essay on communication in nepali

Nepalese Culture

Core concepts.

• Companionship
• Interdependence
• Dependability

Nepal is a landlocked, mountainous country located between India and Tibet. It is well known for the impressive Himalayan range and deep valleys that shape the landscape. Nepalis have a reputation for being dependable and resilient people who can withstand difficult conditions. This was recently exemplified in the stoic national response following the devastating earthquake of 2015. Nepalis often exhibit patience and calmness, and are generally not overly dramatic people. Their tolerance has enabled many different faiths and ethnicities to coexist quite harmoniously. Much of Nepal’s culture is deeply steeped in tradition and religion. However, new values and ideas are being introduced to the general population in light of a new democratic political order.

Nepalis are generally deeply loyal to their citizenship and culture. They are very proud that their country has never been colonised, seeing this as a key distinguishing fact between them and India. The Gurkhas (Nepali soldiers) continue to be highly admired for their role in this regard1. Nepalis understand the worth and beauty of their land. The culture is enigmatic with many religious customs, rituals, festivals, processions and local secrets. Yet, people also share a sense of sadness regarding the widespread poverty and mismanagement of their country. Indeed, poverty is an undeniable social issue. This, coupled with an unstable political situation, means the primary ambition of most Nepalis is generally to secure a stable future for their family.

Nepal is largely underdeveloped with limited social services and public infrastructure. There are very few urban centres outside of the capital city of Kathmandu. An estimated 83% of the population live in rural areas (2011). The geographical isolation that the mountains create has generally led many villages to be secluded from outside influence, meaning many have retained quite a distinct cultural identity. Tribal and nomadic practices continue in many places. The diversity of customs and values between regions means Nepal cannot be broadly generalised. However, typically it can be observed that the more remotely situated a community is, the more visibly traditional their cultural practices will be. Meanwhile, those regions with access to better education are likely to have diverged from some aspects of traditional social customs. Kathmandu in particular is becoming very outward looking, drawing influence from across the globe. Recent cosmopolitan transformation is visible in fashion as traditional Nepali attire is now usually only worn in rural areas.

Social Hierarchies

Nepali culture is quite hierarchical and there is significant stratification between the poorest and the most powerful of society. People mostly accept these differences in social status as the natural order and defer to those who are older or who they perceive to have a high reputation. However, a person’s status and background is not always immediately evident in Nepal. For example, one may find that a fruit seller has a degree in business. As it can be difficult to assume someone’s status from their appearance, Nepalis commonly ask about one’s age, profession, education and family background to determine the correct level of respect to be shown. Westerners often find that they are deferred to a lot and treated with high regard as (relatively speaking) they are considered to be very wealthy in Nepal. Land ownership is also a common measure of status. However, one’s family reputation and status ( ijat ) is generally thought to be more important than material wealth. People are not expected to be respected because of their money, but rather their virtue. There is also a preference shown towards those who are educated or speak English. This being said, many Nepalis are gradually becoming more materialistic and money focused.

The Nepali awareness of status is also heavily influenced by the Hindu caste system . Although often classified under one term, the ‘caste’ system actually represents multiple overlapping systems of stratification. The ‘ varna ’ system divides society into four broad categories (varna) that are sometimes described as clusters of castes. These are the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. Each varna is considered to indicate a different level of ‘purity’ – with the Brahmins being the holiest/purest in Hinduism. Within each varna, there are more specific ‘ thar ’ categories that specify the social community one is born into and are often referred to in terms of vocation/employment. They are allocated and stratified into the varna system depending on the person’s social status. For example, occupations considered ‘dirty’ – such as cleaning or handling cow leather – are situated within the lower varna class of Sudra.

One’s caste traditionally determined the person’s line of work, position in the social hierarchy and defined ideas of self-worth. Despite it becoming illegal to discriminate on the basis of caste in 1962, the influence of this social stratification has remained. Some Nepalis may socialise and marry within their caste while others may even ostracise those belonging to subordinate castes. For example, they may not accept offers of food from someone of a low caste, believing it to be ‘impure’. Nevertheless, as Nepal modernises, the social constraints of the caste system are fading. In Kathmandu, for instance, where castes mix on a daily basis, the concern regarding others’ castes is diminishing. The younger generation is also particularly liberal and open towards all castes. One of the main agendas of the incoming government has been to recognise all castes.

Ethnic Demographic

People’s social distinction, be it their caste or ethnicity , plays a big role in informing their personal identity in Nepal. For example, many Nepalis use the name of their ethnic group or caste as their surname. An individual’s ethnicity is different from their caste. While one’s caste is usually indicative of occupation and family status, ethnic groups commonly share a distinctive language, ancestral home, religious tradition or form of social organisation.

The government has identified between 50 and 60 Nepali ethnicities (2011). Many of these are indigenous to Nepal and have origins as the original inhabitants of a certain region (e.g. the Tharu and Tamang people). Other ethnicities in Nepal, while not native, are often historical inhabitants of the areas. Some of the biggest ethnicities are the Brahmin-Chhetri, Magars and Newars.

The ethnic makeup of Nepal reflects the historical migratory patterns into the country from the North and South. Broadly, the castes and ethnicities can be broken down into two main groups: Tibeto-Burmans and Indo-Aryans. This differentiation between the two is not so much socially distinctive, but often visible in hereditary features that suggest distant ancestry. Indo-Aryans typically have similar appearances to their Indian neighbours in the South, whilst Tibeto-Burmans generally resemble Mongol or Tibetan people. Indo-Aryans are more populous and have come to dominate Nepal socially, politically and economically, while Tibeto-Burmans traditionally inhabit the mountains at very high altitudes. However, with increasing urban and overseas migration, the geographic differentiation between ethnicities is reducing.

Nepalis with foreign ancestry may have retained certain cultural influences that relate to their ancestral background. For example, those from India commonly follow Hinduism, whilst Tibeto-Burmans are generally Buddhist. However, these labels purely serve as a helpful way to categorise the origins of Nepal's ethnic diversity and don’t necessarily reflect Nepali people’s personal identity. People are unlikely to describe themselves as ‘Tibeto-Burman’ or ‘Indo-Aryan’. Every individual ethnicity has developed a strong and distinctive cultural identity. They often share a common language, belief or form of social organisation unique to their ethnic group.

Collectivism

Nepali culture is very collectivistic. Families may combine their assets in order for all members to be economically secure, and close friends perform favours for one another on a regular basis. This interdependence has been largely driven by necessity, as the government cannot always be relied upon to provide support. Instead, Nepalis tend to be deeply reliant on and loyal to their family and social group. It’s common for people to forfeit their own aspirations for the betterment of their entire family unit. For example, one person may work in very difficult conditions whilst sending remittances back to others. In rural areas and at high altitudes especially, people depend on their community for survival, and basic assets are shared communally. Village elders are often the authority figures of these communities. Those who are urban, educated and internationally exposed may be more individualistic in their outlook. However, given the underdeveloped status of Nepal, economic independence is still difficult to attain.

Friendship and Company

Most friendships have a strong significance and substance to people in Nepal. They are approached quite earnestly and are not usually shallow relationships that come and go quickly. There is a sense of graciousness that comes with sharing in another’s company; people are constantly “humbled” to meet others, have a guest or gain a new friend. Once the growth of a friendship begins, so too does an expectation of loyalty and reliability. People often reach out to friends for personal favours and support and may expect to be granted certain privileges (such as job opportunities) on the basis of the relationship.

Generally, Nepalis feel most comfortable when they are accompanied in whatever they do. They love companionship and are known to strike up conversation for little reason other than to talk. This aspect of Nepali culture makes it feel very warm and inclusive. People rarely go anywhere alone ( eklai ), particularly women. Those who are travelling alone can expect to be questioned out of curiosity as to why; solo travellers are usually sent off with a blessing and so are accompanied by the wishes and prayers of their family.

Purity and Fatalism

A deep moral and ethical awareness is interlaced into daily life in Nepal. This is influenced by religious values and beliefs, as well as cultural ideas of purity. They are deeply entrenched and ritualised in people’s diet and personal practice. Almost any action, object, job or person can be categorised as particularly ‘pure’ or ‘impure’. Nepalis can be quite reserved in their behaviour, acting modestly in accord with what is considered to be appropriate behaviour within these cultural guidelines.

The fundamental importance religion holds in many Nepalis’ lives also influences their approach to problem solving. It is common for people to take a fatalistic attitude, assuming the cause of problems to be the result of a god or spirit’s work. For example, witches are sometimes thought to be the cause of bad luck. This fatalism does not necessarily mean people are passive, waiting for things to occur at the will of a god. Nepalis generally work very hard until the point that they can do no more – from there, “what will be will be”. However, misfortunes are often attributed to an individual’s behaviour; for instance, bad health is commonly perceived to result from bad karma. Therefore, Nepalis are known to be quite stoic and tolerant in difficult situations as this explanation of problems can make them feel as if they somewhat deserve to suffer.

_____________________

1 The Nepali military played a famous role in fighting the British off.2 See the statistics on the side of this page for a list of different ethnic groups in Nepal.

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Impact of Social Media on Nepalese Society

Sonika Lamichhane / KATHMANDU – Social media is a popular tool that facilitate people to create and share information, ideas, hobbies, and other kinds of expression through virtual spaces. People use social media to share, write, and meet new friends on the internet. When the Internet was launched in the 1980s, it represented a new era of communication.

However, our lives have been completely changed today. We can see, communicate and contact people all across the world with a click. Digital connectivity has made everything possible.

The use of the internet has spread all over the world since the invention of the world wide web in 1992 in the United States. It has an impact on Nepal as well. Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, and Snap Chat are some of the social media platforms used in Nepal.

Social media has transformed our life. It has brought people together from all around the world, removing all the barriers between the people. We can make friends from all around the world. People can easily communicate, share their ideas, information, and thoughts. Likewise, social media could also be used to keep up with current events, it provides news through which we can know about what is going on around us. It also serves as a job search engine for people.

Certain groups are created on social media, from which we may see the vacancies for various positions. Through those posts, we can stay up to date on the most recent job openings. Similarly, it helps in the promotion of a product for business reasons. People are selling their products on social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram. These days people are using this media as a publicity tool, where we don’t have to invest money for the publicity of the products.

However, looking at the flip side, we spend the majority of our time on social media, which reduces family intimacy. People are so much addicted to social media that many parents these days lament that their children spend more time on their devices than they do speaking with them. Similarly, social media reduces face-to-face communication because we feel more comfortable interacting in a virtual medium, where we can’t see the person’s face or expression, and we feel more convenient chatting online.

Many people are unable to concentrate on their work as they are distracted by social media. When we post images to social media, we become so obsessed with it that we regularly check for likes and comments, which diverts our attention. Furthermore, social media is exacerbating cyberbullying. One of the most serious issues these days is that we hear a lot of news about cyberbullying such as ending people unnecessary messages and harassing them mentally.

Impact on Nepali Society

In Nepal, social media has become important tools for the people. The number of people using social media is growing every day. People’s use of social media is based on their preferences. During the COVID-19 pandemic, social media was the most useful tools for the students. Similarly, parents are mostly working in offices and they don’t get time to take care of their children or assist in their homework. Hence, students learn and complete their homework by watching YouTube and other social media sites.

According to the Nepal Telecommunications Authority’s most recent report, there are 27.76 million individuals in Nepal who have access to the internet. While the internet has benefited us in a variety of ways, it has also ruined the lives of many people, though this technology is a boon if used wisely.

It has grown into a platform for students to explore their ideas, showcase their ability, and learn new things. Many individuals, though, have taken it for granted. According to the Cyber Bureau report for fiscal year 2020/21, a total of 3906 complaints were filed, including females filing 2003 cases, males filing 1471, and others filing 224. Similarly, 53 cases were related to Facebook issues, 2 to YouTube, 2 to Instagram, and 9 to Tiktok.

It is up to us to make best use of the social media sites. Many people believe that criminality on social media is on the rise as a result of a lack of clear norms, laws and awareness among the people.

They are in illusion that they can hide their identity and get away with it, which encourage them to commit crime. Before using social media, we must be aware of its advantages and its consequences, if we misuse it. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the way of working and reading was changed. For the students, they were able to take their online classes and continue their education through the social media sites. The government should make proper laws, create awareness and increase digital literacy in the country so that people can make best use of it and use it responsibly.

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Language Contact in Nepal pp 5–24 Cite as

Sociolinguistics of Multilingualism in Nepal

• Bhim Lal Gautam 2  
• First Online: 28 March 2021

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This chapter briefly outlines the present sociolinguistic situation in Nepal, focusing on the notions of multilingualism and language contact. It deals with the major dimensions of sociolinguistics and multilingualism in the country, and attempts to present an overview of the linguistic diversity of Nepal with reference to the latest information about the status of Nepalese languages and their vitality. Furthermore, it tries to analyze the existing language provisions in the constitution and language policy of Nepal. It also outlines a brief history of the Nepali language and its contact with many other languages, including English, over time. The subsequent discussion incorporates various ideological and sociocultural aspects of language contact and shift in a multilingual setting.

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The Government of Nepal on May 18, 2020 (5th Jestha 2077) endorsed the new map including Lipulekh and Kalapani area with a new total area of 147,516 square kilometers.

Religious text of the Kiranti people.

The official name recognized by the Nepal government.

This indicates four castes: Brahmin, Chhetri, Basishya and Chhudra.

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Gautam, B.L. (2021). Sociolinguistics of Multilingualism in Nepal. In: Language Contact in Nepal. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68810-3_2

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Nepali media landscape in the age of digital media: A critical reflection

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The Power News

द पावर न्युज डट कम ९८४१५२४१८७

History of Nepali Journalism

By thepowernews

The state of media in Nepal

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE – History of media goes parallel with the political history of any country. We can also witness similar situation in Nepalese context. The history of Nepali media has been immensely influenced by the Nepalese political history. – The political history of Nepali journalism can be divided into seven phases.

· Traditional communication system · Rana period · Period after the establishment of democracy · Panchayat period · Period after the restoration of democracy · Period during king’s regime ­ · Period following the success of People’s Movement-2063 BS onwards

Traditional Communication System During the period, there were no any aids of print and audio-visual media. This period of traditional communication system is non-recorded history of Nepali Media. Bengal Gazette, as the first newspaper of the South Asia, was published from Calcutta, India in 1837 BS (1780AD). However, it did not have any effect to the development of Nepali journalism. Nepal was passing through the unification era at the moment during which no educational or extra activities took momentum. Owing to the political, educational, transportation among many other causes, no influential move took place regarding the publishing of newspapers in Nepal. ‘Katuwal Karaune’, ‘Jhyali Pitne’, ‘Sankha Phukne’, ‘Damaha Thataune’, ‘Karnal Phukne’ etc. were in practice for public information and mass communication during this period . Those practices were in use for a long time and are still in existence in some rural parts of Nepal. Katuwal played an important role in the history of mass communication of Nepal; village panchayat used to appoint them as peons. Due to the geographical difficulties, illiteracy, backward communities and other difficulties in the country, Katuwals were more effective than other modern media including newspapers to disseminate information.

