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Start with the MLA International Bibliography

The MLA International Bibliography is both international and multilingual, making it a great general tool for research in literary scholarship. You can use the drop-down list to specify a Subject Literature by nation or region (Scottish, North African, etc.).
Since the MLA is based in the U.S., though, there's a natural bias toward anglophone literature and toward works by American scholars. To find databases and bibliographies specific to your subject literature, please ask me (Odile) for recommendations. You're also welcome to explore Harvard's Databases list .

Think in Terms of Language Families and Geographical Region

Use multiple kinds of search terms, nouns and adjectives:.

Pro tip: also add adjectival forms for languages: Lusophone, Sinophone
East Asian, Pacific, Iberian, Latin America

Dialects and cultures

Hwanghae, Latino, Chicano

Language families

Romance, Slavic, Nilo-Saharan.

Pro tip : learn the MARC codes for your languages of interest , for catalog searching (e.g. in HOLLIS Advanced Search )

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Language : most search interfaces allow you to filter by language, and/or have a "language" option on the Advanced Search page
Place of publication : it is also often possible to filter or search by place of publication

For Non-Roman Scripts, Search Multiple Variations

Cataloging practices and system capabilities have changed significantly over time - you will need to try multiple search methods. Expect some hiccups in your searching no matter what you do.

Get expert advice: if you're doing extensive searching in a vernacular script, a cataloging expert can alert you to tiny variations that make a big difference in your results.
Search in the original script : many systems can now accept non-Latin character sets, and current best practice is for items to be cataloged by their original titles, in the original script. HOLLIS does accept non-Latin scripts.
ALA-LC Romanization Tables - these tables define current best practice in the U.S. Note that there are many different romanization schemes in use around the world.
Tips for romanizing Arabic, Persian, and Hebrew (Harvard guide for Middle East and Islamic Studies Library Resources)
Tips for romanizing Cyrillic script (Slavic and Eurasian Studies at Harvard: Library and Archival Resources Slavic Studies Research Guide)
Try your search with and without diacritics: every search system is different. Some ignore diacritical marks, some require them. Remember that the same accented letters can be represented with different unicode blocks. HOLLIS generally ignores diacritics.

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Explore Harvard's Collections

There is non-Anglophone material throughout Harvard's library collections, but several libraries specialize in a particular cultural tradition or geographic area. Many of the collections below rank among the world's best.

In Cambridge:

Harvard-Yenching Library - East Asian
Slavic Collections (Widener)
Fung Library - 20th-century social-science collections on Eurasia, Japan, and China
Middle Eastern Collection (Widener)
Judaica Collection (Widener)

Beyond Massachusetts:

Center for Hellenic Studies - Greek and Byzantine
Biblioteca Berenson - Medieval Italian

Explore Beyond Harvard's Collections

Pro Tip : use InterLibrary Loan to request material from outside of Harvard's Collections

Union Catalogs

WorldCat - a global union catalog that aggregates library catalogs from across the country and the world
Karlsruher Virtueller Katalog - a union catalog for European libraries that includes many records not found in WorldCat

National Libraries

National library catalogs are usually open to search, no log-in required
If you don't find a national library, try to find what other institutions might have the biggest libraries in the country, such as a prominent university, museum, cultural heritage center, or branch of government
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CHAPTER 2 Review of Related Literature and Studies Foreign Literature Student Performance Galiher

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Eumi Cuntapay

Determinants of students ' performance have been the subject of ongoing debate among educators, academics, and policy makers. There have been many studies that sought to examine this issue and their findings point out to hard work, previous schooling, parents ’ education, family income and self motivation as factors that have a significant effect on the students GPA. Most of those studies have focused on students ' performance in the U.S. and Europe. However, since cultural differences may play a role in shaping the factors that affect students' performance, it is very important to examine those relevant factors to the UAE society. The aim of this study is to investigate the socio-economic characteristics of students of the College of Business and Economics-UAEU in relation to these students ' performance and taking into account variables pertaining to the UAE Society. Using a sample of 864 CBE student and

Nova Degorio , Katsikas Elias

JOSEPHAT NCHUNGO

Foreign Literature

Foreign Literature , founded in 1980, has the longest history and the biggest influence among professional academic publications in the foreign literature research in China. Editors of the journal are researchers from the Institute of Foreign Literature, Beijing Foreign Studies University, and the editorial board is comprised of renowned scholars from home and abroad.

