effects of drug abuse in schools essay

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This Policy Statement was retired July 2017.

The effect of substance abuse on children in school, school-based drug-screening programs, drug education at school, partnership between schools, medical home providers, and drug rehabilitation programs, community collaboration with schools, recommendations for pediatricians, council on school health 2005–2006, committee on substance abuse 2005–2006, the role of schools in combating illicit substance abuse.

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Council on School Health and Committee on Substance Abuse; The Role of Schools in Combating Illicit Substance Abuse. Pediatrics December 2007; 120 (6): 1379–1384. 10.1542/peds.2007-2905

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Disturbingly high levels of illicit drug use remain a problem among American teenagers. As the physical, social, and psychological “home away from home” for most youth, schools naturally assume a primary role in substance abuse education, prevention, and early identification. However, the use of random drug testing on students as a component of drug prevention programs requires additional, more rigorous scientific evaluation. Widespread implementation should await the result of ongoing studies to address the effectiveness of testing and evaluate possible inadvertent harm. If drug testing on students is conducted, it should never be implemented in isolation. A comprehensive assessment and therapeutic management program for the student who tests positive should be in place before any testing is performed. Schools have the opportunity to work with parents, health care professionals, and community officials to use programs with proven effectiveness, to identify students who show behavioral risks for drug-related problems, and to make referrals to a student's medical home. When use of an illicit substance is detected, schools can foster relationships with established health care experts to assist them. A student undergoing individualized intervention for using illicit substances merits privacy. This requires that awareness of the student's situation be limited to parents, the student's physician, and only those designated school health officials with a need to know. For the purposes of this statement, alcohol, tobacco, and inhalants are not addressed.

Students spend the major part of their day in school. The school environment provides a standard against which young people test behavior. 1   School personnel often serve as highly influential role models by which preadolescents and adolescents judge themselves. Adolescents who perceive that their teachers care about them are less likely to initiate marijuana use, cigarette smoking, drinking to get drunk, and other health risk behaviors. 2   Relationships with teachers and counselors are among the most important and formative ones for many students, especially middle school students. 2   Students who are poorly bonded to school are also less likely to recognize that substance use may reduce the likelihood of them achieving their future goals. 3  

The use of mind-altering chemicals has deleterious effects on school performance. 4 – 7   Students under the influence of such substances are not ready to learn and are at risk of long-term impairment of cognitive ability and memory. 7 , 8   Substance use is frequently associated with a lack of motivation and self-discipline as well as reduced school attendance. 9 , 10   Safety issues also are of concern. Marijuana, like alcohol, is associated with increased risk of motor vehicle crashes and death. 11 – 14   In addition, substance abuse is correlated with antisocial and violent behavior, such as bringing guns and knives to school, as well as other risk-taking behaviors. 15 – 18  

Schools, working in collaboration with community partners and health care professionals, are well situated to identify students with signs and symptoms of illicit drug abuse. 19 – 21   Poor school performance, underachievement, and truancy may be manifestations of substance use and indicate the need for evaluation and referral of these students to their medical home, where causes for this behavior can be determined. Medical home providers can use screening tools and resources available from federal, state, and local agencies, many of which are categorized both geographically and topically on the Internet (see Fig 1 ). 22  

Although recent data have suggested that prevalence of substance abuse has been decreasing in recent years, illicit substance abuse remains a major problem among American youth. 23 – 26   The degree of illicit substance abuse among students has translated into an ongoing societal search for ways to address this problem, including community- and school-based prevention programs, stricter law enforcement techniques, and, more recently, the use of laboratory testing programs within schools.

In June 2002, the US Supreme Court broadened the authority of public schools to test students for illicit drugs by allowing random drug testing for all middle and high school students who participate in competitive extracurricular activities. 27   Some schools and districts are performing drug tests or are considering them for students in competitive sports, other physically active extracurricular activities (eg, school band, cheerleading), and, in some cases, all extracurricular activities (eg, chess club, debate team). Students may be excluded from the activity until they have been cleared through a screening process. 28 , 29   The type of screening performed varies widely (eg, urine, hair sample), as do the specific drugs included in the screen and the response to a positive drug-test result. Technical issues regarding illicit drug testing are addressed in a separate American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) policy statement on drug testing 30   and in a forthcoming addendum to that statement concerning drug testing in schools and at home. 31  

Consequences of a positive drug-test result may include punitive measures, further student assessment, counseling, therapy, and/or rehabilitation. Random drug testing of students may affect specific students or groups of students differently. The benefits and risks of drug testing as a component of a comprehensive program to prevent or reduce substance abuse in such groups as nonusers, first-time and/or occasional users, and more frequent or addicted users must be determined by scientific studies. Implementation of random drug testing of students should await these results. The optimal means of assessing the implications of a positive drug-test result is an evaluation of the student by a health care professional who is trained or experienced in this process.

Some societal leaders support broad drug testing as an aid in the prevention of drug use and possible early identification of youth who have used drugs, thereby facilitating appropriate assessment and therapeutic referral. Others, including many parents and pediatricians, are concerned that school-based drug testing could unnecessarily label or stigmatize a child and compromise personal and family privacy. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act applies to medical facilities, but children and adolescents do not have the same safeguards to privacy of medical information in the school. Recording positive drug-test results on students' permanent educational records (under guidelines of the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act), which are accessible to many school personnel, could have negative and long-term consequences. Strict attention to issues of confidentiality must be ensured.

It has not yet been established that drug testing does not cause harm. The following should be considered:

Students involved with illicit drugs may decrease their involvement in extracurricular activities to avoid drug testing. According to the National Institute on Out-of-School Time ( www.niost.org ), students who spend time in extracurricular activities are 49% less likely to use drugs. Without engagement in such activities, adolescents have a higher likelihood of dropping out of school, becoming pregnant, joining gangs, pursuing or increasing their use of drugs, and/or engaging in other risky behaviors. 32 – 34  

Positive drug-test results may cause increased family conflict rather than improve the home situation for the student.

Drug testing of adolescents is not performed for public safety. Even adults have mixed responses to the idea of widely applied drug testing. Although many support the idea of drug testing as a necessary measure for public safety from intoxicated or impaired pilots, bus drivers, police officers, and others, they often voice concerns when the application becomes more pervasive and random.

Dollars spent on drug testing may be more effectively spent on drug prevention programs or well-established counseling programs.

Drug testing youth who have not been implicated in using drugs may be perceived as being unfair and, thereby, may reduce trust and connectedness with their school, which are essential for maintaining lines of communication. 2 , 33 – 35  

Without evidence available to weigh the effectiveness of drug screening against the potentially harmful consequences, such programs should be limited in schools to those that are carefully controlled and comprehensive in scope. 36 , 37  

Schools may adopt a variety of alternatives to drug testing to address the issue of substance abuse, including offering after-school programs, incorporating life-skills training into drug education curricula, helping parents become better informed, providing counseling, identifying problem behaviors for early intervention, and promptly referring students to health care professionals for assessment and intervention. School-based health centers should have the capacity to counsel students who are in need of such treatment plans and connect students to available community resources.