Rana period − 19o3 to 2007 This period is considered as the initial phase or beginning of the development of journalism of Nepal. In 1908 BS, then Prime Minister Jung Bahadur Rana (JBR) imported a hand press instruments in Nepal from Europe in course of his visit there. Although it was used for publication purpose only after 58 years of its entry into Nepal, It was said to be the first press machine here.. It was kept at JBR’s then Palace at Thapathali, Kathmandu. Due to the trademark of an eagle pasted in the machine, it was often called ‘Giddhe Press’. But its official name was Type Printing Press ‘. GORKHA BHARAT JEEVAN This was the Nepali magazine brought out from Banaras, India. This is first media outlet in Nepali language. Ram Krishna Barma served as the founder editor of this magazine brought out on the prime initiative of great scholar Moti Ram Bhatta. Gorkha Bharat Jeevan was a monthly magazine based on literature. It was Printed at Bharat Jeevan Press, Banaras which was owned by Editor himself. There was no uniformity regarding the date of its publication, however, different dates are found in the history of journalism.

1943 BS – according to the Press Commission Report- 2015 1945 BS. – According to the historian of Nepali language and literature Harsha Nath Sharma Bs. 1950 -according to a book entitled ‘Patrakarita’ authored by Ram Raj Poudyal An advertisement was published at the cover page of a book entitled ‘Gorkha Hasya Mangari’ in 1952 BS which was published from the same Bharat Jeeban Press, Banars. ” G]fkfnL efiffdf afa’ /fds[i0f jdf{ ;Dkfbs ”uf]vf{ ef/t hLjgn] cg]s t/xsf xf;L lbNnuL cf} rt’–ofO{sf s’/f ;+ux u/L cfkm\gf lghL oGqfnodf 5fkL ksfz u/] . Whether it was brought to Nepal or not has not been mentioned and the number of copies published is still unknown. Kamal Mani Dixit has mentioned in his book ‘Kalo Akchhar’ that some copies of ‘Gorkha Bhatat Jeevan’ were in Kashi Vidyapeeth.

Anyway the magazine played two major roles in the history of Nepali journalism that are as follows. A) Preserved existence of Gorkha ( Nepali) language among other languages of Indian sub- continent. B) Boosted up confidence and inspiration among Nepalese youth and scholars for the publishing of magazine in their mother language. SUDHA SAGAR Sudhasagar was a monthly literary magazine published as the first print media outlet from Nepal. This is the second publication in Nepali language. It was published in Shrawan, 1955 BS and Pandit Naradev Pandey and Kapil Dev were the editors of the magazine. The magazine was printed at Pashupat Press, Thahiti of Kathmandu. Being inspired by Motiram Bhatta, the two youths took initiative to publish this magazine. But Bhatta did not witness the initiatives taken for the publication of magazine since he passed away at the delicate age of 30 in 1953 BS. Number of issues and copies published was also unknown Media historians Ram Raj Poudyal and Grishma Bahadur Devkota had not also trace it. Itihans Siromani Baburam Acharya noted that he had at least four copies of Sudha Sagar, but lost in the debris of 1990 ‘s earth quake. It was not clear whether the copies were same or different. gnf]kfVofg a book published in 1956 BS under the aegis of Nardev and his friends in the same press Pashupat and his friends) mentioned some information about Sudha Sagar at the back page as following.

यो बडो खुशीको बात भयाको छ की हाम्रा गोर्खा भाषामा पनि ५५ सालका श्रावण मैना देखीन सुधासागर भन्या मासीक पत्र निस्क्याको छ जस्मा अनेक तरहका बिध्न आनन्द दिन्या श्लोक- कथाहरु समेत हाली प्रकाश हुन्छ । यस्मा हाम्रो गोर्खाली षज्जन महाशयहरुले आफ्नो देश आफ्नो भाषाको उन्नतिका निमित्त अवश्य दया दृष्टि गर्नु हुन्ये छ । मदिसेहरुका हजारौ पत्र निस्कन्छन तापनि एक २ अखबार दस हजार बारहजार ग्राहक छन् भन्या हाम्रा गोर्खामा फगत एक मात्र छ झन यसमात सबै हाम्रा स्वदेसीय महाशयहरु सवैले जावेा कमपनि १॥ रुपैया मात्र देशोन्नती भाषाको उन्नती गर्नाका निमित्त ग्राहक श्रेणीमा अवस्य नाम लेखाउनु पर्छ किन भन्या यो मासिक पत्र तपाइहरुबाट मदद्त नगर्दिनाले कथंकदाचित बन्द भयो गा्रहक कम भया भन्या मेरो मात्र नोक्सान पान्र्या हावौन की तपाइहरुलाई पनि केही सरम हुन जाला । बिदेसी पनि यहि भन्नन की नेपालबाट एक मासिक पत्र निस्क्याको थियो सो पनि ग्राहक कम हुनाले वन्द भयो गोख्ार्ालीहरु ब्ार्ष दिनको जावो १॥रु दिनलाई पनि गाहारो मान्या रह्या छन् तस्मात हे स्वदेसीय बुद्धिवन्त महाशयहरु यो कुरा सवै विचार गर्नु हवस यस फगत एकलो अनाथ सुधासागरका उपर दयाराखी आफ्ना देश भाषाको उन्नति गर्नु हवस् ु ”

We can understand various aspects including financial situation of the Sudha Sagar with this advertisement. There was big lack of financial along with other resources for the publishing of Sudha Sagar and Gorkha Bharat Jeevan as well. Then Rana regime did not provide any support to these magazines. It shows there might be big research about these two publications. GORKHAPATRA Gorkhapatra started to get published after two years and ten months of the publication of the Sudha Sagar. It was first printed in Baisakh 24, Monday of 1958, (May 6 1901). With the publishing of Gorkhapatra, Nepal has entered into the newspaper development era in the history of Nepali journalism. Gorkhapatra is the first Nepali newspaper, second press publication and third press publication in Nepali language . Gorkhapatra was published in the period of the Rana regime where civil rights and democracy was no more in Nepal. Prime Minister Dev Shumsher JBR was more liberal and reformist in comparison to other Rana Rulers. Therefore, the publication of Gorkhapatra was made possible with his liberal thoughts. It was also one of the reformative initiative among others brought out during his rule in Nepal. He handed over the Giddhe Press and Litho Press to Nardev and authorized him to publish Gorkhapatra under the supervision of Lt. Conl.Dilli Samsher Thapa. But, Dev Shumsher JBR was subjected to victim by his brother Chandra Shumsher .JBR’s conspiracy and overthrown from Prime Minister’s post. Chandra Shumsher JBR ruled for 31 years as he was a hardliner ruler. In his period there was no chance to have other newspaper published. He even did not allow to have published 200 copies of each issue of Gorkhapatra during his rule. Media activities were almost limited to zero during Rana Period. Deficit financial situation, lack of educated human resource and curtailment of civil rights attributed to the limitation of the development of journalism. Later during the period of Juddha Shumsher JBR, Sharada Monthly got published in Falgun, 1991 BS on the leadership of Riddhi Bahadur Malla. It was the third press publication brought out with some financial support from Rana government .It was a new publication in Nepal after a long gap of 33 years. – In Bharda, 1992 BS, editor Surya Bhakta Joshi started Udhyog Fortnightly as an industrial information journal. But it converted into monthly literary magazine after two years. In Asoj, 2000, Gorkhapatra started publishing twice a week after 42 years of its beginning and thrice a week later.

Newspaper publication during Rana Period 1 Sudha Sagar 2 Gorkhapatra 3 Sharada: Monthly newspaper started publishing in 1991 Falgun, Editor: Rhiddi Bahadur Malla, 4 Udhyog: Fortnightly magazine published first in 1992 BS, Editor : Suryabhakta Joshi . Juddha S. JBR was positive to develop media industry in the country. So, this newspaper was published as a journal to impart industrial information. But it was converted to the literary magazine after two years .It got published having various poems of great poet Laxmi Prasad Devkota. 5 Sahitya Shrot: Baisakh, 2004 BS, Monthly Literary Magazine, Editor: Hridayachandra Singh Pradhan; 6 Gharelu Ilam Patrika: Jestha, 2004 BS, Fortnightly, Editor: Bhimnidhi Tiwari. It was published by Gharelu Ilam Prachar Adda (government office) 7. Shikshya: Jestha, 2004 BS, Fortnightly, Editor: Bhimnidhi Tiwari . 8 Kathmandu Municipal Patrika : Manghsir, 2004 BS, Fortnightly, published on the initiative of Kathmandu municipality . 9 Nepal Shikshya: Asoj, 2005 BS, Monthly, A team of five editors headed by Trailokyanath Upreti published the magazine. 10 Ankha: Asoj, 2005 BS, Monthly, Editor: Devi Prasad Rimal 11 Purusartha: Poush, 2006 BS, Monthly literary magazine , Editor : Budhisagar Seshraj Sharma. 12 Jagaran Weekly: Falgun, 2007 BS, Editor: Hridayachandrasingh Pradhan. It was the first weekly newspaper published from the private sector and first anti–Rana newspaper. Various newspapers were published from some cities of India in Nepali language.

Radio Broadcasting Indian and other foreign radio programs were likely to listen in Nepal during the rule of Judda S. Rana There were only few sets of radio with well-off families of Nepal and they brought the sets from India. But all radio sets were seized by Juddha S. JBR during the Second World War due to German propaganda. Prime Minister Padma S. JBR returned those radio sets to respective owners in 2003 BS. First test broadcasting was carried out from Bijuli Adda, Kathmandu in 2003 Magh 14 from 1 to 1.3o PM. Electrical Engineer Kashi Raj Pandey was the main person to carry out this test broadcasting. It was not exactly the radio frequency but the only radio sounds. Ramayan and other religious hymns were played in during the occasion of religious days through loud speakers in and around Tundikhel. Nepali radio came to introduction through revolution. Narad Muni Thulung, Jayandra Bdr.Thapalia and their friends made efforts to broadcast radio programme from Bhojpur. It was the practice of mobilizing people against Rana oligarchy in Nepal. In Mangshir, 2007, they started the radio frequency for the first time in the history of Nepalese radio. Later on, under the leadership of Tarini Prasad Koirala ‘Prajatantra Radio’ broadcasting was initiated in 2007 from the premises of Raghupati Jute Mills, Biratnagar. It was also a part of anti-Rana revolution. After establishment of democracy, the same transmitter was brought to Kathmandu and started Nepal Radio as a state run broadcasting service from 2007 Chaitra 20th , again under the leadership of Mr. T.P. Koirala. In this way, a few but important steps were taken in the establishment of radio in Nepal after toppling down of 104 year-Rana regime.

AFTER ESTABLISHMENT OF DEMOCRACY − 2007 to 2017 This period is taken as the initial stage of the Nepalese journalism. Various sectors such as education, economics, politics, journalism etc were immoderately benefited following the establishment of democracy. Political parties enjoyed open environment and democratic institutions were established and strengthened. Within 24 hours of the proclamation of democracy, ‘Awaj’ the first daily news paper of Nepal was published in Falgun 8, 2007 from Kathmandu. Siddhi Charan Shrestha was the Editor of the newspaper. It presented a Banner headline news on royal proclamation of democracy establishment, along with photograph of King Tribhuvan in its first issue. Unfortunately, Awaj sustained just for two years. In Bhadra 24, 2011 BS, ‘Samaj’, the second daily newspaper was brought out from Kathmandu, Editor of the newspaper was Pashupati Dev Pandey; later Mani Raj Upadhyaya gave editorial leadership to the newspaper. Many weeklies, half weeklies and dailies got published during the period. Women also took initiatives to publish the newspaper . In 2008 Jestha ‘Mahila’ a monthly magazine was published having Editors namely Sadhana Pradhan and Kamakchha Devi (first female journalist of Nepal). Journalism was started in various languages like English, Newari, Hindi in Nepal. ‘Nepal Guardian’ is the first English monthly magazine which was published from Kathmandu in 2010 BS (1948 AD). The magazine was printed in Calcutta, Editor- Barun Samsher JBR. ‘The Commoner’, the first English daily newspaper of Nepal, published from Kathmandu in 2012 (1956 July 15), Editor- Gopal Das Shrestha. Other newspapers published in English language include, Daily Mirror, Everest News, The Motherland etc. In Kartik, 2009, ‘Pasa ‘, a fortnightly newspaper was published in Newari language. Editor of the newspaper was Asharam Shakya. ‘Nepal Bhasa Patrika’, the first Newari daily newspaper was published from Kathmandu in 2012 Asoj 16. Fatte Bdr. Singh was the Editor of the newspaper. ‘Tarang Weekly’, the first Hindi newspaper, got published from Kathmandu in 2008 Shrawan, Editor- Bhoj Bahadur Singh. ‘Jai Nepal’, the first Hindi Daily, was published in 2012, Shrawan from Kathmandu. Editor was Indra Chandra Jain. The publication took place out of Kathmandu valley. ‘Sewa’ was the first monthly newspaper published from out of Kathmandu valley (Birgunj) in 2008, Shrawan. It was printed in Banaras of which Editor was Shyam Prasad Sharma. The regular broadcasting of Radio Nepal started under the leadership of Tarini Prasad Koirala in 2007, Caitra 20 from Singha Durbar, using the same transmitter of Prajatantra Radio. News Agency- Nepal Sambad Samiti, the first news agency of Nepal established in 2016, Paush 1 from private sector. Sagarmatha Sambad Samiti (second news agency) was incepted in 2017, Baisakh 30. During this period, around 170 newspapers brought out in Nepal. Mainly political parties were enthusiastic to publish the newspaper as a means of political awareness at the moment. Around 35 political publications took place during the period. Some main political party publications were Nepal Pukar and Nawa Nepal published by Nepali Congress, Nepal Sandesh and Jana Bani by Rastriya Praja Parishad, Nawa Yug by Communist Party of Nepal, Mashal, Naya Bato by Nepali Rastriya Congress, Samyukta Prayas by Samyukta Prajatantra Party, Karmabir by Karmabir Mahamandal etc. Most of them were weeklies. – Parliamentary reporting (2016 / 2017) was also started at that time. Bhogya Prasad Shah and Prakash Man Singh were first parliamentary reporters. They were associated to Radio Nepal and used to provide news to the parliamentary secretariat. Publications of this period can be divided into 5 categories; – a) News oriented – dailies b) Views oriented- weeklies, half weeklies and fortnightlies c) Language and literature oriented – monthlies, bimonthlies d) House journals – publications of parties and other institutions e) Government publications -Journalism of this period can be named as ‘initial stage of modern journalism in Nepal’.

