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Collaborative Leadership and Health: A Review of the Literature

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Publisher: Turning Point National Program Office at the University of Washington

Author(s): C. Larson; C. Sweeney; A. Christian; L. Olson

Research Area: Health

Type: Report

This literature search on collaborative leadership used six key terms and covered 10 databases (ABI/Inform, Academic Universe/Medical, Communication Abstracts, ERIC, Expanded Academics/Health Reference Center, Medline, Periodical Abstracts, PsychInfo, SocWork Abstracts, and WorldCat). It covered literature from 1985 to the present and returned 37,323 titles. In addition to this systematic search, the review includes sources known to the four-member research team. It covers six areas:(1) Leadership and health outcomes: collaborative forms of leadership are good strategies for affecting public health outcomes.(2) Skills, competencies and capacities: while we may expect too much of individual leaders, collaborative leadership provides a way to share the skills and capacities of many people.(3) Best practices: include competent leadership, communication skills, building relationships, a shared vision, and recognizing crisis as opportunity.(4) Conditions and contingencies: While politics and differences among stakeholders may be impediments to collaborative leadership, shared planning, provision of resources, creating a vision, and trust are characteristics likely to promote such leadership. These characteristics promote empowerment, which is a key to successful leadership.(5) Leadership development strategies and methods: Developing leaders is not a static activity, and multiple strategies are needed. No one approach will work with everyone.(6) Collaborative technologies: Technology is a key part of leadership development and public health leadership, and currently includes videoconferencing, distance learning, the Internet, and multiple software packages.

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Collaborative Leadership in an Organizational Context: A Research Agenda

2022, Journal of Human Resource & Leadership

Organizations not only exist to make a profit and be financially sustainable but also to make a difference and have a meaningful legacy using specific business models adopted. To achieve that outcome organizations must establish effective authority relationships to work together efficiently. This is what entails collaborative relationships and leadership. The literature on collaborative leadership despite having significant developments over the last two decades has been faulted. There have been vast perspectives from scholars with minimal consensus on what constitutes acceptable dimensions of collaborative leadership and how that fits in an organizational context. These misalignments have resulted in challenges to the full realization of the benefits of collaborative leadership as a result of its skewed implementation and application in an organizational context. The result is a lack of appreciation and belief by business practitioners and organization leaders on the implications of collaborative leadership application on their organization’s financial sustainability. This effect goes deeper in that organization leaders are not very clear on the impact of their organization's business model and their role in facilitating successful collaborative leadership. This conceptual paper aimed to bridge that gap by reviewing and integrating extant conceptual, theoretical, and empirical literature on collaborative leadership and present a case for the development of a new theoretical model suitable for the expansion of the current understanding of deployment of collaborative leadership in an organizational context. The paper reviewed 397 articles from various journals, which were searched through the google search engine. 132 articles were finally used in the development of this paper sieved by the year of publication from 2001-2021. The findings lead to the development of a proposed and integrated conceptual framework model linking collaborative leadership to financial sustainability as an organizational outcome while acknowledging the significance of the role played by the organization’s business model and top echelon support in the relationship. Several propositions are presented for consideration and validation through empirical work. The study calls on future research to consider the adoption of the proposed model in extending research on leadership to new frontiers.

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Collaborative Leadership and Performance: Towards Development of a New Theoretical Model

Contemporary research places significant emphasis on the vital role of collaborative leadership (CL) in addressing the recurring performance challenges faced by organizations. Despite ongoing discussions regarding the primary factors contributing to these challenges, leadership remains a central concern in scholarly discourse. This study aimed to explore the influence of CL on the performance of organizations. Employing an interpretivist research paradigm and qualitative research design, the research used a phenomenological approach to explore the perceptions and experiences of chief executive officers (CEOs) in insurance companies in Kenya. The study conducted semi-structured individual interviews with 11 CEOs between May and August 2023. Thematic analysis revealed three core CL themes and 16 associated sub-themes. The findings underscore the positive influence of CL on various aspects of performance. This research offers a comprehensive understanding of CL in organizations, contributing to knowledge and practice by proposing a model for enhancing CL in insurance companies.

1. Introduction

Effective leadership, comprising essential components such as strategic direction-setting, individual capacity development, and the facilitation of organizational change, has been the focus of extensive research and scholarship [1-3] 1 . Definitions of leadership have evolved and continue to do so, with various elements such as authority, command, dynamism, guidance, and influence persisting as commonalities in both traditional and contemporary understandings [4-7] 4 . Globalization has ushered in a proliferation of fragmented value chains and a corresponding shift toward open outsourcing through global collaborative networks, rendering traditional vertical integration obsolete [8-10] 8 . This transformation has disrupted established power dynamics, prompting the need for a new leadership style—one marked by greater engagement and collaboration—to manage value chain networks and achieve sustainability objectives effectively [11-13] 11 .

In response to these evolving landscapes, collaborative leadership has emerged as a contemporary leadership approach Collaborative leadership: Building relationships, handling conflict and sharing control (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN: 9780415539494. https://www.routledge.com/Collaborative-Leadership-Building-Relationships-Handling-Conflict-and/Archer-Cameron/p/book/9780415539494." class="coltj"> 14 , Journal of Human Resource & Leadership , 6 (1), 48–71." class="coltj"> 15 This approach addresses the global economic and political shifts by establishing a shared purpose and a framework of engagement firmly rooted in an organization's core values and strategic direction. These underpinnings guide the relationships, structure, and operations of internal groups and teams and interactions with external stakeholders Geneva, The Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva Peacebuilding Platform . Geneva peacebuilding platform paper; no. 10. https://repository.graduateinstitute.ch/record/288064?ln=en." class="coltj"> 16 , IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM), 23 (08), 2021, pp. 18-26." class="coltj"> 17 . Collaborative leadership has garnered significant attention from scholars and practitioners over the past 15 years and is considered a fundamental facet of positive leadership in all its forms Journal of Human Resource & Leadership , 6 (1), 48–71." class="coltj"> 15 , One health (Amsterdam, Netherlands) , 10 , 100158." class="coltj"> 18 , et al. (2017). Understanding the relationship between teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and technology use in education: a systematic review of qualitative evidence. Education Tech Research Dev 65, 555–575 (2017)." class="coltj"> 19 .

However, despite the burgeoning interest in collaborative leadership, significant disagreement persists among scholars regarding its precise conceptualization. Recent reviews have underscored the need for further theory development and even the re-conceptualization of this construct International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 138-144." class="coltj"> 12 , Exceptional Children , 84 (1), 7-26." class="coltj"> 20 , The 2020 Workplace: How innovative Companies Attract, Develop, and Keep Tomorrow's Employees Today . HarperCollins. ISBN 0061992356, 9780061992353. https://www.amazon.com/2020-Workplace-Innovative-Companies-Tomorrows/dp/0061763276." class="coltj"> 21 . This raises a critical gap in the literature—a lack of consensus and clarity in defining and understanding collaborative leadership. This study assumes paramount importance to bridge this gap and contribute to the growing body of knowledge in collaborative leadership theory. By delving into the perceptions and experiences of top echelons in the selected companies, this research is poised to provide much-needed clarity and a comprehensive understanding of the collaborative leadership concept and its influence on the performance of organizations. The main objective of this study was to explore the influence of collaborative leadership on performance. Collaborative leadership is the independent variable, and performance is the dependent variable. Insurance companies in Kenya have been adopted as the context of the study.

Problem Statement

Scholars and practitioners within the realm of collaborative leadership grapple with an ongoing predicament characterised by a notable absence of consensus in both the conceptualization and paradigms associated with the subject despite a burgeoning body of literature addressing the matter International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 138-144." class="coltj"> 12 , Journal of Human Resource & Leadership , 6 (1), 48–71." class="coltj"> 15 , et al . (2016). Collaborative leadership: Engaging collective intelligence to achieve results across organizational boundaries, white paper. Oxford Leadership . https://www.oxfordleadership.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/OL-White-Paper-Collaborative-rship.pdf." class="coltj"> 22 . This prevailing lack of accord has engendered divergent viewpoints, obstructing the formulation of a cohesive, multidisciplinary framework for comprehensively understanding and pragmatically applying collaborative leadership in organizations [23-26] 23 . Consequently, this absence of clarity complicates comparative analyses in scholarly pursuits and impedes the advancement of this pivotal field [27-29] 27 .

Substantial empirical inquiry within collaborative leadership has illuminated the potential advantages and efficacy of collaborative leadership. However, despite these inroads, empirical investigations into the influence of collaborative leadership on performance in less-explored organizational contexts remain noticeably limited. The scarcity of empirical research in non-traditional settings underscores a fundamental lacuna in our comprehension of the applicability and effectiveness of collaborative leadership across diverse organizational landscapes. Geneva, The Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva Peacebuilding Platform . Geneva peacebuilding platform paper; no. 10. https://repository.graduateinstitute.ch/record/288064?ln=en." class="coltj"> 16 , One health (Amsterdam, Netherlands) , 10 , 100158." class="coltj"> 18 , et al. (2017). Understanding the relationship between teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and technology use in education: a systematic review of qualitative evidence. Education Tech Research Dev 65, 555–575 (2017)." class="coltj"> 19 , Research Project submitted to Strathmore University . https://su-plus.strathmore.edu/items/15f9432c-b8eb-4e4e-a724-2f4a999e198b." class="coltj"> 30 , Human resources for health , 10 (25), 1-7." class="coltj"> 31 . There is a need to diversify collaborative leadership research to ascertain whether the positives observed in specific contexts can be replicated and sustained in other contexts.

The study’s central research question is, “How does collaborative leadership influence the performance of an organization?” The insights garnered from this research are expected to be instrumental in guiding organizations toward harnessing the full potential of collaborative leadership, ultimately enabling them to achieve higher levels of individual and organizational performance in an era of environmental dynamism and change.

Significance of the Study

This research study holds substantial significance across multiple dimensions. First, it offers valuable insights to researchers, shedding light on the implications of collaborative leadership on the performance of organizations, particularly within the context of insurance companies. Second, the study is paramount to organizational leaders as it provides practical insights and a framework for effectively implementing collaborative leadership in organizations. It underscores the pivotal role played by the environment, employees, and leaders, including the top echelons, in fostering a collaborative leadership environment to drive sustainable performance in organizations. Moreover, this study is poised to catalyze policy developments in organizations, particularly within the insurance companies in Kenya, besides stimulating further discourse and research initiatives in academic circles.

Literature Review

Collaborative Leadership and Performance

In the quest for sustainable performance, organizations increasingly emphasize collaborative leadership as a pivotal strategy for effectively navigating the dynamic business environment The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science , 58(1), 164-188." class="coltj"> 32 , Corporate Communications: An International Journal 22:4, 542-555. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Exploring-the-impacts-of-relationship-on-employees%E2%80%99-Lee/d10edfb8f6e37a68feebc35c95a2f1a8899cfd38." class="coltj"> 33 . This study sought to explore the intricate relationship between collaborative leadership paradigms and the performance of organizations. The study critically examined the distinct influence of three collaborative leadership key components: authentic relationships, leaders' behaviour, and top echelons' support Journal of Human Resource & Leadership , 6 (1), 48–71." class="coltj"> 15 , IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM), 23 (08), 2021, pp. 18-26." class="coltj"> 17 Communication Research, Vol. 44 No. 2, pp. 225-243." class="coltj"> 34 , Journal of Management , Vol. 41 No. 6, pp. 1677-1697." class="coltj"> 35 .

