously. Whatever your little heart ❤️ desires.

I’ve seen papers on milk cartons, data mining on social media, Disney’s Big Hero Six, and everything in between. In my class alone, there were students studying nutrition, concerts, climate change, water cleanliness, and so much more. The only thing that truly ties together these papers is that they are new, original research that adds to a body of knowledge. Pretty broad, we know.

To further push this point, here are some sample AP Research paper titles from high scoring students:

“Making Health Education LGBTQ+ Inclusive in Vermont High Schools”

“Growth For Good: How Past Experiences Motivate Executives to Join Double Bottom Line Organizations in The Indian Construction Industry”

“Music Chemistry: The Formula of K-Pop”

And those are just from 2017 alone. AP Research lets loose the reins and allows students to quite literally go wild on whatever they want to study. That's why AP Research is such an awesome course .

There are five required sections to the paper: an introduction, a literature review , a methodology , data and/or results and analysis, a conclusion, and a bibliography . The following guides will follow this structure as you go through the AP Research journey.

Throughout the year, students do intensive, in-depth research into a specific discipline , identify a gap in that field, and fill it. This includes conducting a formal literature review ; designing a proper, justifiable methodology that will fill the gap; and, finally, actually doing it. The first step of it all, however, is finding a topic, and that's what we'll take a look at first.

How to Find A Topic of Inquiry

What even is a topic of inquiry.

A topic of inquiry can be defined fairly succinctly: it is the topic that a paper covers. For example: if you are studying education, a topic of inquiry may be "the impacts of flipped classrooms on high school level regular, honors, and AP math classes". Note that the topic of inquiry is detailed and specific. This might seem really simple, but in reality, figuring this out can in fact be one of the hardest parts of this class. Odds are, your teacher had you thinking about this early, maybe even over the summer. Many students think topic of inquiry = discipline . This is NOT true. A discipline is the broad area of study that a paper is focused within. For example, disciplines include economics, film, art, chemistry, physics, music, and even broader, hard sciences, social sciences, humanities, etc. Rather, a topic of inquiry is narrow. It's specific. Think of it this way: if someone put all of a class's topics of inquiry in a hat and pulled them at random, they should be able to easily identify each person who wrote that paper, even if a few students had similar broad focuses.

Finding a Broad Focus

The first step in finding a topic of inquiry is identifying a discipline . This can be a subject you want to major in, a passion of yours, or just something you want to learn more about. Personally, I suggest going with something you have some prior knowledge in, but that doesn't mean you can't explore something new. On a similar note, you may go into Research with what you think is a plan, the perfect plan, a research question and topic of inquiry that will carry you straight to a 5. However, when starting Research, expect for your plans to change . I'll use myself as an example. The summer going into AP Research, I was dead set on doing educational research. I even had a topic of inquiry in mind: I was going to study the impacts of flipped classrooms on different levels of classes (AP, Honors, etc.). Perfect, beautiful, time to win Research. However , this plan very quickly fell apart, and by the end of October, I was re-narrowing a topic of focus about Moon , a science fiction film by Duncan Jones.

In my philosophy, finding your "perfect topic" isn't something you can necessarily "try" to do. If you keep asking yourself "is this my topic?" you'll overthink and keep flip flopping. Instead, you'll know your topic when you see it. I know this sounds sappy and almost romantic, but it's true (heck, my teacher referred to "marrying" your topic at least 3 times). I first watched Moon in chemistry class nearly a YEAR before Research started and I found myself studying its themes of Marxism within two months out of nowhere.

Narrowing a Focus and Finding a Gap in . . . Wait For It . . . Research!

So you've got a broad focus, now what? At this point, you want to start narrowing it down . When I say narrowing, I mean taking what is typically a broad idea and doing research (ah, there's the dreaded word!) to go from this broad topic to a true topic of inquiry . Before we get into this, let's start talking about gaps .

What is a Gap?

Image from Medium .

AP Research is all about finding and closing a gap in the body of knowledge . These are some new terms, so let's start by defining them.

The body of knowledge is all of the "stuff" that is known about your broad focus. For example, let's suppose you have decided that you want to study perceptions of advertising among different age groups (this was just a random off the cusp topic—if you don't want to do something like this, that is fine ). Obviously, this broad a topic has been studied. The body of knowledge is all of that stuff that HAS been studied. Essentially, it is the research questions that have already been addressed and therefore have already been covered. Your goal in AP Research is to find a question that hasn't been answered and then answer it! That's where the gap comes in.

Get very, very used to this term folks. The gap describes this tiny bit of research that has not been uncovered, and guess whose job it is to uncover it? YOU!!!! Welcome to the purpose of AP Research: filling the gap .

The idea of the gap can feel super intimidating, and that's because it is! Research is so crazy deep and so intense and the idea of having to find something nobody has studied can feel impossible. In fact, it really is. There is no way to read every paper on every subtopic of subtopic of your body of knowledge. On this point, by filling the gap, I'm not saying you have to make a revolutionary discovery and save the world. In fact, the opposite applies to the majority of AP Research papers. Odds are, you're not about to cure cancer or solve global warming with your paper. Instead, find something small and very niche about your topic—which isn't to say it won't be interesting/important to your discipline and certainly not the discourage you, just that most AP Research papers aren't going to be published in Nature anytime soon.

On a similar note, feasibility is a really important part of narrowing down your focus. When coming up with a topic of inquiry , understand your limitations. You are (assuming school starts in August) given approximately 10 months to conduct your research, write your paper, and do your presentation. While you shouldn't let this hold you back, you should know that you cannot plan anything super large or super time consuming. For example, you may really want to study a population over multiple years, but you simply don't have the time.

For example, suppose your topic of inquiry was "migration patterns of blue whales between June and September in the Northeast Atlantic." While this is a super interesting topic and one that may be a really great paper, it is far from feasible. Not only is there the problem of location, but timing and the sheer expense of taking on a project like this is simply not feasible. In some cases, like perhaps in this one, the solution may unfortunately be to pick a different topic. However, if you're able to make your topic more feasible by adjusting things for timing, costs, etc. you'll have a better topic in the end.

Finding the Gap With the Power of Little-R Research

So now that we understand what the gap is and why it's important, let's talk about how to find the gap. The simple answer is research! When I say research in this context, I'm referring to what's called " little-r research " . This means that I'm referring to the use of databases and other tools to find already published work, basically what you did in AP Seminar last year. By comparison, " big-R Research " can be described as your generation of new data and facts that have not been figured out yet. These are by no means scientific terms, but can help when describing how we do research/Research.

When doing your little-r research , you want to use databases and collect as much data and papers as you can. I recommend finding 50+ sources about your topic, slowly narrowing down as you go forward. By reading and really diving deep into these sources you'll be able to A) slowly figure out what questions you have and B) narrow down your topic of inquiry to eventually finding (drumroll . . .) A GAP!!! This is NOT an easy process and will take a lot of thinking and effort on your end, but eventually you'll find a very VERY specific topic of inquiry that will fill a gap situated in a body of knowledge AND you'll essentially be an expert in your topic. Seriously, this is going to be like drinking information from a firehose.

A visual model of a gap. Source: Psychological Health Center of Excellence

A Note on Credibility and Choice of Sources

When doing your little-r research , it's important to take note of new standards of credibility and how to choose your sources. In Seminar, the most typical form of credibility was someone's credentials: things like PhDs, other degrees, positions, etc. While this still plays a large role in credibility in Research, it goes one step farther here. No longer is just someone's degree a telling sign of their credibility, but also their prior research. As you get more and more specific, you need experts .

For example, let's suppose that we moved from our broader topic of perceptions of advertising among different age groups to now finding a gap and filling it by researching how Baby Boomers vs. members of Gen-Z respond to advertising on social media platforms, specifically comparing TikTok to Instagram (again, random topic and a random gap. This is all for example purposes!). First and foremost, dang, our topic has become focused! But secondly, when doing our little-r research now, the papers that we read have to be just as focused. Therefore, when evaluating credibility, we want people with this in-depth specific, knowledge, not just "PhD in Advertising".

Furthermore, the sources that you use will vary greatly based on your question, discipline , and focus. A paper on medicine is going to have a MUCH different source layout than historical research or economic research. Thus, you want to learn how your discipline conducts research on an individual level and what sources are optimal for your eventual introduction and literature review .

Whew! That was . . . a lot. However, you now know how to figure out what you want your topic to be and are ready to officially start the research process! AP Research is a beast of a course, but with the proper time and effort, it is truly a class that allows students to explore their interests and become an in depth expert on a specific topic. In the next guide we'll take a look at writing the introduction to your paper. Good luck!

Image from GIPHY .

Key Terms to Review ( 13 )

Bibliography

Big-R Research

Data Collection

Feasibility

Formal Literature Review

Literature Review

Little-r research

Methodology

Research Question

Topic of Inquiry

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122 american government research paper topics for you.