Schools are appropriate settings for drug prevention programs for 3 reasons: (1) prevention must focus on children before their beliefs and expectations about substance abuse are established; (2) schools offer the most systematic way of reaching young people; and (3) schools can promote a broad spectrum of drug-related educational policies. 36   Resources for the preparation of teachers, counselors, and other school personnel may be a valuable adjunct. 19 , 20  

Educators are challenged to make the facts about drug abuse meaningful to children and adolescents without enticing them to try drugs. There are many curricula designed for school use that have been proven to be effective and are delivered to students in ways that are interesting, interactive, and developmentally appropriate. 36 , 38 , 39   Although many program approaches are available, some effective programs focus on enhancing students' problem-solving skills or aiding them to evaluate the influence of the media. Other effective programs help improve students' self-esteem, reduce stress and anxiety, or increase activities. These skills are taught by using a combination of methods including demonstration, practice, feedback, and praise. 40  

Another proven approach is “life-skills training,” designed to teach skills to confront a problem-specific focus, emphasizing the application of skills directly to the problem of substance abuse. One of the most studied programs is LifeSkills Training (National Health Promotion Associates, White Plains, NY), a universal school-based prevention approach (most often focused on 7th-graders) that teaches general personal and social skills training combined with drug-refusal skills and normative education. LifeSkills Training produces positive behavioral effects on alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use. This approach, with booster sessions that follow the initial program, is most effective. 5   These effects continue years after the intervention. 36 , 41 , 42   Many effective curricula and drug prevention programs use interactive materials and maximize group interactions with organized activities. 36 , 38 , 39 , 43 , 44   Studies have demonstrated convincingly that the effects of school programs can be amplified substantially when community components are added. 20  

Schools may partner with rehabilitation programs to provide care for a student to help successfully reintegrate him or her. Educational planning is an integral part of after-care contracts that pediatricians, mental health professionals, or rehabilitation programs form with students and their families. The school's roles in such a collaborative relationship include identifying any underlying learning disabilities that may have contributed to the problem, making special accommodations for students when necessary, providing remedial work so that students can catch up with their classmates, helping to reinforce expectations for students to attend school and to comply with follow-up or monitoring as prescribed by the health care professional or rehabilitation facility, and assisting with finding after-school programs. It is also important for students who have used substances to be assigned at least 1 trusted adult who is available in the school building to help them if they feel they need it. Those who are assigned to work with the student's drug problems must know how to respect confidentiality of treatment. This adult or another school health professional, school administrator, or designated staff member should be assigned to work with the student's pediatrician and rehabilitation personnel to communicate the student's progress or failure to progress.

The roles of pediatricians, mental health professionals, and rehabilitation programs in this collaborative relationship are to identify any mental health diagnoses and notify the schools of their relevance to the student's safety at school, to the student's educational program, and to school personnel or operations in general. Health care professionals also need to provide schools with treatment plans that may affect the school day while maintaining the student's confidentiality to the extent that is possible.

Communities can send a clear and consistent message by developing and implementing a broad, comprehensive approach to dealing with substance abuse. Schools can serve as a focal point for such a community-wide effort. Community agencies can partner with schools to help monitor illicit drug use patterns in the local region to direct specific educational and preventive programs. Substance abuse problems that are associated with other mental health conditions can best be dealt with through comprehensive mental health programs that are capable of addressing prevention and intervention of both conditions. More information is available in the AAP policy statement on mental health in schools. 45   School personnel should receive ongoing training, preferably by a health care professional who is skilled at the recognition of and risk factors for substance use and related disorders so that each staff member is able to guide faculty, parents, families, and others who are concerned about such use. As part of their community/school program to counter substance abuse, the community should provide regular activities that are supportive alternatives to the abuse of drugs.

Pediatricians should not support drug testing in schools. If testing is performed at all, it should only be done as part of a funded, comprehensive approach to addressing substance abuse in the school and in the community. Examination of alternative approaches should be carefully evaluated for effectiveness and cost.

Because of ongoing concerns about the implications of school-based drug-screening programs, the AAP membership should support and promote alternative school-based efforts to combat substance abuse. In addition, pediatricians should:

Serve as a medical home and resource for patients and their families and offer primary (ie, universal approaches designed to target all patients or potential users before a problem occurs) and secondary (ie, approaches targeted at patients who have screened positive for high-risk behaviors such as tobacco, alcohol, or inhalant use) prevention of illicit drug use.

Identify patients with personal, medical, mental health, social, or academic problems who might be at high risk for drug abuse. Consider the use of screening tools and questionnaires, such as the Guidelines for Adolescent Preventive Services surveys ( www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/1980.html ) and the CRAFFT tool, 22   in the care of adolescent populations to identify patients who might need additional assessment and treatment. Mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and other diagnoses may coexist with substance abuse. The patient's progress should be monitored carefully so that ongoing assistance can be provided.

Support communication strategies that maintain patient/student confidentiality while coordinating treatment among the medical home provider, the family, and school-based programs.

Promote awareness of changing patterns of illicit drug use through local resources as well as through AAP chapter and district channels.

Raise awareness about mental health and rehabilitation services related to drug use that are available within the community to aid the student, family, and school.

Support and advise communities on the importance of clear and consistent community-wide messaging on illicit substance use and the promotion of activities that are free of drug and alcohol use.

Become familiar with the local school district's substance abuse prevention and health promotion programs.

Barbara Frankowski, MD, MPH, Chairperson

Rani Gereige, MD, MPH

Linda Grant, MD, MPH

Daniel Hyman, MD

Harold Magalnick, MD

* Cynthia J. Mears, DO

George Monteverdi, MD

Robert D. Murray, MD

Evan Pattishall, MD

Michelle Roland, MD

Thomas L. Young, MD

Howard Taras, MD

Spencer Su Li, MPA

Alain Joffe, MD, MPH, Chairperson

Marylou Behnke, MD

* John R. Knight, MD

Patricia Kokotailo, MD, MPH

Tammy Harris Sims, MD, MS

Janet F. Williams, MD

Ed Jacobs, MD

Karen Smith, MS

CRAFFT screening tool for adolescent substance abuse. (Reproduced with permission from the Center for Adolescent Substance Abuse Research, Children's Hospital Boston; 2001.)

All policy statements from the American Academy of Pediatrics automatically expire 5 years after publication unless reaffirmed, revised, or retired at or before that time.