The significance of authentic relationships within an organization cannot be overstated. These relationships, characterized by trust, respect, open-mindedness, and mutual understanding, play a profound role in shaping team engagement and, by extension, overall organizational performance Palgrave Communications ." class="coltj"> 10 , Oxford Leadership . https://www.oxfordleadership.com/collaborative-leadership-white-paper/." class="coltj"> 36 . Collaborative leadership hinges on continuous dialogue, deep reflection, and active listening, all exemplifying authenticity. The literature emphasizes the importance of building consensus across stakeholders by bringing one's authentic self into relationships with team members Public Administration Quarterly . 37 (1): 71–102. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24371989." class="coltj"> 37 , BMC Health Services Research . 17 (1): 141. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28209143/." class="coltj"> 38 . Moreover, high-quality relationships grounded in mutual trust facilitate productive interactions, driving organizational outcomes The Business and Management Review , 6(5), 213-220. https://cberuk.com/cdn/conference_proceedings/v6%20n5%20bmr%2010.pdf." class="coltj"> 39 , Organizational behaviour. (15thed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Publishing Inc. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-283487-2; ISBN-10: 0-13-283487-1. http://www.mim.ac.mw/books/Organizational%20Behavior%20(15e).pdf." class="coltj"> 40 .

Leaders' behaviour is critical in facilitating collaborative leadership and impacting organizational performance. Leaders who encourage open communication, inclusivity, and empowerment contribute to engaged employees who take ownership of their roles within the collaborative setting Collaborative leadership: Building relationships, handling conflict and sharing control (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN: 9780415539494. https://www.routledge.com/Collaborative-Leadership-Building-Relationships-Handling-Conflict-and/Archer-Cameron/p/book/9780415539494." class="coltj"> 14 , American Journal of Education ." class="coltj"> 41 . Essential behaviours, such as systematic thinking habits, relationship building, conflict management, and problem-solving, are instrumental in optimizing the performance of constituents and organizations Journal of Inter professional Care ." class="coltj"> 42 , British Journal of Healthcare Management . 19 (7): 335–337." class="coltj"> 43 . This study reconceptualized collaborative leaders' behaviour in terms of inclusivity, empowerment, and open communication, thereby shedding new light on behaviours that drive performance in modern organizations.

Top echelons, comprising the highest-ranked employees in an organization, wield significant influence through their support in terms of governance, operational guidelines, and collaborative strategies Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory . 22 (1): 1–29." class="coltj"> 44 , Public Management Review , 23:11, 1612-1639." class="coltj"> 45 . Effective governance structures define the formal purpose of collaborative relationships and set the stage for alignment on shared objectives 28 . In particular, suitable governance structures empower employees to participate in decision-making regarding the rules governing their behaviour and relationships, a pivotal aspect of collaborative leadership. Operational guidelines, or operational systems, are essential in supporting the practical application of collaborative leadership, ensuring the organization can adapt to environmental dynamism and maintain a competitive position 46 . Furthermore, the collaborative strategy of organizations, which promotes teamwork and shared goal achievement, directly affects performance East African Scholars Journal of Economics, Business and Management , Volume-1, Issue-3; 47-56." class="coltj"> 47 , In book: Emerging Trends in Information and Knowledge Management Publisher . Moi University Press. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Impact-of-Knowledge-Management-on-The-of-Firms-Kamau-Kwanya/5ff7f8d70a53a7725f12102c444212ad5422a7a5." class="coltj"> 48 .

The connection between collaborative leadership and the performance of organizations finds support in the Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory. According to LMX theory, the relationship between a leader and a follower (member) is fundamentally a relational exchange process 49 . The quality of this relationship is intricately influenced by leader and follower characteristics Review of Business Ethics, 41(2); 32-48. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/leader-member-exchange-lmx-influence-at/docview/2546154776/se-2." class="coltj"> 50 , Journal of Management , 38, 1715-1759." class="coltj"> 51 . This theory elucidates the impact of collaborative leadership, particularly the dimensions of leaders' behaviour and top echelons support, on the performance of organizations.

Additionally, complementary theories, such as Social Constructivism Theory, provide valuable insights into how collaborative leadership influences performance. Social Constructivism Theory underscores the role of collaborative relationships in facilitating social exchange interactive transactions within organizations Organizational behaviour. (15thed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Publishing Inc. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-283487-2; ISBN-10: 0-13-283487-1. http://www.mim.ac.mw/books/Organizational%20Behavior%20(15e).pdf." class="coltj"> 40 , British Journal of Education . Vol.8, Issue 8, pp.49-56. https://www.eajournals.org/wp-content/uploads/Social-Constructivism.pdf." class="coltj"> 52 , Leadership and Organizational Development Journal , 31(3), 246-262." class="coltj"> 53 These interactions, shaped by collaborative leadership, contribute to leader-member and member-member exchange relationships, which, in turn, have a significant bearing on an organization's performance. Hence, Social Constructivism Theory offers another lens through which to understand the impact of collaborative leadership on organizational outcomes Public Management Review , 23:11, 1612-1639." class="coltj"> 45 , Small Group Research, 44 (4), 395–411." class="coltj"> 54 , Thought and Language . Cambridge: M.I.T.Press, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262720014/thought-and-language/." class="coltj"> 55 .

The performance dimension in this study was grounded on stakeholder theory, initially introduced by Freeman 56 and further developed by Donaldson and Preston 57 , Donaldson 58 , and Hubbard 59 . Stakeholder theory, grounded in management and business ethics research, offers a framework to evaluate an organization's performance against the expectations of a diverse range of stakeholders, including employees, internal business processes, customers, suppliers, creditors, the local community, and other social governance constituencies 59 .

This theory has significantly influenced performance measurement methodologies, particularly the Balanced Scorecard 60 and the Sustainable Balanced Scorecard 59 , which aim to balance the historically skewed focus on shareholders' financial interests Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach . Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 978-0521151740. https://www.amazon.com/Strategic-Management-A-Stakeholder-Approach/dp/0521151740/ref=pd_bxgy_b_img." class="coltj"> 56 , Business Strategy and Environment , 19, 177-191." class="coltj"> 59 . These frameworks incorporate performance measures aligned with the interests of various stakeholders, encompassing financial, customer, internal processes, learning and development, and environmental and social factors 87 , emphasizing the need for a collaborative approach by all stakeholders for optimal performance outcomes.

Examining the intricate dynamics of collaborative leadership, the authenticity of employee relationships, the behaviour of leaders, and the support of top echelons within organizations is essential to enhance their performance in today's highly competitive business landscape. Through the analysis in this study, we gain valuable insights into the multifaceted nature of collaborative leadership and its profound influence on the performance of insurance companies in Kenya.

The insurance companies serve as a vital financial safeguard, evaluating risks and offering legally binding policies across life, property, health insurance, and reinsurance sectors, adapting to technological advancements and evolving customer preferences Nature Review Earth & Environment . https://10.1038/s43017-020-00122-y." class="coltj"> 61 , 62 . However, the global insurance landscape faces sustainability challenges, with Africa's insurance market holding a mere 1% market share compared to the dominance of North America, Asia-Pacific, and Europe at 96% [62-64] 62 .

Within this context, insurance companies in Kenya have shown substantial growth in offering a range of products, including life insurance, general insurance, micro insurance, and Takaful insurance 65 . Nevertheless, challenges persist in the form of low insurance penetration, inadequate customer trust and experience, and financial instability, resulting in receiverships and insolvencies International Journal of Human Resources and Procurement . Vol. 8 (2) pp 1-22.http://www.ijsse.org/images/ijhrp_v8_i2_1_22.pdf." class="coltj"> 66 , International Journal of Finance and Accounting , 2(3), 44-65. https://www.iprjb.org/journals/index.php/IJFA/article/download/320/434/1541." class="coltj"> 67 . To effectively address these challenges and ensure sustainable performance in the insurance industry, implementing collaborative leadership in their leadership and management practices is imperative International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147- 4478) , 8 (6), 01–07." class="coltj"> 68 , International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management United Kingdom , Vol. VII, Issue 12. http://ijecm.co.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2019/12/71212.pdf." class="coltj"> 69 .

Emerging Issues

In the contemporary global organizational landscape, it is increasingly imperative for organizations to adopt a collaborative leadership approach to ensure their survival 90 . However, the literature on collaborative leadership lacks consensus regarding its defining variables and dimensions International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 138-144." class="coltj"> 12 , Collaborative leadership: Building relationships, handling conflict and sharing control (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN: 9780415539494. https://www.routledge.com/Collaborative-Leadership-Building-Relationships-Handling-Conflict-and/Archer-Cameron/p/book/9780415539494." class="coltj"> 14 , IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM), 23 (08), 2021, pp. 18-26." class="coltj"> 17 Journal of Inter professional Care ." class="coltj"> 42 , et al. (2020). It matters how to recall – task differences in retrieval practice. Instr Sci 48, 699–728." class="coltj"> 70 , Theses and Dissertations . 1208. https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/etd/1208." class="coltj"> 71 , Journal of Knowledge Management , 23(3), 466-488." class="coltj"> 88 . As a result, the implications of collaborative leadership on organizational performance remain to be definitively established. While existing literature has explored the relationships between collaborative leadership and the performance of organizations, there is a noticeable dearth of comprehensive studies encompassing these variables Dynamic discernment . Pilgrim Press. ISBN-10: 0829820450, ISBN-13:‎ 978-0829820454. https://www.abebooks.com/9780829820454/Dynamic-Discernment-Reason-Emotion-Power-0829820450/plp." class="coltj"> 3 , International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 138-144." class="coltj"> 12 . Most studies have primarily focused on the linear relationship between collaborative leadership and performance, resulting in a fragmented understanding of the influence of collaborative leadership on performance.

The emerging issue lies in the need for organizations to have clarity of the high degree of environmental dynamism to address intricate challenges and achieve their intended objectives effectively. In the contemporary application of collaborative leadership, the emphasis should be on comprehending how an organization's internal changes align with external environmental changes Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education , 50(1), 71-89." class="coltj"> 26 , Strategic Management Journal , 28(13), 1319–1350." class="coltj"> 72 . Collaborative leaders should be tasked with synchronising dynamic capabilities and strategic responses to enhance their organizations' performance Strategic Management Journal , 28(13), 1319–1350." class="coltj"> 72 , Journal of Business Venturing , 24(5), 519-532." class="coltj"> 73 .

Organizations, akin to social entities, must navigate the complexities of both internal and external environments to achieve their collective goals 74 . This open system perspective underscores the need for a continuous review of internal and external environments and responsiveness to their needs, recognising the necessity for continuous adaptation to enhance performance 75 . The central focus is aligning organisations to adapt to environmental dynamism 76 .

These arguments underscore the significance of advancing new knowledge in this emerging field. The existing literature review emphasizes the need to develop a new theoretical model for enhancing collaborative leadership in organizations. This is because collaborative leadership is multifaceted and represents a dynamic, collective effort involving teams, groups, their attributes, and the entire organizational environment, as opposed to being static or one-dimensional Palgrave Communications ." class="coltj"> 10 , International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 138-144." class="coltj"> 12 , Collaborative leadership: Building relationships, handling conflict and sharing control (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN: 9780415539494. https://www.routledge.com/Collaborative-Leadership-Building-Relationships-Handling-Conflict-and/Archer-Cameron/p/book/9780415539494." class="coltj"> 14 , Enabling Collaboration: Achieving Success through Strategic Alliances and Partnerships . LID Publishing Inc. ISBN 9780986079337. https://www.abebooks.com/9780986079337/Enabling-Collaboration-Framework-Successfully-Establishing-0986079332/plp." class="coltj"> 77 . Furthermore, a holistic reconceptualization of collaborative leadership is likely to improve its understanding and effective implementation across a broader organizational context, offering a coherent blueprint for leadership and management practice International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 138-144." class="coltj"> 12 , Writing a proposal for your dissertation: Guidelines and examples . New York, NY: The Guilford Press. https://worldcat.org/en/title/922572297." class="coltj"> 78 , Journal of Inter professional Care ." class="coltj"> 42 .