American government research paper topics lie under the political science category in schools, universities, and colleges. Many educators ask learners to write about these topics when pursuing political studies.

But, writing about these ideas is not an easy task due to the dynamic nature of politics. Ideally, political tides keep shifting every day. However, students should write about fresh and original ideas to impress their educators and earn top grades.

American Government Research Paper Outline

After picking a topic and researching it, a learner should write a paper with the following sections.

• Introduction: This section should introduce your topic to the readers and briefly tell the readers what you’ll be discussing in the paper. It should also have your thesis statement or problem statement.
• Literature review: Here, your paper should highlight relevant studies relating to your topics. Include information about past studies that you have used to research your title.
• Methodology: This section should tell readers about your research methods and how you analyzed information about your topic.
• Findings: Tell readers about your research findings in this section. You can describe and evaluate the results.
• Conclusion: Summarize everything and tell the audience how your findings support your thesis statement. Also, recommend or suggest further studies on the topic if necessary.

Selecting interesting American government paper topics is perhaps, the essential thing when working on this assignment. That’s because you will spend a lot of time gathering and analyzing information. If you pick a dull topic, you won’t enjoy working on your paper. Here are exciting issues to consider when writing a piece about the American government.

Exciting American Government Topics

If the educator didn’t assign you topics for your American government essays, pick titles that you will find exciting to work with from the beginning to the end. Here are exciting ideas to consider for your papers.

• Does the federal government have too much, enough, or the right power amount?
• Effects of the 14th Amendment on the United States’ civil liberties
• Why the Equal Rights Amendment failed
• Direct democracy vs. representative democracy
• Should the law extend democratic decision-making to the government, workplace, and school?
• How New Jersey and Virginia plans led to the Great Compromise
• What should the U.S. constitution change about the government?
• States versus the federal government- Which deserve more power?
• Which programs can compel more people to participate in local and presidential elections?
• Is gerrymandering dangerous to presidential elections and voting?
• A comparison of the United States’ political parties- What are their election policies?
• Should the government require schools to secure a warrant for searching students’ properties?
• Does the First Amendment provide the fundamental right?
• Which branch in the federal government wields the most power?
• How presidents have used the executive orders in the U.S. history
• How many executive orders has the current President issued?
• Should congress members vote by following the people’s will or their conscience?
• Should the congress members have term limits?
• A comparison of the House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate
• Why do some people call the media the 4th branch of government?
• How social media has strengthened political parties in the U.S.
• What are the primary sources of funds for political campaigns in the U.S?

These are compelling topics that will captivate your professor or teacher to read your paper. Nevertheless, research your idea extensively to develop a winning essay.

Legislative Branch of Government Topics

Perhaps, you’re interested in a topic about the legislature. In that case, this category comprises topics you’ll find fascinating to work on from the beginning to the end.

• The role of advocates, opponents, and experts in the rejection or passage of a bill
• Why does the number of subcommittees and committees matter?
• Describe the legislative process that the Senate follows
• Why does the decisive vote by the Vice President matter to the Senate?
• The 17th Amendment ratification in 1913
• Why representatives should elect their house speaker
• The essence of the 25th Amendment to the legislature and the house
• How effective is the Senate in committee hearings and inquiries
• Why the Congress should have powers to remove a seating President
• Passing a bill- What is the origin of the two-third majority rule?
• The importance of the Senate in approving presidential appointments
• Why does the 25-year age limit matter when vying?
• Why house representatives should sever for over two terms
• The essence of the census in determining the representatives’ number
• A critical evaluation of the Senate and House of Representatives
• Is the American legislature an accurate reflection of women’s representation?
• Is the United States Congress adequately constituted?

Consider these ideas and then explore them through research to develop informative papers. Aim to provide relevant and valuable information through your essay to impress the educator.

U.S. Government Research Paper Topics for College & University Students

Perhaps, you’re in college or university, and you need a topic for your research paper. In that case, consider the following titles for your essays.

• How reliable are presidential election polls?
• American government’s public relations and their essence in its success
• Clinton and Bush war doctrines
• What is the U.S. government’s stance on immigration?
• Why the 2008 U.S. Presidential election was a biased female politician’s depiction in the mass media
• How the constitution balances power between the government branches
• How the U.S. government influence the American democracy
• How the government’s bureaucratic processes influence modern America
• How the U.S. government’s foreign policies affect the European politics
• The government’s role in fighting against terrorism
• How political scandals affect the U.S. government
• How divisions in the U.S. government affect its functioning
• Foreign policy by the U.S. government- Guns or words?
• The U.S. government and church interconnections- How do they influence society morals?
• The U.S. government policy on speech freedom in modern society
• Should direct voting replace the Electoral College system?
• The pros and cons of the U.S. government policy on marijuana legalization
• The U.S. government censorship- Should citizens watch whatever they want?
• An empiric study of money distribution by the U.S. government
• What is the U.S. government’s policy on outsourcing?
• Describe the U.S. government’s policies about the web
• Does the U.S. government have a religious aspect?
• What are the issues facing the Federal government in the U.S.?
• How the U.S. government policies affect social inequality
• The U.S. government’s main principles and their implementation during the XXI century

Some of the topics in this category require high-level research to produce quality papers. Nevertheless, you can write a good essay if you take the time to research your preferred idea.

Government Research Paper Topics about the Executive Arm

Maybe you’re interested in the executive arm of the U.S. government. In that case, explore these topics about this branch of the U.S. government.

• Why the Department of Defense is the most significant arm of the U.S. government
• Does the committee have the correct number of departments to meet the U.S. people’s needs?
• Why is the cabinet comprised of the closest confidants of the President?
• Is it right for the U.S. president to select the cabinet members alone?
• Why the White House Chief of Staff has to be the closest adviser of the President?
• Why do Vice Presidents have a unique approach to their role?
• What is the national relevance of the President’s Oval Office?
• Is it necessary for the First Family and the President to live in the White House?
• Is the congressional delegation during the electoral vote a representation of the people’s will?
• What is the meaning of the State of the Union Address for a President?
• What are the President’s powers?
• Explain how the federal government administers and enforces federal laws
• Does the President have the ability to appoint independent national commissions heads?
• How the Congress affects overwriting a President’s veto
• Should the constitution allow the President unlimited powers to extend amnesties and pardons for federal crimes?
• Advantages and disadvantages of the Affordable Care Act by President Obama

Most research paper topics in this category revolve around the cabinet, vice president, and President. Nevertheless, they can be the basis of good academic papers.

Politics Topics to Write about in High School

If looking for political topics for high school, this section has the best ideas for you.

• Is it right or wrong for the U.S government to monitor the public?
• Government incentives and globalization
• Government aid and U.S. airways
• What is the difference between a parliamentary government and a presidential government?
• Should the U.S. government regulate the internet?
• How religion affects the U.S. government
• Business and government relations
• Does the government control equality?
• Influence of government policies on wealth and income distribution
• Local and state government accounting
• What is the role of government in the market economy?
• Does the constitution give citizens obligations and duties to the U.S. government?
• What are the principles of the United States government?
• Does the U.S. government control the media?
• Issues facing the U.S. federal government

These are exciting topics in American politics and the government for high school students. Nevertheless, learners should research their topics extensively to write quality papers.

Questions about American Government

Perhaps, you’re looking for questions you can answer in your paper about the American government. In that case, here are brilliant ideas to consider.

• Between representative and direct democracy, which is the best option for Americans?
• What can convince more people to participate in the U.S. election?
• Between the federal and the state government, which is the most powerful and why?
• Who funds political campaigns in the U.S.?
• Is the media the fourth U.S. government branch?
• Do Congress members follow their voters’ will?
• How do the U.S. presidents use their executive privileges?
• Why are presidential election polls unreliable?
• Does the U.S. federal government have excess power?
• What led to the failure of the Equal Rightnecessarynt in the Senate?
• Why is the U.S First Amendment so important to Americans’ human rights?
• Is reducing the federal budget deficit important?
• Has the U.S. government contributed to citizens’ inequality?
• How does religion affect the U.S. government and citizens?
• What are the effects of the ruling party on the U.S. government?
• What is the U.S. government’s role in the American economy?

These questions can be the basis of excellent American government research topics. Nevertheless, research your preferred idea to develop a winning paper.

Public Policy Research Paper Topics

Perhaps, you want to write about a topic that touches on the public interest. In that case, consider the ideas in this category.

• Should the U.S. government legalize marijuana?
• Should the U.S. government change the public healthcare policy?
• Should the government ban alcohol commercials from television?
• Should state governments tackle the high divorce rate?
• Ways for the U.S. government to address the gun ownership issue?
• Does the U.S. government infringe on the citizens’ privacy through public surveillance?
• Should the U.S. government regulate university and college education fees?
• How does the U.S. government benefit from the high number of people completing higher education?
• Should the U.S. government require immigrants to learn the national language?
• Should the U.S. government make vaccines compulsory?

