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The power of language: How words shape people, culture

Speaking, writing and reading are integral to everyday life, where language is the primary tool for expression and communication. Studying how people use language – what words and phrases they unconsciously choose and combine – can help us better understand ourselves and why we behave the way we do.

Linguistics scholars seek to determine what is unique and universal about the language we use, how it is acquired and the ways it changes over time. They consider language as a cultural, social and psychological phenomenon.

“Understanding why and how languages differ tells about the range of what is human,” said Dan Jurafsky , the Jackson Eli Reynolds Professor in Humanities and chair of the Department of Linguistics in the School of Humanities and Sciences at Stanford . “Discovering what’s universal about languages can help us understand the core of our humanity.”

The stories below represent some of the ways linguists have investigated many aspects of language, including its semantics and syntax, phonetics and phonology, and its social, psychological and computational aspects.

Understanding stereotypes

Stanford linguists and psychologists study how language is interpreted by people. Even the slightest differences in language use can correspond with biased beliefs of the speakers, according to research.

One study showed that a relatively harmless sentence, such as “girls are as good as boys at math,” can subtly perpetuate sexist stereotypes. Because of the statement’s grammatical structure, it implies that being good at math is more common or natural for boys than girls, the researchers said.

Language can play a big role in how we and others perceive the world, and linguists work to discover what words and phrases can influence us, unknowingly.

How well-meaning statements can spread stereotypes unintentionally

New Stanford research shows that sentences that frame one gender as the standard for the other can unintentionally perpetuate biases.

Algorithms reveal changes in stereotypes

New Stanford research shows that, over the past century, linguistic changes in gender and ethnic stereotypes correlated with major social movements and demographic changes in the U.S. Census data.

Exploring what an interruption is in conversation

Stanford doctoral candidate Katherine Hilton found that people perceive interruptions in conversation differently, and those perceptions differ depending on the listener’s own conversational style as well as gender.

Cops speak less respectfully to black community members

Professors Jennifer Eberhardt and Dan Jurafsky, along with other Stanford researchers, detected racial disparities in police officers’ speech after analyzing more than 100 hours of body camera footage from Oakland Police.

How other languages inform our own

People speak roughly 7,000 languages worldwide. Although there is a lot in common among languages, each one is unique, both in its structure and in the way it reflects the culture of the people who speak it.

Jurafsky said it’s important to study languages other than our own and how they develop over time because it can help scholars understand what lies at the foundation of humans’ unique way of communicating with one another.

“All this research can help us discover what it means to be human,” Jurafsky said.

Stanford PhD student documents indigenous language of Papua New Guinea

Fifth-year PhD student Kate Lindsey recently returned to the United States after a year of documenting an obscure language indigenous to the South Pacific nation.

Students explore Esperanto across Europe

In a research project spanning eight countries, two Stanford students search for Esperanto, a constructed language, against the backdrop of European populism.

Chris Manning: How computers are learning to understand language​

A computer scientist discusses the evolution of computational linguistics and where it’s headed next.

Stanford research explores novel perspectives on the evolution of Spanish

Using digital tools and literature to explore the evolution of the Spanish language, Stanford researcher Cuauhtémoc García-García reveals a new historical perspective on linguistic changes in Latin America and Spain.

Language as a lens into behavior

Linguists analyze how certain speech patterns correspond to particular behaviors, including how language can impact people’s buying decisions or influence their social media use.

For example, in one research paper, a group of Stanford researchers examined the differences in how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online to better understand how a polarization of beliefs can occur on social media.

“We live in a very polarized time,” Jurafsky said. “Understanding what different groups of people say and why is the first step in determining how we can help bring people together.”

Analyzing the tweets of Republicans and Democrats

New research by Dora Demszky and colleagues examined how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online in an attempt to understand how polarization of beliefs occurs on social media.

Examining bilingual behavior of children at Texas preschool

A Stanford senior studied a group of bilingual children at a Spanish immersion preschool in Texas to understand how they distinguished between their two languages.

Predicting sales of online products from advertising language

Stanford linguist Dan Jurafsky and colleagues have found that products in Japan sell better if their advertising includes polite language and words that invoke cultural traditions or authority.

Language can help the elderly cope with the challenges of aging, says Stanford professor

By examining conversations of elderly Japanese women, linguist Yoshiko Matsumoto uncovers language techniques that help people move past traumatic events and regain a sense of normalcy.

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8 Astonishing Ways Language and Culture Are Related

To fully learn and appreciate a language, you need to understand the culture of the people who speak it.

Learning about different cultures helps us approach languages with new insight. It allows us to delve deeper into the meaning of  words and expressions  and helps us feel more connected to each other.

In a nutshell, the relationship between language and culture is symbiotic , with language both reflecting and shaping the values, beliefs and identity of a society, while culture provides the context and meaning through which language is understood and interpreted.

Read on to explore the relationship between language and culture more deeply. Hopefully, when you’re done, you’ll have a new appreciation for the language you’re currently studying as well as the culture it comes from. 

What Does Language Have to Do with Culture?

1. language reflects the values and beliefs of a culture, 2. language reflects our perception of the world, 3. language gives us a away to express our culture, 4. language allows for transmission of culture, 5. language shapes perceptions, 6. language gives us identity and belonging, 7. language holds cultural norms and etiquette, 8. language reflects cultural innovation and change, historical perspective: the link between the history of a culture and its language, use ancient terms as cultural examples, look for footprints left by other cultures on a language, note the ever-evolving meaning of words, how this understanding affects your language learning journey, and one more thing....

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere. Click here to get a copy. (Download)

To answer this question, let’s think about the purpose of language .

Language allows us to express our thoughts and feelings as well as communicate and share knowledge with one another.

You won’t fully master a language unless you understand the culture, just like you’ll never fully understand a culture until you’ve immersed yourself in a study of their language. This is because language is constantly in flux and largely dependent on the ever-evolving views, values and customs of its speakers.

Let’s look at just how connected they really are.

The differences between two cultures are reflected in their languages . Mastering the nuances of a language means really being able to understand people who (more than likely) grew up with an entirely different set of values and beliefs. 

Taking a look at common expressions and idioms gives you a glimpse into what a society deems important.

For example, the vast number of Chinese idioms relating to family demonstrates the value they place on this relationship and tells us a little about the family construct.