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Alcohol and Drugs Effects on High School Students Essay

Introduction, causes of drug abuse, impacts of drugs, works cited.

Drug abuse and illegal drug trade have become common vices in society. In the USA, the issue of substance abuse has been a major concern, especially, in high schools. Many individuals have adopted various perspectives on how the drug issue should be handled. For instance, some individuals contend that drug legalization is the only viable tool for handling the war on drugs.

Thus, in a bid to reduce the social costs associated with the use of illegal drugs, governments usually enforce stringent rules and regulations. Generally, illicit drugs do not have a rightful place in the general public; they have little relevance in the secondary learning institutions. This paper focuses on the effects of alcohol and drugs on high school students.

There was a period when high school students in America were rated as the healthiest and most lively population. Nonetheless, an increase in drug consumption has today tarnished that reputation. Several factors account for the prevalence of drug abuse among students. There is a connection between a family’s financial status and misuse of drugs.

For example, a student from an extremely poor family may engage in drug abuse to nurse his frustrations. On the other hand, a student from a wealthy background may easily access alcohol at home or money to buy it. Today’s society also applies a lot of pressure on young students. This can make some of them to resort to drug abuse as a way of coping with their frustrations.

For example, many parents expect their children to perform well in school even if they are not academically endowed. Worse still, a student interested in nurturing his or her talent may be compelled by his parents to prepare for a conventional employment. Such a leaner can suffer serious depression, which can lead to misuse of drugs.

In high school, “students may abuse drugs so that they can feel grown-up, to fit and belong, to relax and feel good, to take and rebel, or to satisfy curiosity”. Many young students also tend to crave for peer recognition more than academic excellence. Adolescents never want to lose their social groups, and they also seek sociability and recognition from their age mates.

Hence, they can indulge in drug abuse in order to fit into their peer groups. Young adults who lack adequate parental care and affection have high chances of indulging in consumption of illicit drugs. According to Martin, “society also advertises the image of individual and social happiness for alcohol and drug users; this misconception results in the societal decrease of achievement, especially, of high school age students”.

There is a widespread notion in the society that alcohol enhances one’s social life, yet in most cases it has an opposite outcome. This notion can mislead students to misuse alcohol.

“Alcohol abuse has been a major concern in most schools because of its pernicious effects on the well-being and academic performance of students”. At present, one might contend that misuse of drugs among students has become an epidemic that has permeated many learning institutions. Alcohol is arguably the most commonly available hard-drug on the shelves that is within the reach of many students both at home and in school.

“The link between drug use and not liking school is strong, which is why it should be rationalized as a common factor to academic deficiency”. For example, in the U.S.A, dismal academic performance among some candidates is closely linked to substance abuse. Alcohol consumption impairs the capacity of a learner to concentrate in the learning environment; hence, it retards his or her academic performance.

For instance, a student who wakes up in a trance after a heavy drinking spree can boycott lessons or fail to accomplish and turn in course work assignments on time. Thus, there is a close connection between poor performance in academics and alcohol abuse. “National Bureau of Economics conducted a research in 1994 and revealed that students who consume beer or use marijuana are statistically less likely to graduate from high school than abstainers”.

Apart from poor academic performance, students who consume beer are often rebellious. This best explains why cases of violence are prevalent in many schools today. Unintentional deaths can also be caused by excessive ingestion of alcohol. Drunken students can easily obstruct traffic and cause fatal accidents on busy highways. Unfortunately, many students are oblivious of the impacts of these drugs on them and the society at large.

Besides alcohol, cocaine and marijuana are also commonly abused by students. Cocaine is not only a potent stimulant of the nervous system, but also a suppressant of appetite. In addition, it has the ability to cause anesthetic effects on the users. The most common forms of cocaine include salt cocaine, basic cocaine, and crack cocaine.

Cocaine is an illegal drug in the U.S. and other countries in the world, which means that its commercial production is not allowed. However, it is usually produced under controlled situations for medicinal purposes. The use of cocaine is associated with serious health conditions, such as heart attack. Its use is also associated with the rise in crime among students in various parts of America.

Research further indicates that students who use a cocktail of hard drugs often stand high chances of suffering long-term brain damage that can be manifested in terms of poor memory and inability to grasp concepts in class. Empirical studies on the causes of crime among students in the U.S. A have found that the use of cocaine has a strong correlation with the increase in crime.

Most students that use cocaine live in the ghettos of American cities and other poor areas, where poverty, unemployment and low standards of living are prevalent. Since cocaine is very addictive, its users usually resort to crime in order to access it, especially, if they lack the money to purchase it. This involves stealing or robbing others in order to obtain the money for purchasing cocaine.

The use of cocaine has led to an increase in the proliferation of illegal guns in American learning institutions. Most of those who sell or use cocaine prefer to arm themselves with guns for self defense. Such weapons are often misused, and sometimes lead to the death of innocent students. As a powerful stimulant, consistent use of cocaine can prompt an individual to engage in violent crime and fighting in school.

Consumption of cocaine is associated with serious health conditions. Such health conditions include the following. First, cocaine has a powerful influence on the central nervous system. “The user normally experiences euphoria, increased energy or motor activity, feelings of competence, as well as, sexuality”. It is this kind of stimulation that prompts cocaine users to engage in acts of violence.

Second, overconsumption of cocaine leads to anxiety and paranoia. In some cases, the user becomes restless, or experiences very high temperature, convulsion and tremors. Apart from affecting the nervous system, the use of cocaine causes serious diseases, such as asthma, lung trauma, shortness of breath, and sore throat. These respiratory diseases are common among those who smoke cocaine.

Excess inhalation of cocaine is also a major cause of heart attack. Severe health conditions such as heart attack, and respiratory diseases are responsible for the rise in death cases among cocaine users. Such deaths have both social and psychological effects on relatives of the deceased. Friends and relatives may experience extreme grief due to the loss of one of their own. In some cases, the deceased relatives develop conditions such as depression which can lead to their death.

Parents who use cocaine in any of its forms are bad examples to their children because they may expose them to the drug, especially, when they keep it in their houses. Consequently, their children can easily access the drug and begin using it without their parent’s knowledge. Like any other drug, cocaine contributes significantly to the development of the subculture of crime.

Cocaine users are normally condemned and isolated by the rest of the society. Thus, cocaine users, especially the youth, tend to congregate and develop norms, which are unique to their lot. Such norms are meant to help them to retaliate for being isolated by the society. The crime subculture not only reinforces the use of cocaine, but also leads to the use of other drugs such as alcohol and marijuana.

The use of Marijuana is also prevalent among students, and it has negative effects on the health of its users. This has to do with the fact that it can cause mental illnesses and complications such as lack of concentration. It can lead to behavior disorders. Finally, its addiction is very difficult to deal with; hence, it is likely to have long-term effects on the users and the society.