Writing an American research paper can be fun if you pick the right topic. Therefore, take your time to identify the best issues to write about, and you will earn the top grades in your class.

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If unable to write a paper on any of these topics, seek professional assistance from the best writers online. Our crew comprises skilled and experienced writers with a proven track record of providing fast and reliable services to students. Regardless of your topic’s complexity or the professor’s requirements, we can write a winning paper for you. Contact us now for a cheap but quality paper writing service!

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 113 great research paper topics.

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

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Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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American Government Research Paper

View sample American Government Research Paper. Browse other research paper examples and check the list of political science  research paper topics for more inspiration. If you need a research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Also, chech our custom research proposal writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

I. Introduction

Academic writing, editing, proofreading, and problem solving services, get 10% off with 24start discount code, ii. states in the federal system, iii. variety and inequality, iv. state political structures, a. state constitutions, b. governors, c. state legislatures, d. state judicial systems, e. bureaucracy, v. local governments, a. county government, b. municipal government, vi. conclusion.

The study of state and local government is essentially the study of all that is not national government in the United States—the 50 states and the more than 88,000 other subnational units of government from counties to small towns, fire districts, school districts, and water districts. Typically, the study of cities—communities of larger than 50,000 people—is considered a separate realm of inquiry. The distinction among these layers of government has been confounded in recent years with the emergence of the metropolis—such as the so-called BosWash region that encompasses the Northeast corridor from Boston to the nation’s capital and includes all the cities, suburbs, and rural areas in between.

This research paper examines where state and local government sit in the American national political system and then focuses on the internal workings of each level, looking at executives, legislatures, judicial systems, political participation, and policy making.

State governments, and the municipalities within them, preceded the creation of the national government. A drive through the northeastern United States will reveal cities and towns founded in the 1600s and 1700s, long before the 1787 writing of the founding document of the nation in which they sit. Thirteen states were viable political entities at the time of the American Revolution. The states had their own constitutions, forms of government, political processes, political cultures, and political identities. Virginians, New Yorkers, and Pennsylvanians existed long before Americans.

The preexistence of states had a profound impact on the design of the Constitution and continues to shape the operation of American politics today. The president is elected by electoral votes, which are allocated to states. This unique electoral institution determines presidential campaign strategy and, some argue, has an impact on presidential policy making as the president responds to the states that are vote rich. Both chambers of Congress are organized geographically, with Senators originally chosen by state legislators (until the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, which ushered in direct election) and House members elected from districts within states. The shape of these districts is determined by state legislatures, creating one of the most politically charged elements of American politics, as state legislatures use their line-drawing powers to the benefit of the party that controls that legislature. The Constitution itself can be amended only with the approval of three fifths of the state legislatures, making constitutional change by this method rare indeed.

Clearly, state governments matter a great deal in American politics. The impact of structural elements outlined is enhanced by the constitutional allocation of power between the state and federal governments. Articles I, II, and III of the Constitution allocate certain powers to the national level of government. Many powers and many areas of authority are not mentioned in the provisions and have been, over the course of 220 years of constitutional history, contested terrain between state power and national power. The Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, often called the states-rights amendment, asserts that all powers not granted to the national government or denied to the states “are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people” (U.S. Constitution, 1787, Amendment Ten). This reserved-powers clause has been used by state governments with considerable success to fend off national incursion into state sovereignty. In 1997, for example, in Printz v. U.S., the Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional a provision of the Brady Bill gun control bill that required local police to conduct background checks for handgun purchases. The Court saw this provision as a violation of the federal division of powers. Also in 1997, a federal district court affirmed the right of the voters of California when they passed Proposition 209 banning affirmative action by public institutions in the state. The proposition is in direct contraction to federal policy but was allowed to stand by the Court. Not all attempts to assert state sovereignty succeed. In 1985, in Garcia v. San Antonio MTA, the Court added to a long line of decisions, beginning with the New Deal, that permitted federal regulation of the conditions of labor for state and local employees, including minimum wage, maximum hours, and the right to unionize.

In the early 21st century, the boundaries between state and federal authority remain unclear. In the area of medical marijuana, for example, at least 14 states have laws that permit the cultivation, distribution, and use of marijuana for medicinal purposes, and several have decriminalized marijuana altogether. However, marijuana remains illegal at the federal level, and there have been numerous incidents, notably in California, where medical marijuana dispensaries, operating in a manner consistent with state law, have been shut down by federal authorities. In the 2005 Gonzales v. Raich, the Supreme Court asserted the federal government’s power to prohibit the use of marijuana even for medicinal purposes. This particular federal–state dispute remains active as more states indicate the likelihood of relaxing marijuana laws at the state level.

States remain vibrant, vital sovereign actors in American politics. Constitutional provisions, centuries-old practice, and Supreme Court decision making will ensure that state–federal tension remains a significant dynamic in the system.

One of the frequently cited benefits of an American-style federal system is the variety offered by the existence of 50 sovereign states. From the physical differences between the Alaska tundra and the Hawaiian tropics, to the cultural differences between Utah and Florida, to the economic differences between Mississippi (median household income of $37,700) and Connecticut (median household income of $70,500) and the political differences between Rhode Island (63% voted for Obama) and Wyoming (33% voted for Obama), diversity is an undeniable fact of American life. This diversity provides a number of benefits. It provides an array of opportunities and options for American citizens in terms of economic opportunity and lifestyle choices. Political scientist Daniel Elazar (1984) observed three distinct political cultures in the United States. His successor in the field, Joel Lieske, identified 10 regional subcultures (Bowman & Kearney, 2008). These allow for the prediction of quality of life, business climate, expansiveness of government programming, and other features.

Anyone traveling around the United States can observe differences in speed limits, motorcycle helmet laws, hours of operation of bars, and severity of punishment for crimes (three-strikes laws and the presence of a death penalty). These obvious differences among states are the surface manifestations of the considerable leeway that states have to determine policy agendas.

Many observers note that some of the most significant policy innovations in contemporary American history have begun as experiments at the state level. Welfare-to-work programs, universal health insurance, charter schools, and family leave policies are in this category.

As noted, however, the presence of state autonomy with regard to public policy can produce inequities among Americans that derive from the state in which they live. Federal laws such as the No Child Left Behind Act attempt to mandate a national standard for education. Federal programs such as Food Stamps and Medicaid ensure a base level of benefits to the poor regardless of geography. Even with these programs, there is considerable variation in the funding levels and quality of services from state to state.

Article IV of the U.S. Constitution lays out several rules that must be followed by all states if they are to be members of the union: Each state shall give full faith and credit to the records and documents of every other state, citizens of every state shall have all the privileges and immunities granted to citizens of each state, and every state shall have a republican form of government. Article I, Section 10 prohibits states from doing certain things: coining money, entering into treaties, passing ex post facto laws, among others. Beyond these relatively few requirements, states are free to design their own forms of government.

Although there is some variety from one state to the next in constitutional structures and processes, most states mimic the national level of government, with three branches, checks and balances, regularly scheduled elections, substate units of government with some degree of autonomy, and some set of civil rights and liberties guaranteed to the citizens.

Beyond those basic structural similarities lie significant differences among state constitutions. Massachusetts has the oldest constitution, adopted in 1780. Georgia, on the other hand, adopted a new constitution in 1983 (Saffell & Basehart, 2001). Some constitutions are very long, like Alabama’s with over 340,000 words, some are rather short, like New Hampshire’s with 9,200 words, although none as short as the U.S. Constitution with 8,700 words (Bowman & Kearney, 2008). Most state constitutions are relatively easy to amend, including by popular initiative. In 17 states, the constitution can be amended by majority vote of the legislature. In 18 states, the constitution can be amended by majority vote of the electorate. California’s Proposition 209, noted previously, is one example of this. Thirty-one states have constitutional amendments restricting the definition of marriage to a union between one man and one woman. The result is a proliferation of provisions attached to many state constitutions. In 2002, a provision was added to the Florida constitution that prohibits “cruel and unusual confinement of pigs during pregnancy” (Bowman & Kearney, 2008, p. 59). Seven constitutions have bills of rights that make mention of dueling (Saffell & Basehart, 2001).

One of the most controversial recent uses of the state constitution amendment process has been in the area of gay marriage. In the United States, demands for equal treatment for all citizens regardless of race, gender, religion, age, and disability have been made and resolved, for the most part, at both the state and national levels. Such demands for equality in the matter of sexual orientation are still contested terrain in U.S. politics. Family law is typically the province of state governments, and so the battle about the legality of same-sex marriages is being fought in that arena. Since state courts, state attorneys general, and local town clerks have frequently found no basis in law for denying a marriage license to same-sex couples, many states have responded by defining marriage as between one man and one woman either by statute (in 12 states) or by an amendment to the state constitution (in 29 states). Virtually all of these amendments have been adopted since 2000. Most notably, in California, in November 2008, voters approved Proposition 8, which amended the state constitution to define marriage as between a man and a woman. This vote came only months after a California court had ruled same-sex marriage as constitutional in that state. So the voters changed the constitution, redefining the rights of gay Californians (Archibold & Goodnough, 2008). The ease with which many state constitutions can be amended by both legislatures and voters have resulted in some constitutions with hundreds of amendments: South Carolina with 484, California with 848, and Alabama with 1,028. The result is constitutions that are weighed down with anachronistic policy mandates; confusing, overlapping, and conflicting prohibitions; and special protections for groups that have been savvy enough to take advantage of the amendment process.