You can find lots of examples of the historical and cultural values reflected in typical English expressions and idioms by just listening to an episode of NPR’s radio program “A Way with Words.”

Have you ever heard the phrase “A Whistle in the Dark” or noticed any of the other words and expressions for the word courage ? Such observations would lead an English learner to believe that bravery is a highly coveted attribute in English-speaking societies.

But that’s not the only connection between language and culture.

Language affects the way we perceive the world and therefore, how we choose to interact with it.

When discussing language and perception, most linguists will probably point you to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis , which states that the limits and structure of language determines their user’s thoughts and actions. This hypothesis is supported by professor Lera Boroditsky who wrote a whole paper on the topic of linguistic relativity .

Those who study linguistic relativity often explore the concept of time and space between languages. Boroditsky found that while English speakers view time horizontally (i.e., the past is behind us or to the left and the future is ahead or to the right), Mandarin speakers are more likely to view time vertically (i.e. the order of events is viewed from top to bottom).

Others have studied the connection between  bilingualism and personality , finding that when people switch languages they also seem to “switch” their personality to fit the language, shifting their way of thinking to reflect that of the people who speak the respective language. 

Language reflects perception, but also the history of a culture and explains why certain ideas and beliefs are so prominent and profound.

A great way to expose yourself to a culture’s unique perspective and values is to engage with native media produced by people from that culture . One way you can do this is by using an immersion program such as FluentU .

Language is a medium for artistic expression, including literature, poetry, music and theater, so it’s not a stretch to say that language literally allows us to express our culture in all its forms.

These forms of cultural expression not only enrich the language but also provide insights into the values, aesthetics and creativity of a culture.

Language is the primary vehicle for transmitting culture from one generation to the next.

Through language, traditions, stories, rituals and historical accounts are passed down , helping to maintain cultural identity and cohesion.

Think of the lessons, morals and stories that your grandparents and parents gave to you through language, and soon you’ll realize that language is a delivery device for all things culture.

The language we speak shapes our perceptions and worldview.

Different languages have unique ways of expressing concepts and experiences , influencing how speakers perceive and interpret the world around them.

For example, in Turkish, the past tense changes depending on whether the speaker has actually seen the action with their own eyes, or if they merely heard about the action taking place.

Language is a fundamental aspect of personal and group identity.

Speaking a particular language can foster a sense of belonging to a specific cultural community, while language loss or suppression can lead to feelings of alienation and cultural disconnection.

Just think of the Native American tribes that have lost their languages through various processes including the introduction of English and Spanish. These tribes, on average, have higher rates of poverty and shorter lifespans, compared with tribes whose language is prospering.

Language often contains implicit cultural norms and etiquette.

Understanding the nuances of language usage, such as appropriate forms of address, greetings and expressions of politeness , is essential for effective communication within a cultural context.

For example, if you walked up to a Japanese person you never met, said hello, told them about your day and then kissed them, they might be totally freaked out. If you did the same to a French person, they’d accept it as normal.

Language is dynamic and continually evolves, often influenced by cultural changes and interactions.

New words, expressions and linguistic conventions emerge as cultures evolve, reflecting shifts in societal values, technology, and global influences.

This also tells us a lot about cultural power dynamics. Think of the word “internet” for example. Many languages use this word even though it originated in English, where much of the internet-related businesses were founded.

Understanding a culture’s history allows you to form some idea of how and why certain words came to mean what they do. For example, in Mandarin, 心 (Xīn)  is often directly translated to “heart” in English. However, the word also refers to the mind and one’s emotions.

The meaning of the word is an important concept in Daoist teachings and makes those teachings much more accessible to Mandarin speakers.

The history of a culture explains the power a term or idea can carry in a language, but it also explains the existence of certain linguistic elements.

To really understand a language, you also have to ask yourself about the influence of other cultures on it.

The English language is a perfect example of mixing cultures and language. The Germanic Anglo-Normans and Latin-based French essentially planted the seed for English as we know it to grow.

Learning all about its history will help you understand the meaning behind certain words and phrases with Latin roots , as well as other words of foreign language descent .

English isn’t the only example of a language with a rich history. If you’re studying one of the Romance languages, it helps to learn about European history and the spread of Latin.

Maybe you’re learning Spanish and wondering why there are so many words that start with  al ? Spanish has many words of Arabic origin due to the  Islamic conquest of Spain , such as al fombra  (rug, carpet),  al mohada  (pillow) and  al godón (cotton).

Knowing the history of a culture is not just a way to get clarification, it also shows how words have evolved to reflect the current cultural climate.

When looking at etymology (the study of word origins and development), you’ll find that many words once meant one thing but now mean something else entirely.

In the past, it was almost impossible to pinpoint the redefining moments for these words. The broadening or dissolution of their original meanings tended to just happen slowly over time with usage. Nowadays, we can study this much more closely.

Words can evolve in various ways. Sometimes they can start out as harmless phrases but evolve to be quite rude, like the word “bimbo” which has its roots in the Italian word  “bambino” (little child). In English, this originally referred to an unintelligent man, but over time it came to be quite a derogatory term for an attractive, but not very bright, woman.

Another example is the word “awesome.” Its root is “awe” which used to be synonymous with “dread.” The word maintained that connotation until around the late 1970s when people started using it to describe great things.

As you can see, our ever-developing culture forces language to develop alongside it . 

Being able to understand the culture behind a language can help immeasurably in understanding the connotations of a word , especially when there’s no equivalency in your own language. Not doing so can cause some embarrassing or offensive situations.

Take a language like Japanese that has words that are closely tied to the culture. The Japanese don’t just have formal and informal forms, but honorific and humble forms as well. This is referred to as keigo .

When trying to master another language, the best thing to do is to go in without any expectations or preconceived notions and focus on understanding the culture behind it.

Now that you’ve learned about the deep connection between language and culture, you may be interested in watching this super interesting TEDx talk on the subject:

When you take that understanding of culture and apply it as you learn the language, single words suddenly carry new meanings and words you once found just quirky and strange start to make a lot more sense.

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7.8 Spotlight on … Language and Culture

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain the role of sociohistorical context, including cultural and linguistic variations, in the review genre.
• Identify and act on opportunities to publish a review.