Although Marijuana has devastating effects, it may be used on special medical grounds since it has been empirically proved that it has therapeutic effects. Modern research indicates that marijuana can be used to treat “neuropathic pain, nausea, spasticity, glaucoma, and movement disorder”.

Moreover, it can act as an alternative medicine to patients who have developed resistance to other medications commonly prescribed for patients. Nonetheless, students should not abuse it under the pretext of exploiting its medicinal value.

Although students that abuse Marijuana may not easily recognize its detrimental effects, they may slowly develop long-term heath complications. For example, they can suffer mental breakdown that is often manifested in form of unusual anxiety. Irrational fear can also be experienced at some stage in life.

When students begin consuming drugs, they often think that it is only for a season, and that they will eventually stop using them. However, they mostly risk being addicted to drugs which can ruin their future. The outcomes of drug abuse that range from malnutrition to long-term health complications have compelled many secondary learning institutions to incorporate health services.

Averagely, 66 percent of learning institutions across the U.S.A bestow health services that are dispensed by qualified psychologists. Over 80 percent of the states presently enforce drug use sensitization programmes in schools. Provisions of these health services in schools have further strained the already meager learning resources. Even the curriculum designers have had to rework the school programmes by incorporating health related lessons in the curriculum.

Thus, schools have assumed the primary role of educating children on moral issues, which was once handled at a family level. The nature of drug abuse in schools varies considerably from one institution to another. Hence, various schools handle their drug related challenges differently. In some schools, health lessons are mandatory and graded; in others, tutors plead with students to refrain from drugs.

The above analysis shows that hard drugs have pernicious effects on students and the society at large. This is because students that abuse drugs can cause chaos in school by engaging in unlawful acts. In some cases, it may lead to unplanned school dropout. Moreover, “illicit drugs cause health complications such as coma, low blood pressure, malnutrition, heart problems, and permanent destruction of tissue in the body”.

Thus, decisive steps and proper mechanisms should be adopted to handle this menace before it spirals out of control. The school authorities should not be overburdened with handling the challenge of drug abuse among students, but everyone should take responsibility and see to it that students stay away from drugs.

Fewell, Christine. Impact of Substance Abuse on Children and Families: Research and Practice Implications. New York: Wiley, 2006. Print.

Fields, Richard. Drugs in Perspective: A Personalized Look at Substance Use and Abuse. Ohio: McGraw-Hill, 2003. Print.

Martin, Robert. HIV, Substance Abuse, and Communication Disorders in Children. New York: Routledge, 2007. Print.

Richard, Jessor. Longitudinal Research on Drug Use. New York: Wiley, 2001. Print.

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Essay on Drug Abuse

Here we have shared the Essay on Drug Abuse in detail so you can use it in your exam or assignment of 150, 250, 400, 500, or 1000 words.

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Essay on Drug Abuse in 150 words

Essay on drug abuse in 250-300 words, essay on drug abuse in 500-1000 words.

Drug abuse is a global issue that poses serious risks to individuals and society. It involves the harmful and excessive use of drugs, leading to physical and mental health problems. Drug abuse can result in addiction, organ damage, cognitive impairment, and social and economic difficulties. Prevention efforts should focus on education, raising awareness about the dangers of drug abuse, and promoting healthy lifestyles. Access to quality healthcare and addiction treatment services is crucial for recovery. Strengthening law enforcement measures against drug trafficking is necessary to address the supply side of the problem. Creating supportive environments and opportunities for positive engagement can help prevent drug abuse. By taking collective action, we can combat drug abuse and build healthier communities.

Drug abuse is a growing global concern that poses significant risks to individuals, families, and communities. It refers to the excessive and harmful use of drugs, both legal and illegal, that have negative effects on physical and mental health.

Drug abuse has severe consequences for individuals and society. Physically, drug abuse can lead to addiction, damage vital organs, and increase the risk of overdose. Mentally, it can cause cognitive impairment, and psychological disorders, and deteriorate overall well-being. Additionally, drug abuse often leads to social and economic problems, such as strained relationships, loss of employment, and criminal activities.

Preventing drug abuse requires a multi-faceted approach. Education and awareness programs play a crucial role in informing individuals about the dangers of drug abuse and promoting healthy lifestyle choices. Access to quality healthcare and addiction treatment services is vital to help individuals recover from substance abuse. Strengthening law enforcement efforts to curb drug trafficking and promoting international cooperation is also essential to address the supply side of the issue.

Community support and a nurturing environment are critical in preventing drug abuse. Creating opportunities for individuals, especially young people, to engage in positive activities and providing social support systems can serve as protective factors against drug abuse.

In conclusion, drug abuse is a significant societal problem with detrimental effects on individuals and communities. It requires a comprehensive approach involving education, prevention, treatment, and enforcement. By addressing the root causes, raising awareness, and providing support to those affected, we can combat drug abuse and create a healthier and safer society for all.

Title: Drug Abuse – A Global Crisis Demanding Urgent Action

Introduction :

Drug abuse is a pressing global issue that poses significant risks to individuals, families, and communities. It refers to the excessive and harmful use of drugs, both legal and illegal, that have detrimental effects on physical and mental health. This essay explores the causes and consequences of drug abuse, the social and economic impact, prevention and treatment strategies, and the importance of raising awareness and fostering supportive communities in addressing this crisis.

Causes and Factors Contributing to Drug Abuse

Several factors contribute to drug abuse. Genetic predisposition, peer pressure, stress, trauma, and environmental influences play a role in initiating substance use. The availability and accessibility of drugs, as well as societal norms and cultural acceptance, also influence drug abuse patterns. Additionally, underlying mental health issues and co-occurring disorders can drive individuals to self-medicate with drugs.

Consequences of Drug Abuse

Drug abuse has devastating consequences on individuals and society. Physically, drug abuse can lead to addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal symptoms. Substance abuse affects vital organs, impairs cognitive function, and increases the risk of accidents and injuries. Mental health disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and psychosis, are often associated with drug abuse. Substance abuse also takes a toll on relationships, leading to strained family dynamics, social isolation, and financial instability. The social and economic costs of drug abuse include increased healthcare expenses, decreased productivity, and the burden on criminal justice systems.

Prevention and Education

Preventing drug abuse requires a comprehensive and multi-faceted approach. Education and awareness programs are essential in schools, communities, and the media to inform individuals about the risks and consequences of drug abuse. Promoting healthy coping mechanisms, stress management skills, and decision-making abilities can empower individuals to resist peer pressure and make informed choices. Early intervention programs that identify at-risk individuals and provide support and resources are crucial in preventing substance abuse.