Starting in the 1960s and continuing to this day, most states have been undertaking a process of constitutional reform to address some of the flaws of these wordy, policy-laden documents. Bowman and Kearney (2008) reveal that between 1960 and 1980, every state altered its constitution to some degree, and 10 states replaced their constitutions completely. The process of reform, which is connected to similar trends in other areas of state government to be discussed in subsequent sections, continues.

The governor is the chief executive of the state, charged with the day-to-day operation of the state. Yet the aversion to executive power that suffuses the national government is present at the state level as well. In early state constitutions, governors were often limited to single terms, or even one-year terms, and had no veto power, no budgeting power, and no appointment power. In some states, the governors themselves were appointed by the legislature. As with the national government, as the states grew more complex, the need for effective executive power became clear. And throughout the 19th century, state legislatures revealed themselves to be prone to corruption, and their oversight of the budget and administration of state government became problematic. The reform movement of the Progressive Era led to some changes in the allocation of power at the state level as governors’ terms were lengthened and many were given the veto power. The first half of the 20th century was a period of little change in state government as the federal government grew rapidly and, with the New Deal, gathered much tax, spending, and programmatic power to Washington, D.C.

Throughout this period, right through the mid-1960s, the mal-apportionment of state legislatures rendered most governors powerless in the face of their legislatures. Virtually all state legislative lines were relics of earlier times, drawn before populations of immigrants and farm workers swelled the size of American cities. So by the early 1960s, state legislatures were dominated by representatives from tiny rural districts. Governors, on the other hand, were elected statewide in response to the needs of the population centers. But without legislative approval, governors were unable to push their policy agendas. In Tennessee, one Charles Baker of Memphis pointed out to the Supreme Court that his district, with its one representative, had 10 times as many people in it as neighboring rural districts. This underrepresentation of urban districts in both state legislatures and the U.S. House of Representatives was ruled a violation of the equal-protection clause of the U.S. Constitution.

The 1962 Baker v. Carr decision was crucial in the reallocation of power within state legislatures from the rural areas to the population centers and removal of legislative barriers to the governors’ ability to make policy (Weber & Brace, 1999). At the same time, changes at the federal level were pushing more decision-making authority and some money down to the state level.

Starting in the 1970s with President Nixon’s New Federalism and continuing on through Presidents Reagan, Bush, and Clinton, the so-called devolution revolution redesigned federal programs by loosening up guidelines on how federal grant money could be spent at the state level. Categorical grants in which Congress determined the shape of programs were redesigned as block grants in which governors could choose how to spend the federal dollars within loose national guidelines. Governors became important policy actors with dramatically enhanced responsibility for program design and implementation.

Again, the formal powers of a governor vary from state to state, but it is the case that the overall status and importance of the governorship has been dramatically enhanced since the founding of the American republic. The significance of the office can be seen by the number of governors who have gone on to become presidents in recent years—Carter, Reagan, Clinton, and George W. Bush—and the number of governors (four) who have been tapped to serve in the Obama administration—Vilsack of Iowa at the Department of Agriculture, Locke of Washington at the Department of Commerce, Sebelius of Kansas at the Department of Health and Human Services, and Napolitano of Arizona at the Department of Homeland Security.

Because governors are both politicians and administrators, with a wide range of policy areas as their responsibility, and are on duty in their states around the clock, they are seen by many experts as more likely to be better prepared for the presidency than are members of Congress. Most scholars agree that today’s governors are the following:

better educated, more experienced in state government and more competent than their predecessors. Never before has the strength and policy influence of the governors been surpassed. . . . The governors have displayed greater capability and vigor than ever before. (Bowman & Kearney, 2008, p. 195)

As with governors, its is difficult to generalize about state legislatures except to say that most are part-time, all but one are bicameral, and all serve the functions of representation, legislation, and oversight of the executive branch (Bowman & Kearney, 2008). The National Council of State Legislatures has divided states into categories based on length of session. Red states have legislatures that are in session for at least 80% of the work year. Those serving in these bodies earn a salary that allows them to be full-time legislators. It is clear that larger states, with complex policy needs, fall into this category. In 2006, a California legislator earned $110,000, while a legislator serving in New Hampshire earned $200.

In terms of processes, state legislatures work much the same way that the U.S. Congress does. Members are elected from districts and must attend to the needs of their constituents. Yet they must also participate in the making of state policy by serving on committees, writing and voting on legislation, and interacting with the governor and the state bureaucracy. As with the governor, as demands put on states have increased since the 1960s, many state legislatures have become increasingly professionalized by adding staff, lengthening sessions, and raising salaries. In some states, this had led to the same kind of incumbency effects that exist at the national level as some legislators hold on to their seats for decades. In reaction to this, throughout the 1990s, voters in 15 states adopted initiatives that limited state legislatures’ terms in some ways. Term limits in the state legislatures were expected to bring in new blood, eliminate entrenched interests, and make the body more representative of minority groups in the population that had been locked out by incumbents. According to several studies, however, term limits in state legislatures have produced a slower-working institution, a stronger governor, more influential interest groups, and term-limited legislators who are less, not more, responsive to constituents. Further, there has been no measurable increase in the representation of underrepresented groups in state houses.

What is clear is that important policy decisions are made in state capitals. Political scientists must attend to the analytical and decision-making capacity of both governors and state legislatures. The challenges facing state governments are enormous since many face large deficits, job losses, crumbling infrastructure, flawed education systems, and other major policy problems. Is the capacity to address these problems present in the states? The answer to that question will be revealed in the early decades of the 21st century.

State courts process 100 million cases a year, which is 99% of all the cases heard in American courts (cited in Weber & Brace, 1999). Clearly it is state courts that are the heart of the U.S. judicial system. As with governors and state legislatures, state courts have changed significantly over the past 40 years, professionalizing and reforming to enhance their efficiency and legitimacy. State courts deal with a wide range of issues that affect the daily lives of all Americans: family law, traffic law, property disputes, debt collection, and criminal law. State courts are also usually the first to look at cases that can have monumental constitutional import, from whether to allow prayer in public schools to the appropriateness of race-based admissions in state law schools to whether local governments can seize private property for economic development purposes.

As with legislatures and executives, there is considerable variability among the structures and processes of state judicial systems. Some states have multiple types of courts, some have elected judges, some have mandatory sentencing, others have three-strikes laws, and still others have considerable judicial discretion regarding the disposition of cases.

One of the major structural features that distinguish one state court system from the next is the method for selecting judges. For many years, starting with Mississippi in 1832 and continuing throughout the 19th century as new states entered the union, the judicial selection process of choice was election by the state legislature or by election of the voters. Both of these methods came under criticism during the Progressive Era as reformers voiced concern about the ability of elected judges in particular to have the qualifications, objectivity, and accountability to make sound judicial findings. In 1937, the American Bar Association introduced and endorsed the Missouri Plan, which involved a judicial nominating commission recommending judicial nominees to the governor. The governor would then appoint those recommended (should he choose to); the appointees would take office and then be ratified by the voters in a so-called retention vote at the next regularly scheduled election. Twenty-three states use some form of this method (not always including the retention vote), 22 continue to use elections, and 5 use pure gubernatorial appointment. As with the trends in constitutional, executive, and legislative reform, state judiciaries have followed a pattern of increasing professionalism and modernization (Bowman & Kearney, 2008).

One of the characteristics of state government that does not mimic federal government is the so-called long ballot, which provides for the election of numerous statewide officials, who, at the federal level, would be appointed by the executive. This feature is a reflection of the early suspicion of executive power, and despite numerous attempts at reform, it has remained an element of most state governments. So the heads of major state departments—the attorney general, the state treasurer, and the commissioner of education—are often elected by the voters and immune to gubernatorial control. Although this allows for greater responsiveness to the public, it does create opportunities for gridlock or redundancy in policy making.