Reviewing, and evaluation and analysis more generally, often involves showing understanding of sociohistorical context. In other words, the work you are reviewing was created at a particular time for a specific audience. The film Black Panther , for example , was released in 2018 for a primarily American audience, but viewers and reviewers can delve further into this film’s cultural context.

For one thing, this film can be placed in the context of other films from the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) . The MCU features characters from Marvel comic books and began with the release of Iron Man in 2008. In addition to the Avengers films, the MCU includes character-specific “origin story” films of which Black Panther is a part. Characters from one film may appear as characters in other MCU films.

In addition, Black Panther is part of a touchstone cultural moment. Since the beginning of the Black Lives Matter (2013–present) movement, more attention has been called to the lack of Black representation in films and TV. The film’s Black Panther, played by Chadwick Boseman , is a Black superhero who gives Black moviegoers a chance to see a superhero who looks like them. The film also comments on Black poverty and questions whether power and wealth should be shared or hoarded. The film also provides audiences of other backgrounds and ethnicities with the opportunity to witness characters who are developed beyond their stereotypes, as Caelia Marshall points out regarding the character of Killmonger in the Annotated Student Sample . These elements work to create empathy within a multicultural society.

Offensive Language: When Is It Offensive and When Is It Artful?

The question of language as a reflection of culture often surfaces in writing and reviewing dialogue, whether in film or books. When is offensive language gratuitous, and when does it serve an artistic purpose? The answer is never clear-cut in such areas, but as a reviewer you can ask yourself certain questions to determine whether you think it enhances the work. The basic, if simplified, question is this: Does the work lose its strength, honesty, sense of reality, or characterization if offensive language is removed? If the answer is yes, then the language serves an artistic purpose. Imagine, for example, dramas dealing with criminals involved in organized crime. The offensive language seems natural and contributes to the drama’s realism. Take away the language, and that realism is lost. Other films, however, would lose nothing in character depiction or realism if offensive language were omitted—not substituted for something less offensive.

Diversity in Hollywood

Recently, more attention is being paid to diversity in television and movies. The #OscarsSoWhite controversy began after the 2015 Oscars , following two consecutive years of all White nominees in the leading and supporting actor categories. The uproar brought awareness to the lack of diversity in Hollywood , and not just in terms of actors. Conversations about diversity behind the scenes began as well.

One criticism the #OscarsSoWhite controversy brought to light was about the stories Hollywood tells. Whose stories get told, and who gets to tell those stories? While a limited number of people of color have been nominated for and even won Oscars, traditionally they have been for movies about racism and slavery (written by White writers or directed by White directors) and stereotypical roles such as the “magic negro” (a Black character who helps a White character). Who gets to decide what stories are made into movies became a major subject of conversation, as the people who fund movies are also typically White.

The movie Green Book (2018) illustrates the backlash that can happen when movies fail to include enough diverse voices. The film is about a Black pianist (played by Mahershala Ali , b. 1974) and his White driver (played by Viggo Mortensen , b. 1958) traveling the country in 1962. The movie won the Oscar for Best Picture that year, and Ali won an Oscar for Best Supporting Actor. However, criticism of the movie was aired both before and after the Oscars ceremony. The family of the real-life pianist, Don Shirley (1927–2013), said the filmmakers worked with them very little. Some criticized the movie for seeming to be more about the driver, Frank Vallelonga (1930–2013), than about Shirley. The movie’s director, Peter Farrelly (b. 1956), is a White man better known for directing raunchy comedies than movies about the Civil Rights era.

All of these points highlighted the importance of diversity not only on set, but among those who participate in the voting bodies of the Oscars and Golden Globe Awards. As a result, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences , which chooses the nominees and winners of the Oscars, and the Hollywood Foreign Press Association , which chooses the nominees and winners of the Golden Globe Awards , introduced measures to diversify their ranks. Despite promises to diversify, however, it was revealed in 2021 that the HFPA had no Black members. As a result, NBC decided to stop broadcasting the Golden Globe awards, and some prominent celebrities, such as Tom Cruise (b. 1962), sent their awards back.

Hollywood has been a White, male-dominated industry. Movie critics Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert , mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, were two of the most influential critics in film history. For most of Hollywood’s history, White men have influenced how television and movies have been received. This situation has been changing, as the Internet and increased cultural awareness are helping to create more diversity. For example, National Public Radio Pop Culture Happy Hour regularly invites people of color, women, and LGBTQ people onto its panel. Their views on gender, race, and queerness in movies and television provide perspectives often missing from mainstream criticism.

Publish Your Work

After you have written and revised your essay, share it with the world. One easy way to share is to post a condensed version of your essay online. Here are some sites to consider, depending on the genre and medium of your review subject.

• Barnes and Noble
• Rotten Tomatoes
• Internet Movie Database
• For The AV Club , consider participating in a conversation about the subject of your review by posting in the comments section of a review.

Video games

• Google Podcasts
• The AV Club

You can also seek out other opportunities to share your writing in local newspapers and magazines. Contact the editor of your college, alternative weekly, or daily newspaper and ask whether they accept freelance work.

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Language, Theory and Society. Essays in English Linguistics and Culture

Related Papers

Balirano, Giuseppe / Nisco, Maria Cristina (eds) 2015. Language, Theory & Society: Essays on English Linguistics and Culture. Napoli: Liguori Editore. ISBN: 978-88-207-6605-4.

Giuseppe Balirano

This book is an exploration of current approaches to the linguistic, cultural and social interpretation of texts in diverse contexts of English. By investigating an array of different discourses, we aim to bring to the fore a variety of social and cultural representations and to illustrate the way in which represented participants are generally embedded in social, political, and cultural practices through and in the language. A glance at the contents of the book will immediately reveal that this is an unusual, and maybe uncomfortable, type of academic publication, at least within the complex Italian academic context. Indeed, corpus linguists may well define the volume as an un-‘principled’ collection of texts. However, the rationale behind this purposefully unsystematic assortment of essays resides in the fact that it is only by adopting different, though somewhat contiguous, linguistic, cultural and social perspectives that researchers can comprehensively approach a variety of texts when seeking out the covert meaning-making structures of different discourses.

Balirano, G. 2015. “Framing Identities in Advertising: Multimodal Discourse Analysis”. In Balirano, G. / Nisco, M.C. (eds), Language, Theory & Society: Essays on English Linguistics and Culture, pp. 2-40. Napoli: Liguori Editore.