Treatment and Recovery

Access to quality healthcare and evidence-based addiction treatment is vital in addressing drug abuse. Treatment options include detoxification, counseling, behavioral therapies, and medication-assisted treatments. Rehabilitation centers, support groups, and outpatient programs provide a continuum of care for individuals seeking recovery. Holistic approaches, such as addressing co-occurring mental health disorders and promoting healthy lifestyles, contribute to successful long-term recovery. Support from family, friends, and communities plays a significant role in sustaining recovery and preventing relapse.

Law Enforcement and Drug Policies

Effective law enforcement efforts are necessary to disrupt drug trafficking and dismantle illicit drug networks. International cooperation and collaboration are crucial in combating the global drug trade. Additionally, drug policies should focus on a balanced approach that combines law enforcement with prevention, treatment, and harm reduction strategies. Shifting the emphasis from punitive measures toward prevention and rehabilitation can lead to more effective outcomes.

Creating Supportive Communities:

Fostering supportive communities is vital in addressing drug abuse. Communities should provide resources, social support networks, and opportunities for positive engagement. This includes promoting healthy recreational activities, providing vocational training, and creating safe spaces for individuals in recovery. Reducing the stigma associated with drug abuse and encouraging empathy and understanding are crucial to building a compassionate and supportive environment.

Conclusion :

Drug abuse remains a complex and multifaceted issue with far-reaching consequences. By addressing the causes, raising awareness, implementing preventive measures, providing quality treatment and support services, and fostering supportive communities, we can combat drug abuse and alleviate its impact. It requires collaboration and a collective effort from individuals, communities, governments, and organizations to build a society that is resilient against the scourge of drug abuse. Through education, prevention, treatment, and compassion, we can pave the way toward a healthier and drug-free future.

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Causes and Effect of Drug Abuse

• Categories: Drug Abuse Drug Addiction Drugs

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Published: Feb 8, 2022

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Essay about drug abuse: causes and effects

• A reduced and weakened immune system, the chance of illness and infection got increased.
• Heart attacks from abnormal heart rates, collapsed veins and blood vessel infections from injected drugs.
• Nausea and abdominal pain can also cause changes in appetite and weight loss.
• Increased strain on the liver, this will expose this person to the risk of serious liver injury or liver failure.
• Seizures, stroke, mental confusion and brain damage.
• Lung disease.
• Problems with memory, attention and decision making, which make daily life more difficult.
• Global effects of drugs on the body, such as breast development in men and increases in body temperature, which can lead to other health problems.
• Family influence.
• Show off they are rich.
• Wrong friend making.
• Innocent of the dangerous of drug.

Works Cited

• Drugabuse.gov. (2023). Commonly Abused Drugs Charts. National Institute on Drug Abuse.
• National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2022). Understanding Drug Use and Addiction DrugFacts. Retrieved from https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/understanding-drug-use-addiction
• Newcomb, M. D., & Locke, T. F. (2021). Substance abuse prevention. Oxford University Press.
• SAMHSA. (2022). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
• Shah, R. (2021). Drug abuse. CRC Press.
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2018). A Guide to Substance Abuse Services for Primary Care Clinicians. Retrieved from https://store.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/d7/priv/sma18-5063.pdf
• UNODC. (2022). World Drug Report. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
• Volkow, N. D. (2020). America’s addiction to opioids: Heroin and prescription drug abuse. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Retrieved from https://www.drugabuse.gov/about-nida/noras-blog/2020/02/americas-addiction-to-opioids-heroin-prescription-drug-abuse
• World Health Organization. (2021). Substance abuse.
• Zweben, J. E. (2019). Treating Substance Use Disorders: A Clinical Handbook. Guilford Press.

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Impact of drug abuse on academic performance and physical health: a cross-sectional comparative study among university students in Bangladesh

• Original Article
• Published: 07 January 2021
• Volume 31 , pages 65–71, ( 2023 )

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• Md. Safaet Hossain Sujan 1 ,
• Rafia Tasnim 1 ,
• Sahadat Hossain   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9433-202X 1 ,
• Md. Tajuddin Sikder 1 &
• M. Tasdik Hasan 2  

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Introduction

Drug abuse, the driver of human self-destruction, is rapidly increasing among university students and is emerging as a global health concern. Students who abuse drugs are lagging in respect of academic performance, achievement, and other co-curricular activities. This study aims to investigate the differences in academic performance between drug abusers and non-abusers, and the factors associated with drug abuse among university students in Bangladesh.

The study was a cross-sectional survey among the students of five public and semi-public universities in Bangladesh. The sample size was drawn by using the snowball sampling technique. Face-to-face interviews were used to collect data, and the data were analyzed using SPSS 25.0.

Of the 436 participants, 54.59% ( n  = 238) were drug abusers. Male students (68.43%) were found to be significantly ( p  < 0.01) more into drug abuse. Sociodemographic factors including residence status, academic year in university, father’s occupation, and personal income were significantly associated with drug abuse. There was a negative correlation between drug abuse and academic performance, academic achievement, and maintaining good health.

The findings of this study reported a high prevalence and magnitude of psychoactive drug abuse among the university students in Bangladesh, and stress the negative impact of drugs on the abuser’s academic life and physical well-being. Therefore, adequate campus-based initiatives should be extended for the prevention and treatment of drug abuse.

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Acknowledgements

We are very thankful to Md. Estiar Rahman and Mohosina Akhter from the Department of Public Health & Informatics, Jahangirnagar University; Saima Alam from the Military Institute of Science and Technology; Naznin Akter from the Govt. Titumir College; Amjad Hossen Hridoy from Dhaka University and Ariful Islam from Jagannath University for providing support in data collection. We also express our gratitude to all the participants in the study.

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Md. Safaet Hossain Sujan, Rafia Tasnim, Sahadat Hossain & Md. Tajuddin Sikder

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All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Department of Public Health & Informatics, Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This manuscript does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

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Sujan, M.S.H., Tasnim, R., Hossain, S. et al. Impact of drug abuse on academic performance and physical health: a cross-sectional comparative study among university students in Bangladesh. J Public Health (Berl.) 31 , 65–71 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-020-01428-3

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Received : 13 June 2020

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Published : 07 January 2021

Issue Date : January 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-020-01428-3

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Essay on Effects of Drugs on Society

Students are often asked to write an essay on Effects of Drugs on Society in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Effects of Drugs on Society

Introduction.

Drugs impact society in many ways. They affect individuals, families, and communities. The effects range from health issues to economic problems.

Health Consequences

Drug abuse can lead to serious health problems like heart disease, stroke, and mental disorders. These health issues increase medical costs for society.

Impact on Families

Drug abuse can break families apart. It can lead to neglect, abuse, and even death. This creates emotional trauma and financial stress.

Economic Effects

Drugs burden the economy with increased healthcare costs, crime, and lost productivity. These costs are borne by all members of society.