PANCHAYAT PERIOD − 2017 to 2046 BS Panchayat period is taken as the period marking the beginning of mission journalism. For the first time in the history of Nepal, the mission journalism was introduced during the period. Journalism during the period was divided into two missions: pro-panchayat and anti panchayat Main objective of the pro-panchayat newspaper was to justify the necessity of the panchayat system whereas anti-panchayat newspaper came to front to advocate for democracy. Press freedom was not more in practice and many actions took place against press. There were two phases of journalism: Before Referendum (2017 to 2036 BS) and After Referendum (2036 to 2046BS). Views oriented weekly newspapers were more popular at that time. Although there was no guarantee of civil rights and press freedom during the period, development of infrastructure was sped up in various sectors of press. Ministry of Communication was given autonomy. Earlier, other Ministries looked after the portfolio related to information and communication. News Agency was established as a government media and at the same time Press Council was founded on the initiative of government. The Tribhuvan University began teaching journalism education and press publication and media development took a professional turn. Nepal entered into the television era and radio was expanded outside Kathmandu.

Gorkhapatra became daily from 2017 Falgun 7 (after 59 years of its publication). Gopal Pd. Bhattarai was first editor of daily Gorkhapatra. The Rising Nepal national daily published in 2022 Paush 1, Editor Barun S. JBR Other dailies; Hamro Desh, Naya Nepal, Nabin Khabar, Naya Samaj, Nirman (Biratnagar), Jana Jeevan (Birgunj), Dainik Nirnaya (Pokhara / Bhairahawa).

Some Leading weeklies : Samikchha, Matribhumi, Naya Sandesh, Saptahik Manch, Jana Sambad, Yug Sambad, Jana Jyoti, Jan Jagriti, Deshantar, Dristi, Punarjagaran, Saptahik Manch, Saptahik Bimarsha, Rastra Pukar, Chalphal, Pratibadha, Gatibidhi, Tarka, Arati, Arpan, Panchayat Bato, Anchal Sandesh (Janakpur), Lumbini Sandesh, Bheri Sandesh, Gandaki Sandesh, Himalayan Guardian, Nepal Review, The Nepalese Perspective etc.

Rastriya Sambad Samiti, RSS (later called Rastriya Samachar Samiti established in 2018 Falgun 7th after merge of two private news agency SSS and NSS . Radio broadcasting development committee was started in 2041 and its capacity was expanded to the various region of the country as the transmission stations in Dhankuta, Dharan, Kathmandu, Bardibas, Pokhara etc. Few TV sets entered into Nepal in the decade of 30s, and possible to see only foreign channels. Nepal Television (NTV) project initiated in 2041 Magh 17 under the leadership of Nir Shah. First test transmission was done in 2042, Srawan 29 to cover youth mass communication workshop. Visual news transmitted in 2042 Bhadra 16 to 21 to cover Their Majesties’ State visit to Australia. NTV project converted into NTC corporation in 2042 Paush 12. Regular transmission from 2042 Paush 14 (on the occasion of king Birendra’s birthday) Active role in third SAARC summit held in Kathmandu 2044.

Nepali media was allowed to the parliamentary reporting (Rastriya Panchayat) and got open environment after the referendum. They became more free and critical in comparison to the previous time. It was the impact of referendum.

Fatal attack to journalist Padam Thakurathi took place in 2043 Bhadra. It was a major incident in the history of Nepalese media that occurred Panchayat period. Fortunately Thakurathi survived and united Nepali media professionals to condemn the panchayat system. Press and student unions played the role of opposition in Panchyat regime, press used to give high priority to student’s activities. High commands of Panchayat politics like Gaun Pharka Rastriya Abhiyan, Panchyat Neetee Tatha Jhanchbujh Samiti and Zonal Chiefs (Anchaladhis) etc. misused media. Interviews and columns became more popular. Namita, Sumita murder case (Pratidhoni weekly), Bomb scandal 2042 (Matribhumi), 84 boxes Soviet arms (Nepal Post), B.P. Koirala’s policy of returned back to homeland, death of B.P. Koirala, Sikkim issue, Chernovil milk scandal, earthquake 2045, media war with India during 15 month of border blockade in 2045 ( an unique feeling of national unity), corruption scandals like carpet, dollar, hashish etc., session of Rastriya Panchyat were the major issues covered by Nepalese media during Panchayat system.

Nepali media played great role in people’s Movement 2046 started with Chaksibari meeting at the leader Ganeshman Singh’s residence on 2045, Magh 5 . Nepali congress and left political parties joined hands for movement to dethrone Panchayat system. Active role played by private and foreign media to support the movement. Government media were compelled to support Panchayat system till last minute but the journalists extend their moral support to the movement. After struggle of 50 days, party less system was declared end at late night in 2046 Chaitra 24th.

AFTER RESTORATION OF DEMOCRACY − 2047 to 2061 Magh This period is regarded as the phase of modern and professional journalism in the history of Nepali journalism. After the success of people’s movement, new constitution (Nepal’s constitution 2047) has guaranteed the press freedom and right to information to people. It was widely praised. Wide impact of this provision has been seen to the media sector. Political and other sectors have also been benefited by this freedom. This provision encouraged the media sector luring huge investment in media. Media became professional and it was accepted as the industry of the country. Political parties became free and Political activities sped up. Before this, man can not imagine television run by private sector. Television and Radio in private sector started and are going on. Off set press came into use and due to the accessibility of computer media became too advanced. So there was a favorable environment to develop professional journalism in Nepal. The door has been opened for huge investment and from private sector Kantipur Publications established with ambitious investment of more than Rs.30 million ( 3 crore).

Kantipur and The Kathmandu Post, the first broad sheet national dailies from private sector were published in 2049 Falgun 7th. Due to the popularity in the short time many other broadsheet dailies came out. Some of them sustained and some went out from the sight. During this period online journalism also came out and because of the computer it was possible to read the newspaper and to hear the radio in computer.

Shree Sagarmatha, Everest Herald (English daily), Lokpatra, Space Time, Space Today, Shree Deurali, Naya Sadak stopped their publication not because of government but by their own problem.

Simultaneous publication also started to get published. Nepal Samacharpatra started to publish from Biratnagar since 2058, Baisakh . Kantipur started since 2061 Ashar from Bharatpur. Newspaper publications were also stared from outside the country. For example Nepal Samacharpatra initiated its publishing from Doha, Qatar since 2062 Ashead, although it could not sustain for a long time. Now Kantipur and Rajdhani dailies have their weekly publication from Doha but not simultaneous. Newspaper publication in different languages was started and going on. Significant changes have occurred in radio broadcasting after 2047 and radio Nepal has started to broadcast the news service in 20 different languages. New wave of FM broadcasting from non government and private sector has become significant initiative in South Asia. Private channels in television came into the light. Channel Nepal, Kantipur TV, Image started their service. New debate on foreign investment in media and multi media ownership is on. The FM’s expansion is significant in this period and it is going on in a new height. There seemed the very gloomy picture in Nepalese media during the Maoist Conflict, State of Emergency and during the period of direct rule by the king Gynendra. Some 18 innocent media persons killed, more than 100 put behind the bars, several cases of arrested, kidnapped and tortured from both sides i.e. state and Maoist insurgents . Nepal was characterized as ‘ the world’s biggest prison for the journalists. (you can add more based on your own observation)

PERIOD DURING KING’S REGIME

Militarization over the news and media was started at the king’s regime. Presence of military officials in media houses and even news rooms was normal. Confiscation of radio equipments from FM studios and unfair distribution of government advertisements was in use. The radios of country played the vital role against the king’s regime and to establish democracy.

AFTER SUCCESS OF THE PEOPLE’S MOVEMENT -2 ( 2063 Baishak Onwards)

Nepali press played an important role against king’s regime. It fought for the freedom of press and democracy. Due to its contribution to the democracy Nepali press is admired among the society and government itself also created the favorable atmosphere to exercise press freedom. No any restriction or pressure from the state and rebels after the democracy. Government took initiative for overall development of media .Some important achievements of this time are as follows: 1 High Level Commission for Media Recommendation. 2 High Level Taskforce to recommend restructuring the government media. 3 Right to Information Act, 2064 4 First Amendment in working journalist Act 5 Minimum wages recommendation commission of the working journalist 6 Clear provision about press freedom in interim constitution (even in preamble) 7 State run media are also enjoying more press freedom 8 No any journalists in jail 9 various television channels and newspapers are coming out with huge investment . (you can add more based on your own observation)

Unpleasant part is also noticed in the journalism; Journalist are killed and threatened, Terai movement Everyday news about anti-press incident has come to notice.

(you can add more based on your own observation)

GORKHAPATRA: A LIVING HISTORY OF ONE CENTURY Pre – History : Crown Prince of England Edward VII had a hobby of collecting newspapers of all over the world- while not having any newspaper of Nepal, he enquired about it- Field Marshal Lord Robert visited Kathmandu in 1948 bs – he also explained about Crown Prince’s hobby – PM Bir S.JBR managed to publish few copies of Gorkhapatra (gp) in hurry and put it on breakfast table for the special guest Lord Robert – although it is just a saying – no any strong evidence – no one has the copy of those gp – historians of Nepalese journalism late Grishma bdr. Devkota and Ram Raj Poudyal have mentioned it as a story, not as a history.

– Regular publication of gp started only in bs 1958 and made a glorious history of one century. – P.M. Dev S.JBR authorized to Pandit Nardev by a ‘sanad’ (authorisation paper) to publish gp in 1988 Baisakh badi 11. – Terms of reference explained in the ‘sanad ‘ were as follows-: a) permission to use Type Chapakhana ( giddhe press) and Lithograph Chapakhana to print gp. b) Permission to use manpower of both press. c) Authority to publish gp 1000 copies per week. ( yearly subscription rate moharu. 3-) d) Pay scale of the press staff and budget ( annual moharu 3904-) e) Policies on what to publish and what not to publish in gp. f) Instruction to finalized by Lt. Coln. Dilli Samsher Thapa. g) Instruction to maintain sales account.

What to publish ; ( छाप्ने दुनियाँलाई हुन्या इस्तीहार नटाँसिने कुरा नयाँ ऐन कलकत्ता र यहाँको दरभाउ जंगी निजामतिले गरेका राम्रा काम श्री ३ र मुख्तियारले दिएको भाषण अनौठा कुरा आकाशमा उडेर जाने समुद्र मुनी जाहाज अदालतमा अन्याय भएको फोहर गरेको भ्रष्टाचार पक्का गरी छाप्ने काम जान्नेले नोकरी चाहेको धाउ फलाम खानी पाएको कसुर भइ हाकिमको अदली बदली भएको खेतीपाती इलम उन्नतिको कुरा उल्था गरी छाप्ने श्री ५को ठुलो उत्सवका कुरा स्वर्गवासी श्री ३ को तारिफ छाप्नु हुन्छ बाबुले कमाएको धन जुवारण्डीबाजी बदनीयत गरी खर्च गर्नेहरु बारे शिकारका बहादुरी खुकुरीले चिपुवाभालु मारेको ग्याजेट प्रोग्राम बैंकटेश्वर बंगबासी छापाका असल कुरा उल्था गरी छाप्ने दुनियाँको बद्चलन र फतुरा खर्चबाट दिल हटाउने राय डाक्टरले निको पारेको ।

What not to publish – नछाप्ने श्री ५ र श्री ३ महाराजका दरवार भित्रका स्वास्नीमानिसका बिषय फौज र हातहतियार राजकाज बिषय सरकारका आम्दानी खर्च भोट नेपाल सीमानाको बिकट बाटोको बयान सुन खानी पाएको र हाम्रा तारीफका कुरा नछाप्नु ।

-According to the Sanad, the first issue of gp appeared in bs 1958 Jestha badi 3 (Baisakh 24). – 8 pages weekly publication – One copy of first issue is preserved only in Madan Library, Patan Dhoka.

Merits of gp ; ( according to the list published in first issue ) 1) Information of public grievances and expectation of response. 2) Motivation to progress and mutual faith between the king and people. 3) Information of military achievements 4) Performance reports of central and local authorities 5) News and information to local bodies 6) Information exchange between Nepalese people inside and outside the homeland 7) Benefit to business community by publication of pricelist 8) Transfer of skill and technology 9) Legal information 10 ) Motivation for education 11) Inspiration for women upliftment 12)Reference materials to teachers 13)Benefit to farmers by agro- information 14) Benefit to Brahamins to performed their traditional job

– The editorial (Pl86sf]{ /fo ) of the first issue explained about the importance and objective of gp publication.

– P.M. Dev S.JBR over threw by Chandra S.JBR after two month of gp. publication , it was a big set back to the country and gp. – But gp did not published that big news, only after some time its editorial supported the step taken by Chandra S.JBR. – The name of Editor -in -chief of gp was not clear. From 1958 bs to 1990 bs name of the chief editor was not published. – Only from the issue of 1991Jestha 5th name of the Editor ( Prem Raj) mentioned in gp. – Pandit Nardev was sacked after two years when Chandra S.JBR became PM. – After Nardev, Raja Jaya Prithavi Bahadur Singh took over the charge of gp. – He published the gp with the help of three Pandits ( jetha pandit Uday Dev Pande, mahila pandit Chiranjeebi Poudel and kancha pandit Narendra Keshari Aryal) – Mahila pandit Chiranjeebi was very talented in prose writings, his editorials were more strong and impressive, therefore PM Chandra and other hardliner Ranas were not pleased with Chiranjeebi, so editorial was stopped in gp for some times – Chiranjeebi had explained in his auto – biography ‘ Atma Charitra’, about his hard days in gp. – During the entire ruling period ( 31 years) of PM Chandra gp could not grew up. – He was ready to close down gp, but due to the letter by foreign reader Silvan Levi ( renowned French intellectual) he could not closed it – Gp had access to UK, France, USA, Russia, China too. Many old libraries in foreign countries had collection of old issues of gp.King Mahendra BBS Dev observed its old issues in the Library of Congress during his state visit to US in 1960 ad. – From 1983 Chitra 29 gp printed in ‘Gorkhapatra electric machin press’, Naxal, Kath. – From 1983 Jestha 4th ‘uf]vf{kq’ became ‘uf]/vfkq’ – First photo in gp was published in 1984 Baisakh 13 at 3 page, the photo was of Suryamati Shrestha, a 12 years old girl of Brgunj who was spinning the Shree Chandra Kamdhenu Charkha. – From the beginning gp was used to published on every Monday but from 1991Baisakh 15th it published on every Friday – Gp published twice a week from 2000 Asoj 29th , thrice a week from 2003 Paush 8th , daily from 2017 Falgun 7th , evening issue from 2019 Kartik 2nd to 2022 Asoj 12th , Saturday supplement from 2019 Ashad. – Post offices, other government offices and Indian newspapers were the main sources of news for gp, no provision of own correspondents at its early days. – Some city reporters were appointed for Kathmandu valley in 2000bs.