This chapter explores the theoretical framework used in social semiotic studies through some analytical instantiations based on the Multi-Modal Discourse Analysis (MMDA) of issues connected to gender and race in advertising. By means of a discursive/social semiotic perspective, print adverts are here investigated as a global discourse worthy of critical investigation. In particular, the exploitation of the human body, in promotional discourses, is seen as having an important role in the construction of gendered and racial identity representation. Drawing on Kress and van Leeuwen’s ground-breaking volume, Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design (1996), the chapter does not aim, however, to present a complete and exhaustive account or theory of visual grammar. Rather, it simply attempts to introduce some rudimentary visual elements that can be used to classify iconic images and, especially, verifiably detect the visual means adopted in the mediated construction of stereotyped gendered and racial identities. My main aim is to observe and analyse the different types of identities construed in promotional discourse from a diachronic perspective, paying particular attention to the way the representation of the human body is used as a semiotic resource as well as a promotional strategy. After a preliminary methodological overview of the underpinning theories informing this chapter, which briefly range from Halliday’s SFL to recent developments in the field of Multimodal Discourse Analysis, a practical recapitulating grid for establishing some important criteria in the analysis of ‘semiotic metafunctions’ is provided in paragraph 2. The VINCorpus, a diachronic multimodal corpus of magazine and newspaper ads comprising print ads produced from the 40s to the 60s in the Anglophone contexts of Britain, the US and Canada, is introduced and analysed in the third paragraph. The MMDA of three ‘vintage’ print adverts highlights the strict connection between advertising and the way promotional discourses are culturally dependent and able to influence important aspects of social practice. In particular, a diachronic approach to the biased construction of identities in ads proves to be very informative to contemporary society’s understanding of the resilience, whether intentional or not, of gender and racial prejudice still perpetrated in our cultures and societies today. Indeed, if such strict categories of gender and race are still upheld, despite “a kind of stubborn ‘weight’ of history” (Pitcher, 2014: 145), within complex and complicated discourses of injustices and inequalities, power and hegemony, it then becomes compulsory to persistently reiterate how gendered and racial stereotypes keep on construing negative meanings in social representations.

Transnational Subjects: Linguistic Encounters - Selected papers from XXVII AIA Conference Volume II

Antonio Fruttaldo

Culture has been traditionally seen as the by-product of a particular society in a clearly defined territory (Yengoyan 1986). However, the elusive concept of culture, seen as both a merging and dichotomising force, has been called into question due to the increasing entanglement of contemporary societies (Welsch 1999). Indeed, territories can no longer be seen as containing cultures, since people move with their meanings, and meanings find ways of travelling and flourishing even when people stay in their territories (Hannerz 1996). The increasing development of communications systems (Hepp 2009) and economic interdependencies and dependencies plays an important role in challenging the traditional view of culture. Thus, the concept of transculturality can better characterise contemporary cultures and their ability to move beyond material and immaterial borders. One of the ways through which cultural-specific phenomena cross borders and find a new life in a different environment is represented by forms of hybridisation (Bhatia 2004), seen as vehicles which can help popularise given genres. The hybridisation of broadcast news, for instance, has produced forms of docu-fictions, which can be placed in the blurred generic area of story-telling and news reporting, mixing together facts and fictions (Baym 2009). However, as vessels, these narrative hybrid forms bring together with them cultural-specific elements, which are difficult to re-enact in a new context. This is the case, for instance, of the TV series Gomorrah, which is based on the Italian novel Gomorra written in 2006 by the Neapolitan author Roberto Saviano. As Saviano has repeatedly underlined (Caliendo 2012), most of the news stories linked to the Neapolitan Mafia, known as Camorra, stay local and remain largely unknown to most Italians. Further, as Cavaliere (2010) states, international books and movies generally focus on the Sicilian Mafia, while little has been written about the Camorra. Saviano’s exposé, first, and its popularised adaptations have shed light on the criminal activities of the Camorra and, while some elements of fiction are undeniably present in both the book and its adaptations, they succeeded in raising awareness on the problems linked to the Neapolitan context, something that journalism has failed to highlight from a national and an international point of view. In order to achieve this, from a national point of view, the TV series, for instance, premiered in Italy with Italian subtitles, since the language of Gomorrah – The Series (from now on referred to as GTS) is a mix of both Italian and Neapolitan dialogues. While representing a third step in the translation of the original script, the UK subtitles of the TV series, on the other hand, have helped draw attention to the criminal activities plaguing Naples’ hinterland from an international point of view. However, since translation is central in the process of identity formation (Gentzler 2008), the aim of this contribution is to focus on the transcultural reception of the series. In particular, based on the concept of translation repercussion (Chesterman 2007), the proposed analysis will firstly focus on a particular aspect of the TV series, that is, how the producers of the series have created their target audience in the Italian and English versions of the DVD blurbs. Based on the work of Bednarek (2010, 2014), this preliminary analysis of the TV series will help us see how this specific type of advertising discourse construes its target audience. Since these texts “must take care to engage with what can be a diverse audience in an appropriate way” (Baker 2006: 50) by, for instance, “deciding what aspects [...] are foregrounded (or backgrounded) and what assumptions are made about the interests and lifestyles of the target audience” (Baker 2006: 50), the analysis of DVD blurbs can help us better understand what values are specifically constructed in discourse, thus, highlighting the type of universe that producers want to create when addressing their target audience. Additionally, since this type of persuasive discourse will eventually result in a financial exchange, language plays a fundamental role in the representation of the TV series as a whole and, thus, how it should be interpreted by its viewers. The second part of our investigation will focus on how the main characters linguistically construct themselves in the context of the Italian and English subtitles of the TV series. We have decided to focus specifically on the subtitles of the TV series since, in the English adaptation, GTS was not dubbed and, thus, in order to make the comparison between the original and its re-adaptation more productive, we have decided to avoid taking under consideration also the original script of the TV series, since this would have insulated given differences that were not strictly linked to the translation process but due to the different media. The analysis was carried out thanks to corpus linguistic methodologies and these have allowed us to see how the “individual linguistic thumbprint” (Culpeper 2014: 166) of each character in the source text was construed in the target text. As we will see, given characteristics of specific characters seem to be stereotyped in the target text, while others seem to highlight given peculiarities in the target texts that were not particularly underlined in the source texts, thus, offering the audience new personas in the translation of the original text.