State bureaucracies and their counterparts at the local level are the agencies that delivery virtually all public goods and services, from education to transportation to policing, parks, waste management, and water supplies. The precise form of this service-delivery mechanism varies significantly from state to state, with some states relying on strong county government structures to deliver most services and others relying on local governments at the point where the rubber meets the road. Some states are complex systems of elected or appointed boards and commissions to advise on or make policies, while others are not. In 2008, state governments employ about 3.8 million (down from 4.6 million people in 1992). Of these, 1.2 million work in higher education, 477,000 in corrections, and 377,000 in corrections (U.S. Census, 2009). In the last half of the 20th century, the functions of government have become more complex, and the devolution revolution has shifted responsibility for delivering services from the federal government to the states. Along with these developments has come increased attention to the need for efficiency and transparency in the delivery of state services. As with governors and legislatures, state bureaucracies have, over the course of the past several decades, undergone a wave of reform and professionalization. One of the elements of reform has been consolidation. In 1993, for example, South Carolina reduced the number of state agencies from 79 to 17 and eliminated many boards and commissions (Saffell & Basehart, 2001). Many states have adopted some form of performance budgeting, in which agencies’ budgets are tied to the quality of services delivered. Some states have looked to privatization of some services as a means of improving service delivery and saving money. And virtually all state governments have moved in significant ways into so-called e-government, eliminating much of the paperwork and waiting lines that had been the source of public frustration at such agencies as motor vehicle registries and public assistance agencies.

Each year, Governing magazine, in collaboration with the Pew Center on the States, grades the 50 states on their performance in four areas of public management: budgeting, personnel management, infrastructure, and management of information. Detailed reports on the management strengths and weaknesses of each state reveal dramatic differences in administrative efficiency, modernization, citizen satisfaction, and quality of services delivered. The three states receiving the highest overall grade (A−) in 2008 are Utah, Virginia, and Washington. The two states at the bottom are Rhode Island (C−) and New Hampshire (D+). Students of state politics and public management can find a wealth of information and much fodder for future research in these reports (Pew Center on the States, 2008).

There are 88,000 units of local government in the United States. Of these, 3,033 are county governments. The size and functions of counties vary dramatically from state to state. Counties employ 2 million employees nationwide and range in size from 6 square miles (Arlington County, Virginia) to 87,000 square miles (North Slope Borough, Alaska) and population from 67 residents in Loving County, Texas, to 9.5 million residents in Los Angeles County, California. In Rhode Island and Connecticut, counties exist as lines on a map but nothing else. Virginia relies on counties to deliver most educational services in the state, while New Hampshire uses county governments to deliver most public welfare services. Counties are particularly important units of government in rural areas where residents may live in areas that have not been incorporated into a city or town. For these citizens, county government is their primary contact point for all public goods and services. In keeping with the movement to reform government at the state and local levels, many states are examining their county governments with an eye to consolidation and streamlining. In California, for example, the legislature considered a proposal to consolidate the state’s 58 counties into seven regional supergovernments. The bill did not pass, but it is an indication of current thinking about the place of county governments in the United States (Bowman & Kearney, 2008).

According to the U.S. Census (2009), in 2008, there were 19,492 municipal governments in the United States, 16,519 town governments, 13,051 school districts, and 37,381 special district governments. Combined employment in this sector was 14.2 million people. Again, the primary characteristic of municipal government is diversity. The United States Constitution was silent on the question of local governments, leaving to the states to determine how citizens would be represented and services delivered in their states. Virtually all states have some version of home rule, in which cities and towns are granted some degree of autonomy over their own affairs. There is, however, a long tradition of state interference with local affairs that has been enshrined in Dillon’s rule, expounded by Iowa judge John Dillon is 1868, which states that local governments have only those powers explicitly granted to them by the state government. Although this is contrary to the Jeffersonian principle that the most desirable form of government is that which is closest to the people, it is the guiding tenet of state–local relations to this day (Bowman & Kearney, 2008).

Municipal governments can take several forms. Larger cities in the Northeast and Midwest tend to organize according to the strong mayor–council form of government, which mimics the state and federal models. Mayors are elected citywide and are responsible for the day-to-day operation of the city. City councils are typically part-time and responsible for enacting legislation, including the budget, connecting with the residents (since the council is usually elected from wards, or districts, in the city), and exercising oversight of mayoral activities. Smaller communities often use the council–manager form of government in which the town council is elected, either at large or from districts, and is very part-time with limited powers. The council appoints the town manager, or administrator, who is a professionally trained (in the best case) public manager. He or she has authority over all town departments and is responsible for the daily operation of the town.

Most local governments also have a number of special-purpose districts or authorities. These bodies are usually governed by an elected board that oversees an appointed professional executive. Education, sewers, bridges and tunnels, fire service, ports, airports, libraries, and many other service areas can be operated by these commissions. The commissions are often formed to extract the policy area from the control of the town government for reasons of efficiency or to deliver a service that involves multiple jurisdictions. These districts have been criticized in recent years for lack of transparency and accountability and redundancy of services.

The proper way to organize municipal government and deliver local services is not a settled matter. Students of political science and public administration can find many intriguing questions in this area of inquiry. The local level is the place where citizens have the most frequent and most direct contact with their government. It is also the level where political scientists have the best access for research and where those who wish to combine theory and practice can most easily do so. Much can be learned about the dynamics of elections, the operations of bureaucracy, the nature of executive power, best and worst practices in public policy from observation, and analysis of those units of government close to where we live.

Because of the extraordinary diversity in political structures, processes, and policies from state to state and municipality to municipality, comparative analysis is easy to do and bears significant fruit for the student of government.

Although there is only one national government in the United States and that receives the lion’s share of attention from political scientists and the media, there are 50 state and approximately 88,000 local units of government. The existence of these state and local governments is enshrined in the U.S. Constitution and in American political culture. Their existence provides an impediment to effective national policy making and an opportunity for diversity and experimentation at the state and local levels. Their existence provides a multitude of arenas for public participation in politics and close-up observation of the processes and politics of governance. Students of political science can learn much about executive power from studying governors, much about legislative power from studying city councils, and much about grassroots activism from studying campaigns for mayor or the multitude of local policy initiatives that appear on ballots at election time. Recent commitments to transparency, the recent trends in e-government, and the physical proximity of the units of government provide ready access to the researcher. These so-called laboratories of democracy are also laboratories for the discipline.

Bibliography :

• Archibold, R. C., & Goodnough, A. (2008, November 5). California voters ban gay marriage. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/06/world/americas/06iht-06ballot.17571248.html
• Bowman, A., & Kearney, R. (2008). State and local government (7th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
• Council of State Governments: http://www.csg.org/
• Elazar, D. (1984). American federalism: A view from the states. New York: HarperCollins.
• Engel, M. (1999). State and local government. New York: Peter Lang.
• Governing: https://www.governing.com/
• National Association of Counties: https://www.naco.org/
• National Council of State Legislatures. (2009). Full and part time legislators. https://www.ncsl.org/research/about-state-legislatures/full-and-part-time-legislatures.aspx
• National Governors Association: https://www.nga.org/
• Olshfski, D., & Cunningham, R. (2008). Agendas and decisions. Albany: SUNY Press.
• Pew Center on the States. (2008). Grading the states. h ttps://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2008/03/03/grading-the-states-2008-report
• Saffell, D. C., & Basehart, H. (2001). State and local government. Boston: McGraw Hill.
• Stateline: https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline
• U.S. Census. (2009). State government employment data: March 2008. https://www2.census.gov/govs/apes/08stca.txt
• U.S. Conference of Mayors: https://www.usmayors.org/
• U.S. Constitution. (1787). Available at https://www.usconstitution.net/const.html
• Weber, R., & Brace, P. (Eds.). (1999). American state and local politics. New York: Chatham House.

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What the data says about crime in the U.S.

A growing share of Americans say reducing crime should be a top priority for the president and Congress to address this year. Around six-in-ten U.S. adults (58%) hold that view today, up from 47% at the beginning of Joe Biden’s presidency in 2021.

We conducted this analysis to learn more about U.S. crime patterns and how those patterns have changed over time.

The analysis relies on statistics published by the FBI, which we accessed through the Crime Data Explorer , and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), which we accessed through the  National Crime Victimization Survey data analysis tool .

To measure public attitudes about crime in the U.S., we relied on survey data from Pew Research Center and Gallup.

Additional details about each data source, including survey methodologies, are available by following the links in the text of this analysis.

With the issue likely to come up in this year’s presidential election, here’s what we know about crime in the United States, based on the latest available data from the federal government and other sources.

How much crime is there in the U.S.?

It’s difficult to say for certain. The  two primary sources of government crime statistics  – the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) – paint an incomplete picture.

The FBI publishes  annual data  on crimes that have been reported to law enforcement, but not crimes that haven’t been reported. Historically, the FBI has also only published statistics about a handful of specific violent and property crimes, but not many other types of crime, such as drug crime. And while the FBI’s data is based on information from thousands of federal, state, county, city and other police departments, not all law enforcement agencies participate every year. In 2022, the most recent full year with available statistics, the FBI received data from 83% of participating agencies .

BJS, for its part, tracks crime by fielding a  large annual survey of Americans ages 12 and older and asking them whether they were the victim of certain types of crime in the past six months. One advantage of this approach is that it captures both reported and unreported crimes. But the BJS survey has limitations of its own. Like the FBI, it focuses mainly on a handful of violent and property crimes. And since the BJS data is based on after-the-fact interviews with crime victims, it cannot provide information about one especially high-profile type of offense: murder.