– Major contribution of gp – a) information exchange between the state and people b) social history of one century c) foundation of newspaper tradition in Nepal d) an intellectual exercise in closed and conservative society e) strong medium for development of Nepali language and literature f) source of information about Nepal in foreign countries g) an important position in Asian journalism due to its long continuation.

NATIONAL COMMUNICATION PLAN – 2028 (NCP)

– ‘Communication for development’ main slogan – main objective was to mobilized communication sector to promote Panchayat system. – Before NCP, no independent ministry for communication affairs – NCP designed independent Ministry of Communication (moc) with complete organogram – Five organs under moc – Department of Information, Department of Broadcasting (Radio Nepal), Dept.of Postal Service, HMG Press , Press Council Nepal. – Six corporations under moc – Nepal Telecommunication corp., Royal Nepal Film Corp., Gorkhapatra Corp.,RSS, Cultural Corp., Shree Ratna Recording Corp. – NCP gave a new dimension and laid foundation for communication development.

LONG TERM PLAN FOR THE INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION SECTOR – 2059 – based on – constitution 2047- open, liberal and competitive economic policies – ninth plan – communication access to rural level – communication service as a tool to alleviate poverty and social backwardness. – 16 points main long term plan and other sectoral plans

MEDIA EDUCATION IN NEPAL

– history of journalism in Nepal more than 100 years -history of journalism education in Nepal 25 years – tradition to entry in journalism without background of journalism education – previously no opportunity to gain journalism education inside the country – now two types of opportunities – academic course and training course – in academic course at present journalism is available from class IX to Masters and Ph.D. level – first initiation by TU in Ratna Rajya Campus- 2033bs.- certificate level – diploma level in Patan campus in 2036, shifted to RR campus in 2038 – out of valley in Prithivi Narayan campus,Pokhara, certificate level – 2041 – Peoples campus (private) certificate level- 2043 – Functional paper in Diploma level in various campuses – 2055 – Masters level by TU in RR campus and by Purbanchal U. in Kantipur City College and College of Journalism and Mass Communication – all in 2058 – Bachelor level in various private colleges- 2059 – four year bachelor level course in KU- 2062 – In various higher secondary schools (10 +2)

Training Courses

– Nepal Press Institute – 2041 ( ten month proficiency course) – One year diploma course from 2058 – Three months and other short term courses by NPI Regional Media Center in Biratnagar, Butwal and Nepalgunj – Media Point -2053 (ten month proficiency course) – Center for Women Development – 6 month course only for girls (not running now) – Short term course by various institutions like Global media center, Smarika, Communication Corner, Media House, AAVAS, Jamaleshor Institute, Sambad, Kathmandu communication training center etc. – Short term courses by various professional organizations and NGOs like FNJ, Sancharika Samuha, WOJAN, Nepal Press Union, Press Chautari, Nepal Institute of Mass Communication, Photo journalists associations, Reiyukai etc. – Journalism training available for one day to one year.

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अठारौं नेशनल एजुकेशन अवार्ड सम्पन्न, शिक्षा पत्रकार सुनिल आचार्यसहित ५५ पुरस्कृत

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Language politics in Nepal: A socio-historical overview

This paper aims to outline the language politics in Nepal by focusing on the influences and expansions shifted from Global North to the Global South. Based on a small-scale case study of interviews and various political movements and legislative documents, this paper discusses linguistic diversity and multilingualism, globalization, and their impacts on Nepal’s linguistic landscapes. It finds that the language politics in Nepal has been shifted and changed throughout history because of different governmental and political changes. Different ideas have emerged because of globalization and neoliberal impacts which are responsible for language contact, shift, and change in Nepalese society. It concludes that the diversified politics and multilingualism in Nepal have been functioning as a double-edged sword, which on the one hand promotes and preserves linguistic and cultural diversity and on the other hand squeezes the size of diversity by vitalizing the Nepali and English languages through contact and globalization.

1 Introduction

Nepal is a multilingual, multicultural, multiracial, and multi-religious country. Despite its small size, Nepal is a country of linguistic diversity with four major language families, namely, Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman, Dravidian (Munda), and Austro-Asiatic, and one language isolate, Kusunda ( Poudel and Baral 2021 ). The National Population and Household Census 2011 ( Central Bureau of Statistics 2012 ) records the number of speakers for 123 languages and some other includes an additional category of ‘other unknown languages’ with close to half a million speakers. The state intervention to preserve and promote these languages remained inconsistent throughout history, as some governments intentionally discouraged the planned promotion compared to others which designed some measures to promote them. Both monolingual and multilingual ideologies remained as points of debate in political and social spaces.

Language politics is the way language is used in the political arena in which people can observe the treatment of language by various governmental and non-governmental agencies. Research related to language politics focuses on identifying and critiquing any sets of beliefs about language articulated by users as a rationalization or justification of perceived language structure and use ( Dunmre 2012 : 742; Silverstein 1979 : 193). In this context, every political movement is the outcome of different conflicting ideas between language users and linguistic differences running through any society ( Pelinka 2018 ). The politics of language choice becomes particularly difficult when institutional choices have to be made in what language(s) the government will conduct its business and communicate its citizens, and, above all, what the language(s) of education will be ( Joseph 2006 : 10). Nepal’s language politics and democratic movements question whether democracy can promote linguistic diversity, or narrow down diversity by marginalizing ethnic/minority languages. In Nepal, linguistic diversity and democracy have been challenged by the contradiction between the normative assumption of existing demos and the reality of a society that is too complex to be defined by one orientation only by nation, culture, and religion ( Pelinka 2018 : 624). Nepal’s language politics has not been explained from such a perspective where we can see several factors influencing the issues related to language, culture, and society. Hence, this paper tries to overview the language politics in Nepal which has been influenced by various external and internal factors.

2 Brief history of language politics in Nepal

Following the Gorkha [1] conquest, Gorkhali or Khas (now known as Nepali), the language of ruling elites and mother tongue of many people in the Hills, was uplifted as the national official language in Nepal. After unification, [2] a hegemonic policy in terms of language and culture was formulated which promoted the code (linguistic and dress) of the Hill Brahmins, Chhetries, and Thakuris to the ideal national code (i.e. Nepali language and Daura Suruwal Topi-dress [3] ). This has been interpreted as one of the attempts to promote assimilatory national policy (in terms of language and culture) that contributed to curbing both linguistic and cultural diversity. However, for the rulers then, it was an attempt to establish a stronger national identity and integrity. The Rana regime further prolonged this ‘one nation-one language’ policy by uplifting the Nepali language in education and public communication. The Rana, during their rule, suppressed various language movements (Newar, Hindi, Maithili, etc.), which serves as evidence of their deliberate plan to eliminate all but one language, viz. Nepali. In this sense, we can understand that Nepal’s diversity and multilingual identity were suppressed historically in the name of nation-building and promoting national integration among people with diverse ethnic and cultural orientations.

Following the end of the Rana oligarchy in 1950, with the establishment of democracy, some changes were noticed concerning the recognition and mainstreaming of the other ethnic/indigenous languages. This instigated the policy change in terms of language use in education as well. However, the status quo of the Nepali language further strengthened as it was made the prominent language of governance and education. The Education in Nepal: Report of the Nepal Education Planning Commission ( Sardar et al. 1956 ), the first national report on education, basically reflected the ideology of monolingualism with the influence of Hugh. B. Wood. It stated, “If the younger generation is taught to use Nepali as the basic language then other languages will gradually disappear” ( Sardar et al. 1956 : 72). Though this report formed the backbone of Nepal’s education system, it also paved the way for minimizing the potential for empowering the languages of the nation. Pradhan (2019 : 169) also writes that this commission attempted to “coalesce the ideas of Nepali nationalism around the “triumvirate of Nepali language, monarchy, and Hindu religion”. The same idea was reinforced by K. I. Singh’s government in 1957 by prescribing Nepali as the medium of instruction in school education.

The Panchayat regime also promoted the use of Nepali as the only language of administration, education, and media in compliance with the Panchayat slogan ‘one language, one dress, one country’ ( eutaa bhasha, eutaa bhesh, eutaa desh ), again providing a supportive environment for strengthening the monolingual nationalistic ideology (i.e. the assimilatory policy). Not only in education but also in governance, English or Nepali language was made mandatory in recording all documents of companies through the Nepal Companies Act 1964 ( Government of Nepal 1964 ). Following the Panchayat system, with the restoration of democracy in 1990, the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1990 ( Government of Nepal 1990 ) provisioned the Nepali language written in Devanagari script [4] as the national language, and also recognized all the mother tongues as the languages of the nation with their official eligibility as the medium of instruction in primary education. The Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063 ( Government of Nepal 2007 ), which came as a collective outcome of the various political movements and Andolan II continued to strengthen the Nepali language, but ensured (in Part 1, Article 5.2) that each community’s right to have education in their mother tongue and right to preserve and promote their languages, script, and culture as well.

The recognition of all the mother tongues as the languages of the nation was a progressive step ahead provisioned by the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063. Apart from further confirming the right of each community to preserve and promote its language, script, culture, cultural civility, and heritage, the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063 (Part 3, Article 17) clearly explained the right to each community to acquire basic education in their mother tongue as provided for in the law. The same was well articulated in the Constitution of Nepal 2072 ( Government of Nepal 2015 ) as well, and each state was given the authority to provide one or many languages spoken by the majority population as the official languages. Along with this, the language commission was established in 2016 to study and recommend other issues related to language and multilingualism (Part 1, Article 7 of the Constitution of Nepal 2072 ). However, it can be realized that these policy provisions that embrace diversity will have less effect if the concerned communities or agencies do not translate them into practice.

3 Research method

This study, following a qualitative approach, is based on a small-scale case study with primary and secondary data sets.

The author has obtained the primary data from semi-structured interviews with two selected individuals who have spent their lives in politics and especially language movements and advocacy for language preservation and promotion in Nepal. They were observed and interviewed informally on many occasions from 2019 to 2020 related to language issues like constitutions, language movements, language diversities and democracy, and so on. The interviews (altogether 3 h each) were recorded, transcribed, and translated into English, and were checked for accuracy and reliability.

Mr. Yonjan and Dr. Thakur [5] have been selected from two different political and linguistic backgrounds. Mr. Yonjan is a liberal democratic fellow who has been working as a freelance language activist for more than 40 years, involving himself in many governmental and non-governmental policies and programs related to language issues. Dr. Thakur worked as a politician (left-wing) and teacher educator who later joined Radio Nepal, engaged in various cultural advocacy forums of the ruling Communist Party of Nepal, and again moved to politics at the later part of his life. He was a member of the parliament in the Constituent Assembly. Mr. Yonjan is the native speaker of Tamang (a major Tibeto-Burman language) and Dr. Thakur is a native speaker of Bhojpuri (a major Indo-Aryan language), and both of them learn Nepali as a second language. In that, both of the individuals have active engagement in language politics and planning, however, are from different cultural, linguistic, and geopolitical backgrounds. It is assumed that their ideas would make the understanding of language politics in Nepal more enriched.

The secondary data is obtained from a detailed reading of available literature about language politics. Nepal’s language and educational history, various political movements, constitutions and legislative documents, policy documents, and other published research papers and documents have been carefully utilized.

4 Findings and discussion

Language politics in Nepal has a very long history since the beginning of modern Nepal. After the victory of Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Gurkha King whose mother tongue was Khas (Nepali), in Kathmandu valley (1769), Nepali became the language of law and administration ( Gautam 2012 ) where the vernacular language was Newar spoken by the majority of people. Since then, language politics has become the center of democratic and political movements in Nepal.

Nepali language was highlighted and became the language for all public and private activities after the Unification Movement (1736–1769) in Nepal. Janga Bahadur Rana’s visit to the United Kingdom and his relation to British India made it possible for the Nepalese rulers to start English Education formally in Durbar High school in 1854. After Rana Regime, Nepal experienced an unstable political scenario for 10 years before the establishment of the Panchayat Regime in 1961 which employed assimilatory language policy until 1990. The country was converted into a multiparty democratic system and eventually, most of the ethnic and minority linguistic groups flourished for the preservation and documentation of their ethnic and cultural heritages. At present, Nepalese politics has been influenced by ethnic, cultural, and language issues at the center.

4.1 Legal and constitutional provisions

Nepalese constitutions are the main sources of language politics in Nepal. Before the construction of the constitution in the country, some government policies played a vital role in creating language issues debatable all the time. The first legal court Muluki Ain [6] (1854) enforced Hinduisation and Nepalization in Nepal by ignoring most of the other ethnic languages. The establishment of the Nepal National Education Planning Commission (NNEPC) by the recommendation of the National Education Board of the Government of Nepal emphasized the Nepali language by implementing it as a medium of instruction in all levels of education.

The medium of instruction should be the national language (Nepali) in primary, middle, and higher educational institutions because any language which cannot be made lingua franca and which does not serve legal proceedings in court should not find a place. The use of national language can bring about equality among all classes of people. ( Sardar et al. 1956 : 56)

This excerpt indicates the emphasis given to the Nepali language by the government then. The use of Nepali in education was further reinforced by the K. I. Singh government in 1957 by prescribing Nepali as the medium of instruction. The case of Nepali was again strengthened during the Panchayat regime. In 1961, the National System of Education was introduced to promote the use of only Nepali in administration, education, and media in compliance with the Panchayat’s popular slogan of ‘one language, one dress, and one country’. In addition, the Nepal Companies Act was passed in 1964 directing all companies to keep their records in English or Nepali. The Panchayat constitution followed a nationalist assimilation policy to promote the Nepali language in different ways.

The Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1990 ( Government of Nepal 1990 : 4) framed after the restoration of democracy recognized languages other than Nepali and made the following provisions about the non-Nepali languages:

(1) The Nepali language in the Devanagari script is the language of the nation of Nepal. The Nepali language shall be the official language. (Part 1, Article 6.1) (2) All the languages spoken as the mother tongue in the various parts of Nepal are the national languages of Nepal. (Part 1, Article 6.2)

In addition, the constitution also made a provision for the use of mother tongues in primary education (Part 1, Article 18.2). It also guaranteed a fundamental right to the people to preserve their culture, scripts, and their languages (Part 1, Article 26.2).