La questione Romantica

Gioia Angeletti

Gioia Angeletti ranslation of the Letters of a Hindoo Rajah (1796) is an epistolary novel composed of a series of letters written from England by Zããrmilla, the Hindu rajah of Almora, to his friend Kisheen Neeay Mããndããra in India, about his experiences in and ...

Gianluca Pontrandolfo , Stefano Ondelli

Negative sentences have been extensively studied in European and Asian languages (cf., for example, Jespersen 1917, Pullum & Huddleston 200, Manzotti & Rigamonti 1991, Bosque 1980, Sánchez López 1999) as a ‘pragmatic universal’: every language has some means of expressing negation (Bernini & Ramat 1996: 1). However, so far few studies have been devoted to double or multiple negatives, especially from a cross-linguistic perspective in languages for special purposes. As far as legal language is concerned, the topic has been tackled almost exclusively with relation to the simplification of legal and judicial writing (cf., among others, Charrow et al. 1986, Cortelazzo & Pellegrino 2003, CMDS 2011). Many scholars agree that it is a striking feature of legalese (cf. Mellinkoff 1963), but there seem to be a gap in the literature on the quantitative and qualitative dimensions of this trait, particularly from a contrastive perspective. The present quali-quantative study relies on an extensive trilingual corpus of legal texts providing the test bed for semi-automatic discourse analyses. By identifying and classifying the typical constructs of multiple negation in English, Italian and Spanish legal texts, the paper provides evidence of the linguistic resources leading to one of the main distinctive features of legal language. Furthermore, the pragmatic and rhetorical effects achieved through multiple negatives in all three languages are compared and contrasted. In the wake of the plain language movement, the results yielded from the analysis will also be used to put forward proposals for the simplification of legal texts, when multiple negation seems to be a feature adopted for stylistic rather than functional purposes.

Marta Cariello

Balirano, Giuseppe / Nisco, Maria Cristina (eds) 2015. Languaging Diversity: Identities, Genres, Discourses. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN: 9781443871228.

Giuseppe Balirano , Maria Cristina Nisco

Languaging Diversity: Identities, Genres, Discourses is a suggestive title for another book in the field of linguistics, but what does it actually mean? By choosing to speak of Languaging Diversity and not just of difference, otherness, varieties, multiplicity, hybridity or alterity, the editors cover the whole range of meanings in the entire field of diversity. They do not wish to limit themselves by using such specific words with increasingly specialised connotations as Alterity or Other, but rather to allow an eclectic range of perspectives and issues to come to the fore. This volume brings together some of the manifold discourses emerging as bearers of the values of alterity, by exploring the thorny relationship between Language and Diversity. Drawing on the crucial assumption that speakers identities are dynamically negotiated as discourse unfolds, Languaging Diversity explores the wide theme of identity in discourse, an area of investigation which has become increasingly popular in recent years.

Raffaele Zago , Monika Bednarek

Balirano, G. / Baker, P. (eds) 2018. Queering Masculinities in Language and Culture. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Giuseppe Balirano , Paul Baker

‘By exploring the entire gamut of the representation of masculinity in both old and new media and across a wide range of disciplines, Baker and Balirano get readers really thinking about what it means to be a man in today’s liquid society. Guaranteed to raise awareness about the diverse ways of being and performing masculinity, the book provides a novel contribution to an exciting new field opening up new avenues for other researchers.’ —Delia Chiaro, Professor of English Linguistics and Translation, University of Bologna, Italy, and President of the International Society of Humor Studies ‘Exploring the interface of queer studies with the fields of linguistics, anthropology, semiotics, critical discourse analysis, literary and film studies, the articles in this collection draw a multifaceted picture of the discursive construction and representation of queer masculinities in a range of text genres and contexts. They engage in fascinating analyses of various aspects of queer masculinities, including issues such as consumer culture, representation in TV series, films, literature and art, intersectionality with trans and racial identities, homophobic discourse and subordination through hegemonic masculinity.’ —Heiko Motschenbacher, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen

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Balirano, G. 2015. “Language, Identity and Diversity”. In Balirano, G. / Nisco, M.C. (eds) 2015. Languaging Diversity: Identities, Genres, Discourses, pp. 325-331. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

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Balirano, G. / Baker, P. 2018. “Introduction – Queer Masculinities: By Way of Introduction”. In Balirano, G. / Baker, P. (eds), Queering Masculinities in Language and Culture, pp. 1-17. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Balirano, G. 2014. Masculinity and Representation: A Multimodal Critical Approach to Male Identity Constructions. Napoli: Paolo Loffredo Iniziative Editoriali. ISBN: 978-88-9400-379-6.

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Balirano, G. / Caliendo, G. / Sambre, P. 2017. Introduction to the Special Issue. In Balirano, G. / Caliendo, G. / Sambre, P. (eds), The Discursive Representation of Globalised Organised Crime: Crossing Borders of Languages and Cultures. I-LanD International Journal 1(1) [Special Issue]: 6-14.

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Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Culture and Communication — The Relationship Between Language And Culture

The Relationship Between Language and Culture

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Essays On Language And Culture

Most people think of language as a tool for communication. And it is certainly that. But language is also a reflection of culture. It contains the history, values, and traditions of a people. So when you learn a new language, you are also learning about a new culture.

Language and culture are intertwined. You can’t really understand one without the other. That’s why, when you’re learning a new language, it’s important to also learn about the culture that uses it. Otherwise, you’ll only be able to communicate on a surface level. You won’t be able to truly connect with people or understand their way of life.

Of course, learning a new language can be difficult. It takes time, practice, and patience. But it’s worth it. When you finally achieve fluency, you’ll be able to bridge the gap between cultures and connect with people from all over the world.

There are two types of communication: verbal and non-verbal. The transmission and receipt of wordless messages is considered non-verbal communication. There are alternative methods of communication, in addition to language. Gestures and touch can be used to convey information, as can body language or posture. Face expression and eye contact may also be utilized to deliver communications

Culture is the characteristic of group of people defined by everything from language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts. Culture is passed down from one generation to the next and it shapes the way we see the world.

Language is a system of symbols with which we communicate. It is made up of spoken sounds (i.e. phonemes) which are combined into words, and a written form (i.e. graphemes) which are combined into sentences. culture shapes language as much as language shapes culture. The words we use reveal a lot about our cultural background and the way we see the world.