All those caveats aside, looking at the FBI and BJS statistics side-by-side  does  give researchers a good picture of U.S. violent and property crime rates and how they have changed over time. In addition, the FBI is transitioning to a new data collection system – known as the National Incident-Based Reporting System – that eventually will provide national information on a much larger set of crimes , as well as details such as the time and place they occur and the types of weapons involved, if applicable.

Which kinds of crime are most and least common?

Property crime in the U.S. is much more common than violent crime. In 2022, the FBI reported a total of 1,954.4 property crimes per 100,000 people, compared with 380.7 violent crimes per 100,000 people.  

By far the most common form of property crime in 2022 was larceny/theft, followed by motor vehicle theft and burglary. Among violent crimes, aggravated assault was the most common offense, followed by robbery, rape, and murder/nonnegligent manslaughter.

BJS tracks a slightly different set of offenses from the FBI, but it finds the same overall patterns, with theft the most common form of property crime in 2022 and assault the most common form of violent crime.

How have crime rates in the U.S. changed over time?

Both the FBI and BJS data show dramatic declines in U.S. violent and property crime rates since the early 1990s, when crime spiked across much of the nation.

Using the FBI data, the violent crime rate fell 49% between 1993 and 2022, with large decreases in the rates of robbery (-74%), aggravated assault (-39%) and murder/nonnegligent manslaughter (-34%). It’s not possible to calculate the change in the rape rate during this period because the FBI  revised its definition of the offense in 2013 .

The FBI data also shows a 59% reduction in the U.S. property crime rate between 1993 and 2022, with big declines in the rates of burglary (-75%), larceny/theft (-54%) and motor vehicle theft (-53%).

Using the BJS statistics, the declines in the violent and property crime rates are even steeper than those captured in the FBI data. Per BJS, the U.S. violent and property crime rates each fell 71% between 1993 and 2022.

While crime rates have fallen sharply over the long term, the decline hasn’t always been steady. There have been notable increases in certain kinds of crime in some years, including recently.

In 2020, for example, the U.S. murder rate saw its largest single-year increase on record – and by 2022, it remained considerably higher than before the coronavirus pandemic. Preliminary data for 2023, however, suggests that the murder rate fell substantially last year .

How do Americans perceive crime in their country?

Americans tend to believe crime is up, even when official data shows it is down.

In 23 of 27 Gallup surveys conducted since 1993 , at least 60% of U.S. adults have said there is more crime nationally than there was the year before, despite the downward trend in crime rates during most of that period.

While perceptions of rising crime at the national level are common, fewer Americans believe crime is up in their own communities. In every Gallup crime survey since the 1990s, Americans have been much less likely to say crime is up in their area than to say the same about crime nationally.

Public attitudes about crime differ widely by Americans’ party affiliation, race and ethnicity, and other factors . For example, Republicans and Republican-leaning independents are much more likely than Democrats and Democratic leaners to say reducing crime should be a top priority for the president and Congress this year (68% vs. 47%), according to a recent Pew Research Center survey.

How does crime in the U.S. differ by demographic characteristics?

Some groups of Americans are more likely than others to be victims of crime. In the  2022 BJS survey , for example, younger people and those with lower incomes were far more likely to report being the victim of a violent crime than older and higher-income people.

There were no major differences in violent crime victimization rates between male and female respondents or between those who identified as White, Black or Hispanic. But the victimization rate among Asian Americans (a category that includes Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders) was substantially lower than among other racial and ethnic groups.

The same BJS survey asks victims about the demographic characteristics of the offenders in the incidents they experienced.

In 2022, those who are male, younger people and those who are Black accounted for considerably larger shares of perceived offenders in violent incidents than their respective shares of the U.S. population. Men, for instance, accounted for 79% of perceived offenders in violent incidents, compared with 49% of the nation’s 12-and-older population that year. Black Americans accounted for 25% of perceived offenders in violent incidents, about twice their share of the 12-and-older population (12%).

As with all surveys, however, there are several potential sources of error, including the possibility that crime victims’ perceptions about offenders are incorrect.

How does crime in the U.S. differ geographically?

There are big geographic differences in violent and property crime rates.

For example, in 2022, there were more than 700 violent crimes per 100,000 residents in New Mexico and Alaska. That compares with fewer than 200 per 100,000 people in Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire and Maine, according to the FBI.

The FBI notes that various factors might influence an area’s crime rate, including its population density and economic conditions.

What percentage of crimes are reported to police? What percentage are solved?

Most violent and property crimes in the U.S. are not reported to police, and most of the crimes that  are  reported are not solved.

In its annual survey, BJS asks crime victims whether they reported their crime to police. It found that in 2022, only 41.5% of violent crimes and 31.8% of household property crimes were reported to authorities. BJS notes that there are many reasons why crime might not be reported, including fear of reprisal or of “getting the offender in trouble,” a feeling that police “would not or could not do anything to help,” or a belief that the crime is “a personal issue or too trivial to report.”

Most of the crimes that are reported to police, meanwhile,  are not solved , at least based on an FBI measure known as the clearance rate . That’s the share of cases each year that are closed, or “cleared,” through the arrest, charging and referral of a suspect for prosecution, or due to “exceptional” circumstances such as the death of a suspect or a victim’s refusal to cooperate with a prosecution. In 2022, police nationwide cleared 36.7% of violent crimes that were reported to them and 12.1% of the property crimes that came to their attention.

Which crimes are most likely to be reported to police? Which are most likely to be solved?

Around eight-in-ten motor vehicle thefts (80.9%) were reported to police in 2022, making them by far the most commonly reported property crime tracked by BJS. Household burglaries and trespassing offenses were reported to police at much lower rates (44.9% and 41.2%, respectively), while personal theft/larceny and other types of theft were only reported around a quarter of the time.

Among violent crimes – excluding homicide, which BJS doesn’t track – robbery was the most likely to be reported to law enforcement in 2022 (64.0%). It was followed by aggravated assault (49.9%), simple assault (36.8%) and rape/sexual assault (21.4%).

The list of crimes  cleared  by police in 2022 looks different from the list of crimes reported. Law enforcement officers were generally much more likely to solve violent crimes than property crimes, according to the FBI.

The most frequently solved violent crime tends to be homicide. Police cleared around half of murders and nonnegligent manslaughters (52.3%) in 2022. The clearance rates were lower for aggravated assault (41.4%), rape (26.1%) and robbery (23.2%).

When it comes to property crime, law enforcement agencies cleared 13.0% of burglaries, 12.4% of larcenies/thefts and 9.3% of motor vehicle thefts in 2022.

Are police solving more or fewer crimes than they used to?

Nationwide clearance rates for both violent and property crime are at their lowest levels since at least 1993, the FBI data shows.

Police cleared a little over a third (36.7%) of the violent crimes that came to their attention in 2022, down from nearly half (48.1%) as recently as 2013. During the same period, there were decreases for each of the four types of violent crime the FBI tracks:

• Police cleared 52.3% of reported murders and nonnegligent homicides in 2022, down from 64.1% in 2013.
• They cleared 41.4% of aggravated assaults, down from 57.7%.
• They cleared 26.1% of rapes, down from 40.6%.
• They cleared 23.2% of robberies, down from 29.4%.

The pattern is less pronounced for property crime. Overall, law enforcement agencies cleared 12.1% of reported property crimes in 2022, down from 19.7% in 2013. The clearance rate for burglary didn’t change much, but it fell for larceny/theft (to 12.4% in 2022 from 22.4% in 2013) and motor vehicle theft (to 9.3% from 14.2%).

Note: This is an update of a post originally published on Nov. 20, 2020.

• Criminal Justice

John Gramlich is an associate director at Pew Research Center

8 facts about Black Lives Matter

#blacklivesmatter turns 10, support for the black lives matter movement has dropped considerably from its peak in 2020, fewer than 1% of federal criminal defendants were acquitted in 2022, before release of video showing tyre nichols’ beating, public views of police conduct had improved modestly, most popular.