Similarly, the Maoist movement that started in 1996 brought new changes and dynamics among all the ethnic minorities of Nepal. This political campaign motivated them to preserve and promote their languages and cultures which has been documented in the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063 . The Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063 ( Government of Nepal 2007 : 2), an outcome of the people’s revolution (Andolan II), made the following provisions for languages:

(1) All the languages spoken as the mother tongue in Nepal are the national languages of Nepal. (2) The Nepali Language in Devanagari script shall be the official language. (3) Notwithstanding anything contained in clause (2), it shall not be deemed to have hindered to use the mother language in local bodies and offices. State shall translate the languages when they are used for official purpose. (Part 1, Article 5)

Regarding education and cultural rights, the Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063 ( Government of Nepal 2007 : 8) enshrined the following provisions:

(1) Each community shall have the right to receive basic education in their mother tongue as provided for in the law. (2) Every citizen shall have the right to receive free education from the State up to secondary level as provided for in the law (3) Each community residing in Nepal has the right to preserve and promote its language, script, culture, cultural civilization and heritage. (Part 3 Article 17)

The Interim Constitution of Nepal 2063 was more progressive and liberal than the constitution of 1991. For the first time, this constitution recognized all the languages spoken in Nepal as the national languages. Apart from further confirming the right of each community to preserve and promote its language, script, culture, cultural civility, and heritage, this constitution (Part 3, Article 17) discussed the right to each community to acquire basic education in their mother tongue as provided for in the law. However, the role of the government was to facilitate the speech communities to materialize these rights which still are not effective.

Likewise, the latest Constitution of Nepal 2072 ( Government of Nepal 2015 : 4) has clearly stated the following provisions:

Languages of the nation: All languages spoken as the mother tongues in Nepal are the languages of the nation. (Part 1, Article 6)

Official language: (1) The Nepali language in the Devanagari script shall be the official language of Nepal. (2) A State may, by a State law, determine one or more than one languages of the nation spoken by a majority of people within the State as its official language(s), in addition to the Nepali language. (3) Other matters relating to language shall be as decided by the Government of Nepal, on recommendation of the Language Commission. (Part 1 Article 7)

The Constitution of Nepal 2072 ( Government of Nepal 2015 ) conferred the right to basic education in mother tongue (Article 31.1), the right to use mother language (Article 32.1), and preservation and promotion of language (Article 32.3). This constitution states that each community shall have the right to preserve and promote its language, script, culture, cultural civility, and heritage. Unless the constitution articulates the responsibility of the government to preserve and promote the endangered languages, the efforts of the communities will be useless. Observing and analyzing the legal provisions, Nepal has manifested significant progress and gradual development in the use of languages along with historical events. The key measure of a language’s viability is not the number of people who speak it, but the extent to which children are still learning the language as their native tongue. The Constitution of Nepal 2072 ( Government of Nepal 2015 ) also made the provision of establishing a language commission in article 287 which was a landmark in Nepalese history.

4.2 Democracy and political movements

Nepal’s language politics is guided by various democratic and political movements in different periods. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights ( United Nations 1948 ) asserts that democracy assures the basic human rights for self-determination and full participation of people in the aspects of their living such as decision-making about their language and culture (Article 27). Nepal’s political parties and the ruling governments never understand the seriousness of political movements and democratic practices. Human rights also provide them with ways of assuring social benefits such as equal opportunities and social justice. In Nepal, diversity was promoted by democracy through the policy provisions, especially after the promulgation of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1990 . The basic rights for the use of indigenous languages were assured in the constitution as well as other educational acts formed as outcomes of democratic political turns. The changes in the policy provisions provided opportunities for linguists, language rights activists, and advocacy groups or individuals to explore more about their languages and cultures. Due to their attempts, also supported by the democratic political system, new languages were identified, and some others were streamlined through the preparation of educational materials such as textbooks for primary level education. However, pragmatic actions remained fragile for education in the schools to support the aspiration for promoting diversity, which ultimately resulted in squeezing multilingualism. The statistical data shows that the number of languages spoken as mother tongues in Nepal is 129, [7] some scholars still doubt whether these languages functionally exist in reality ( Gautam 2019a ), or if they are there, then the practice may be fragile. In having such a very weak practice in the field, it can be noted that various factors played key roles, including lack of community participation, hegemonic attitude, and agency of the individuals who could have purposive actions.

For instance, the recognition of linguistic diversity in Nepal can be observed clearly after the establishment of multiparty democracy in 1990. Sonntag (2007 : 205) stated that “the Nepali-only policy was discarded in favor of an official language policy that recognized Nepal’s linguistic diversity”. This shows that the democratic political system that remained open to the neoliberal economy embraced linguistic diversity as a resource, due to which the multilingual identity of Nepalese society was officially recognized. However, at the same time, this political system could not preserve the minority/indigenous languages as expected, which prompted us to question the co-existence of diversity and democracy. Also, “[i]t is very much a matter of democracy that everyone has the right to language and that society has a common language that everyone can understand and use” ( Rosén and Bagga-Gupta 2013 : 59). As democratic states (e.g. Nepal, India, and Sweden) which address the contradictory discourses of language rights and develop equal access for everyone to a common language (e.g. Nepali in Nepal) are struggling to settle the language issues. However, the fundamental question still not well-answered, at least in the case of Nepal, is whether democracy can, in a real sense, promote linguistic diversity, or it narrows down the diversity by marginalizing the ethnic/minority languages. While responding to this unanswered concern, this article finds that diversity as a resource and diversity as a problem are the two distinct discourses that emerged during the evolutionary process of democracy in Nepal, which is also emphasized by the two participants.

4.3 Linguistic diversity and politics

Linguistic, cultural, and geographical diversities are the essences of Nepalese democratic practices in different periods in history. Nepal’s modern history starts with the unification campaign of Prithvi Narayan Shah, the first Shah King of Nepal. Prithvi Narayan Shah’s unification modality worked indirectly to promote the politics of assimilation in nation-building, national integration, and identity. Roughly, all other systems of governance following the unification adopted similar ideological orientations, which (in) directly contributed to the marginalization of other mother tongues. Mr. Yonjan expressed his view as, “Historically, even before the unification movement of Nepal, there were several territories in which the state Kings used to speak their own languages, and the linguistic diversity was preserved and strengthened”. He further claimed, “The geopolitical, historical, socio-political, and anthropological history recognized the multilingual social dynamics, however, the national policies after the unification too could not embrace such diversity”. By saying so, Mr. Yonjan expressed that the current political systems and the ideologies of Nepali nationalism were guided by the notion of ultra-nationalism. Dr. Thakur also emphasized that the government’s multilingual policies would not operate as the practice had largely shaped people’s orientation towards Nepali and English, side-lining the regional and local languages. The same perception was reported by Mr. Yonjan as, “Though careful efforts were made in the policy level to promote the regional/local languages through status planning, there still existed the attitudinal problem which undermined the potential of bringing local and minority languages into practice”. Their claims also adhered to the statements made in the documents which reflect the hidden language politics of Nepal.

Both informants in this study argued that diversity has two different outcomes viz. as a resource and as a problem. Mr. Yonjan claims, “If any language of a community dies, the culture and lifestyle of that community disappears and it reduces biodiversity, and that ultimately will be a great threat to humanity”. He understands linguistic diversity as a part of the ecology and strongly argues that it should be protected. Agnihotri (2017 : 185) also echoes a similar belief as “Just as biodiversity enriches the life of a forest, linguistic diversity enhances the intellectual well-being of individuals and groups, both small and large”. But Dr. Thakur views that “In Nepal, along with the history, there remains an ideological problem that diversity is understood as a construct for division, rather than understanding it as a potential tool for nation-building”. He further clears that this community-level ideology and practice has led to the fragmentation of values associated with their languages, most probably harming the socio-historical harmony among languages. Mr. Yonjan further added, “No language should die or move towards the edge of extinction in the name of developing our own existence and condition”. Both Mr. Yonjan and Dr. Thakur pointed out that the discourse on diversity and multilingualism in Nepal had been strengthened and institutionalized after 1990 when the country entered a multiparty democratic system.

However, Mr. Yonjan thinks that the current legislative provisions have partially addressed the diversity needs to fit Nepal’s super diverse context. Dr. Thakur again indicates that the rulers for long “undermined the potential of the linguistic diversity and wished to impose a monolingual national system that marginalized the use of these languages”. Mr. Yonjan also provided a similar view as “in Nepal, throughout the history, there remained a political problem that diversity was understood as a construct for division, rather than a potential tool for nation-building”. His understanding also reflects what was discussed in the western countries as Nettle (2000 : 335) clarifies “the linguistic and ethnic fragmentation relates to low levels of economic development since it is associated with societal divisions and conflicts, low mobility, limited trade, imperfect markets, and poor communications in general”. Therefore, the direct economic benefits from learning a language were a great motivation for the people in the communities. In other words, they have preserved the sentimental functions of the minority languages while they have embraced the dominant languages associating them with educational and economic potential gains. This community-level politics and practices have led to the fragmentation of values associated with their languages, most probably harming the socio-historical harmony among languages. Gautam (2018) has pointed out this concern as a cause of intergenerational shifts in languages among the youths of indigenous languages (such as Newar, Sherpa, and Maithili in Kathmandu Valley). Consequently, this trend has influenced the participation of the relevant communities in campaigns for the revitalization of their languages that points to the influence of the Global North in bringing ultranationalist values in Nepal’s language politics and diversity.

4.4 Impact of globalization

The international political-economic structure seems stacked against a substantial or near future diminishment of “the North-South gap” ( Thompson and Reuveny 2009 : 66). The neoliberal trends that emerged from the Global North have traveled to the Global South, influencing these countries through the language and culture of the countries in the Global North. The unprecedented expansion of English as a global phenomenon ( Dearden 2014 ) can be a good example of such an effect. It involved various combinations of developmental states recalling domestic markets from foreign exporters (import substitution) and the recapture of domestic business (nationalization). The outcome, aided by investments in education, was a new elite of technical managers and professionals who could build on historical experiences and opportunities in the post-war environment to manufacture and market commodities involving increasing product complexity and scale. Migration and demographic changes have had variable impacts on the North-South gap. Nepali youths’ labor migration and their English preference have also influenced the generational shifts in languages ( Gautam 2020 : 140). The youths’ migration to the countries in the Middle East, and their participation in the global marketplaces in the Global North countries have contributed to the reshaping of their ideologies towards the home languages and English. Mr. Yonjan states, “We have made lots of choices in our society and education systems (e.g. choice of language for education, western culture, and lifestyles) attracted by the politics and ideologies created even by our immigrant Nepali population usually in the western world”. Among many, this expression can be understood as one of the causes for stressed deviating tendencies in language shifts, usually from mother tongues or heritage languages and dominant national languages to English. In the context of Nepal, either English or Nepali has been highlighted even though there have been lots of attempts of implementing mother tongue-based multilingual education.

4.4.1 English and globalization

English has become the global language because of its use, function, and popularity in most of the social, cultural, and academic areas. A sizeable body of scholarship has addressed the topic of globalization and its impact on the modern world ( Giddens 1991 ; Levitt 1983 ). Among several definitions, globalization refers to the multifarious transformations in time and place that influence human activities through the creation of linkages and connections across geographical borders and national differences ( Giddens 1991 ; Held et al. 1999 ). In the context of Nepal, these linkages and connections are often facilitated through various globalized activities, such as marketing, transportation, shipping, telecommunications, and banking. Similarly, sociolinguists and language planners have examined the phenomenon of global English and its impact on the linguistic landscape around the world. Crystal (2012) maintains that a language attains a global status once it has gained a distinctive role in every nation-state around the globe. This special role is manifested in three ways: functioning as the mother tongue of the majority of citizens, being assigned the official status, and/or playing the role of the major foreign language. Many observers view English as the global language par excellence of the Internet, science and education, entertainment, popular culture, music, and sports. The emergence of global English is also attributable to some factors, notably the economy, military, and politics.

Historical records show that English was used in Nepal as early as the seventeenth century ( Giri 2015 ). However, English language education started formally after Janga Bahadur visited the UK during British rule in India. He knew the importance of English and started English Education in Durbar School for selected Ranas. It was the first government-run English medium school in Nepal. It was only established for the Rana family as the Ranas saw an educated person as a threat to their control ( Caddell 2007 ). The first post-secondary (higher) educational institution in Nepal was Trichandra College (1918) where the language of instruction was English. The main purpose was to shelter students of Durbar School and to stop them from going abroad (India) for further education. The underlying purpose was to prevent Nepalese from getting radical ideas that could be dangerous for them and the entire Rana regime. Tri-Chandra College was affiliated with Patna University, India. It borrowed the syllabus and assessment system from there; therefore, there was a direct influence of the British Indian Education System in the Nepalese system. Another very important reason for the spread of English was the recruitment and the retirement of the Nepalese British army. As English was mandatory for their recruitment in the British army, the youngsters willing to join the British army learned English. After their retirement, these armies returned to their homeland and inspired their younger generations to learn English. In South Asian countries, English is viewed as a language of power and as a means of economic uplift and upward social mobility ( Kachru et al. 2006 : 90). It led to the establishment of many private schools and colleges and made English indispensable to the Nepalese curriculum. Later, it became the language of attraction for all academic activities. The spread of global English as an international lingua franca intensifies socio-economic disparities both within and between speech communities. Tollefson (1995) and Pennycook (1995) explain that the promotion of English as an international language is driven by social, economic, and political forces, thereby giving rise to economic inequalities. In the same way, Canagarajah (1999) noted that generally, native speakers of English are presented with better compensation and benefits packages compared to non-natives, regardless of their academic qualifications. In Nepal, the state’s neoliberal ideology in the post-1990 era, however, has valorized the commodity value of English as a global language, creating a hierarchy of languages in which minoritized languages like Newar, Sherpa, Maithili, Tharu, Limbu, etc. remain at the bottom ( Gautam 2021 ). Following the state’s neoliberal structural reforms, a large number of private schools popularly known as ‘English medium’ and ‘boarding’ schools have been established with private investments in many parts of the country ( Sharma and Phyak 2017 : 5). The establishment of various international non-governmental organizations like the United Nations Organization (UNO), the World Health Organization (WHO), the United National Education, the Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and regional organizations like the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) have spread the use and demand of English. After the restoration of democracy in 1990, Nepal’s active participation in such organizations made English vital in Nepalese society. Although it has a sort of colonial liability, it is now accepted as an asset in the form of a national and international language representing educational and economic processes ( Kachru et al. 2006 : 90). As Kachru (2005) opines that Nepalese learners do not learn English to communicate in their homeland but they learn to talk in their work abroad. Now, this view is partially true since mostly Nepalese learn English to talk in their workplace either it can be at home or abroad. Therefore, from the time of commencement of English education, English has been learned and taught for professional development, scientific and technological knowledge, international communication, mass media, travel, and tourism. Globalization and its impact on the flourishing of English in Nepal have been very productive in recent days when the country was converted into a Federal republic state after the 2006/2007 political change. Learning English is deeply rooted among Nepalese people across the country, although the government seems reluctant to force the users to use English as a medium of instruction formally and officially ( Gautam 2021 ).