Given the dynamism of the organizational environment, developing a new theoretical model for collaborative leadership that comprehensively explains its multifaceted and multidisciplinary nature, taking into account the collective interaction of various organizational elements, including the organizational environment, to achieve sustainable performance is paramount. This new model is poised to serve as a foundation for effective collaborative leadership practices in organizations, contributing to the advancement of scholarship and the practice of collaborative leadership in organizations. Thus, this study underscores the critical role that environmental dynamism may play in the relationship between collaborative leadership and organizational performance and is worth exploring.

2. Materials and Methods

The study used an interpretivist research paradigm. Specifically, the study followed a qualitative research design (a phenomenological approach). As per Creswell and Creswell 79 , the qualitative research design allowed an in-depth understanding of the relevant variables by sharing the perceptions, assessments, and experiences of respondents from insurance companies in Kenya.

Instruments

The methodology employed for this qualitative investigation encompassed the acquisition of primary data through an in-depth, semi-structured interview guide. This interview guide was devised following an exhaustive review of pertinent literature and adherence to established guidelines as elucidated by Cairns-Lee, Lawley, and Tosey 32 and Aguinis and Solarino 80 . It was thoughtfully tailored to encapsulate the requisite information essential for fulfilling the central research question. This holistic information was subsequently transmuted into interview questions characterized by a balance between generality and specificity, designed to facilitate a comprehensive exploration of participants' experiences while simultaneously eliciting maximal information from the interviewees. The articulation of the interview inquiries was intentionally broad and open-ended to encourage the provision of elaborate responses while striving to maintain impartial and non-leading phrasing. The interview questions designed were:

1). Collaborative leadership is an emerging concept in organisations.

a). In your view, what does collaborative leadership mean in practice for insurance companies in Kenya?

b). Do you feel the authenticity of employee relationships affects performance in your organisation? Tell me more.

c). Could you share how leaders' behaviours affect the performance of your organisation?

d). In your view, how can top management support improve organisational performance?

2) Understanding the changes in the environment is critical.

a). What do you think are some environmental changes affecting insurance companies in Kenya? Tell me more about the internal and external changes affecting your organisation's performance.

A well-organized approach was implemented during the interview sessions, wherein the questions were presented sequentially, one at a time. Furthermore, participants were actively encouraged to expound upon their responses through probing inquiries. Careful consideration was given to the lucidity of the questions, with an emphasis on avoiding the deployment of jargon or obscure terminology; any potentially ambiguous terms were either omitted or elucidated. Additionally, the interview guide was tailored with an awareness of social desirability and cultural sensitivities, as expounded upon by Creswell and Creswell 81 .

The authors formulated questions designed to align with the research objective to ensure the cogency of participants' responses and facilitate a comprehensive data collection process. In anticipation of the interviews, follow-up questions and prompts were diligently prepared to ensure the retrieval of optimal responses from the participants. The construction of the interview questions was underpinned by an extensive review of existing literature and engaged discussions with recognized experts and peers. The paramount objective of the study was perpetually kept at the forefront during the formulation of these questions, and their efficacy was subsequently validated through a pilot study involving four expert respondents, encompassing two academicians and two senior executives within a financial institution.

For a rigorous appraisal and refinement of the interview guide, due consideration was given to the questions' adequacy in consonance with the recommendations articulated by Terrell 78 . This refinement process was conducted in a manner consistent with established scholarly practices and was informed by the insights and suggestions of experts in the field 82 . To establish a foundational context and secure participants' informed consent for their engagement in the interviews, a brief preamble was presented prior to the initiation of the substantive questions. This preamble elucidated the study's rationale and subsequently documented the interviewees' verbal confirmation of their consent to participate, aligning with the ethical considerations emphasized by Silverman 82 .

A total of 11 in-depth interviews were conducted with the Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) of insurance companies operating in Kenya. The selection of this sample size was predicated on the well-established principle that, in qualitative research, the notion of data saturation becomes a pivotal criterion for determining sample adequacy. Data saturation is a point at which conducting additional interviews no longer contributes novel themes, perceptions, or insights to the research findings, as it is more prone to yield repetitions. This phenomenon, commonly referred to as the "saturation point," is typically observed to manifest between the range of 5 to 20 interviews Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approach . SAGE Publications. ISBN: 9781506386706. https://spada.uns.ac.id/pluginfile.php/510378/mod_resource/content/1/creswell.pdf." class="coltj"> 79 , Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches . SAGE Publications. ISBN: 9781506330204. https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/qualitative-inquiry-and-research-design/book246896." class="coltj"> 81 . Thus, the decision to engage in 11 interviews was grounded in the recognition that this sample size was deemed sufficient to attain data saturation, ensuring that the study obtained a rich and comprehensive exploration of the research phenomena under investigation.

Data Analysis

Two essential software tools were employed for the analysis and interpretation of the qualitative data in this study, namely NVivo and Microsoft Excel version 92 . The adoption of these software applications facilitated a systematic and efficient approach to thematic analysis. The thematic analysis process was executed per the prescribed steps for thematic qualitative analysis delineated by Braun and Clarke 83 .

Respondents Characteristics

Respondents were CEOs of insurance companies in Kenya with sufficient experience, exposure to the strategic and dynamics of organizational leadership, and an active role in implementing policies and practices in their organizations. These aspects of strategic acumen, coupled with their industry leadership experience, were likely to make them a suitable choice for providing information on collaborative leadership and the performance of their organizations 80 . The summary of the demographic characteristics of respondents is presented in Table 1 .

Table 1. Respondent Characteristic

collaborative leadership literature review

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Thematic Analysis

The study employed the thematic analysis process developed by Braun and Clarke 84 , which consists of six distinct phases, structured in a logical, sequential order but recursive and iterative. These six phases were viewed as guiding principles rather than inflexible directives. This methodological framework provided a rigorous, structured approach to extracting meaningful component themes and patterns from the qualitative data. By adhering to these steps, the authors ensured a methodical and comprehensive examination of the data, ultimately contributing to the robustness and credibility of the study's findings 84 . The authors employed a deductive approach to thematic analysis, as advised by Boyatzis 85 and Braun and Clarke 84 , ensuring alignment with the central research question. In this 'researcher-driven' process, thematic codes were established according to the elucidated study’s conceptual plan. The subsequent sections describe the systematic steps of the Braun and Clarke 83 thematic data analysis methodology, facilitating a clear presentation of the qualitative results.

The initial familiarization with the data phase involved an acquaintance with the dataset. This commenced with an extensive review of the interview recordings, where each recording was listened to in its entirety before transcription. During this process, the researcher maintained focused attention, making succinct notations, pausing, and replaying audio as needed to capture critical elements accurately. The primary objective was to grasp salient sub-themes and areas covered in each interview prior to transcription. Transcriptions were conducted using the "Cockatoo" online tool and underwent multiple revisions, accompanied by the documentation of preliminary patterns and reflections on the data and analytical process.

The second generating initial codes phase transitioned the data coding process from NVivo software (version 14) to Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet (version 2016). This shift facilitated the systematic cataloguing of data elements in columns, enabling the researcher to maintain structural oversight. The process emphasized equal sensitivity to context in all interview transcripts, as it was predominantly deductive. All codes from the initial coding iteration in NVivo were transferred, and corresponding participant narratives were entered into the Excel spreadsheet. Subsequent coding iterations were recorded in both NVivo and Excel.

The third generating themes step involved the derivation of overarching and component themes. The primary theme, "Collaborative Leadership Influence on Performance," and the component theme ", collaborative leadership", were deduced through examination of theoretical literature and research questions, in alignment with Braun and Clarke APA handbook of research methods in psychology, Vol. 2. Research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological (pp. 57–71). American Psychological Association." class="coltj"> 83 , Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health , 11:4, 589-597." class="coltj"> 84 . The researcher consolidated codes into initial sub-themes, such as "Collaboration" and "Leaders' Behavior," supported by distinct and concurrent narratives. Similarly, the sub-theme "Relationships" was formulated by aggregating relevant coded data items.

In the fourth step, reviewing themes, sub-themes with unclear boundaries were reviewed to establish coherence and distinctiveness. The iterative nature of the analysis allowed for reconsidering earlier stages and incorporating fresh interpretations. The researcher's constructivist and interpretivist approaches were pivotal in constructing and reconstructing sub-themes, ensuring alignment with theoretical constructs and the research coding phase. The defining and naming themes phase involved revisiting themes, sub-themes, and codes, including revisions to definitions and names where necessary. Short narratives were created for each theme to enhance understanding of the research story and its connection to the research questions. This process was informed by theoretical assumptions and pertinent literature, facilitating a holistic grasp of the research narrative.

The sixth and final stage entailed the development of the research's final report, where the findings were presented and discussed in response to the research questions. Themes and codes were continually reviewed as the final data presentation was constructed. This stage represents the culmination of the research story's articulation in response to the research questions. Since the study aimed to explore respondents' opinions concerning the influence of collaborative leadership on the performance of insurance companies in Kenya, the final responses were classified into codes linked (n), sub-themes, component themes and the primary theme. These are presented in Table 2 . The study was designed to answer one central research question, which constituted the primary theme, “Collaborative Leadership Influence on Performance”:

RQ: How does collaborative leadership influence the performance of insurance companies in Kenya?

Table 2. Themes, component themes and related sub-themes

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Understanding Collaborative Leadership

In the first interview question, the respondents in this study were asked to elucidate their comprehension of collaborative leadership in the context of insurance companies in Kenya. A thematic representation table ( Table 2 ) illustrates the key components and sub-themes of this understanding. The study delved into the concept of collaborative leadership in the insurance sector, and several vital sub-themes emerged from the respondents' perceptions. "Collaboration" was a central theme, with respondents highlighting its significance in connecting various departments like human resources, product development, and information communication technology. These shared departments were seen as a foundation for promoting collaboration and teamwork across the organization. Additionally, "relationship" emerged as a prominent sub-theme, underscoring the importance of building consensus, conflict management, and the development of robust relationships to reduce operational losses and ensure long-term sustainability.

Another crucial sub-theme was "shared goals," emphasizing the role of managers in taking ownership of shared responsibilities and working collectively to achieve common business objectives. This extended to collaboration within and outside the organization to address market risks and promote industry growth. Respondents also stressed the significance of leadership behaviour, top executive support, and breaking down departmental silos as integral elements of collaborative leadership. They recognized that such leadership could enhance organizational performance, customer satisfaction, and competitive positioning in the market.

Furthermore, the study underscored the role of top executives in fostering a collaborative culture and its potential benefits, including improved service delivery, enhanced shareholder value, and increased corporate social responsibility. The breakdown of departmental silos was identified as a vital step in addressing systemic organizational and industry issues that hinder growth and market penetration within the insurance sector. Overall, the respondents' vews emphasized the importance of fostering collaboration, cultivating robust relationships, working towards shared goals, exhibiting the right leadership behaviour, and securing top executive support to maximize the potential of collaborative leadership in the insurance industry.