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Toxic: How the search for the origins of COVID-19 turned politically poisonous

FILE - A security person moves journalists away from the Wuhan Institute of Virology after a World Health Organization team arrived for a field visit in Wuhan in China’s Hubei province on Feb. 3, 2021. The hunt for COVID-19 origins has gone dark in China. An AP investigation drawing on thousands of pages of undisclosed emails and documents and dozens of interviews found feuding officials and fear of blame ended meaningful Chinese and international efforts to trace the virus almost as soon as they began, despite years of public statements to the contrary. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan, File)

FILE - A volunteer looks out near a Chinese national flag during a farewell ceremony for the last group of medical workers who came from outside Wuhan to help the city during the coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan in central China’s Hubei province on April 15, 2020. The hunt for COVID-19 origins has gone dark in China. An AP investigation drawing on thousands of pages of undisclosed emails and documents and dozens of interviews found feuding officials and fear of blame ended meaningful Chinese and international efforts to trace the virus almost as soon as they began, despite years of public statements to the contrary. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan, File)

FILE - A farewell ceremony is held for the last group of medical workers who came from outside Wuhan to help the city during the coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan in central China’s Hubei province on April 15, 2020. The hunt for COVID-19 origins has gone dark in China. An AP investigation drawing on thousands of pages of undisclosed emails and documents and dozens of interviews found feuding officials and fear of blame ended meaningful Chinese and international efforts to trace the virus almost as soon as they began, despite years of public statements to the contrary. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan, File)

FILE - A policeman moves journalists back from a farewell event held for the last group of medical workers who came from outside Wuhan to help the city during the coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan in central China’s Hubei province on April 15, 2020. The hunt for COVID-19 origins has gone dark in China. An AP investigation drawing on thousands of pages of undisclosed emails and documents and dozens of interviews found feuding officials and fear of blame ended meaningful Chinese and international efforts to trace the virus almost as soon as they began, despite years of public statements to the contrary. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan, File)

FILE - A security guard waves for journalists to clear the road after a convoy carrying the World Health Organization team entered the Huanan Seafood Market on the third day of a field visit in Wuhan in central China’s Hubei province on Jan. 31, 2021. The hunt for COVID-19 origins has gone dark in China. An AP investigation drawing on thousands of pages of undisclosed emails and documents and dozens of interviews found feuding officials and fear of blame ended meaningful Chinese and international efforts to trace the virus almost as soon as they began, despite years of public statements to the contrary. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan, File)

FILE - A photographer on a tall ladder tries to take photos of the World Health Organization convoy after it entered the Huanan Seafood Market on the third day of field visit in Wuhan in central China’s Hubei province on Jan. 31, 2021. The hunt for COVID-19 origins has gone dark in China. An AP investigation drawing on thousands of pages of undisclosed emails and documents and dozens of interviews found feuding officials and fear of blame ended meaningful Chinese and international efforts to trace the virus almost as soon as they began, despite years of public statements to the contrary. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan, File)

FILE - Marion Koopmans, right, and Peter Ben Embarek, center, of the World Health Organization team say farewell to their Chinese counterpart Liang Wannian, left, after a WHO-China Joint Study Press Conference at the end of the WHO mission in Wuhan, China, on Feb. 9, 2021. The hunt for COVID-19 origins has gone dark in China. An AP investigation drawing on thousands of pages of undisclosed emails and documents and dozens of interviews found feuding officials and fear of blame ended meaningful Chinese and international efforts to trace the virus almost as soon as they began, despite years of public statements to the contrary. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan, File)

FILE - Peter Ben Embarek of a World Health Organization team attends a joint press conference at the end of their mission to investigate the origins of the coronavirus pandemic in Wuhan in central China’s Hubei province on Feb. 9, 2021. The hunt for COVID-19 origins has gone dark in China. An AP investigation drawing on thousands of pages of undisclosed emails and documents and dozens of interviews found feuding officials and fear of blame ended meaningful Chinese and international efforts to trace the virus almost as soon as they began, despite years of public statements to the contrary. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan, File)

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BEIJING (AP) — The hunt for the origins of COVID-19 has gone dark in China, the victim of political infighting after a series of stalled and thwarted attempts to find the source of the virus that killed millions and paralyzed the world for months.

The Chinese government froze meaningful domestic and international efforts to trace the virus from the first weeks of the outbreak, despite statements supporting open scientific inquiry, an Associated Press investigation found. That pattern continues to this day, with labs closed, collaborations shattered, foreign scientists forced out and Chinese researchers barred from leaving the country.

The investigation drew on thousands of pages of undisclosed emails and documents and dozens of interviews that showed the freeze began far earlier than previously known and involved political and scientific infighting in China as much as international finger-pointing.

As early as Jan. 6, 2020, health officials in Beijing closed the lab of a Chinese scientist who sequenced the virus and barred researchers from working with him.

Scientists warn the willful blindness over coronavirus’ origins leaves the world vulnerable to another outbreak, potentially undermining pandemic treaty talks coordinated by the World Health Organization set to culminate in May.

At the heart of the question is whether the virus jumped from an animal or came from a laboratory accident. A U.S. intelligence analysis says there is insufficient evidence to prove either theory, but the debate has further tainted relations between the U.S. and China.

Unlike in the U.S., there is virtually no public debate in China about whether the virus came from nature or from a lab leak. In fact, there is little public discussion at all about the source of the disease, first detected in the central city of Wuhan.

Crucial initial efforts were hampered by bureaucrats in Wuhan trying to avoid blame who misled the central government; the central government, which muzzled Chinese scientists and subjected visiting WHO officials to stage-managed tours; and the U.N. health agency itself, which may have compromised early opportunities to gather critical information in hopes that by placating China, scientists could gain more access, according to internal materials obtained by AP.

In a faxed statement, China’s Foreign Ministry defended China’s handling of research into the origins, saying the country is open and transparent , shared data and research, and “made the greatest contribution to global origins research.” The National Health Commission, China’s top medical authority, said the country “invested huge manpower, material and financial resources” and “has not stopped looking for the origins of the coronavirus.”

It could have played out differently, as shown by the outbreak of SARS , a genetic relative of COVID-19, nearly 20 years ago. China initially hid infections then, but WHO complained swiftly and publicly. Ultimately, Beijing fired officials and made reforms. The U.N. agency soon found SARS likely jumped to humans from civet cats in southern China and international scientists later collaborated with their Chinese counterparts to pin down bats as SARS’ natural reservoir.

But different leaders of both China and WHO, China’s quest for control of its researchers, and global tensions have all led to silence when it comes to searching for COVID-19’s origins. Governments in Asia are pressuring scientists not to look for the virus for fear it could be traced inside their borders.

Even without those complications, experts say identifying how outbreaks begin is incredibly challenging and that it’s rare to know with certainty how some viruses begin spreading.

“It’s disturbing how quickly the search for the origins of (COVID-19) escalated into politics,” said Mark Woolhouse, a University of Edinburgh outbreak expert. “Now this question may never be definitively answered.”

A security person moves journalists away from the Wuhan Institute of Virology after a World Health Organization team arrived for a field visit in Wuhan in China’s Hubei province on Feb. 3, 2021. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan, File)

CLOUDS OF SECRECY

Secrecy clouds the beginning of the outbreak. Even the date when Chinese authorities first started searching for the origins is unclear.

The first publicly known search for the virus took place on Dec. 31, 2019, when Chinese Center for Disease Control scientists visited the Wuhan market where many early COVID-19 cases surfaced.

However, WHO officials heard of an earlier inspection of the market on Dec. 25, 2019, according to a recording of a confidential WHO meeting provided to AP by an attendee. Such a probe has never been mentioned publicly by either Chinese authorities or WHO.

In the recording, WHO’s top animal virus expert, Peter Ben Embarek, mentioned the earlier date, describing it as “an interesting detail.” He told colleagues that officials were “looking at what was on sale in the market, whether all the vendors have licenses (and) if there was any illegal (wildlife) trade happening in the market.”

A colleague asked Ben Embarek, who is no longer with WHO, if that seemed unusual. He responded that “it was not routine,” and that the Chinese “must have had some reason” to investigate the market. “We’ll try to figure out what happened and why they did that.”

Ben Embarek declined to comment. Another WHO staffer at the Geneva meeting in late January 2020 confirmed Ben Embarek’s comments.

The Associated Press could not confirm the search independently. It remains a mystery if it took place, what inspectors discovered, or whether they sampled live animals that might point to how COVID-19 emerged.

Peter Ben Embarek of a World Health Organization team attends a joint press conference at the end of their mission to investigate the origins of the coronavirus pandemic in Wuhan in China’s Hubei on Feb. 9, 2021. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan, File)

A Dec. 25, 2019, inspection would have come when Wuhan authorities were aware of the mysterious disease. The day before, a local doctor sent a sample from an ill market vendor to get sequenced that turned out to contain COVID-19. Chatter about the unknown pneumonia was spreading in Wuhan’s medical circles, according to one doctor and a relative of another who declined to be identified, fearing repercussions.

A scientist in China when the outbreak occurred said they heard of a Dec. 25 inspection from collaborating virologists in the country. They declined to be named out of fear of retribution.

WHO said in an email that it was “not aware” of the Dec. 25 investigation. It is not included in the U.N. health agency’s official COVID-19 timeline .

When China CDC researchers from Beijing arrived on Jan. 1 to collect samples at the market, it had been ordered shut and was already being disinfected, destroying critical information about the virus. Gao Fu, then head of the China CDC, mentioned it to an American collaborator.

“His complaint when I met him was that all the animals were gone,” said Columbia University epidemiologist Ian Lipkin.