4.4.2 Language contact and shift

The present world is diversified and multilingual by nature and practice. Language contact is the common phenomenon of multilingualism where people choose their codes in their conversations and discourses. Social, historical, political, and economic power relations are major forces that influence the linguistic outcome of language contact ( Thomason and Kaufman 1992 ) as they may shape ideologies and attitudes that social actors hold toward such languages. Consequently, there is always a change in the linguistic behavior of language communities in contact which may even result in language loss due to displacement ( Sankoff 2001 ). In the context of Nepal, language contact has been the common phenomenon in Nepalese discourse of all aspects of society which is moving slowly towards code-mixing, switching, translanguaging, and the shifting from the heritage languages to the dominant and global languages.

In multilingual countries like Nepal, speakers tend to switch back and forth between two languages (or more) in different situations, formal and informal contexts, and even within the same conversation. People may code switch for various reasons. They sometimes shift within the same domain or social situation depending on the audience. A speaker might code switch to indicate group membership and similar ethnicity with the addressee. The linguistic situation of Nepal is very complex since people in their daily lives often use their respective mother tongues, Nepali, Hindi, and English within the same conversation ( Milroy and Muysken 1995 ). Language practices are inherently political in so far as they are among the ways individuals have at their disposal of gaining access to the production, distribution, and consumption of symbolic and material resources, that is, in so far as language forms part of the process of power ( Heller 1995 : 161) which we can easily observe and experience in Nepal. Code-switching in Nepal is shifting towards Nepali and English among the minority and other language communities ( Gautam 2019b ) as a mark of modernization, high socioeconomic position, and identity with a certain type of elite group; and in stylistic terms, it marks what may be termed as “deliberate” style. A marker of “modernization” or civilization is the impact of western music and culture in Nepal ( Gautam 2021 : 20). Dr. Thakur says “Our political leaders speak multiple languages in different places to collect the emotional feelings of the speakers attached with their mother tongues. Many Madhesi politicians speak Hindi, Maithili, and Bhojpuri in Terai and Nepali in Kathmandu”. This indicates that language contact and shift have also been the center of Nepalese politics for collecting votes to win the election.

4.4.3 Christianity and neoliberal impact

Christianity started when Father Juan Craybrawl (Portuguese) entered Nepal in 1628, during the reign of Laxmi Narsingha Malla in Kantipuri Nagari. [8] He had permission from the King to preach Christianity in Kathmandu valley. But basically, the gospel was brought to Nepal by Nepalese who were outside Nepal, as they come in and go. Slowly, missionaries started to enter Nepal during the 1950s but were not directly involved in preaching the gospel. They focused on social services like hospitals, education, and development works. Two major missionary organizations to serve Nepal, the United Mission to Nepal (UMN) and the International Nepal Fellowship (INF), came into existence in the early 1950s ( Kirchheiner 2016 ). The Nepal Christian Fellowship (NCF), now the National Churches Fellowship of Nepal (NCFN), played a significant role during the first 30 years from the 1960s to the 1990s. From just a single secret Christian residing in Nepal in 1951, the number of Nepali Christians grew to about 40,000 baptized believers by 1990 and has increased more rapidly since then. Groups of International Christian agency made United Mission to Nepal and founded Saint Xavier School in Godawari, Patan Hospital, and Tansen Hospital which provided grade one services to the people of Nepal. It was possible only after Nepal became a democratic country and many people accepted Jesus Christ as their personal Lord and savior. Christians in Nepal were overjoyed when Nepal has declared a secular state in 2008. The Christian population in Nepal outgrew to triple in 2011 from 2001, but this record is not accurate. Now, according to the World Christian Database, which tracks global trends in Christianity, Nepal has seen the fastest-growing Christian population. Times are changing in Nepal, not only because of democracy but also because of globalization. The influx of media, computers, and new types of secular education is guiding young generations into fields where Nepalese habits, customs, and traditional ways of approaching matters are challenged.

Christianity has developed cross-cultural practices in the country developing various neoliberal activities in the Global South. The new generation has become more concerned about the use of foreign goods, music, and activities in the name of religion or westernization. Many ethnic language communities (e.g. Tamang, Limbu, Newar, Magar, Gurung, etc.) are motivated towards English and Nepali by following Christianity through Bible translation. As a result, their cultural festivals have been converted into birthday, anniversary ceremonies in the churches with lots of western music and songs. Neoliberal ideology has influenced the construction of institutional language policies and the corporatized individual subject in the socio-historical context of Nepal ( Sharma and Phyak 2017 : 4). Migrated urban areas are very important sites in imposing language dominance, particularly capital cities and trade and commercial centers; towns tend to dominate the surrounding rural areas and their influence radiates out those areas ( Gautam 2021 : 127). People’s motivation and migration for economic benefit have also been noted as keys to encouraging people to adopt languages that deploy more instrumental functions in their job market ( Gautam 2021 : 151).

4.4.4 Ideological impacts on Global South

Nepal’s growing engagement with the international community (through its membership in UN, WTO, IMF, etc.) and its political systems have largely influenced the attitudinal patterns in Nepalese society. From a geopolitical perspective, as Nepal is sandwiched between two giant countries, India and China, the changes in the neighborhood would influence it on a larger scale. In addition, the development of the Global North would always have a chain effect on the countries of the Global South. For instance, the British colonial government of India then promoted English amidst other languages, and a similar trend emerged in Nepal with the effect of a similar environment in the neighborhood. Such geopolitical conditions and the waves gravely influenced the closely related communities to the development of nationalism and the creation of nation-states, including a new Europe perceived as superior to other parts of the world ( Bagga-Gupta 2010 ; Gal and Irvine 1995 ; Rosén and Bagga-Gupta 2013 ; Shohamy 2006 ). The ideologies of the countries of the Global North have influenced the countries of the Global South in many ways, including ideologies of language planning and policy ( Gautam and Poudel 2021 ). This has generated a perception and a social space that differentiates “us” and “the other” through the formation of linguistic-cultural ideologies ( Gynne et al. 2016 ) in the communities that have multiple languages in place. This made some languages valued more than others in the domains of governance and educational spaces ( Poudel 2019 ; Poudel and Choi 2021 ). In the case of Nepal, the first educational commission ( Sardar et al. 1956 ) was influenced by Hugh B. Wood’s ideologies and politics. He formed out of his involvement in the Indian and the western world, and the committee under the huge influence in collaboration with academia and Nepalese politicians, and then recommended for streamlining the education systems through monolingual ideology. The same politico-ideological structure continued for a long. And even today Nepali is the national language to be used in governance and education, while at the same time the constitution allows other regional or ethnic languages for such purposes as an outcome of democratic political development. It can, in a sense, be understood as an ideological link with the Englishization efforts of many developing countries in the world.

5 Conclusion

This paper discusses the way Nepal has undergone a process of democratizing its macro-policies for the promotion and preservation of its linguistic diversity and provides evidence that such practices have minimal impact on the substantial results due to the processes of glocalization ( Choi 2017 ). The identification of new languages and recognition of multilingualism have been the visible results of democratic governance. However, largely monolingual and bilingual practices in governance, education, and public communication remain rooted in every community throughout the country. Nepal’s language politics has been largely influenced by various political movements and changes in the governments over history. The interviews and the secondary data indicate that Nepal’s language politics has been influenced by globalization and neoliberal impacts which indicate massive language shift and change from minority to the major and dominant languages. It can be concluded that democracy in Nepal functioned as a double-edged sword ( Gautam and Poudel 2021 ), which on the one hand promoted efforts of preservation and promotion of cultural and linguistic diversity, while on the other hand, contributed to clutching the size of diversity by vitalizing Nepali and English relegating the prospective of indigenous languages as pointed out by the informants above in various contexts and the reality of Nepal’s language politics.

The democratic ideology fundamentally borrowed from the Global North had done more justice at the policy level while creating inequalities in the practice, and that consequently made the investments and attempts in promoting linguistic diversity futile. Democracy also promoted monolingual/bilingual ways of thinking about multilingualism, which became counterproductive to the mission of protecting linguistic diversity in Nepal ( Gautam and Poudel 2021 ). Piller’s (2016 : 32) critical understanding of the monolingual ways of seeing multilingualism entails a focus on the product of the monolingual academic texts which was equally applicable in the case of Nepal. The democracy in Nepal did not practically contribute to promoting linguistic diversity though it developed awareness of the linguistic rights of the individuals and communities of minority languages. The state’s intervention to preserve and promote these languages remained inconsistent throughout history, as some governments intentionally discouraged the planned promotion compared to others which designed some measures to promote them. Both monolingual and multilingual ideologies remained as points of debate in political and social spaces in the context of Nepalese society where we can see the conflict among the languages, language users, and policymakers.

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Technology in Nepal: Exploring Its Impact on Society and Culture

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Technology has become an integral part of our lives, transforming the way we live, work, and communicate. Nepal, a country located in South Asia, is no exception. Over the past few decades, technology has made significant inroads in Nepal, transforming various sectors of the economy and society. In this article, we will explore the impact of technology on Nepali society and culture, its benefits and drawbacks, and the challenges and future prospects of technology adoption.

Overview of Nepal's Current Technological Landscape

Nepal has witnessed a significant growth in technology adoption over the past decade, with the widespread use of mobile phones and the internet. According to a report by the Nepal Telecommunications Authority, the number of mobile phone subscribers in Nepal reached 39.1 million in 2020, representing a penetration rate of 133.56%. Similarly, the number of internet users in Nepal reached 28.99 million in 2020, representing a penetration rate of 98.67%.

Despite these impressive figures, Nepal still lags behind other developing countries in terms of technology adoption and digitalization. The country's infrastructure is inadequate, and access to technology is limited in many rural areas.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology in Nepali Society

The widespread adoption of technology has brought several benefits to Nepali society. The use of mobile phones has revolutionized communication in Nepal, particularly in rural areas where access to landlines is limited. The internet has provided access to information and services that were previously unavailable, such as e-commerce and online education. The use of technology has also led to increased efficiency and productivity in various sectors of the economy, such as finance, healthcare, and agriculture.

However, the adoption of technology has also brought several drawbacks to Nepali society. The increased reliance on technology has led to a loss of human interaction, with people spending more time on their phones and computers than engaging with others. The spread of misinformation and fake news has also become a significant issue, with social media platforms being used to spread rumors and propaganda. Additionally, the adoption of technology has led to job losses in certain sectors of the economy, such as manufacturing and retail.

Impact of Technology on Nepali Culture and Traditions

Nepal has a rich and diverse culture, with unique traditions and practices. The adoption of technology has had a significant impact on Nepali culture, both positive and negative. On the positive side, technology has helped to preserve Nepali culture and traditions by providing platforms for cultural exchange and education. For example, social media platforms have been used to showcase Nepali art, music, and dance to a global audience.

On the negative side, the adoption of technology has also led to a loss of traditional practices and values. The younger generation, in particular, is becoming increasingly influenced by Western culture, leading to a decline in the importance of traditional values and practices.

Examples of How Technology has Transformed Different Sectors in Nepal

Technology has transformed various sectors of the Nepali economy, including finance, healthcare, agriculture, and education. In the finance sector, the use of mobile banking and digital payment systems has made financial transactions more accessible and efficient, particularly for those living in rural areas.

In the healthcare sector, technology has improved access to healthcare services and made medical treatment more efficient. For example, telemedicine has made it possible for doctors to diagnose and treat patients remotely, particularly in rural areas where access to medical facilities is limited.

In the agriculture sector, technology has improved productivity and efficiency by providing farmers with access to information on weather patterns, market prices, and best practices. Similarly, in the education sector, the use of technology has improved access to education and made learning more engaging and interactive.

Challenges in Technology Adoption and Digitalization in Nepal:

While the prospects of technology in Nepal are promising, there are several challenges to its adoption and digitalization. Some of the significant challenges include:

1. Infrastructure: Nepal faces significant infrastructure challenges, particularly in rural areas, where access to electricity and internet connectivity is limited. This makes it challenging to implement and scale up technology-based solutions.

2. Digital divide: There is a significant digital divide in Nepal, with urban areas having better access to technology than rural areas. This divide can exacerbate inequalities and limit the benefits of technology for marginalized communities.

3. Human capital: Nepal has a shortage of skilled IT professionals, which can hinder the development and adoption of technology-based solutions. This gap in human capital also limits the country's ability to compete in the global market for technology talent.

4. Policy and regulation: The lack of clear policies and regulations related to technology can make it challenging to develop and implement technology-based solutions in Nepal. The absence of a comprehensive data protection law also raises concerns about data privacy and security.

5. Financing: Access to finance for technology startups and entrepreneurs remains a significant challenge in Nepal. The lack of investment and funding options can limit the growth and innovation of technology-based companies in the country.

Future Prospects and Potential of Technology in Nepal:

Despite the challenges, the future prospects and potential of technology in Nepal are promising. The country has taken significant steps to address some of the challenges, including the development of policies and regulations related to technology and investment in infrastructure development.

The government has also launched several initiatives to promote digitalization, such as the Digital Nepal Framework, which aims to transform Nepal into a digitally empowered society and economy. The framework includes plans to increase internet penetration, develop digital skills, promote e-commerce, and improve access to public services through digital platforms.

In the private sector, several technology startups and companies are emerging in Nepal, leveraging innovative solutions to address local challenges. For instance, Khalti, a digital payment platform, has revolutionized the way people in Nepal pay their bills and transfer money. Similarly, Tootle, a ride-sharing platform, has disrupted the transportation sector in Nepal, providing a safe and affordable alternative to traditional taxis.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, technology is transforming Nepali society and culture, offering numerous benefits while also presenting some challenges. While digitalization in Nepal is still in its early stages, there is significant potential for technology to address local challenges and drive economic growth.

By addressing the challenges of technology adoption and investing in infrastructure and human capital development, Nepal can unlock the full potential of technology and become a regional leader in technology innovation and development.

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Role of social media in Nepali society

The impact of social media in the nepali market, as well as the benefits and drawbacks of social media.

Social media is a platform that connects people from different places using the internet. Nowadays, social media is a must for people because it gives us so much knowledge that we can learn in our lifetime. In today's generation, social media is used by billions of people daily.

In the 21st century, the use of social media has spread all over the world and has an impact on Nepal as well. In the context of Nepal, social media has become an important tool for people. According to the latest report of the Nepal Telecommunication Authority, there are 27.76 million individuals in Nepal who have access to the Internet. While the internet has benefited us in many ways, it has also ruined many people's lives, although this technology is a boon if used wisely. In today's society, using social media has become a necessary daily activity. Social media is typically used for social interaction and decision-making. It is a valuable tool for communicating with others locally and globally, as well as for sharing, creating, and disseminating information. Social media like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, TikTok , YouTube, and various platforms are used for social sharing.