The journal conducts anonymous peer review. Famous scholars including Wang Zuoliang and Hu Wenzhong have served as its editor-in-chief, and the current editor-in-chief is Professor Jin Li.

With foreign literature researchers and enthusiasts as its main readers, the journal pays extensive attention to the languages and literature of various nationalities around the world, introduces the trends of foreign writers and their works and researches and develops critical theory. It publishes the latest results of foreign literature research, and promotes academic dialogue among different countries, regions and cultures.

The journal advocates in-depth research and new explorations, adheres to its literary nature, pursues an open, accurate, and concise style of writing, and is committed to creating a flourishing, lively academic atmosphere.

It is now a bimonthly magazine with columns such as Review, Theory, Cultural Research, and Book Reviews. In addition, it is a Chinese core journal, a source journal of the Chinese Social Science Citation Index (CSSCI), and a level-A core journal of AMI Comprehensive Evaluation of Chinese Humanities and Social Sciences Journals. It hosts a national academic seminar every year.

International subscription is made through China International Book Trading Corporation, 35 West ChegongzhuangRoad, Haidian District, Beijing 100048, China.

Manuscripts must adhere to MLA Style. Submission: http://wgwxqk.cbpt.cnki.net

Editorial correspondence should be addressed to Foreign Literature, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing100089, China. Tel.: 86-10-88816730; Email: [email protected]

East Campus: No 2 Xisanhuan North Road, Haidian District, Beijing, China West Campus: No 19 Xisanhuan North Road, Haidian District, Beijing, China

Degrees of Affinity

Studies in Comparative Literature and Translation

© 2015
Zuoliang Wang 0

Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, China

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Collects all the important essays and articles written originally in English by one of China’s most outstanding 20th-century scholars, dealing with interactions between literatures and between cultures
The late Professor Wang Zuoliang was pioneering in bringing forth the concept of “affinity” between literatures, which constitutes a great contribution to comparative literature. Scintillating ideas and observances are everywhere to be found in this book
Provides some interesting ideas about the translation standard and practice in the 20th-century China
Offers a panoramic picture of how the Chinese mandarin-scholars and intellectuals in the 20th century, faced with domestic strife and foreign aggression, tried to keep the door wide open to the latest trends in western literature, and how they tried, each in their different ways, to solve problems that harassed China at that time

Part of the book series: China Academic Library (CHINALIBR)

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Table of contents (18 chapters)

Front matter, literary history: chinese beginnings.

Zuoliang Wang

The Shakespearean Moment in China

Trends in chinese literature today, english poetry and the chinese reader, on affinity between literatures, across literatures: the translation boom in china, two early translators.

Lu Xun and Western Literature

Chinese Modernists and Their Metamorphoses

Modernist poetry in china, a chinese poet, the poet as translator, some observations on verse translation, on translating joyce, burns and others, sean o’casey in china, translation standard in china: a survey, reflections on a dictionary, back matter.

Literary History
Modernist Poetry
Shakespearean Moment in China
Verse Translation
the Translation Boom

About this book

This book combines two collections of essays written by the late professor Zuoliang Wang, works that explore the affinity between literatures and peoples, with special attention given to that between Chinese literature and western literature in the 20 th century, and which underscore the role of translation therein. Both collections have been previously published in book form: Degrees of Affinity—Studies in Comparative Literature (1985) and A Sense of Beginning—Studies in Literature and Translation (1991).

As a prominent literary critic, literary historian, translator and 20 th -century Chinese poet, Wang has played a unique part in English education in China. His research interests range widely, from English literature through comparative literature to translation and cultural studies, fields in which he has made outstanding accomplishments. Wang pioneered the concept of “affinity” in talking about interactions between literatures and peoples, which has since won great acclaim from both critics and common readers at home and abroad. As he points out, “momentous changes often occur when a foreign literature satisfies a sore need of an indigenous literature, thus developing a strong affinity...” And translation can fulfill a crucial role in bringing about affinity between literatures and peoples. According to Professor Wang, “Nothing is more crucial in cultural contacts, not to say cultural interactions, than translation, particularly in a country that for long periods closed its doors to the outside world, like China.”

Authors and Affiliations

Bibliographic information.