Marion Koopmans, right, and Peter Ben Embarek, center, of the World Health Organization team say farewell to their Chinese counterpart Liang Wannian, left, after a WHO-China Joint Study Press Conference at the end of the WHO mission in Wuhan, China, on Feb. 9, 2021. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan, File)

Robert Garry, who studies viruses at Tulane University, said a Dec. 25 probe would be “hugely significant,” given what is known about the virus and its spread.

“Being able to swab it directly from the animal itself would be pretty convincing and nobody would be arguing” about the origins of COVID-19, he said.

But perhaps local officials simply feared for their jobs, with memories of firings after the 2003 SARS outbreak still vivid, said Ray Yip, the founding head of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention outpost in China.

“They were trying to save their skin, hide the evidence,” Yip said.

The Wuhan government did not respond to a faxed request for comment.

Another early victim was Zhang Yongzhen, the first scientist to publish a sequence of the virus . A day after he wrote a memo urging health authorities to action, China’s top health official ordered Zhang’s lab closed.

“They used their official power against me and our colleagues,” Zhang wrote in an email provided to AP by Edward Holmes, an Australian virologist.

On Jan. 20, 2020, a WHO delegation arrived in Wuhan for a two-day mission. China did not approve a visit to the market, but they stopped by a China CDC lab to examine infection prevention and control procedures, according to an internal WHO travel report. WHO’s then-China representative, Dr. Gauden Galea, told colleagues in a private meeting that inquiries about COVID-19’s origins went unanswered.

By then, many Chinese were angry at their government . Among Chinese doctors and scientists, the sense grew that Beijing was hunting for someone to blame.

“There are a few cadres who have performed poorly,” Chinese leader Xi Jinping said in unusually harsh comments in February . “Some dare not take responsibility, wait timidly for orders from above, and don’t move without being pushed.”

The government opened investigations into top health officials, according to two former and current China CDC staff and three others familiar with the matter. Health officials were encouraged to report colleagues who mishandled the outbreak to Communist Party disciplinary bodies, according to two of the people.

Some people both inside and outside China speculated about a laboratory leak. Those suspicious included right-wing American politicians , but also researchers close to WHO.

The focus turned to the Wuhan Institute of Virology, a high-level lab that experimented with some of the world’s most dangerous viruses.

In early February 2020, some of the West’s leading scientists, headed by Dr. Jeremy Farrar, then at Britain’s Wellcome Trust, and Dr. Anthony Fauci, then director of the U.S. National Institutes of Health, banded together to assess the origins of the virus in calls, a Slack channel and emails.

They drafted a paper suggesting a natural evolution, but even among themselves, they could not agree on the likeliest scenario. Some were alarmed by features they thought might indicate tinkering.

“There have (been) suggestions that the virus escaped from the Wuhan lab,” Holmes, the Australian virologist, who believed the virus originated in nature, wrote in a Feb. 7, 2020, email. “I do a lot of work in China, and I can (assure) you that a lot of people there believe they are being lied to.”

American scientists close to researchers at the Wuhan Institute of Virology warned counterparts there to prepare.

James LeDuc, head of a Texas lab, emailed his Wuhan colleague on Feb. 9, 2020, saying he’d already been approached by U.S. officials. “Clearly addressing this will be essential, with any kind of documentation you might have,” he wrote.

The Chinese government was conducting its own secret investigation into the Wuhan Institute. Gao, the then-head of the China CDC, and another Chinese health expert revealed its existence in interviews months and years later . Both said the investigation found no evidence of wrongdoing, which Holmes, the Australian virologist, also heard from another contact in China. But Gao said even he hadn’t seen further details , and some experts suspect they may never be released.

WHO started negotiations with China for a further visit with the virus origins in mind, but it was China’s Foreign Ministry that decided the terms.

Scientists were sidelined and politicians took control. China refused a visa for Ben Embarek, then WHO’s top animal virus expert. The itinerary dropped nearly all items linked to an origins search, according to draft agendas for the trip obtained by the AP. And Gao, the then-head of the China CDC who is also a respected scientist tasked with investigating the origins, was left off the schedule.

Instead, Liang Wannian, a politician in the Communist Party hierarchy, took charge of the international delegation. Liang is an epidemiologist close to top Chinese officials and China’s Foreign Ministry who is widely seen as pushing the party line, not science-backed policies , according to nine people familiar with the situation who declined to be identified to speak on a sensitive subject.

Liang ruled in favor of shutting the Wuhan market at the beginning of the outbreak, according to a Chinese media interview with a top China CDC official that was later deleted . Significantly, it was Liang who promoted an implausible theory that the virus came from contaminated frozen food imported into China. Liang did not respond to an emailed request for comment.

Most of the WHO delegation was not allowed to go to Wuhan, which was under lockdown. The few who did learned little. They again had no access to the Wuhan Institute of Virology or the wildlife market and obtained only scant details about China CDC efforts to trace the coronavirus there.

On the train, Liang lobbied the visiting WHO scientists to praise China’s health response in their public report. Dr. Bruce Aylward, a senior adviser to WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, saw it as the “best way to meet China’s need for a strong assessment of its response.”

The new section was so flattering that colleagues emailed Aylward to suggest he “dial it back a bit.”

“It is remarkable how much knowledge about a new virus has been gained in such a short time,” read the final report, which was reviewed by China’s top health official before it went to Tedros.

As criticism of China grew, the Chinese government deflected blame. Instead of firing health officials, they declared their virus response a success and closed investigations into the officials with few job losses.

“There were no real reforms, because doing reforms means admitting fault,” said a public health expert in contact with Chinese health officials who asked not to be identified because of the sensitivity of the matter.

In late February 2020, the internationally respected doctor Zhong Nanshan appeared at a news conference and said that “the epidemic first appeared in China, but it did not necessarily originate in China.”

A policeman moves journalists back from a farewell event held for the last group of medical workers who came from outside Wuhan to help the city during the coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan in central China’s Hubei province on April 15, 2020. (AP Photo/Ng Han Guan, File)

Days later, Chinese leader Xi ordered new controls on virus research . A leaked directive from China’s Publicity Department ordered media not to report on the virus origins without permission , and a public WeChat account reposted an essay claiming the U.S. military created COVID-19 at a Fort Detrick lab and spread it to China during a 2019 athletic competition in Wuhan. Days later, a Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson repeated the accusation .

The false claims enraged U.S. President Donald Trump, who began publicly blaming China for the outbreak, calling COVID-19 “the China virus” and the “kung-flu.”

Chinese officials told WHO that blood tests on lab workers at the Wuhan Institute of Virology were negative, suggesting COVID-19 wasn’t the result of a lab accident there. But when WHO pressed for an independent audit, Chinese officials balked and demanded WHO investigate the U.S. and other countries as well.

By blaming the U.S., Beijing diverted blame. It was effective in China , where many Chinese were upset by racially charged criticism . But outside China, it fueled speculation of a lab leak coverup.

By the time WHO led another visit to Wuhan in January 2021, a year into the pandemic, the atmosphere was toxic.

Liang, the Chinese health official in charge of two earlier WHO visits, continued to promote the questionable theory that the virus was shipped into China on frozen food. He suppressed information suggesting it could have come from animals at the Wuhan market, organizing market workers to tell WHO experts no live wildlife was sold and cutting recent photos of wildlife at the market from the final report. There was heavy political scrutiny, with numerous Chinese officials who weren’t scientists or health officers present at meetings.

Despite a lack of direct access, the WHO team concluded that a lab leak was “extremely unlikely.” So it was infuriating to Chinese officials when WHO chief Tedros said it was “premature” to rule out the lab leak theory, saying such lab accidents were “common,” and pressed China to be more transparent.

China told WHO any future missions to find COVID-19 origins should be elsewhere, according to a letter obtained by AP. Since then, global cooperation on the issue has ground to a halt; an independent group convened by WHO to investigate the origins of COVID-19 in 2021 has been stymied by the lack of cooperation from China and other issues.

Chinese scientists are still under heavy pressure, according to 10 researchers and health officials. Researchers who published papers on the coronavirus ran into trouble with Chinese authorities. Others were barred from travel abroad for conferences and WHO meetings. Gao, the then-director of the China CDC, was investigated after U.S. President Joe Biden ordered a review of COVID-19 data, and again after giving interviews on the virus origins.

New evidence is treated with suspicion. In March 2023, scientists announced that genetic material collected from the market showed raccoon dog DNA mixed with COVID-19 in early 2020, data that WHO said should have been publicly shared years before. The findings were posted, then removed by Chinese researchers with little explanation.

The head of the China CDC Institute of Viral Disease was forced to retire over the release of the market data, according to a former China CDC official who declined to be named to speak on a sensitive topic.

“It has to do with the origins, so they’re still worried,” the former official said. “If you try and get to the bottom of it, what if it turns out to be from China?”

Other scientists note that any animal from which the virus may have originally jumped has long since disappeared.

“There was a chance for China to cooperate with WHO and do some animal sampling studies that might have answered the question,” said Tulane University’s Garry. “The trail to find the source has now gone cold.”

Cheng reported from Geneva.

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