Influence of Authentic Relationships on Performance

In the second interview question, respondents were asked to share their views on the influence of the authenticity of employee relationships on the performance of their organizations. The findings are represented in Table 2 . One prominent sub-theme, "sincerity," was mentioned by six respondents a total of thirteen times, highlighting the close association between authenticity and sincerity. Respondents expressed concerns about the lack of sincerity among employees within their organizations and across the insurance industry. The authenticity concept was linked to trust and shared responsibility, with several respondents emphasizing its critical role in fostering organizational performance through trust and shared responsibility.

Another noteworthy sub-theme was "internal accountability," emphasized by most respondents. They highlighted its importance in cultivating authentic relationships among employees, especially in light of challenges related to sincerity. The leadership in insurance companies had initiated mechanisms to encourage internal dialogues and foster employee engagement, particularly during product development processes, promoting internal accountability. Furthermore, the sub-theme "shared values" was mentioned six times and was interwoven with other sub-themes, reflecting its multi-disciplinary nature. Shared values were identified as a crucial element that cut across communication, collaboration, behaviour, and trust among employees, facilitating an understanding of shared values and the need to address employee concerns to integrate these values effectively.

Influence of Leaders' Behaviour on Performance

The third interview question aimed to explore the influence of leaders' behaviours on the performance of insurance companies in Kenya. The findings are structured in Table 2 , which reveals four key sub-themes. "Credibility" emerged as a significant sub-theme, discussed by five respondents. Credibility was linked to issues of fraud and corruption within insurance companies, with leaders' trustworthiness and integrity viewed as pivotal to the industry's reputation and sustainability. The study shed light on how leadership credibility is central to addressing internal fraud and corruption and ensuring the ethical functioning of insurance organizations.

"Accountability" was another prominent sub-theme mentioned by four respondents. The lack of leadership accountability was identified as a prevalent issue across insurance companies, with potential roots in recruitment practices, especially the inclusion of external agents who may not be solely employed by one company. Establishing effective accountability mechanisms to monitor team productivity and leadership effectiveness was proposed as a solution to address this challenge. Additionally, "empowerment" and "listening" emerged as important sub-themes, each discussed by three respondents. Empowerment was seen as a means to address historical issues by educating employees on ethics and integrity, while effective listening was regarded as essential for fostering the exemplary leadership mindset, building trust, and finding solutions to internal challenges. Open discussions facilitated by leaders were identified as valuable tools for building trust and improving employee connections within the organization.

Influence of Top Echelons Support on Performance

The fourth interview question aimed to examine the influence of top echelons support on the performance of insurance companies in Kenya. The findings are summarized in Table 2 , which highlights three primary sub-themes. "Governance structure" emerged as a critical sub-theme, raised by eight respondents, who emphasized the importance of establishing effective governance models within insurance companies. These governance structures were seen as essential for fostering internal and external collaboration, enabling conversations at various organizational levels, including the board level, and connecting with external stakeholders to address performance-affecting issues, particularly related to customer experience.

"Strategy" was another central sub-theme, also discussed by eight respondents. They underlined strategic alignment's significance, particularly at the board level. Respondents stressed the need for robust customer education strategies, especially among top insurers, to combat the issue of low insurance penetration. Furthermore, they acknowledged that misalignment in strategic priorities between the board and top management, especially in terms of ethical considerations, could significantly impact overall organizational performance. This misalignment was identified as a challenge affecting several insurance companies in Kenya.

"Competence" in the top leadership was the final sub-theme mentioned by six respondents. They expressed concerns about leadership appointments based on personal connections rather than merit and called for the development of competent leaders who possess the necessary skills to handle risks, offer strategic support, and align the interests of the board and investors to improve overall performance. This emphasis on leadership competence and the understanding of insurance fundamentals was deemed essential for effectively communicating the value of the business to various stakeholders, thereby benefiting customers and staff and ensuring a return on investment for investors.

Emerging Component Themes .

Table 3. Emergent component and sub-component themes

As part of the emerging issues, respondents were asked to highlight some of the environmental dynamism factors that influence collaborative leadership and performance. Table 3 below summarizes the emergent component sub-themes based on respondents' feedback. Environmental dynamism is defined as the rate of change in various environmental factors over time 89 . Internal environmental dynamism involves changes within the insurance companies themselves. Respondents highlighted factors contributing to internal environmental changes, such as shifts in customer preferences, evolving organizational structures, changes in competitive dynamics, and adopting new technologies. These changes necessitate adaptability within the organization to stay competitive and enhance performance. External environmental dynamism pertains to changes occurring outside the insurance companies. Participants in the study identified external environmental factors such as evolving market conditions, changes in legal and regulatory landscapes, technological advancements, and competitive shifts. These external changes impact the insurance industry, requiring companies to effectively adjust their strategies and operations to navigate the evolving external environment.Top of Form.

4. Discussions

The exploration of collaborative leadership within the insurance industry in Kenya elicited diverse perspectives from respondents, revealing a lack of consensus on its precise definition across multiple disciplines. Nevertheless, a clear consensus emerged regarding the substantial influence of collaborative leadership on performance. Key factors identified by respondents as vital for understanding and practising authentic relationships within insurance companies, which subsequently influence performance, include sincerity, shared values, effective communication, and desirable employee behaviours. The results align with prior research findings, such as Lau's 91 investigation on collaboration strategies that emphasized the critical role of employee talents, expertise, creativity, and skills in resolving complex organizational challenges, mirroring the behaviour sub-theme in this study.

The qualitative findings also underscored the influence of leaders' behaviour on insurance companies' performance, with leaders' credibility identified as the most pivotal behaviour. These findings are consistent with research by Markle-Reid et al. 38 , which identified seven leadership behaviours crucial to performance, including understanding, relationship-building, communication clarity, alignment of shared values, capacity building and development, alignment of teams and tasks, and open sharing of information and knowledge. These attributes correlate with the sub-themes in this study, namely, listening (comprising understanding, relationship-building, and communication clarity), accountability (encompassing shared values and alignment of teams and tasks), and empowerment (encompassing capacity building, development, and open sharing of information and knowledge).

Furthermore, the examination revealed that governance structure, specifically as part of the top management support, is a pivotal factor influencing insurance companies' performance. This outcome is consistent with Mugo, Namusonge, and Sakwa's 92 research on organizational core competencies within insurance companies in Kenya, highlighting the significant impact of strategy, operational processes, and systems on organizational performance and positioning. These align with the present study's sub-themes of strategy and governance structures, which encompass operational processes and systems. Additionally, the study confirmed the positive influence of environmental dynamism on collaborative leadership and the performance of insurance companies in Kenya, encompassing changes in skills, shared values, operating costs, new business strategies, growth, employees, and business model systems. These insights can inform the strategic focus of insurance companies as they seek to address and enhance their performance 86 . Table 4 summarises some of the vital performance sub-themes shared by respondents as critical and influenced by collaborative leadership.

Table 4. Performance indicator influenced by collaborative leadership

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5. Contributions of the Study

This study aimed to enrich the discourse surrounding collaborative leadership and its relationship with performance. It adopted an interpretivist paradigm, utilizing a qualitative research design to investigate the interplay between collaborative leadership and performance in insurance companies in Kenya. The research addressed a notable gap in the literature, particularly the scarcity of consensus on models addressing the effective implementation of collaborative leadership and its influence on the performance of organizations. Based on the findings of this study, the authors propose a novel collaborative leadership model, depicted in Figure 1 , emphasizing the importance of understanding both internal and external environmental dynamism as emerging factors influencing the success of collaborative leadership influence on the performance of organizations. Moreover, the framework underlined the significance of organisational players' and leaders' key attributes and responsibilities in fostering a collaborative leadership culture within their organizations.

Figure 1 . Proposed Collaborative Leadership Model

The study contributes to the theoretical understanding of collaborative leadership and provides practical insights for organizations, more specifically, insurance companies in Kenya. Introducing a structured framework that considers environmental dynamism and leadership attributes equips leaders with a strategic tool to enhance collaborative leadership, ultimately leading to improved performance outcomes. The framework addresses a critical need in the evolving organizational landscape, where effective leadership practices are pivotal for sustainable performance.

6. Implications for Practice

This study makes a significant practical contribution to leadership within insurance companies in Kenya by introducing a novel framework for enhancing collaborative leadership. This framework offers a structured and practical approach to navigating the intricate interplay between collaborative leadership, environmental dynamism, and organizational performance. By highlighting the importance of comprehending internal and external environmental dynamism, the framework equips insurance company leaders with a strategic tool to foster effective collaborative leadership, ultimately leading to sustainable and improved performance outcomes. This contribution can be borrowed cautiously across various organizational contexts where effective leadership practices are crucial.Top of Form

7. Limitations of the Study

The first limitation is regarding the sampling technique, which was purposive sampling. This technique helped search for suitable respondents within the insurance companies in Kenya for the study while remaining within time and resource constraints. Insurance companies' cultures differed, which may have affected respondents' responses. Further, the data was collected from the top echelons of the insurance companies in Kenya. Although top echelons were selected as strategic experts to give their assessment, there is merit for future respondents to cut across lower levels of the hierarchy, which could enhance the richness of data. Time and resource constraints compelled the authors to restrict data collection from eleven insurance companies in Kenya.

8. Conclusion

The findings of this study strongly indicate a favourable positive influence of collaborative leadership on the performance of insurance companies in Kenya. Respondents' perceptions and insights consistently highlighted the significance of collaborative leadership in enhancing various aspects of performance and success within the insurance companies in Kenya. Collaborative leadership variables (authentic relationships, leaders' behaviour, top echelons' support) were associated with many positive outcomes, as evidenced by the respondents' comments and observations.

The study illuminated that collaborative leadership is perceived as a vital driver of improved performance within insurance companies. The emphasis on collaboration, relationship-building, shared goals, leadership behaviour, top echelons support, and the breaking down of silos all underscored the belief that collaborative leadership is a critical factor in achieving better results for these organizations. Respondents pointed out that when organizations actively foster collaborative leadership and facilitate an environment of authenticity among employees, effective leaders' behaviour and enhanced top echelons' support lead to mutual trust, respect and understanding, shared values, open communication, inclusiveness, empowerment and credibility in leaders, governance, operational, and strategic support from top echelons and improved competency. This, in turn, minimizes losses, enhances customer satisfaction, and positions organizations to anticipate and meet customer needs more effectively.

Moreover, the study highlighted that top executives play a pivotal role in promoting a culture of collaborative leadership, which has the potential to improve service delivery, shareholder value, and enhanced corporate social responsibility. The collective sentiment among respondents was that collaborative leadership serves as a catalyst for organizational growth and competitive advantage, allowing organizations to resolve systemic issues and compete effectively. In sum, the research findings suggest that collaborative leadership is a driving force behind the enhanced performance and success of organizations.

Future Research Direction

Acknowledging the limited geographical scope of this research, which primarily focused on Kenya, is essential. Therefore, future research should encompass a broader range of geographical settings to gain a more comprehensive understanding of collaborative leadership's conditions and outcomes and its impact on performance. Given the valuable insights acquired from the study's respondents, it is recommended that further investigations be conducted in diverse countries where insurance market penetration levels are notably higher than in Kenya. Cross-national studies across these regions can shed light on the practice and impact of collaborative leadership in varying contexts, offering potential strategies for enhancing the performance of insurance companies within these markets.