The effects of drugs on society are far-reaching and devastating. It’s crucial to educate ourselves and others about these impacts.

250 Words Essay on Effects of Drugs on Society

Drugs, both legal and illegal, have a profound impact on society. Their effects are multifaceted, influencing individuals, families, and communities, and even shaping policy and law.

Individual Implications

The most immediate impact of drugs is on the individual user. Drugs can lead to health problems, mental disorders, and even death. They can also affect a person’s ability to function, leading to job loss, academic failure, and broken relationships.

Family and Community Disruption

The ripple effects of drug use extend to families and communities. Families can be torn apart by a member’s addiction, while communities may experience increased crime rates and decreased social cohesion as a result of widespread drug use.

Economic Consequences

The economic impact of drugs is also significant. The cost of addiction treatment, lost productivity, and law enforcement efforts related to drugs can strain public resources and impede economic growth.

Policy and Legal Ramifications

Drugs also influence policy and law. The “war on drugs” has led to a focus on punitive measures, contributing to mass incarceration and racial disparities in the criminal justice system. At the same time, the legalization of certain drugs in some regions has raised questions about public health, safety, and morality.

In conclusion, the effects of drugs on society are far-reaching and complex, influencing individuals, families, communities, the economy, and policy. Understanding these impacts is crucial for developing effective strategies to address drug use and its consequences.

500 Words Essay on Effects of Drugs on Society

Drugs, both legal and illegal, have a significant impact on society. The effects are multifaceted, touching upon the individual, the family, and the community at large. The consequences can be both direct, such as health-related issues, and indirect, like social and economic repercussions.

Individual Health Consequences

Drugs can have profound effects on an individual’s health. They can lead to addiction, mental health problems, and even death. The addictive nature of many drugs can lead to a cycle of abuse that is difficult to break, leading to a decline in physical health and cognitive function. Mental health can also be affected, with many individuals experiencing anxiety, depression, or psychosis as a result of drug use.

Social Impact

The social impact of drugs is far-reaching. They can lead to broken relationships, domestic violence, child abuse, and neglect. The stigma associated with drug use can further isolate individuals, making it difficult for them to seek help or reintegrate into society. This isolation can lead to a cycle of poverty and crime, further exacerbating the social issues associated with drug use.

The economic consequences of drug use are also significant. The cost of healthcare for drug-related illnesses, lost productivity due to drug-related absenteeism, and the cost of law enforcement and incarceration for drug-related crimes all contribute to a substantial economic burden. Moreover, the illicit drug trade can fuel organized crime and violence, further destabilizing communities and economies.

Impact on Crime

Drug use and crime are often intertwined. Many individuals turn to crime to support their drug habit, leading to an increase in theft, violence, and other illegal activities. Furthermore, the illegal drug trade itself is a form of organized crime, leading to violence and corruption. This contributes to a sense of insecurity and fear in communities, impacting the quality of life for all residents.

The effects of drugs on society are complex and far-reaching, impacting individuals, families, communities, and economies. Addressing these effects requires a multifaceted approach, including prevention, treatment, and social support. Understanding these impacts is the first step towards developing effective strategies to mitigate the harm caused by drugs. As a society, it is crucial that we continue to work towards solutions that support individuals affected by drug use and create healthier, safer communities.

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Cannabis (Marijuana) Research Report How does marijuana use affect school, work, and social life?

Research has shown that marijuana’s negative effects on attention, memory, and learning can last for days or weeks after the acute effects of the drug wear off, depending on the person’s history with the drug. 52 Consequently, someone who smokes marijuana daily may be functioning at a reduced intellectual level most or all of the time. Considerable evidence suggests that students who smoke marijuana have poorer educational outcomes than their nonsmoking peers. For example, a review of 48 relevant studies found marijuana use to be associated with reduced educational attainment (i.e., reduced chances of graduating). 53 A recent analysis using data from three large studies in Australia and New Zealand found that adolescents who used marijuana regularly were significantly less likely than their non-using peers to finish high school or obtain a degree. They also had a much higher chance of developing dependence, using other drugs, and attempting suicide. 54 Several studies have also linked heavy marijuana use to lower income, greater welfare dependence, unemployment, criminal behavior, and lower life satisfaction. 55,56

To what degree marijuana use is directly causal in these associations remains an open question requiring further research. It is possible that other factors independently predispose people to both marijuana use and various negative life outcomes such as school dropout. 57 That said, people report a perceived influence of their marijuana use on poor outcomes on a variety of life satisfaction and achievement measures. One study, for example, compared people involved with current and former long-term, heavy use of marijuana with a control group who reported smoking marijuana at least once in their lives but not more than 50 times. 58 All participants had similar education and income backgrounds, but significant differences were found in their educational attainment: Fewer of those who engaged in heavy cannabis use completed college, and more had yearly household incomes of less than $30,000. When asked how marijuana affected their cognitive abilities, career achievements, social lives, and physical and mental health, the majority of those who used heavily reported that marijuana had negative effects in all these areas of their lives.

Studies have also suggested specific links between marijuana use and adverse consequences in the workplace, such as increased risk for injury or accidents. 59 One study among postal workers found that employees who tested positive for marijuana on a pre-employment urine drug test had 55% more industrial accidents, 85% more injuries, and 75% greater absenteeism compared with those who tested negative for marijuana use. 60

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New trend of drugs abused by secondary school students in Nigeria

It appears that there is a new trend in the types of drugs abused by secondary school students in Nigeria that makes it difficult to identify current drug abusers.

This study was conducted to reveal the trends with regards to the types of drugs abused by these students in the country.

This is an online and desktop review of published articles about the types of drugs abused by secondary school students during the period that spanned from 2010–2020.

In all, 17 research reports were identified as having data on the types of drugs abused by secondary students in the Nigeria. It was found that 18 different drugs were empirically identified as being abused by secondary school students in 9 different states of Nigeria. The observed trend is that alcohol, cannabis, tobacco and cigarettes are the most abused drugs, while drugs that were least abused were cocaine, caffeine, glue, heroine, energy drinks, miraa, rohypnol and tramadol.

It was concluded that studies of drug abuse by secondary school students in Nigeria are not yet robust enough to reveal the types of drugs that are currently being abused.

Introduction

Drug abuse is described as the non-adaptive model of drug use with concomitant adverse health consequences that usually produce cognitive, behavioural, and psychological dysfunction problems among abusers 1 . Drug abuse negatively affects all the dimensions of health by distorting the proper functioning of the body and mind. Drug abuse is not a new phenomenon but one that is growing at an alarming rate, which nearly every country in the world, including Nigeria, have to tackle 2 . As shown in the United Nations' World Drug Report 3 , nearly one out of every 20 adults in the world, who are between the ages of 15 and 64 years, were confirmed drug abusers in 2014 resulting in over 29 million people worldwide suffering from drug abuse disorders.