Globally and in Nepal, social media is now dynamically used for texting, chatting, sharing ideas, views, opinions, and much more. Social media is the greatest human discovery of this generation. Social media is a form of quick access to information. In Nepal, the number of social media users increased by 3.0 million between 2020 and 2021. The number of social media users in Nepal corresponded to 44.2% of the total population in January 2021.

The use of social media has both positive and negative effects on our society, positive effects include:

1. Connecting people

2. Gaining knowledge

3. Non-formal education

4. Learning new skills

5. Increasing communication skills and so on.

Unfortunately, it also has negative effects that include:

1. Social wars or social conflict

2. Different people give different thoughts

3. Cybercrime is on the rise

4. Cannot continue the current generation

5. Decline or neglect of cultural tradition.

However, social media plays a vital role in influencing people about the right things. Awareness can spread among people, and social problems and evils can be thrown out by aware people of their flaws and incidents. Therefore, it plays a vital role in society in people's lives.

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Many different ethnic groups coexist in Nepal, each with their own complex customs. In the Kathmandu Valley, where they mix the most, there’s a high degree of tolerance of different clothes and lifestyles – a fact that travellers sense, and often abuse. Away from the tourist areas, however, ethnic groups are quite parochial, and foreign ways may cause offence. That said, many taboos relax the further and higher you head into the mountains, as Hindu behavioural norms are only partially shared by Buddhist and animist ethnic groups.

The do’s and don’ts listed here are more flexible than they sound. You’ll make gaffes all the time and Nepalis will rarely say anything. When in doubt, do as you see Nepalis doing.

Common courtesies

As a foreigner, you’re likely to be an object of curiosity , and you may be joined in the street or on the trail by someone who just wants to chat. Nepalis will constantly be befriending you, wanting to exchange addresses, take photos and extract solemn promises that you will write to them.

Giving the Nepali greeting , namaste (“I salute the god within you”), your palms held together as if praying, is one of the most attractive and addictive of Nepalese customs. It isn’t used freely or casually: think of it as “how do you do?” rather than “hello!” If you want to show great respect, namaskar is a more formal or subservient variant.

Another delightful aspect of Nepali culture is the familiar ways Nepalis address each other: it’s well worth learning didi (“older sister”), bahini (“younger sister”), daai (“older brother”), bhaai (“younger brother”), buwa (“father”) and aamaa (“mother”) for the warm reaction they’ll usually provoke. To be more formal or respectful, just add ji to the end of someone’s name, as in “ namaste , John -ji ”.

The word dhanyabaad is usually translated as “thank you” but is normally reserved for an act beyond the call of duty – so if you feel you have to say something, “thank you” in English is widely understood.

The gestures for “ yes ” and “ no ” are also confusing to foreigners. To indicate agreement, tilt your head slightly to one side and then back the other way. To tell a tout or a seller “no”, hold one hand up in front of you, palm forwards, and swivel your wrist subtly, as if you were adjusting a bracelet; shaking the head in the Western fashion looks too much like “yes”. To point use the chin, rather than the finger.

Caste and status

Hill Nepal is less rigid than much of India, but caste is deeply ingrained in the national psyche. Nepal “abolished” the caste system in 1963, but millennia-old habits take time to change. Though professions are changing and “love marriage” is more popular, caste and status still determine whom most Nepalis may (or must) marry, where they can live and who they can associate with. Foreigners are technically casteless, but in the remote far western hills they can be considered polluting to orthodox, high-caste Hindus. Wherever you travel you should be sensitive to minor caste restrictions: for example, you may not be allowed into the kitchen of a high-caste Hindu home.

Status ( ijat ) is equally important. Meeting for the first time, Nepalis observe a ritual of asking each other’s name, home town and profession, which helps determine relative status and therefore the correct level of deference. As a Westerner you have a lot of status, and relatively speaking you’re fabulously wealthy.

Probably the greatest number of Nepali taboos are to do with food . One underlying principle is that once you’ve touched something to your lips, it’s polluted ( jutho ) for everyone else. If you take a sip from someone else’s water bottle, try not to let it touch your lips (and the same applies if it’s your own). Don’t eat off someone else’s plate or offer anyone food you’ve taken a bite of, and don’t touch cooked food until you’ve bought it.

If eating with your hands , use the right one only. The left hand is reserved for washing after defecating; you can use it to hold a glass or utensil while you eat, but don’t wipe your mouth, or pass food with it. It’s considered good manners to give and receive everything with the right hand. In order to convey respect, offer money, food or gifts with both hands, or with the right hand while the left touches the wrist.

Clothing and the body

Nepalis are innately conservative in their attitudes to clothing , and it’s worth knowing how you may come across. The following hints apply especially in temples and monasteries.

Men should always wear a shirt in public, and long trousers if possible (shorts are fine on well-used trekking trails). For women in villages, a sari or skirt that hangs to mid-calf level is traditional, though trousers are acceptable these days. Shoulders are usually covered, and vest-tops are considered risqué. Girls in Kathmandu and Pokhara do wear shorts or short skirts, but this is relatively new and you run the risk of being seen as sexually available. Generally, looking clean shows respect – and earns it. Ungroomed travellers may find themselves treated with significantly less courtesy.

Only women with babies or small children bare their breasts. When Nepali men bathe in public, they do it in their underwear, and women bathe underneath a lungi (sarong). Foreigners are expected to do likewise. In Nepal, the forehead is regarded as the most sacred part of the body and it’s impolite to touch an adult Nepali’s head. The feet are the most unclean part, so don’t put yours on chairs or tables, and when sitting, try not to point the soles of your feet at anyone. It’s also bad manners to step over the legs of someone seated.

Male friends will often hold hands in public, but not lovers of the opposite sex. Couples who cuddle or kiss in public will at best draw unwelcome attention. Handshaking has increased, but not all women will feel comfortable to shake a man’s hand.

Temples and homes

Major Hindu temples or their innermost sanctums are usually off-limits to nonbelievers, who are a possible cause of ritual pollution. Where you are allowed in, be respectful, take your shoes off before entering, don’t take photos unless you’ve asked permission, and leave a few rupees in the donation box. Try not to touch offerings or shrines. Leather is usually not allowed in temple precincts.

Similar sensitivity is due at Buddhist temples and monasteries. If you’re granted an audience with a lama, it’s traditional to present him with a kata (a ceremonial white scarf, usually sold nearby). Walk around Buddhist stupas and monuments clockwise.

If invited for a meal in a private home , you can bring fruit or sweets, but don’t expect thanks as gifts tend to be received without any fuss. Take your shoes off when entering, or follow the example of your host. When the food is served you may be expected to eat first, so you won’t be able to follow your host’s lead. Take less than you can eat – asking for seconds is the best compliment you can give. The meal is typically served at the end of a gathering; when the eating is done, everyone leaves.

Sherpas and some other highland groups regard the family hearth as sacred, so don’t throw rubbish or scraps into it.

Hustle and hassle

Indian-style hustle is on the rise in Nepal. You’ll get a dose of it at the airport or any major bus station, where hotel touts lie in wait to accost arriving tourists. They also cruise the tourist strips of Kathmandu, offering drugs, treks, and, increasingly, sex. For the most part, though, Nepali touts are less aggressive than their Indian brethren, and if you’re entering Nepal from North India, where aggressive touts have to be dealt with firmly, you should prepare to adjust your attitude. Ignore them entirely and they’re likely to ignore you. If that doesn’t work, most touts will leave you alone if asked nicely, whereas they’ll take a rude brush-off personally.

The tourist zones are full of other lone entrepreneurs and middlemen – touts by any other name. Ticket agents, rikshaw-wallahs, guesthouse-owners and guides are ever-anxious to broker services and information. They usually get their commission from the seller; your price is bumped up correspondingly. In general, cutting out the middleman gives you more control over the transaction. You should find, however, that a few rupees (and smiles) given to people whose services you may require again will smooth the way and make your stay more pleasant.

Dealing with beggars is part and parcel of travelling in Nepal. The pathos might initially get to you, as it should, but you will probably adjust to it fairly quickly. A thornier dilemma is how to cope with panhandling kids.

A small number of bona fide beggars make an honest living from bakshish (alms). Hindus and Buddhists have a long and honourable tradition of giving to lepers, the disabled, sadhus and monks. It’s terrifyingly easy for a Nepali woman to find herself destitute and on the street, either widowed or divorced – perhaps for failing to bear a son or from a dowry dispute. There are no unemployment benefits in Nepal, and many who can’t work and have no family turn to begging (or prostitution).

In the hills, ailing locals will occasionally approach foreigners for medicine : it’s unwise to make any prescriptions unless you’re qualified to diagnose the illness. However, before leaving the country you can donate unused medicines to the destitute through the dispensary at Kathmandu’s Bir Hospital, or to the Himalayan Buddhist Meditation Centre in Kathmandu, which gives them to monks.

Throughout Nepal – principally along the tourist trails – children will hound you. Repeatedly shouting “ namaste ” or “hello” at the weird-looking stranger is universal and often kids will ask you for “one dollar”, “chocolate” or “pen”. They’re not orphans or beggars, just ordinary schoolkids who’ve seen too many well-meaning but thoughtless tourists handing out little gifts wherever they go. A firm-but-gentle hoina holaa! (“I don’t think so!”) is usually enough. Few children would ever ask a Nepali for money, so reacting like a local will quickly embarrass them. Sometimes, however, they will tag along for hours; the best defences are a sense of humour and/or a strategic lack of engagement.

Street children are a different case – don’t give (or not directly), and watch your wallet.

Hiring a guide

Even if you’re not going on a trek, hiring a guide is a great way to get under the skin of Nepal. Most people only think of hiring a guide for a trek , but they’re even more essential when tracking wildlife in the Terai parks. If you find a good guide, stick with him (guides are usually male); a day guide in Chitwan, for instance, might well be willing to accompany you to Bardia National Park. In town, would-be guides, often masquerading as friendly students, position themselves strategically at temples and palaces, but you’ll probably do better to find one through a hotel or travel agent. An inexperienced guide hired informally will usually charge about Rs800–1000 a day; paying around double that for an experienced and knowledgeable guide would be fair. Generally, you get what you pay for.

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Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Students are often asked to write an essay on Culture Of Nepal in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Introduction.

Nepal, a small country in South Asia, is known for its rich cultural diversity. It is a blend of various ethnic groups, each with unique customs, traditions and languages. This makes the culture of Nepal colorful and fascinating.

Religions in Nepal

Nepal is a religious country with Hinduism and Buddhism being the main faiths. There are also followers of Islam, Christianity, and other religions. These religions influence the daily lives, festivals, and rituals of the Nepalese people.

Languages of Nepal

Nepal is a multilingual country. The official language is Nepali, but more than 123 languages are spoken. Each ethnic group has its own language, adding to the cultural richness.

Traditional Clothing

Nepalese people wear traditional clothing. Men wear ‘Daura Suruwal’ and women wear ‘Sari’ or ‘Kurta Suruwal’. The clothing reflects their ethnic identity and is worn during festivals and special occasions.

Festivals of Nepal

Nepal is known for its numerous festivals. Dashain, Tihar, Holi, and Buddha Jayanti are some of the major festivals. These festivities bring people together in celebration, strengthening social bonds.

Art and Architecture

Nepalese art and architecture is influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism. Temples, palaces, and sculptures display intricate designs and craftsmanship. This showcases the artistic skills of the Nepalese people.

Cuisine of Nepal

Nepalese cuisine is a mix of flavors. Dal Bhat, a lentil soup with rice, is the staple food. Momos, Gundruk, and Dhido are other popular dishes. Each region has its own special dish, reflecting the diversity.

The culture of Nepal is a beautiful mix of various elements. It is a symbol of unity in diversity. Despite the differences, the people of Nepal live in harmony, respecting each other’s cultures.

250 Words Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Introduction to nepal’s culture.

Nepal, a small country in South Asia, is famous for its rich and diverse culture. It is home to various ethnic groups, each with its unique traditions, languages, and customs. This makes Nepal a place where different cultures blend together, creating a beautiful mix.

Religion and Beliefs

Religion is a big part of life in Nepal. Most people follow Hinduism or Buddhism. These religions influence many aspects of daily life, like food, clothing, and festivals. People visit temples and shrines regularly, showing their deep faith.

Language and Communication

In Nepal, many languages are spoken. The main one is Nepali, but there are also many local languages. Despite this, people find ways to communicate and understand each other. This shows the unity in their diversity.

Festivals and Celebrations

Festivals are a major part of Nepal’s culture. They bring joy and unity among people. Dashain, Tihar, and Holi are some of the main festivals. During these times, people gather with family, exchange gifts, and enjoy special meals.

Nepal’s art and architecture are unique and beautiful. You can see this in the temples and old buildings. They are often decorated with detailed carvings and colourful paintings. This highlights the artistic skills of the Nepalese people.

Food and Cuisine

Nepali food is a mix of flavours. The main meal is ‘Dal Bhat’, which is lentil soup, rice, and vegetables. Nepalese people also love momos, which are tasty dumplings.

In conclusion, Nepal’s culture is a colourful mix of traditions, beliefs, and customs. It is a symbol of unity in diversity, making Nepal a truly special place.

500 Words Essay on Culture Of Nepal

Introduction to nepalese culture.

Nepal, a small country nestled in the heart of the Himalayas, is known for its rich and vibrant culture. The culture of Nepal is a unique mix of tradition and novelty. It is a fusion of ancient history and modern influences. The culture is deeply rooted in the people, their rituals, their beliefs, and their daily lives.

Religions and Festivals

Nepal is a country where different religions coexist in harmony. The majority of the people follow Hinduism, followed by Buddhism, Islam, and other religions. This diversity in religions leads to a variety of festivals, each with its unique charm. Dashain, Tihar, Teej, and Buddha Jayanti are some of the major festivals celebrated here. These festivals fill the country with joy and vibrancy, showcasing the unity in diversity.

Language and Literature

Language is an essential part of any culture, and Nepal is no exception. The official language is Nepali, but more than 123 languages are spoken here. This shows the cultural richness and diversity of the country. Nepalese literature is also diverse, with works ranging from ancient scriptures and epics to modern novels and poetry.

Nepal is famous for its distinctive art and architecture. The country is full of ancient temples, palaces, and monuments that reflect the skills of the Newar artisans. Kathmandu Valley, in particular, is a treasure trove of such architectural wonders. The intricate woodwork, stone carvings, and metal crafts are a testament to the artistic prowess of the Nepalese people.