There are many different languages spoken around the world, each with its own unique history and culture. Learning a new language can be a challenge, but it can also be a great opportunity to learn about new cultures and to connect with people from different backgrounds.

Whether you’re trying to learn a new language for travel, work or just personal interest, there are many resources available to help you on your journey. There are online courses, apps, books and more, all designed to help you learn at your own pace. So what are you waiting for? Start learning today!

Symbols, icons (or graphics), and objects can also be utilized to convey meaning. Paralanguage, which includes voice quality, rate, pitch, volume, and speaking style as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation, and stress, is a type of nonverbal communication that may be expressed through words. DANCE Dance is another sort of nonverbal communication.

Some scholars have suggested that nonverbal communication can be categorized into six different categories, namely:

– Bodily action

– Object communication

– Sign language

– Symbolic interaction

– Paralanguage

– Chronemics

Actions or behaviors may serve as nonverbal cues and convey messages. For example, a person who crosses his arms is usually interpreted as being defensive or angry. Other examples of nonverbal cues include eye contact, facial expressions, gestures and touch.

In some cases, people may say one thing but communicate a different message through their nonverbal actions. For example, a person who smiles and says “I’m fine” when asked how he is doing may actually be feeling sad or angry.

Nonverbal communication can also be conveyed through object communication, which includes the use of artifacts or objects to convey meaning. For example, a gift can communicate feelings of love, appreciation or gratitude. A crucifix may convey religious beliefs, while a wedding ring may represent a commitment to marriage.

Sign language is another form of nonverbal communication that is used by people who are deaf or hard of hearing. It involves the use of hand gestures and facial expressions to convey meaning.

Symbolic interaction is a theory in sociology that suggests that people communicate through symbols and interpret the world around them based on their own experiences and perspectives.

Paralanguage refers to the nonverbal elements of speech, such as tone of voice, pitch and volume. It can also include features such as rhythm, intonation and stress.

Chronemics is the study of how time is used in communication. It includes the use of body language, such as eye contact and gesture, to convey messages.

Nonverbal communication is a powerful tool that can be used to build relationships, resolve conflict and create rapport. It is important to be aware of the different ways in which it can be used in order to effectively communicate with others.

Verbal, nonverbal, and interpersonal communication all have their part to play in different languages and cultures. Sign languages and writing are typically considered as forms of verbal communication since they both employ words — although they may also include paralinguistic features, and they frequently occur alongside nonverbal communications.

Nonverbal communication includes the use of visual cues such as body language, eye contact, and facial expressions, as well as touch, voice (e.g., intonation, pitch, volume), and smell. It also encompasses the way we dress and groom ourselves, as well as the space we occupy when communicating.

Interpersonal communication is the process by which people interact with each other using verbal and nonverbal messages. This can happen in face-to-face interactions or online through social media or other digital platforms.

Culture refers to a group of people who share common customs, beliefs, values, and traditions. Culture shapes the way we see the world and influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. It is also a key element in communication, as it can affect the way we interpret and respond to messages.

Language is a system of symbols that are used to communicate thoughts and feelings. It is made up of spoken or written words, as well as gestures, body language, and other forms of nonverbal communication. Language can be used to express both verbal and nonverbal messages.

Different languages and cultures have different norms for communication. For example, in some cultures eye contact is considered rude, while in others it is considered respectful. In some languages, there are different ways to address people depending on their age, gender, or social status. And some cultures place a higher value on individualism, while others emphasize the importance of community.

When communicating with someone from a different culture, it is important to be aware of these differences and to try to adapt your communication style accordingly.

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Identity, Language, and Culture Essay

Introduction, identity and diaspora, connection between language, identity and cultural difference, reference list.

Identity is marked out by differences in the surrounding or context within which an individual or thing is found. Differences are what make an individual or a group of people identifiable or definable. The identity of a person and what he uses, his culture and language are closely connected.

Language and culture act as symbols which mark or delineate an individual’s identity characteristics. Difference in identity makes an individual or a group of people see themselves as belonging.

The differences outline the demarcations of in-groups to which individuals belong. The basic differences between in-groups are enshrined in the language and symbolic systems that they use.

Identity definitions make individuals or a group of people to see themselves as being better than others. Hall (1997, p. 8) provides a case of a Serb militia man who claims that Serbs are totally different from Croats even in the cigarettes they smoke. Due to the kind of identity definition they hold, the Croats think themselves to be better than Serbs (Hall, 1997, 8).

The language one speaks is a powerful symbol of identity and through it, others can tell one’s nationality or culture. A person can encourage positive identity practice when he accepts and learns the identity of a particular community.

Inversely, if one rejects or vilifies the cultural identity of others, he or she encourages negative identity practices, which if unchecked are likely to result in full blown conflicts. Through language we are able to present to people who we really are and it’s also a way for others to make their own assumptions of who we are.

We have different languages and this is what marks an individual’s or a group of people’s identity. For example, the common English language the Australians speak is different from the ones Americans speak.

The differences in the English spoken in America and the English spoken in Australia results or is a consequence of difference in accents. Therefore, the difference in accents distinguishes these two groups although they speak the same language; English.

Cultural characteristics are also important symbols, which distinguish an individual or a group of people as belonging to a particular group or culture. Through the differences in cultures we are able to mark one’s identity and know or make assumptions of who they are and from which background they hail.

Identity is relational in the sense that it is distinguished by something it is not or does not have. If a particular culture does not have or do something which another culture has or does, then that is what distinguishes that particular culture, and thus gives it an identity.

Language, identity and cultural differences all have this character. An individual or a group of people may not have something in their language or culture which another individual or group of people have. What one culture lacks that another culture has gives the respective cultures a sense of identity; it distinguishes them from the others.

Language, identity and cultural differences are all marked through symbols. Things an individual or a group of people use are closely related to their identity, these are symbols which identify or define them.

They may be using something which another one doesn’t use or which they think is better than theirs, like in the case of Serbs and Croats it’s the cigarettes which define them. The cigarettes act as the symbols and differentiated or distinguish identities (Hall, 1969, p.10).

Language, identity and culture are connected because it is the differences inherent in language that map a given identity. Language and culture are connected because language often carries symbolic meanings that can only be understood in the context of the given culture.