The onset of drug abuse has been shown to begin during adolescence 1 . Transition from childhood to adolescence represents a delicate period during which initiating drug abuse may occur 2 . Drug abuse is forming a student sub-culture in Nigeria that can be devastating and can bring a lot of adverse effects on the national community 4 . Sloboda 5 submitted that drug abuse is a global problem that is impacting not only individual lives but also whole communities. It is therefore necessary to study specific aspects of the problem, especially which drugs are being used and by whom, in the attempts to contain the problem. Therefore, establishing the types of drugs that are currently being abused by secondary school students would greatly assist intervention plans towards reducing the burden of drug abuse and prevention of adverse effects. It is because, drug abuse begins mostly during the adolescent years when people are still of secondary school age 6 . This review study was therefore conducted to reveal the current trends regarding the types of drugs abused by secondary school students in the Nigeria.

Methodology

This is an online and desktop literature review research that focused on studies conducted to elicit the types of drugs abused by secondary school students in Nigeria. Every article related to types of drugs abused among secondary school students, which were conducted in Nigeria and published in domestic and international journals in the past ten (10) years, were investigated. The published research articles studied were obtained from academic/professional association journals and research periodicals, including Journal of Nigeria School Health Association (JNSHA), Journal of Nigeria Association Health Educators (JNHE), Journal of Health Promotion Research Association of Nigeria (JHEPRAN) and Journal of the Nigeria Association of Physical and Health Education, Recreation Sports and Dance (JNAPHER.SD).

The keywords used in the search included ‘types of drugs abused’ and ‘secondary school students’. The studies included must have measured drug abuse and elicited samples from only students in secondary school and have been published between January 2010 and March 2020. Out of the total of 20 articles retrieved and reviewed, three (3) were excluded because they did not contain data with regards to the types of drugs abused by secondary school students. A total of 17 papers were identified as having data on the types of drugs abused by secondary students in the country and so were used in this review. Four (4) of the 17 papers are articles that reviewed the types of drugs abused secondary school students in the country, while the remaining 12 articles reported data collected with regards to the types of drugs abused by secondary school students in Nigeria.

One study on ‘Counselling Strategies for the Prevention and Control of Drug Addiction in Enugu State’ 7 was excluded in this research. Although, the paper had a list of drugs commonly abused by secondary school students, it did not report any data to show that these were the types of drugs being currently abused by the students. The research on pattern of psychoactive substance use in the northern region of Nigeria 8 had data on the types of drugs abused. It was, however, excluded from this study because the data collected were not from Secondary School students but from inmates of Kiru Rehabilitation Centre, Kano in the North Central Region of Nigeria. There was a study that reviewed the public health impact of substance use on adolescents in Yenagoa of Bayelsa State, Nigeria 9 . Although this article attempted to address the current trends and research related to the public health impact of substance use on adolescents in Yenagoa, it did not bring up any data on the types of drugs abused by secondary school students in Nigeria. This study was therefore excluded from this research. The research by Erumi 10 was included in this study because the age group from which she got her data in Warri metropolis (15 – 30 years) can be found among secondary school students. Although, the study on ‘Curbing the Menace of Drug Use among Secondary School Students in Nigeria’2 did not collect any data, it was included in this study because it pointed at data collected by other researchers.

In 2010, one study 11 found caffeine, analgesics, antimalaria, antibiotics, hypnosedatives, alcohol, tobacco, glues/organic solvents, cannabis, heroin, cocaine as the drugs abused.

In 2011 one study, the review by Pike 12 stated that cocaine was identified by Nigeria Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) Report as one of the drugs abused. In 2012, the under-listed three studies identified the indicated drugs as abused by secondary school students in Nigeria.

1. Nwagu's 13 survey of the types of drugs commonly abused by secondary school students in government secondary schools in Igboetiti Local Government Area of Enugu State, identified Beer, Palm wine, Indian hemp and Glue as the drugs abused.

2. Ekpenyong 14 , in his survey of drug abuse in selected secondary institutions in Bayelsa State, South-South Nigeria, identified alcohol, cigarettes, miraa and bhang as the abused drugs abused.

3. Fareo 15 , in her review of the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) Reports, found that the following classes of drugs were being abused:

a. Stimulants;

b. Hallucinogens;

c. Narcotics;

d. Sedatives;

e. Tranquilizers; and

f. Miscellaneous substances, such as glues, spot removers, tube repair, perfumes and chemicals.

In 2013, one study 16 found analgesics, cannabis, tobacco, alcohol and sedatives to be among the drugs abused by secondary school students in Nigeria. In 2014, one study 17 in Lagos, found analgesics, cannabis, tobacco, alcohol and sedatives to be among the drugs abused by secondary school students in Nigeria. In 2015, the underlisted two studies identified the indicated drugs as abused by secondary school students in Nigeria.

1. Erumi 10 , in her empirical survey of the prevalence of non-medical drug use among adolescents and young adults in Warri metropolis, identified alcohol and energy drinks to be among the drugs abused.

2. Dumbili 18 , in his literature review research found alcohol as one of the substances abused.

In 2016, the under-listed three studies identified the indicated drugs as abused.

1. Obiechina and Isiguzo 2 , in their literature review research, found that the following classes of drugs were being abused:

a. Nicotine, found in tar, cigars, cigarettes, tobacco and traditional snuff, is the mostly abused;

This study suggests, without any empirical evidence, that rohypnol, known as ‘roofies' is generally abused by

b. students of secondary and higher institutions in Nigeria;

c. Codeine syrup, which is usually mixed with soft drinks or garri soaked in water;

d. Stimulants such as caffeine, cocaine, nicotine and amphetamine;

e. Narcotics such as heroin, opium, morphine, tramadol, cannabis also known as pot, marijuana, hashish and bhang;

f. Depressants such as alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers and rohypnol;

g. Hallucinogens such as Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD);

h. Inhalants, among which are volatile organic solvents (derived from industrial or household solvent products like paint, thinners, dry cleaning fluid spray lubricants, gasoline, kerosene, nail polish or remover, furniture polish and wax, fuel, gases, nitrites and anesthetic gases (chloroform, nitrous oxide and ether), commercial solvents like gasoline, kerosene, glue, and typewriter correction fluid among others) and household or commercial gasses and propellants like butane lighters, propane, hair and deodorant sprays, room deodorizer sprays, refrigerants sprays, ether, chloroform and halothane; and

i. Aphrodisiacs

2. Anyanwu, Ibekwe and Ojinnaka 19 in their cross-sectional survey that employed the WHO Student Drug Use Questionnaire to study the pattern of substance abuse among adolescent secondary school students in Abakaliki found alcohol, Kolanut, Coffee, Cigarettes, Cannabis and Cocaine to be some of the drugs abused

3. Manyike, Chinawa, Chinawa, Obu, Nwokocha and Odetunde 20 , in their cross-sectional survey that utilised the WHO Student Drug Use Questionnaire to study the correlates of psycho-active substance use among boarding secondary school adolescents in Enugu, South East Nigeria, identified Kolanut, Alcohol, Coffee, Tobacco, Tranquillizers and Cannabis to be among the drugs abused.