Nepalese cuisine is as diverse as its culture. The food varies from region to region. Dal Bhat (lentil soup with rice), Gundruk (fermented leafy greens), and Momo (dumplings) are some popular dishes. The food is not just about taste but also carries cultural and religious significance.

Music and Dance

Music and dance form an integral part of Nepalese culture. Folk music and dances are popular, with each ethnic group having its unique music and dance forms. Instruments like Madal and Sarangi are commonly used. The dances are usually performed during festivals and special occasions, adding color and rhythm to the celebrations.

Clothing and Attire

Traditional Nepalese clothing is unique and varied. Men typically wear Daura Suruwal while women wear Gunyu Cholo. These outfits are often worn during festivals and special occasions. The clothing reflects the country’s cultural heritage and identity.

In conclusion, the culture of Nepal is a beautiful blend of various elements. It is a culture that respects diversity and celebrates unity. It is a culture that values tradition while embracing change. The culture of Nepal is a mirror of its people – warm, welcoming, and vibrant.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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Nepali peace process as a global model

Pushpa Kamal Dahal 'Prachanda'

As we celebrate the 15th anniversary of the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the Government of Nepal and the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) today, it is also time to celebrate our party's consistent commitment to peace and democracy.

The Nepali peace process was started by the CPN-Maoist party under my leadership in early 2005. When King Gyanendra usurped power in February 2005, overthrowing a democratically elected government, we decided to seize the opportunity for peace triggered by the authoritarian takeover. We immediately intensified dialogue with a coalition of other mainstream political parties, known as the Seven Party Alliance (SPA).

We convinced the SPA about the need to elect a Constituent Assembly (CA) to draft a new and fully democratic constitution. This agreement became the cornerstone of Nepal's peace process, which, in turn, has become one of the most successful peace processes in the post-Cold War global context.

We have also been committed to peace from the beginning of our political struggle. Our vision has always been peace for all segments of the Nepali people. Before our revolution started in 1996, peace was limited to the elites and primarily to urban areas. A majority of the people in rural areas, particularly the marginalised sections of Dalits, Muslims, Madhesis, Janajatis, women, peasants and labourers, suffered an inescapable cycle of systemic and structural violence. They did not have the same sense of peace that the privileged few enjoyed. We wanted to change this condition and work towards attaining peace that included the Nepali society's margins.

While we have focused on inclusive peace, we have also prioritised the democratic means to achieving our goals. That is why we demanded an election to the CA to represent diverse communities in Nepal, especially the historically excluded groups, to draft the new framework for Nepal. Earlier peace initiatives in 2001 and 2003 had failed because the mainstream political parties refused to meet our minimum democratic demand for the CA elections. The SPA decided to collaborate with the Maoist party only after King Gyanendra pushed them to the corner with the army's support in February 2005. In this sense, the Maoist party can be seen as the main initiator of Nepal's peace process.

Our consistent commitment to multi-party democratic competition is evident in our participation in five democratic elections, including at the local and provincial levels, since the peace process began. Whereas rebel groups in several other countries such as Angola, Ethiopia and Kenya have resorted to violence or coercive power-grabbing after losing elections, we have gracefully accepted all the results even when results were not in our favour.

As we celebrate the 15th anniversary of the peace process, I want to remind the Nepali people and the international community about our remarkable achievements. As part of the peace process, the country has experienced tremendous socio-political reforms. Nepal has graciously transitioned into a modern and democratic federal republic, ready to face the 21st-century world, which is different from the autocratic, centralised and feudal kingdom that Nepal was before the advent of the peace process.

Today, Nepal is one of the most progressive countries globally regarding constitutional provisions regarding gender and social inclusion. We have guaranteed 40 percent representation of women at the local level and 33 percent representation in other decision-making positions, including in Parliament. We have promoted the inclusion of excluded groups such as Dalits in the decision-making positions at various levels through constitutional provisions. Considering the less than 6 percent representation of women and less than 1 percent representation of Dalits in the three directly elected parliaments in the 1990s, this is sterling progress.

Significantly, there has been no relapse of large-scale violence throughout Nepal's peace process, unlike what many other post-conflict countries experienced. Clearly, Nepal's peace process has laid a foundation for a sustainable peace for all Nepalis.

While sharing the positive gains resulting from the peace process, I must acknowledge some shortcomings. The issue of transitional justice is yet to be settled in a way that satisfies the mainstream international community, and we have not been able to fulfil the aspirations of the Nepalis for greater economic development. Nevertheless, when compared to those of others around the world in the post-Cold War era, Nepal's performance in the peace process has been extraordinary.

In the conflict-ridden African region, peace processes have had mixed results. In the Central African Republic, which is a landlocked and least developed country like Nepal, decades-long attempts at the peace process, with multiple peace agreements, have failed to end armed violence. Violence lingers on in Sudan, whose Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2005) is a year-and-a-half older than ours. Closer home in Asia, marked by major armed conflicts, peace processes appear fragile. In Sri Lanka, the path to seeking peace has been through military means rather than political negotiations, which, as per the United Nations, have resulted in numerous civilian deaths.

Peace processes in many parts of Latin America have been equally questionable as many countries continue to suffer from sustained violence even though armed conflicts have ended formally. Recently, in Colombia, the peace deal signed in 2016 after four long years of negotiation was rejected by the Colombians. As per media reports, violence and insecurity ravage many parts of the country today.

Apart from these examples, two major peace-building initiatives in the 21st century—Afghanistan and Iraq—have, despite massive global investments, failed to end violence and lay the foundations for stable democracies. In comparison, Nepal's peace process has been successful, notwithstanding the relatively limited attention and support by the club of rich and powerful states.

One reason why Nepal's peace process has been successful is that it has adopted a home-grown model. The failure of most peace processes in the conflict-affected areas of the global south following the end of the Cold War had cautioned us about the limitations of the dominant models of peace, commonly characterised by the direct involvement of Western states and their liberal institutions, including the United Nations. These templates have suffered from inherent flaws such as Western ethnocentrism, ignorance of local political dynamics, and a lack of accountability towards the targeted group. Failures of peace initiatives have impacted the lives of millions of people in terms of everyday peace in conflict-ridden countries.

To avoid these risks, we envisaged our own model of peace in Nepal. This model is premised on the notion of peace for all Nepalis by promoting social justice and full democracy. Nepal's blueprint for peace has also been rooted in the ordinary people's desire for peace shaped by our rich cultural and spiritual heritage of peace.

There seems to have been some confusion about Nepal's locally driven approach to peace. A few external states and institutions have claimed that they were the supervisors of Nepal's peace process. As the key architect of Nepal's peace process, I can confidently claim that this is not true. It was primarily a locally driven initiative. This does not mean that we did not engage with international friends and partners. Initially, it was essential to take India and China into confidence due to geopolitical sensitivities. We also took other like-minded international partners on board.

Yet, there was no formal international or third-party mediation when the 12-Point Understanding between the Seven Political Parties and the Nepal Communist Party (Maoist) was signed in November 2005. While there has been a direct third-party or international meditation in most contemporary peace processes, that was not the case in Nepal.

As the peace process progressed, we sought support from various international partners based on our needs. We formally invited the United Nations for support on five specific areas, the most important of which was monitoring arms and armed personnel on both sides. Again, compared to other ongoing peace processes in the post-Cold War era, where the United Nations has played a more assertive role, including maintaining peace-keeping operations, the organisation's mandate in Nepal was limited in scope and time.

After the United Nations Mission to Nepal ended in 2011, we completed the remaining crucial parts of the peace process, such as integrating arms and armies on our own, with Nepali political leaders making the key decisions.

When I initiated the peace process in 2005, the SPA leader, Girija Prasad Koirala of the Nepali Congress party, was my co-partner. We worked out most issues of the peace process together. During our last meeting at the hospital, he said that the full responsibility of the peace process was solely on my shoulders after him. It was not an easy responsibility, considering the constant attacks on the peace process from a few national and international forces.

For me, it was like walking a tightrope. I was forced to make endless compromises to sustain the peace process. At the same time, I could not give up on our core ideology of social justice. Were my compromises worthwhile? This will be for the coming generation of the new federal democratic republic of Nepal to judge.

For now, it is time to celebrate the successful 15 years of our peace process. We need to remember that Nepal's peace process is not entirely out of danger yet. I am doing my best to sustain its success. And I want to take this opportunity to remind the international community that, in a global context marked by frequent failures of peace processes, the Nepali model of peace could offer inspiration for people of other countries reeling under direct violence.

Pushpa Kamal Dahal 'Prachanda' Prachanda is a former prime minister of Nepal and the chairperson of the CPN-Maoist Centre. He is also a member of Parliament.

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मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध | Essay on my country nepal in nepali

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Essay on My Country Nepal For Students

If there is a country’s flag that stands out among all other countries it is the flag of Nepal . Our flag is very unique and cannot be compared to other countries’ flags due to its shape. It also has a hidden meaning behind it which represents the country’s peace-loving and friendly nature, bravery, and immortal history.

My country Nepal is situated between two countries, India and China. Although it is sandwiched between international powers, conflicts have not happened between any, and peace remains. Nepal is a country of various castes and cultures. In other words, it is like a beautiful garden of flowers with people of different ethnicities and backgrounds.

My country Nepal is not only unique for its flag but also its geographical terrain, the variety of castes and cultures you can find, and the rich history of it. It is the land of various great places and important figures that people know far and wide. The temperature here spans from cool to hot and is a heaven for residing in.

There are about 126 castes in Nepal each with its own rich history and culture which makes Nepal a rich place for culture. Some dating back to the millenniums. Not only that, our country is very rich in its geographical terrain. From the lowest point of just 70 Meters from sea level to the world’s highest peak Mt. Everest (8848.86 meters) , we have temperature scales that vary from place to place. It is divided into three regions, Terai, Hilly, and Himalayas each according to their altitude and geographical differences.

Himalayan regions have high and mighty Himalayas that are breathtaking to look at. Out of the world’s top 10 highest peaks, 8 of them fall in my country. It is already a great pride to have come from such a country. The diverse flora and fauna, beautiful landscapes, lush and green jungles, historical and religious places in Nepal are enough to gather the attention of foreigners and locals too. People from all over the world pay thousands of dollars just to see our country’s snow-capped mountains, rivers, cliffs, waterfalls, other beautiful landscapes, the rich flora and fauna, and sites of great religious and historical importance. It just doesn’t end there.

📌 Read –   Essay on the Importance of English Language

Our country ranks in the top 5 for the richest in water resources. With just a small country with an area of 1,47,181 sq kilometers, it has the potential to fuel hydropower worth 2% of the entire world. It may look small in number but taking our country’s small area in context, it is a potential incomparable to all. The Terai region holds fertile land and smooth flowing waters that are excellent for farming and cultivating.

Nepal is also known as an agricultural country where 60% of the people here follow agriculture as their work. Our country also has huge historical importance. Gautama Buddha the founder and preacher of Buddhism which is practiced worldwide was also born in Nepal. Buddhism is known to preach peace and non-violence and to love everyone. King Janak is also an important figure who holds great importance to communities in Nepal.

Other personalities include Bhrikuti, Araniko, etc. Our country is also known for its bravery. Our country never has to celebrate Independence day as we were never under the rule of any other. We stood and fought against the Britans and other Mongol countries. Brave Gorkhalis were united after a long struggle and fought their way to preserve their country. The courage and bravery of Nepali people are also know world wide. Many brave Gorkhalis went to fight under countries in world wars and won various colors and medals. This brought our country so much respect that we even enjoy it for granted to date.

Although our country’s history, culture, terrains, and achievements make anyone feel proud, the power struggle for the politicians, previous kings, and presidents have made the country weak and fall in the developing country category. Our rich natural resources have not been utilized and we have fallen way behind. Corruption is widely prevalent in our country and the loans we have taken from other countries are in a large number. The amount of food and other materialistic consumption has made Nepal import more and export less.

Our country is poor but the people here are rich. This is because of the corruption and the illegal working/trading that has been done. The government has not made significant progress and the people aren’t responsible. Although I feel proud to be A Nepali, the condition of my country makes me feel bad. People should feel responsible and carry out their duties and not just complain about the government.

The government too should implement proper policies and rules and enforce them accordingly. Utilization of our natural resources should be done in an effective way and social evils such as discrimination according to castes and genders, other superstitions should be slowly removed. Centralized development should stop and we should control the people moving out to other countries with their skills that are wasted abroad. This way we can slowly develop our country.

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28 thoughts on “ essay on my country nepal for students ”.

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Faculty Recognized for Impactful Computer Graphics Papers

March 20, 2024 By Amanda Norvelle

• Computer Science and Engineering

In the fall, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) released a collection of the most original, boundary-pushing papers that have been presented at their computer graphics conferences. Dr. Scott Schaefer, professor and department head, and Dr. Wenping Wang, professor, of the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at Texas A&M University authored papers selected for the collection. 

The ACM is a professional society that includes Special Interest Groups (SIGs) representing various areas of computing. The Special Interest Group on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGGRAPH) released Seminal Graphics Papers Volume 1 in 1998 to celebrate 25 years of SIGGRAPH conferences. Wang and Schaefer’s papers were included in Seminal Graphics Papers Volume 2 , which was recently released to commemorate 50 years of SIGGRAPH conferences.

“I am truly honoured that our work has received such distinguished recognition by SIGGRAPH and happy to see that this work has had a profound impact on geometric processing research in computer graphics. There is no doubt our strong group at Texas A&M will continue to produce first class research and educate the next generation of students of the highest caliber in computer graphics,” said Wang.

Wang’s paper was originally published in 2006 and was the first paper about architectural geometry presented at a SIGGRAPH conference. Wang and his co-authors addressed several persistent design problems concerning freeform architectural surfaces like roofs. Some of the design challenges for freeform surfaces include how to break them down into multi-layered, structurally stable panels. Other challenges include manufacturing panels efficiently while still ensuring they meet aesthetic requirements. Wang and his co-authors proposed conical meshes — flat quadrilaterals arranged in a web-like pattern — as a solution.

Schaefer’s paper was originally presented at the SIGGRAPH conference in 2005. Schaefer and his co-authors addressed how barycentric coordinates, which had previously been applied only to 2D shapes, could be applied to 3D triangulated surfaces (surfaces graphically overlayed with a net of triangles). Barycentric coordinates describe the position of a point within a triangle. Beyond that, this paper detailed how barycentric coordinates could be used to describe changes in a 3D surface’s size or shape, called 3D surface deformation or cage-based deformation.

“I was excited to see our work recognized as a seminal SIGGRAPH paper,” Schaefer said. “Barycentric coordinates is a very interesting field for me, and I am happy to see others appreciate the work as well.” 

The co-authors on Wang’s paper were Yang Liu, Helmut Pottmann, Johannes Wallner and Yong-Liang Yang. The co-authors on Schaefer’s paper were Tao Ju and Joe Warren.

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