It is advisable to expand the scope to encompass other organizational contexts to enhance the depth and breadth of research endeavours. This expansion should encompass sectors like banking, telecommunications, microfinance, and the tobacco industry. Such an approach will provide a more comprehensive and holistic understanding of the applicability and impact of collaborative leadership across a diverse range of organizational domains, facilitating the identification of common principles and unique insights applicable to various industries.

Statement of Competing Interests

The authors have no competing interests.

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Collaborative Leadership and Individual Champions

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A leader in collaboration has to maintain high ethical standards and be a strong role model in order for members of the network to accept network vision and goals through their idealized influence. This chapter reviews the leadership literature in the context of cross-sector collaboration and discusses the important role that individual leadership plays within CoC networks. To examine leadership behavior of CoC leaders, we adopt Bass and Avolio’s (Multifactor leadership questionnaire: Manual and sample set. Mind Garden, Palo Alto, CA, 2004) transformational leadership theory and discuss its relevance to cross-sector collaboration.

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Jang, H.S., Valero, J.N. (2023). Collaborative Leadership and Individual Champions. In: Public-Nonprofit Collaboration and Policy in Homeless Services. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11918-7_4

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Participative Leadership: A Literature Review and Prospects for Future Research

1 School of Economics and Management, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China

2 College of Business Administration, Gachon University, Seongnam, South Korea

3 School of Management, Xi’an Polytechnic University, Xi’an, China

Changes in the external market environment put forward objective requirements for the formulation of organizational strategic plans, making it difficult for the organization’s leaders to make the right and effective decisions quickly on their own. As a result, participative leadership, which encourages and supports employees to participate in the decision-making process of organizations, has received increasing attention in both theory and practice. We searched the literature related to participative leadership in databases such as Web of Science, EBSCO, ProQuest, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Based on this, we clarify the concept of participative leadership, propose a definition of participative leadership, summarize measurement scales for this type of leadership, and compare participative leadership with other leadership styles (empowering leadership and directive leadership). We also present a research framework for participative leadership that demonstrates its antecedents; the mechanisms for its development based on social exchange theory, conservation of resources theory, social cognitive theory; social information processing theory, and implicit leadership theory; and outcomes. Finally, we identify five potential research areas: Connotation, antecedents, outcomes, mediators and moderators, and study of participative leadership in China.

Introduction

In the digital age, companies are actively taking accurate decisions such as using advanced technology to enhance their competitive advantage in the marketplace ( Su et al., 2021 ). But where do good measures and perfect solutions come from? The answer comes from the masses. With the dramatic changes in the competitive business environment, it is difficult for organizational leaders to make timely and effective decisions on their own, which has led to the active presence of employees in organizational decision-making today ( Peng et al., 2021 ). At the same time, due to the use of modern information technology such as computer networks and system integration, there is a bottom-up flow of information within the enterprise, and these cross-level, multi-dimensional “employee opinions” play an increasingly important role in leadership decision-making. Improving a company’s competitive advantage, sustainable development goal and performance is increasingly dependent on the active participation of the organization’s employees in decision-making ( Chang et al., 2021 ; Jia et al., 2021 ). In particular, Peter Drucker, the master of manageme, also considered that “encouraging employee involvement” is an important part of effective leadership in his influential study “Management by Objective.” In practice, some well-known companies have gradually started to call for employee participation behaviors in decision-making to varying degrees. For example, leaders in the R&D department of Volvo Cars actively use shared open rights and encourage diversity initiatives to promote employee participation in decision-making to facilitate organizational innovation ( Jing et al., 2017 ). It is easy to see that employee participation, a key component of organizational decision-making, is an important influencing factor for business organizations to adapt to the dynamic business environment and improve the effectiveness and science of leaders’ decisions. Therefore, it is an important issue that leaders need to focus on in real-time, especially in organizations with a high power distance culture, to promote the participation of their subordinates in organizational decision-making ( Huang et al., 2010 ). This requires leaders to adopt a supportive, democratic leadership style, known as participative leadership. A large number of scholars also agree that organizational leaders are increasingly relying on highly engaged employees to meet the challenges of a competitive marketplace, so participative leadership, which seeks to promote behaviors that support employee participation in organizational decision-making, is gaining attention in many organizations ( Huang et al., 2006 ). Participative leadership exists in organizations of any size, of any type and at any stage, where openness and empowerment of employees in the organizational decision-making process are core characteristics that distinguish it from other leadership styles ( Huang et al., 2021 ). When making strategic decisions, participative leaders are able to share decision-making power and fully consult employees to jointly deal with the work problems ( Chan, 2019 ).

In summary, participative leaders encourage and support employees to participate in the decision-making process in order to make effective organizational decisions and to solve work problems together through a range of measures ( Kahai et al., 1997 ). However, there is still much space for theoretical research on participative leadership, and the organizational practice with the current call for “employee participation in decision-making” needs to be optimised and improved, and there is an urgent need to balance the organizational practice and theoretical research on “employee participation” and “scientific decision-making” from the leadership level. In order to accelerate the exploration of participative leadership and promote the research on the effectiveness of participative leadership, we systematically review the literature on participative leadership, summarise and outline its concept, measurement scales and conceptual comparisons, antecedents, mechanisms and outcomes, and present future research perspectives.

Literature Collection

We searched the literature on participative leadership published in databases such as Web of Science, ProQuest, EBSCO, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). To perform the search, we used the keywords “participative leadership,” “participative management,” “participative behavior,” and “participative leader.” We also used a snowballing approach to identify relevant literature by searching the list of references we found in our research. Also, to better examine the similarities and differences in leadership styles in our work, we had collected literature related to directive leadership and empowering leadership in these databases. And we only used the keywords “directive leadership,” and “empowering leadership.”

Literature Processing

Literature was included in our research if it met the following criteria. First, we collected research on the topic of participative leadership, excluding leadership research unrelated to participative management. Second, the literature we collected on participative leadership had to be written in either English or Chinese, excluding relevant research in other languages. Third, the literature included both quantitative and qualitative research and did not impose any restrictions on where the research was conducted or the industry in which it was conducted. Fourth, the information we collected on participative leadership included published journal articles, conference papers, master’s and doctoral dissertations, and so on. In addition, compared to participative leadership, we collected mostly review-based literature on empowering leadership and directive leadership, including some empirical researches, to better understand both types of leadership. Also, the literature must be written in Chinese or English.

The Concept of Participative Leadership

According to literature review, participative leadership is a democratic leadership that involves subordinates in organizational decision-making and management, with the aim of effectively enhancing employees’ sense of ownership and actively integrating their personal goals into organizational goals. Therefore, in the daily leadership process, leaders actively implement “participation management” for their subordinates, such as conveying meaningful values, actively organizing reporting and other flexible promotion strategies ( Jing et al., 2017 ). The American scholar Likert (1961) , after extensive experimental research on democratic leadership, formally introduced the concept of participative leadership in his book “A New Model of Management” and revealed the three main principles of participative leadership theory, including the mutual support principle, the group decision principle and the high standards principle. Since the introduction of participative leadership, it has received much attention from a large number of researchers. Based on previous research, Kahai et al. (1997) redefined it as participative leadership, which refers to a leadership style in which leaders ask employees for their opinions before making decisions, delegate decision-making authority to subordinates in practice, and encourage active participation by employees to make decisions together. The literature also reflects two core characteristics of participative leadership: first, employees are consulted before decisions are made in order to solve problems together; second, employees are given resources to support them in the work process ( Kahai et al., 1997 ; Lam et al., 2015 ; Li et al., 2018 ).

Participative leadership is also characterised in practice by the following features: first, in the process of employee participation in decision-making, leaders and subordinates are on an equal footing and trust each other completely, and organizational issues are resolved through democratic consultation. Second, in general, although participative management involves a wide range of employees in decision-making, the final decision is still made by the leaders. Huang et al. (2010) also explored participative leadership in-depth and argued that participative leadership requires more encouragement and support for employees in the decision-making process and sharing of information and ideas, which has been recognized by many scholars ( Xiang and Long, 2013 ; Lam et al., 2015 ; Li et al., 2018 ). It is easy to see that the core of participative leadership is to encourage employees to participate in organizational decision-making, and the key to the leadership process is to make a series of management tasks such as consulting employees before making decisions ( Benoliel and Somech, 2014 ). Thus, based on many previous studies and practical experience, we consider participative leadership as a set of leadership behaviors that promote subordinates to participate in decision-making by giving them a certain degree of discretionary powers, effective information and other resources, as well as care and encouragement, so that they can be consulted enough before making decisions to solve work problems together( Huang et al., 2010 ; Chan, 2019 ).

Measurement of Participative Leadership

The current measurement of participative leadership is mainly in the form of questionnaires in quantitative research and consists of the following measurement scales. First, Vroom (1959) psychological participation questionnaire, which evaluates the frequency with which leaders demonstrate a participative leadership style and reflects the overall ability of members to influence decisions and provide input and advice to leaders, consists of four questions (α = 0.63), sample item: “If you had a suggestion to improve your work or change a process in some way, how easy would it be for you to communicate the idea to your leader.”

Second, the empowering leadership scale (ELS) developed by Arnold et al. (2000) in which subjects score perceived leadership behaviors, with several items in the participation in decision-making section becoming a measure of participative leadership (α = 0.86), and is currently recognized by most scholars, with a total of six questions, and a sample item is “Encourages work group members to express ideas/suggestions.” The measurement scale developed by Arnold et al. (2000) has been widely used in empirical research ( Huang et al., 2010 ; Lam et al., 2015 ; Peng et al., 2021 ).

Third, the participative management questionnaires. In research of participative management in education, Somech (2002) designed a participative management scale with a total of thirty-five items, which includes five dimensions: decision domain (10 items; α = 0.83), degree of participation (4 items; α = 0.79), structure (3 items; α = 0.79), rationale (9 items; α = 0.77), and participation target (9 items; α = 0.69). Decision domain refers to determine if, after a decade of explicit attention to and advocacy of enhanced participative leadership, principals prefer to involve teachers not only in the technical domain, but also in the managerial, and a sample item is “Setting and revising the school goals.” Degree of participation refers to differentiating the extent of participation from the degree of participation, and a sample item is “Makes decisions on his or her own.” Structure refers to the extent to which a formal structure for validating decisions exist in the school and their relationship to other dimensions of participation, and a sample item is “To what extent explicit procedures existed at the school concerning who participated in the decision-making process.” Rationale is to determine, through an exploratory method, the main motives that inspired principals to participate in management and their relationship with the degree of participative management, and a sample item is “Encourage teacher’s acceptance of the decision.” Participation target refers to examine principals’ considerations in choosing which teacher to involve in the decision-making process, and a sample item is “The teacher expressed an independent thinking style.” The measurement scale developed by Somech (2002) has been found to have a good use in research ( Benoliel and Somech, 2014 ).

Fourth, some scholars had adapted or developed participative leadership scales by themselves, but the use is limited. For example, Kahai et al. (2004) used group-level responses (3 items) about how frequently participants observed the leader to implement participative management. A sample item is “Incorporating their suggestions into the final decision.” And Li et al. (2018) adapted from Oldham and Cummings (1996) and Kahai’s studies ( Kahai et al., 2004 ), which asked employees to rate their team leaders’ participative leadership behaviors on a four-item scale (α = 0.81), with typical questions such as “Puts suggestions from our group members into the final decision.” The individual responses were aggregated to the team level. Mean r wg was 0.90. And Zhao et al. (2019) developed a five-item scale, with typical questions such as “Leaders encourage team members to be active in suggesting ideas” (α = 0.80). In addition, there are also some studies that utilize the case method in qualitative research. For example, Jing et al. (2017) used an embedded case approach to provide an in-depth analysis of the role played by participative leadership. Finally, we summarize the major ways and references of previous measurements in the form of tables, as shown in Table 1 .