In 2017, one study 21 found alcohol and hot drinks, tobacco, Indian hemp or marijuana to be among the drugs abused.

In 2018, the under-listed two studies identified the indicated drugs as abused by secondary school students in Nigeria.

1. Idowu, Aremu, Olumide and Ogunlaja 22 , in their study, identified caffeine, cigarettes, cocaine, tramadol, heroin and cannabis to be among the drugs abused.

2. Amadi and Akpelu 23 , in their descriptive survey, identified alcohol, hot drinks, tobacco, Indian hemp, marijuana to be among the drugs abused.

In 2019, one study 24 discovered that Cigarettes, Marijuana, Alcoholic beverages, Cocaine were among the drugs abused.

In 2020, one study 6 , a cross-sectional survey of factors associated with psychoactive substance use among inschool adolescents in Zaria Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria, discovered kolanut, sedatives, alcohol and tobacco to be among the drugs abused.

Table 1 show that 16 different types of drugs were empirically identified as being abused by secondary school students studied in 9 of the 36 states in Nigeria.

Drugs Abused according to State of Study and Year of Publication

Table 2 shows the trend of the types of drug abused by secondary school students in Nigeria. The table shows alcohol and alcoholic beverages were the most researched drug that could be abused by secondary school students.

Trend of Drugs Empirically Identified as Abused according to Year of Publication

It is discernible from Table 1 that drugs were being abused by secondary school students studied in 9 of the 36 states in Nigeria. The implication of this finding is that only nine (9) out of the 36 states of the Federal Republic of Nigeria had incidence of drug abuse among secondary school students in the last ten (10) years. This finding appears to contradict previous researchers’ claims that adolescents all over the country are abusers of drugs 25 – 28 . Oshodin 29 had, earlier on, revealed that 85% of secondary school teenagers in Benin City were then current abusers of alcoholic beverages. About ten years later, Oshodin 30 found out that adolescents, who are mostly secondary school students, initiate alcohol abuse during religious and ceremonial functions such as marriage ceremonies where they function as servers and tasters of alcoholic drinks. This cultural practice has not changed in Edo State, yet the state is not among the states where drug abuse was found among secondary school students in the literature in the past ten years. The finding that only nine (9) out of the 36 states of the Federal Republic of Nigeria had incidence of drug abuse among secondary school students in the last ten (10) years can, therefore, be interpreted to mean that the phenomenon of drug abuse by secondary school students in Nigeria is no longer being given the due attention it deserves by Public Health and Health Education researchers in Nigeria.

Table 2 shows that there are 18 different drugs that were empirically identified as being currently abused by secondary school students in Nigeria. There is a trend shown on the table that alcohol and alcoholic beverages appear to be the most abused drug in that it was reported by twelve (12) different researchers every one of the years under study. Alcohol was followed, in the trend of drugs abused, by Bhang /Cannabis/ Indian hemp or Marijuana. Indian hemp was found to have been abused every one of the years under review except one year, 2015, when no study reported that it was abused. The next most abused drug, tobacco, was found to have been abused by seven (7) different studies in six (6) out of the ten (10) years under study. Tobacco is followed by cigarettes, cocaine, and sedatives which were each found to have been abused by four (4) different studies in five (5) different years. The table also shows that kolanuts and analgesics were each found by three (3) different studies to have been abused in three (3) different years. Coffee, caffeine, glue and heroine were found to have been abused by two (2) different studies in two (2) different years. The least abused drugs were energy drinks, miraa, tramadol, tranquillizers, antimalarial and antibiotics, which were found to have been abused by only two (2) studies in two (2) of the ten (10) years under study.

This observed trend appears not to be telling the true story of the types of drugs being abused by secondary school students in modern day Nigeria. There are indications that students of secondary schools are abusing rohypnol and codeine syrup, which they usually mix with soft drink or garri soaked in water 2 . Cocaine has been observed to be a trending drug of abuse among adolescents in secondary school 19 . The need show off one's class of status in society has been advanced to be among the probable reasons why cocaine, tramadol and heroin are now trending as drugs of abuse among secondary school students in Oyo-State, South-West Nigeria 22 . Encomium Magazine 31 had opined that secondary school students in Nigeria are shifting, in their types of abused drugs, towards such drugs as codeine linctus/syrup, tramadol and so on that can easily be obtained over the counter at big and small medicine stores. Some of the studies reviewed adopted the WHO Student Drug Use Questionnaire. The drugs, codeine syrups/linctus, miraa, cocaine, tramadol and heroin, rohypnol or roofies, considered to be the trending drugs of abuse among secondary school students in Nigeria are not listed in the WHO Student Drug Use Questionnaire. The observed trend that alcohol, cannabis, tobacco and cigarettes are the most abused drugs while cocaine, sedatives, kolanuts, analgesics, coffee, caffeine, glue, heroine energy drinks, miraa, tramadol, tranquillizers, antimalarial and antibiotics were the least types of drugs being abused by secondary school students in modern day Nigeria can thus be understandable. Adopting the WHO Student Drug Use Questionnaire as an instrument of studying drug abuse among secondary without modifying it to suit the Nigerian context is bound to yield faulty results. After all, newer drugs that were being abused by high school students in Iran were discovered because the WHO Student Drug Use Questionnaire was adapted to suit the local societal environment in Iran. Also, conspicuously missing from the reviewed literature is the fact there was no nationwide study data to establish the actual trend of drug abuse among secondary students in the country, Nigeria.

Drug abuse among secondary school students in Nigeria is a public health problem that has not been well researched. Efforts being directed at preventing the ugly situation can only be meaningful if well researched national data on drug abuse among secondary school students in Nigeria are made available.

Recommendations

1. It is necessary to conduct a nationwide study that will provide data on drug abuse among secondary school students in every state of Nigeria. In this manner, the types and peculiarities of drugs being abused by secondary school students in the country will be known according to each state.

2. The standardized instrument, WHO Student Drug Use Questionnaire, could be used for the nationwide study that is being recommended. The WHO Student Drug Use Questionnaire should, however, be modified to include those newer drugs of abuse, which are being suggested by opinion leaders and magazines.

Acknowledgements

The author is grateful to all the authors whose scholarly works were utilised in this study.

Conflict of interest

None declared.