Both languages and cultures have symbols which also act as identifiers or distinction between individuals or groups of people. Language and Culture like identity are also relational in that they are all distinguished by something they are not.

Different languages, identities and cultures have different things which the other does not have and this is what distinguishes and makes them different.

The differences in culture and language gives respective cultures and languages a sense of identity and this is important because it defines an individual or a group of people. Our identities reflect the common historical experiences and shared cultural values which make us to be a united people with stable reference of meaning.

Identity is important in that it defines who we really are and in the post colonial struggles it played a big role in reshaping our world.

The rediscovery of identity in post colonial societies has been the object of hope which has been helping former colonial subjects and colonizers rehabilitate themselves with regard to self definition and appropriation of how others define themselves (Hall, 1997).

Identity has also played an important role in the development of many important social movements. These include feminist, anti-colonial and anti-racist, environmental activists, lobby groups, human rights activists, among others movements. What brings this people together is a common identity.

They identify themselves because of the different causes they hold dear in society. The difference in cause or concern gives them an identity. Further, these social movements are identifiable with distinctive language use or jargon and their developing of symbols that frame a kind of subculture.

Language being a powerful symbol of identity is a major difference between different cultural groups in Australia. Even among people who speak English, differences in accent and use of cliché words creates further distinctions, subcultures and thus identities.

I have some experience of having lived in a multicultural setting. The setting composed of people of African origin, African Americans and indigenous locals. From observations, I noticed many differences that distinguished each set of individuals or groups.

The Chinese believe that in order to achieve unity they must take pride in their history and culture; they believe that intellectual unity and consolidated power is what brings them social harmony. This is different from Australians who still deconstruct their culture, consolidate power and through government work to implement their agendas.

People of Chinese origin focus more on self development and personal growth than transforming or challenging traditional structures and set ups. This is unlike the attitude of black Americans or English Australians.

Considering countries, china is very distinctive or different from Australia. Australia is identified from Chinese because they don’t take pride in their history and cultures like the Chinese do.

Another way of distinguishing between Australians and Chinese is by language. The Chinese have their languages and even those who have immigrated to Australia still speak and teach their children to speak Chinese.

National identity in Australia was brought about by earlier Australians identifying selves with being able to withstand hardship. This kind of identity has produced a sporting spirit that has continued to grow.

Other historical factors like the gold rush days, Federation, World Wars and others have been significant symbols which have greatly influenced the development of Australia’s national identity.

The Gold Rush had a great impact on the economy of Australia and development of the nation. Diggers in the goldfields developed a strong relationship which has been important to them on how they and others perceive being Australian.

Since then, the diggers’ rebelliousness and disregard for the authority at that time has remained an important topic of discussion in Australia history and identity.

Diverse cultures, people and images in Australia have been a strong symbol of identity. Many important events and people who were involved in these events have helped the Australians shape the view they have of their nations and how others view them as a nation.

Indigenous communities have kept their cultural heritage strong and alive by passing it to every generation. These include their knowledge, art and performances.

By speaking and teaching their language to their children, protecting their culture, sacred and important places and objects, the Australians have been able to maintain and be proud of their identity.

The Aboriginal people in Australia value their land so much. They believe their land is what sustains people. Reciprocally, people and culture in turn are supposed to sustain the land. National parks are of great significance for the Aboriginal people because of the stories associated to them; stories that have been told from one generation to the other.

The diverse cultures and people unite the Australians and this has made them committed to their country. They have a right to express their diverse cultures and beliefs and to participate freely in Australia’s national development.

Everyone in Australia is expected to respect an individual’s worth, dignity and freedom. Every individual has freedom of speech, religion, association and is expected to support and maintain peace. The pride each individual group takes in its cultural heritage has helped keep Australian cultures live.

The cultural identification helps distinguish people and offers them an identity. National initiatives and mechanisms have been put in place to help Australians towards becoming more tolerant towards difference.

Art in Australia has contributed to the shaping and reflecting of the nation’s image. Art scenes have reflected the diverse indigenous cultural traditions and this as a symbol of identity has helped to define the nation. Modern art in Australia is totally different to that of Chinese.

Because of government funding, Australia’s art is more political compared to that of Chinese. This has caused a great divide between the private and the government funded art’s market. This is a mark of identity because identity is relational as it is distinguished by something it is not.

Art in China is distinguished from that of Australia because it’s less political. The difference in art scenes of these two countries also marks identity because identity is marked by differences, and through these differences Australia is able to define itself.

Education in Australia is different from that of China in that in Australia they are more focused on students while in China they are more focused on teachers.

A teacher in Australia will help students find answers to a question by themselves by providing them with the basic knowledge while in China a teacher will easily give answers to students without letting them do something on their own first.

In Australia students interact a lot and more easily than in China. Students in Australia learn by doing things on their own and interacting with their fellow students and they plan their own learning. These differences in education between China and Australia mark identity because identity is all about differences.

Identity is marked through symbols. As a matter of fact, symbols are very important for marking cultural identity and regeneration.

For example, national flag, food recipe and uniform are such symbols that identify individuals or groups. Australia has a national flag in which they take pride and which has become an expression of identity. It is the nation’s chief symbol and Australians respect it and use it with dignity.

Through symbols, individuals define their culture and are able to feel connected with their past. Moreover, symbols also connect the present with the future as they help to store or safeguard a people’s heritage. This is because the symbols have been there from the past and have been passed from one generation to the other.

For example in Australia, the ruling authority wanted to make the Union Jack as the uniting symbol. Many Australians were against this and they tried to create their own symbols in order to challenge the authorities and express their culture.

Many of these were rejected by the government which has in turn has made Australia remain seeking for symbols. Up to now, symbols still define much of political life in Australia and Australians are still trying to find new symbols. This shows how symbols are important in marking an identity of an individual or a nation.

Chinese boast when it comes to hospitality and this is clearly expressed by their way of life. In China they can easily invite a stranger in their homes and share with him their food and make sure he/she is full before leaving. It’s different in Australia because they are kind of wary of strangers than the Chinese people.

Identity is marked through social and material conditions. When it comes to drinking, alcohol is important for both Australians and Chinese. What makes the difference is the way of consumption. The Chinese get drunk very fast and it is acceptable for them to act in an uncontrolled manner while drunk.