Summary of measurements.

Comparison Between Participative Leadership and Other Leadership Styles

A review of the recent literature reveals that some scholars usually discuss participative leadership together with empowering leadership and directive leadership, but they are only mentioned, without in-depth analysis of the similarities and differences between them ( Lonati, 2020 ; Zou et al., 2020 ). At present, the lack of comprehensive comparative analysis of the three leadership styles. Therefore, we analyze the similarities and differences between participative leadership and empowering leadership and directive leadership to varying degrees and compares them in terms of key characteristics, behavioral approaches and behavioral motives to highlight the unique research value of participative leadership, as shown in Table 2 .

Contrast of different leadership styles.

Empowering Leadership

The situational empowerment perspective emphasizes the practice of empowerment in organizational situations and defines empowering leadership as a series of management practices that empower subordinates. The psychological empowerment perspective emphasizes the psychological experience of empowerment and defines it as a motivational tool to eliminate employees’ internal feelings of disempowerment by raising their level of motive. And the integration of situational perspective and psychological perspective emphasizes the leaders’ behavior toward power sharing and employees’ perceptions of empowerment, illustrating the process of achieving power sharing between leaders and employees ( Tang et al., 2012 ). It is easy to see that both empowering leadership and participative leadership denote the delegation of leadership authority, but the focus are different. Specifically, participative leadership refers to the sharing and delegation of decision-making power, which means that subordinates are able to participate in the leaders’ decisions and express their views, while empowered leadership is more concerned with the delegation of personal authority and job responsibilities, so that subordinates have a certain degree of autonomy in deciding how to work, in order to achieve self-motive ( Amundsen and Martinsen, 2014 ). In addition, empowering leaders have a certain degree of positivity when they delegate their power, but they also tend to make employees feel that the leader is not willing to manage, which reduces the effectiveness of leadership. However, the participative leaders only share decision-making power with subordinates, retaining the authority and responsibility for leadership work and effectively avoiding employees’ perceptions of laissez-faire management. Thus, participative leadership is unique in that it not only achieves performance goals but also reduces the corresponding negative impacts ( Zou et al., 2020 ).

Directive Leadership

Directive leadership is about providing specific instructions to employees and clarifying policies, rules and procedures designed to organize the work of subordinates by providing obvious instructions and expectations regarding compliance with instructions ( Li et al., 2018 ; Lonati, 2020 ). In short, directive leadership is the use of leadership authority to tell subordinates what to do by way of orders, instructions, etc., in order to successfully achieve organizational goals. In other words, directive leadership is the procedure and method by which the leader assigns organizational tasks to subordinates and accomplishes them by means of one-way communication, and there is a relationship of command and obedience, instruction and execution between the leader and subordinates. Not only that, organizations with directive leadership are more likely to have normalized work processes, and employees are likely to obey the precise orders of the leader, allowing themselves to be fully focused on completing specific work tasks ( Lorinkova et al., 2013 ). Consequently, social messages such as clear work objectives, specific work procedures and supervision by organizational leaders create a sense of rules and responsibility among subordinates, but undermine employee creativity. Participative leaders, however, actively engage in interpersonal interaction with their employees in order to make decisions together. And, participative leadership, characterised by autonomy, collaboration and openness, encourages the employees to work innovatively by providing creative ideas and solutions that lead to the best decisions ( Lam et al., 2015 ). Therefore, participative leadership is more effective in stimulating employee creativity than directive leadership.

Research Framework for Participative Leadership

Changes in the external marketplace put forward objective demands on the development of the organization’s strategic solutions, making it difficult for the organization’s leaders to make the right and effective decisions quickly on their own ( Li et al., 2018 ; Zhao et al., 2019 ). Based on a review of previous research, we develop a research framework for participative leadership (shown in Figure 1 ) including the antecedents, mechanisms (mediator and moderator), and consequences of this type of leadership, with a view to clearly showing the lineage of empirical research on participative leadership for scholars’ subsequent exploration.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is fpsyg-13-924357-g001.jpg

Empirical research on participative leadership. Data sources were reviewed according to relevant literature; “-”represents the existing research path and variables; “*”represents the path and variables proposed in future research.

The Antecedents of Participative Leadership

The antecedents of participative leadership can provide positive guidance for the development of this leadership research. Currently, the antecedents of participative leadership can be divided into individual-level antecedents and organizational-level antecedents. A lot of studies on antecedents focus on the individual level, such as individual experience, assessment model and leader-member individual difference ( Somech, 2002 ; Li et al., 2018 ). These factors promote leaders to show more participative management behaviors. In contrast, greater organizational control over participative behaviors tends to push leaders to highlight the significance of employee participation in organizational decision-making. As proof, organizational culture and organizational size have great influence on leaders’ participative management behaviors.

Individual-Level Antecedents

Some scholars pointed out that the implementation of participative management is related to personal factors. For example, experienced leaders may be more inclined to engage in participative management ( Somech, 2002 ). Among the specific research on individual influences, the influence of personality tendencies on leadership style has become a key theoretical concern. In particular, based on the regulatory model theory, Li et al. (2018) found that the assessment model refers to the fact that individuals are more concerned with obtaining the best solution during self-regulation, and it is more likely to develop a participative leadership style, while the locomotion model is more concerned with state change and more likely to develop a directive leadership style. At the same time, the leader’s awareness of participative management is key to influencing his or her participative management style and is seen as a determinant of participative leadership. For example, in a research on leaders in business and government, Black (2020) showed that leaders’ self-awareness has a significant impact on their leadership style, and the higher the level of self-reported individual awareness, the more pronounced the participative leadership style. In addition, Somech’s (2003) research (2003), in conjunction with the leader-member exchange model, suggests that individual differences between leaders and subordinates also influence leadership style, the greater the differences, the less likely the leader is to implement participative management. In other words, the quality of the relationship between the leaders and the subordinates may influence the leaders’ management style. On this basis, Chen and Tjosvold (2006) also confirmed the idea that leader-member exchange quality is a key influence on participative management. The study further points out that cooperation, compared with competitiveness and independence, is an important basis for high-quality leader-member exchange, and the resulting leader-member relationships improve individual confidence and overcome cross-cultural differences, thus effectively enhancing participative management.

Organizational-Level Antecedents

Based on existing research, it is easy to understand the important role that personal factors play in predicting leadership styles in managerial roles. However, there can be significant differences in the way individuals lead in different contexts, as individuals in different situational organizations actively socialize by choosing to behave in a way that matches the context in which they are placed. There is no doubt that organizational context becomes a key factor in influencing leadership behaviors and styles ( Schneider, 1983 ). For example, leaders in small-scale societies living in primitive nomadic, hunter-gatherer societies were particularly focused on participative decision-making management, whereas in the era of intensive agricultural societies, as group size increased, participative decision-making management in small-scale societies often became ineffective, while increased social complexity and distortions in the distribution of power made organizational leaders rarely demonstrate participative management and instead gave rise to directive leadership ( Lonati, 2020 ). At the same time, an organizational culture that is acceptable and supportive of participative management in the workplace is also key to the development of participative leadership ( Huang et al., 2011 ). Bullough and De (2015) also analysed this in-depth and state that the social environment significantly increases the effectiveness of participative leadership based on the implicit leadership theory of cultural identity.

Mechanisms of Participative Leadership

We find that participative leadership, based on different theories from the social sciences, has significantly different effects on organizational employees through different mechanisms (mediators and moderators). First, based on social exchange theory, participative leadership influences employees by promoting their job prosperity and mutual help behavior ( Usman et al., 2021 ). Second, conservation of resources theory suggests that participative leadership would change employee behaviors in two different ways, increasing employee workload and improving organizational self-esteem ( Peng et al., 2021 ). Third, research based on social cognitive theory confirms that participative leadership increases employees’ self-efficacy and psychological security, which in turn affects employees’ innovation and performance ( Zou et al., 2020 ). Fourth, social information processing theory implies that the process of participative leadership affecting employee behaviors may be influenced by cultural values and other aspects ( Zhang et al., 2011 ). Fifth, drawing on implicit leadership theory, leaders’ information-sharing behaviors can moderate the relationship between participative leadership and employee performance ( Lam et al., 2015 ).

Social Exchange Theory

Social exchange theory has become an essential theory in researching the relationship between leaders and subordinates’ work attitudes and behaviors ( Miao et al., 2014 ). Some scholars had pointed out that Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) is to some extent reciprocal, and that supportive behaviors by the leader in an exchange relationship makes the subordinate feel obliged to reciprocate with positive attitudes and behaviors. In this way, social exchange theory, to a certain extent, provides a powerful explanation for participative leadership research. Because participative leaders encourage employees to express their personal views and opinions, actively give them the power to make decisions about their work, more respect and information resources to facilitate their participation in organizational decision-making, these signals of concern and support lead employees to perceive favors from their leaders, which in turn leads them to adopt a series of behaviors in return for their leaders ( Xiang and Long, 2013 ). Despite the uncertainty of social exchange, most subordinates will respond positively to the participative management behaviors of their leaders based on the normative principle of reciprocity. Because the process of leaders consulting employees before making decisions makes a positive social exchange relationship, employees tend to perform better at work. Based on social exchange theory, Usman et al. (2021) also confirmed that employees encouraged by participative leadership behaviors performed better in terms of job prosperity and took the initiative to offer help to others.

Conservation of Resources Theory

COR recognizes that individuals have limited resources and that personal resources must be acquired, preserved and maintained on an ongoing basis. “Resources” is a broad term that includes not only the objects (e.g., pay), conditions (e.g., organizational status) and energy that individuals value in achieving their goals, but also individual characteristics. Of these, individual characteristics are seen as important resources that further influence how employees deal with other changes in their resources ( Hobfoll and Shirom, 2001 ). For example, participative management may lead to higher performance goals for highly committed employees and less effort for less committed employees to conserve resources ( Benoliel and Somech, 2014 ). That is, different individuals hold different amounts and types of available resources and respond differently to the problems they face in work. It is important to note that, according to resource conservation theory, individuals are naturally motivated to acquire and maintain the resources that are more important to them. And as a result of this motive, individual resources may undergo two distinct changes in resource gain or resource loss, where resource gain indicates that the initial resource gainer is more capable of acquiring the resource, and resource loss refers to an initial threat to the resource that tends to lead to increased resource loss ( Halbesleben et al., 2014 ). Therefore, Peng et al. (2021) specifically highlighted that, according to resource conservation theory, participative leaders may have different impacts on employee resources through the two pathways described above. First, participative management provides employees with certain resources, resulting in various degrees of increase in employees’ sense of value and self-esteem, thus triggering resource gains. Second, participative management adds extra workloads to employees, thus triggering resource losses. In conclusion, resource conservation theory reasonably explain the effect of participative leadership on subordinates’ work behaviors.

Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory has found that the external environment, cognitive factors and individual behavior interact with each other, and individuals adjust their cognition according to the information they receive from the external environment, so as to display and maintain behavior patterns that match their own cognition ( Bandura, 1978 ). That is, people can learn indirectly by observing, accurately perceiving the behavior of others and extracting information from it. And in leadership research, employee behavior is a product of perceptions of the environment. As a specific external environment, the messages conveyed by participative leadership style are an important part of employees’ daily contact in the workplace, and by observing and interpreting such messages, employees would change their perceptions of their own abilities and thus adopt behaviors that are consistent with them ( Zou et al., 2020 ). For example, research by Fatima et al. (2017) based on social cognitive theory finds that participative leadership, as one of the important environmental factors, is easier for employees with higher achievement needs to access environmental information and to apply and transform it during the influence of participative leadership on the creativity of their subordinates. Furthermore, within the research framework of the environment-cognition-behavior, participative leadership has been found to be effective in enhancing employees’ self-efficacy (perceptions of self-efficacy) and psychological security (perceptions of the interpersonal environment), contributing significantly to employees’ innovation and performance ( Zou et al., 2020 ). There is no doubt that social cognitive theory provides a new theoretical perspective and research framework for understanding the influence of participative leadership on employee behavior.

Social Information Processing Theory

SIP is concerned with the influence of the work environment on individual behaviors and work outcomes. It aims to reveal that individuals in organizations with a high degree of environmental adaptability actively or passively acquire information from the internal environment and process it according to certain rules to control their own attitudes and behaviors ( Gao et al., 2021 ). And SIP effectively explains individual behavioral change and provides a solid theoretical basis for describing participative leaders’ implementation of participative management. For example, research based on social information processing theory emphases that subordinates’ perceptions, beliefs and attitudes are influenced by information about their surroundings, such as values, norms and expectations from society ( Zhang et al., 2011 ). Leaders, in turn, are a key source of information for employees to access, and this information will collectively shape employees’ beliefs. That is, from a social information processing perspective, repeated observations of the leader’s style can enable employees to construct participative decision-making behaviors that the leader appreciates and encourages ( Odoardi et al., 2019 ). Further, research on this theory has found that participative decision-making not only informs employees about the occurrence of behaviors, but even facilitates the transformation of attitudes toward work ( Somech, 2010 ). It is important to note, however, that when cultural values differ, individuals may weigh information that encourages participation in decision-making and thus increase or decrease the impact of such information on their work ( Zhang et al., 2011 ). In particular, the impact that participative management by leaders may have on employees is particularly significant in large-power-distance cultures. It is easy to see that participative management messages originating from the leader are likely to be socially constructed among group members so that employees will agree on the process of working in a particular domain environment and thus adopt organizationally supported behaviors ( Odoardi et al., 2019 ).

Implicit Leadership Theory

The implicit leadership theory, derived from cognitive psychology, emphasizes the expectations and beliefs of employees about the competencies that leaders should possess, and is an “internal label” that distinguishes leaders from non-leaders, effective leaders from ineffective leaders ( Lu et al., 2008 ). In summary, leadership effectiveness in the study of implicit leadership theory does not emphasis the outcome of leadership behavior or focus on the control of situations, but exists in the minds of subordinates as a schema of their perceptions of the leader. Furthermore, if the participative leadership does not send out strong enough signals to stimulate employees to participate in decision-making in line with expectations of participative management, this can prevent the activation of the “participation model” in subordinates. In such cases, employees are more inclined to stick with the status quo and do not respond positively to the participative leader until they perceive that the leader’s participative behaviors have reached a certain threshold level ( Lam et al., 2015 ). It has also been suggested that organizational culture is likely to change the effectiveness of participative leadership, as individuals influenced by their environment shape leader’s expectations, while research based on implicit leadership theory provides insight into how individual perceptions influence effective leader’s behaviors ( Bullough and De, 2015 ). This not only reflects the important role of the theory in participative leadership research, but also provides a sound framework for a better understanding the cross-cultural organizational behavior ( Huang et al., 2011 ).

The Consequences of Participative Leadership

Compared to the antecedents of participative leadership, the consequences can also be divided into the individual level and the organizational level. A lot of studies have focused on employee organizational commitment and voice behavior and so on at an individual level ( Miao et al., 2014 ). In particular, some scholars had found that the participative leadership is positively related to employee mental health, voice behavior, and creativity ( Somech, 2010 ; Fatima et al., 2017 ; Usman et al., 2021 ). In addition, the participative leadership improves performance and innovation at the organizational levels ( Kahai et al., 2004 ; Yan, 2011 ).

Individual-Level Outcomes

The impact of participative leadership on subordinates stems from the leader’s empowerment and the consequent changes in psychology, attitudes, behaviors and outcomes of employees. First, on the psychological front, numerous studies have shown that participative leadership is beneficial to the psychological well-being of an organization’s employees. However, over-reliance on participative management by leaders can also have a negative impact on employees to some extent. In particular, the increased work challenges and responsibilities associated with participative management at work can be more or less burdensome for some employees, resulting in psychological stress ( Benoliel and Somech, 2014 ). Second, in terms of attitude, because participative leadership makes subordinates feel psychologically empowered, it increases the organizational commitment of some employees and even shows complete emotional trust in the leader ( Miao et al., 2014 ). However, it is essential to note that participative leadership has no significant role in influencing employees’ perceived trust. Then, in terms of behavior, Sagnak (2016) noted that leaders who implement participative management significantly increase employees’ change-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors by motivating their subordinates, such as helpfulness among employees at work ( Usman et al., 2021 ). In addition, participative leadership has been a significant contributor to the organizational focus on employee innovation and voice building, and has been supported by numerous scholars ( Xiang and Long, 2013 ). Finally, in terms of outcomes, existing research suggests that participative leadership plays an important role in both the increase in employee performance and the improvement of individual competencies. In terms of current research on job performance, there has been a great deal of scholarly attention paid to subordinate work outcomes and indirectly related job prosperity ( Somech, 2010 ; Usman et al., 2021 ). And on individual employee competencies, creativity has become the focus of the work of some scholars in participative leadership research ( Fatima et al., 2017 ).

Organizational-Level Outcomes

Overall, participative management is gradually becoming an important management initiative for current organizational management practitioners, and participative leadership is undoubtedly a key leadership style that cannot be ignored in leadership research. And most scholars agree that participative leadership has a catalytic effect on organizations. For example, some scholars had analyzed that participative leadership significantly improves organizational performance and innovation ( Kahai et al., 2004 ; Yan, 2011 ). Further, and this is confirmed by Somech’s (2010) research (2010) based on the education sector, participative management has a clear driving effect on the organizational performance in higher education. However, the positive effects of participative leadership are inevitably accompanied by some negative effects ( Peng et al., 2021 ). In this regard, Li et al. (2018) argued, by comparing research on directive leadership, that while participative leadership has a positive impact on organizational creativity, it reduces organizational effectiveness to a certain extent. It is easy to see that the impact of participative leadership style on the organizational level is somewhat unique and complicated. In addition, numerous studies have shown that there may be a series of mediating or interacting effects of participative leadership on organizational performance and corporate capabilities ( Kahai et al., 2004 ; Yan, 2011 ). Among the various research on the effects of participative leadership, it’s particularly critical to emphasize that the fact that participative leadership affects organizations by influencing employees at the individual level has become a consensus in current theoretical research and has prompted a large number of scholars to conduct in-depth studies on the subject ( Kim and Schachter, 2015 ).

Future Research

At present, whether in management practice or theoretical research, there is still a large research space for participative leadership, which needs to be further explored by scholars. Therefore, we prospecte and incorporate some views into the analysis framework (shown in Figure 1 ).

First, most of the existing literature on this leadership style is based on some of the questions in research on empowered leadership, and is still in use today ( Arnold et al., 2000 ). However, the measurement of participative leadership is rather general, focusing on characteristics and behaviors, and lacks a deeper exploration of the psychological dimension ( Arnold et al., 2000 ). With the development of the information technology and the continuous changes in leadership practice, the existing research has not formed a new understanding of the content of the participative leadership style, either in terms of the form of participative leadership or its measurement, so that the development of the theory is difficult to match the current leadership management practice, and some scholars had even appeared to be critical of participative leadership ( Gwele, 2008 ). In other words, previous interpretations of participative leadership have hindered the future research and application of this theory. It is easy to see that the conceptual content of participative leadership theory still has a lot of space to be added and optimised, and that subsequent research needs to take a more comprehensive view of the theory. Therefore, there is an urgent need for theoretical research on participative leadership to be further summarised through more scientific and rigorous analytical methods, such as experimental methods, in order to effectively classify the dimensions of participative leadership according to its modern manifestations and to develop a more mature scale for the measurement of constructs.

Second, previous research suggests that participative leadership might be seen as a rational response by leaders to organizational decisions and employee needs ( Zhao et al., 2019 ). However, participative leaders may also be subject to both internal and external pressures to implement participative management. As research in self-determination theory has shown, individual motivation is divided into autonomous motivation and controlled motivation. Whereas autonomous motivation refers to the individual’s action as a result of matching the activity with his or her values, goals, etc., control motivation emphasizes the behavioral activities that the individual is forced to take as a result of external pressures ( Gagné and Deci, 2005 ). Therefore, the antecedents of participative leadership can be studied in detail in the future based on self-determination theory. On the one hand, the influence of individual values, goals and interests on their own management behaviors is analyzed in the light of autonomous motivation; on the other hand, the dual pressure of the internal environment (e.g., professional managerial system) and the external environment (e.g., market uncertainty) places high demands on the scientific and accurate decision-making of leaders, which undoubtedly increases their motivation to control and thus to take part in management in order to avoid the risk of dictatorship that could lead to major risks or losses. At the same time, the theory of planned behavior suggests that individual behavior is determined by their own intentions and perceptual behavioral control ( McEachan et al., 2011 ). Some scholars have found that individual behavioral intentions are positively influenced by their behavioral attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control, respectively. That is, they are more likely to engage in participative management if leaders maintain an optimistic attitude toward it, have the support of their employees and believe they can successfully implement it. This suggests that the theory of planned behavior also plays a key role in the antecedents of participative leadership research.

Third, throughout the current research on the results of participative leadership, many scholars have paid attention on the effects at the individual level, such as happiness at work, employee performance, etc. ( Chen and Tjosvold, 2006 ). And there is still more room for research on the analysis of results relative to the organizational level, especially on aspects such as organizational change. As a particular form of group decision-making, participative leadership may have a beneficial effect on smaller organizational changes. However, when faced with large organizational changes, employees may be concerned about career risks and may be a deterrent to smooth organizational change in the process of participation in decision-making. Moreover, much of existing research has focused on the positive effects of participative leadership. However, the too-much-of-a-good-thing effect (TMGTE) also plays a key role in organizational leadership research and cannot be ignored. This effect suggests that over-implementation of a behavior is likely to have potentially negative influences. From this perspective, leaders who practice high levels of participative leadership and over-empower employees to participate in organizational decision-making can lead to the TMGTE. In particular, the dual-task processing effect, whereby participative leaders delegate more power or tasks to subordinates in organizational decision-making, significantly increases the amount and variety of work performed by employees, and reduces employee well-being ( Peng et al., 2021 ). Therefore, a deeper analysis of the formation mechanism of the negative effects of participative leadership can be carried out, and a theoretical framework on the motives, concrete manifestations and path mechanisms of its behavior can be systematically constructed, with a view to providing strategies and suggestions for leaders to make scientific and practical decisions.