For the Chinese drinking is a way of showing respect. On the other hand Australians drink more slowly while having a conversation and they don’t seem to like it when one starts to act in an uncontrolled manner due to drunkenness.

Sex is considered a taboo topic for discussion in China and in order for a woman to be respected and valued in marriage; she has to be a virgin. In Australia sex topics are not considered taboo and they are openly discussed and for a man to marry he doesn’t have to get a virgin woman.

This has caused many women and men to be sexually experienced before getting married. This for most of older Chinese is very immoral. It doesn’t mean that the Chinese are upright in behavior; they also have a number of practices that Australians find immoral.

Men in China find themselves in sexual unfulfilling marriages, this makes it acceptable for them to visit prostitutes or have mistresses. In Australia this is totally unacceptable. Chinese maintain their morality before getting married but after marriage it gets different while Australians maintain their morality in marriage.

Australia is a multicultural nation in which they have many different races, ethnic groups and cultures. In Australia there are the indigenous and non-indigenous people. The indigenous people are claimed to have been marginalized through colonization.

One of the major debates on the significance of belonging and culture is identity. Multiculturalism in Australia is about cultural diversity and has influenced greatly the identity of the nation. It values its racial and ethnic diversity by giving its people freedom to express their cultural values.

Multiculturalism in Australia has worked well because different cultures have been accepted by the people and the peaceful relationship between diverse cultures and individuals has been maintained.

Diversity in Australia has acted as a positive force in bringing the people of together by accepting each others different culture and this has been a very significant identity which the people of Australia take pride in.

Sports, music and art have provided Australia with an identity. It has been recognized worldwide through its achievements in sports.

They have been able to achieve this through a successful multicultural society and their sporting heroes are recognized and valued worldwide giving Australia an identity.

Hall’s explanation of the connection between language, identity and cultural difference has helped in explaining how these three connect. As Hall put it, identity is marked out by differences.

Different people speak different languages and this difference is what makes an individual identify with a particular group of people. There are different cultures and identity which exists between people and they are all marked by differences.

Identity representation has signifying symbols and processes which produce meanings through which we can know who we are and understand our experiences. This symbolic system makes us understand who we are and what we might be in future.

Representations of identity helps an individual see and know themselves. Culture shapes identity by giving meaning to our experiences in that we are able to define ourselves by relating to our cultural experiences.

Diaspora identities are those which are continuing to develop themselves a new through transformation and difference. Thus cultural identities go through constant transformation as it is about what you become and what you are. Cultural identities are the points of identification which are made throughout history of a culture.

In Australia multiculturalism has made it difficult for the government to approve a national cultural symbol because all cultures are equal and the people enjoy freedom of being individuals.

Social and symbolic markings are both important for the defining and maintaining of identities. Symbolic marking is how we look at and understand our social relations and practices while social differentiation is the way people live with these types of differences in their everyday relations.

Identities are formed and maintained because they mater so much and this is why people would always claim their positions and identify with them. Different people, cultures, ethnic groups and even religious groups claim a common culture as their foundation. Identity depends on difference and in social relations symbolic and social differences develop.

Foods people eat tell a lot about who they are and what culture we are in. Foods indicate religious as well as ethnic background and culture of a people, there are foods which are considered as unclean by other cultures or religious groups but are eaten by others.

Through such foods we are able to make an assumption or know which culture or religion one comes from, for example Muslims are identified for their avoidance of pork and this defines their religion.

This marks the identity of such groups who avoid certain foods and the identities of those who are part of a particular belief system and those who are not. The types of food people eat are materialistic because people eat what they are able to afford and what is available in their society.

Identities are made in relation to other identities, what they are not is what defines them and this brings the difference. Chinese art scenes are not as political as those of Australia and this is what marks the difference.

Cultural identities are histories which people share and thus make them one people or one culture. A Diaspora must discover this identity in order for them to express their cultural experiences.

Around the world people define their cultural identity by stereotyping themselves. The stereotypes model the behavior that people want to copy and make people feel that they are part of a community and that they belong to a particular culture.

In Australia, individuals have appreciated the importance of identity and in order to confirm their identity, they have created stereotypes. The Australians take pride in their national unity and people from different cultures are all one and care for one another.

In conclusion, Hall’s argument that Identity is marked by differences is a valid one. Further, the interconnection he relates about language, culture and identity as illustrated in the foregoing paragraphs is a valid one.

Some differences are taken to be more important than others by different ethnic groups or cultures. One group might see themselves superior to the other and what they use as more important and great than the others.

Identity is also marked through social and material conditions. A group may be separated socially and disadvantaged materially if it is it is symbolically marked as an enemy or taboo.

Symbols mark distinctions which are present in social relations. In social relations people use different things and because an individual or group of people may think of theirs as better than others, it brings the distinction.

If a group is socially separated because it is marked as an enemy they will be materially disadvantaged because no one would want to associate with such group which is claimed to be a taboo or enemy.

Social relations may be organized and divided into opposing groups; one group may see themselves as better than the other and consider the other as nothing because of the different social backgrounds and cultures.

Hall, S. (1997). Cultural Identity and Diaspora . London: SAGE Publication

Hall, S. (1969). Commonwealth of Australia . London: Sage Publications

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IvyPanda. (2022, April 13). Identity, Language, and Culture. https://ivypanda.com/essays/identity-and-diaspora-essay/

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Literature and Culture

• First Online: 11 April 2019

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• Jeneen Naji 4 ,
• Ganakumaran Subramaniam 5 &
• Goodith White 6  

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Many theoretical approaches to literary studies assume that the relationship between literature and culture is an important one, in the sense that literature both reflects and is a means of reflecting on the culture in which it is produced. In defining culture, the writers describe the effects of global culture on what is read, and the notion that any literary text cannot help being a partial and biased representation of the culture it portrays. Students need to be supported in questioning the cultural assumptions made in texts and questioning stereotypes. The components of cultural awareness are explored and illustrated, and the chapter ends with a discussion of high and low culture as they apply to the texts students read.

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Department of Media Studies, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, Maynooth, Kildare, Ireland

Jeneen Naji

School of Education, University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia

Ganakumaran Subramaniam

Goodith White

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Naji, J., Subramaniam, G., White, G. (2019). Literature and Culture. In: New Approaches to Literature for Language Learning. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15256-7_4

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