Fourth, both management practice and academic studies suggest that participative leaders’ management may be more likely to attract individuals with higher motivation and values to join the organization and, by effectively enhancing the identity of the organization’s members, to successfully implement participative management initiatives, which in turn may evolve into a more integrated and holistic decision-making mechanism covering all employees of the organization ( Odoardi et al., 2019 ). Thus, future research could analyze the mediating effect of organizational identity in the relationship between participative leadership and influence effects based on social identity theory, and further explore other aspects of mediation mechanisms. It’s also worth noting that the relationship between participative leadership and subordinates’ behavioral performance is also influenced by a number of variables, in particular the organizational context (e.g., systems and culture) and individual differences (e.g., subordinates’ regulatory orientation characteristics). As most organizations are now actively building workplaces that attract and retain employees, and as organizations flatten, the culture and systems are more participative, the idea of employee participation in organizational decision-making is being accelerated at all levels of the organization ( Somech, 2010 ; Lythreatis et al., 2019 ). In addition, if employees exhibit promotion focus (prevention focus), they may maintain a positive (negative) attitude toward the leader’s participative management, which also affects to a certain extent the effectiveness of the leadership participative management when implemented. In conclusion, the exploration of the intrinsic mediating mechanisms and boundary conditions of the effects of participative leadership is conducive to revealing the operational mechanisms and mechanisms of action of participative management, promoting the integration of relevant factors into a more unified framework and enriching the theoretical research of participative leadership.

Finally, as a type of democratic leadership style, although participative management has attracted the attention of some Chinese scholars. However, influenced by China’s thousands of years of history and culture, long-term authoritarian rule has caused individuals to lack a sense of independence, and employees have shown dependence and submissiveness to their leaders. Therefore, participative leadership has not received much attention from Chinese scholars. However, as the new generation of employees, such as the post-90s generation and post-00s generation, is flooding into various positions in enterprises and institutions, more and more employees are showing strong values of independence and freedom. The practice has also shown that the new generation of employees is active, receptive to information and innovative, and that participation in management not only helps to avoid the negative emotions of employees due to the dictatorship of the leader, but also facilitates the absorption of new ideas and information by the leader, and produces innovative results, which proves the urgent need for participation in leadership in the Chinese society. This is an important signal for Chinese scholars to localize the researches of participative leadership in the context of Chinese society, as western thought is constantly impacting on traditional Chinese culture and organizations in western countries are placing more emphasis on participation in decision-making than China, and are actively taking several measures to this end. Although empirical research on participative leadership has started to gradually increase in recent years, there is still more room for development ( Zou et al., 2020 ). For example, research related to differential leadership based on the question of whether there are differences in the rights of participative leaders to involve different subordinates in organizational decision-making. In particular, leaders who have long been influenced by traditional Chinese culture are prone to self-perception based on closeness of relationships and classify subordinates as insiders and outsiders, resulting in significant differences in access to decision-making authority for different employees.

As the market becomes increasingly competitive, it is difficult for leaders to make effective decisions independently. As a result, participative leadership is becoming an important element in leadership research. Scholars are also aware of the need to implement participative management in organizational decision-making. In terms of current theoretical research, there are elements of participative leadership that can be further developed and explored. From the perspective of management decisions in practice, participative leadership has dramatically improved the effectiveness of leadership decisions. This study systematically sorts out the concept and measurement of participative leadership and compare it with empowering leadership and directive leadership. We not only discuss the antecedents and outcomes of participative leadership, but also provide an in-depth analysis of the mechanisms by which participative leadership influences employees based on social exchange theory, social cognitive theory, resource conservation theory, implicit leadership theory, and social information processing theory. Finally, we propose a framework for future research on participative leadership that encompasses five potential research areas, including connotation, antecedents, outcomes, mediators and moderators, and study of participative leadership in China.

Through a systematic review of research related to participative leadership, this study makes several contributions to the development of participative leadership as follows. First, we clarify the concept, measurement, antecedents, theoretical foundations, and results of participative leadership to lay the foundation for subsequent participative leadership research. Second, we systematically compare participative leadership with directive and empowering leadership, distinguish the similarities and differences among the three, and clarify the unique research value of participative leadership. Third, by reviewing previous research on participative leadership and taking into account current leadership trends, we propose several future research perspectives, thus exploring what is currently neglected by scholars.

Author Contributions

QW mainly made important contributions in clarifying the idea of the article, selecting the research method, literature collection, and article writing. HH made substantial contributions to literature collection, article revision, and optimization. ZL mainly played a crucial role in literature collection. All authors made outstanding contributions to this research.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

This research was supported by the State Key Program of National Social Science of China (Project Number # 20AZD095).

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Collaborative Leadership
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(PDF) Shared Leadership and Organizational Resilience: A Systematic
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Collaborative Leadership #communication #motivation #success #leader #leadership #leadershipskills

COMMENTS

Effects of collaborative leadership on organizational performance
For performance, organizational leadership is an essential. factor. Improv ed perform ance will result in a competit ive. advantage and higher outcomes of the company. Collaborative leadership ...
"When there's collective leadership, there's the power to make changes
A review of the evidence on leadership research in healthcare concluded that contextual ... McAuliffe E. (2018). Team interventions in acute hospital contexts: A systematic search of the literature using realist synthesis. BMC health Services ... Communicating collaborative leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(5), 1024-1037 ...
Collaborative Leadership, Collective Action, and Community Governance
Literature Review. 2.1. Collective Action and Changing Leadership Needs. ... collaborative leadership takes solving public problems as its value pursuit and emphasizes power sharing, integrating all kinds of human resources, information, and local knowledge to achieve effective collective action through reducing transaction costs, enhancing ...
Collaboration, Coordination, and Cooperation Among Organizations
Thus, our review findings underscore a conceptual confusion between cooperation and collaboration in the literature on IORs. Park and Ungson (1997) , Gnyawali and Madhavan (2001) , and Rosenkopf and Padula (2008) are more specific as they refer to making socioeconomic investments in the relationship, which include sharing resources, committing ...
Collaborative Leadership and Organizational Performance: Assessing the
Collaborative leadership has been widely discussed in the theory of public-sector leadership and public collaborative governance studies. Based on the survey data of a public service agency in Taipei City Government, Taiwan, this study used path analysis to test the effect of four dimensions of collaborative leadership on the perceived organizational performance, and applied multidimensional ...
Leading Networks Effectively: Literature Review and Propositions
A literature review is presented on the modes of effective network leadership within and between organizations. In total, 163 published studies, both empirical and conceptual, were parsed with regard to definitions, contexts, antecedents, and outcomes, leading to four propositions. ... Collaborative leadership scholars believe that all network ...
Collaborative Leadership and Health: A Review of the Literature
It covers six areas:(1) Leadership and health outcomes: collaborative forms of leadership are good strategies for affecting public health outcomes.(2) Skills, competencies and capacities: while we may expect too much of individual leaders, collaborative leadership provides a way to share the skills and capacities of many people.(3) Best ...
(PDF) Collaborative Leadership in an Organizational Context: A Research
Therefore, based on the literature review on how some of the dimensions of collaborative leadership affect the financial performance and in the long-run financial sustainability of the organization (Faems et al., 2005; Maalouf 2019; Njenga, 2018; Wang et al., 2015; Wang and Lee, 2014) we propose that: Proposition 1: Implementation of the ...
Understanding Collaborative Leadership in Theory and Practice
This final chapter provides a synthesis and analysis of the major themes in the previous chapters. Definitions of collaborative leadership are explored along with theoretical underpinnings, characteristics, and common themes. Implications for adult education are discussed.
Co-leading an International Collaborative Team: Relationships Matter
The goal of this literature review is to illustrate the interrelations of these topics and to provide a basis for the authors' reflections on their international collaborative co-leadership. ... 5.1 Life Histories and Relational Dynamics in Collaborative Leadership: Trust in a Boundaryless World. In our collaboration, planning began early in ...
PDF Collaborative Leadership in the Institutions of Higher Education: A
Key Words: Collaborative leadership, content analysis, higher education institutions, literature review Introduction Collaboration is argued to be crucial for the success of Institutions of Higher Edu-cation (hereafter IHEs) (Hallinger and Heck, 2010; Middlehurst, 2012). IHEs are knowledge-intensive organizations and occupy a unique position in ...
Servant Leadership in the Healthcare Literature: A Systematic Review
The review has shown that servant leadership research has made considerable progress in the healthcare literature. Consistent across other non-healthcare domains, scholars predominantly approach servant leadership as an exogenous variable that directly and indirectly influences various individual and organizational outcomes in healthcare.
Collaborative leadership and productive work performance: The mediating
Replacing hierarchal leadership styles with collaborative ones is a promising strategy to enhance the productive performance of nurses. Healthcare managers and leaders could cultivate an interprofessional collaborative culture in the workplace in order to sustain productivity and eradicate counterproductive work behaviors among healthcare ...
Designing the Collaborative Organization: A Framework for how
The role of leadership in cultivating widespread collaboration is well identified in the literature. Leaders have been found to be instrumental in infusing shared purpose, role modeling engagement, opening boundaries, and promoting psychological safety, amongst others (e.g., Edmondson et al., 2019 ; Galbraith, 2010 ; Hansen, 2009 ).
Full article: Transformational leadership effectiveness: an evidence
With new leadership models showing very high correlations with transformational leadership, we focus our review on the most studied leadership model of the last three decades (Barling 2014) to provide HRD professionals with an evidence-based 'primer' that distils the leadership research literature.
Collaborative Leadership and Performance: Towards Development of a New
The existing literature review emphasizes the need to develop a new theoretical model for enhancing collaborative leadership in organizations. This is because collaborative leadership is multifaceted and represents a dynamic, collective effort involving teams, groups, their attributes, and the entire organizational environment, as opposed to ...
Full article: Implementing collaborative governance: models
The authors of the next article (Kinder et al. Citation 2021) address the efficacy of a different type of leadership for collaborative governance ecosystems. After presenting the traditional approaches to leadership from their comprehensive literature review, the authors build the case for leadership guided by a collective consciousness that ...
Collaborative Leadership and Individual Champions
Abstract. A leader in collaboration has to maintain high ethical standards and be a strong role model in order for members of the network to accept network vision and goals through their idealized influence. This chapter reviews the leadership literature in the context of cross-sector collaboration and discusses the important role that ...
PDF Collaborative Leadership and Health
This collaborative leadership literature review was conducted under the auspices of the Turning Point Leadership Development National Excellence Collaborative, one of five national collaboratives working to strengthen and transform public health as part of the Turning Point Initiative. Seven states and three natonal
Participative Leadership: A Literature Review and Prospects for Future
The literature also reflects two core characteristics of participative leadership: first, employees are consulted before decisions are made in order to solve problems together; second, employees are given resources to support them in the work process ( Kahai et al., 1997; Lam et al., 2015; Li et al., 2018 ).
PDF Collaborative Leadership
COLLABORATIVE LEADERSHIP A collaborative approach won't wholly supplant command-and-control leadership in most companies. Yet a multitude of forces are driving the growing need for collaborative leadership in today's organisations, most notably globalisation and the ICT revolution. Companies must align strategy, coordinate operations,
Leadership and Learning at Work: A Systematic Literature Review of
This systematic literature review suggests that leadership is related to learning in working life. Overall, the result seems to indicate that different types of leadership are related to learning at individual, group, and organizational levels and that the relationships are often mediated by other factors. The review highlighted a knowledge ...
Demystifying the impact of educational leadership on teachers
Educational leadership and the organizational context of schools significantly influence teachers' well-being. Supportive leadership and a leader's efforts to create a positive school culture and a collaborative work environment contribute to lower stress and burnout rates and higher levels of job satisfaction (Collie, 2021; Dor-Haim, 2023; Morris et al., 2020).
A Bibliometric Review of Leadership Literature in Library and
Ashiq et al.'s (2021) review of the literature on library leadership showed that leaders needed to be visionary, creative, and have good communication and social skills to support a collaborative and flexible culture in their institutions. Overall, these changes are an expansion of library services and librarianship.