Book Title : Degrees of Affinity

Book Subtitle : Studies in Comparative Literature and Translation

Authors : Zuoliang Wang

Series Title : China Academic Library

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45475-6

Publisher : Springer Berlin, Heidelberg

eBook Packages : Humanities, Social Sciences and Law , Literature, Cultural and Media Studies (R0)

Copyright Information : Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-662-45474-9 Published: 10 March 2015

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-662-52557-9 Published: 06 October 2016

eBook ISBN : 978-3-662-45475-6 Published: 15 February 2015

Series ISSN : 2195-1853

Series E-ISSN : 2195-1861

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : VI, 193

Topics : Comparative Literature

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Journal information

Sponsor: Central China Normal University Undertaker: School of Chinese Language and Literature，Central China Normal University Central China Normal University School of foreign languages Chief Editor: Su Hui Editor: Editorial Department the of study of foreign literature International issue: ISSN 1003-7519 Domestic issue: CN 42-1060/I

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Current Research on the Impact of Foreign Language Learning Among Healthy Seniors on Their Cognitive Functions From a Positive Psychology Perspective—A Systematic Review

Associated data.

All datasets generated for this study are included in the manuscript.

The purpose of this review study is to explore the existing research focusing on the impact of foreign language learning among healthy seniors on their cognitive functions from the positive psychology perspective. The methods are based on a literature review of available sources found on the research topic in two acknowledged databases: Web of Science and Scopus. The search period was not limited by any time period since there are not many studies on this topic. Altogether seven original studies were detected. The findings of this review study thus reveal that foreign language learning (FLL) has a positive impact on the maintenance and/or enhancement of cognitive abilities irrespective of age. In addition, the FLL courses seem to offer new opportunities for healthy seniors in the area of socializing and integration into society, which consequently may positively affect their overall well-being. Furthermore, the research shows that it is partly through the stimulation of social well-being that the cognitive effects of FLL might be observed. Cognitive aspects of older age are to be further investigated, including the importance of learning a foreign language, as basically all research conducted proves at least some maintenance or even improvement of cognitive functions of older people when starting intensive language training.

Introduction

The demographic situation of the so-called developed world can be described as a rapidly aging population . Consequently, in the coming decades the increase in the number of people in the age-group of older adults will be dramatic and unprecedented (Panitsides, 2014 ; Klimova, 2018 ). Additionally, incidences of dementia in developed countries have risen significantly and a similar global rise can be expected in the near future (Wong et al., 2019 ). In fact, at present, there are about 50 million people living with dementia (Klimova et al., 2019 ). The estimate for 2030 is 82 million demented people; in 2050, this number should reach 152 million (WHO, 2019 ). These facts have motivated researchers to look for ways of improving the quality of life of the older generation and to delay the onset of serious cognitive disorders such as dementia, of which Alzheimer's disease is the most common (Alzheimer's Society, 2019 ). Both pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions have been studied with a variety of findings (van de Glind et al., 2013 ; Klimova et al., 2016 ). Unfortunately, the pharmacological strategies to treat the decline of cognitive functions have not yet produced satisfactory results (Klimova, 2018 ).

However, as research findings show (cf. Klimova and Kuca, 2015 ), there are several promising non-pharmacological strategies that appear to improve and/or maintain cognitive functions. These include physical activities, cognitive training, nutritious diet, as well as interventions for improvement of social interaction (cf. Ballesteros et al., 2015 ), including the use of modern information and communication technologies (cf. Ballesteros et al., 2014 ). One such cognitive training strategy seems to be FLL (Antoniou et al., 2013 ). Research has proved that foreign language training among older adults leads to improvement of cognitive functions (Wong et al., 2019 ). As Antoniou and Wright ( 2017 ) claim, cognitive performance can be boosted even at a later age by activities such as learning a foreign language and playing games. This happens because of the engagement of an extensive network in the human brain that overlaps with those brain parts that are most affected by the negative effects of aging (Antoniou and Wright, 2017 ). Multilingualism is a predictor of better cognitive abilities even in older generations and can delay the onset of serious mental illnesses, such as dementia, by a few years. This particular fact has been proven by research on bilingualism, which reveals that people who learn a second language in their adulthood may prevent cognitive decline in later life by ~4.5 years (cf. Bak et al., 2014 ; Bialystok et al., 2016 ). In addition, bilingualism represents a beneficial mental exercise for a large set of cognitive functions of the human brain (Bialystok et al., 2016 ).

Furthermore, it must be highlighted that aging dramatically influences fluid intelligence (i.e., the ability to reason and solve things) but does not affect crystallized intelligence (i.e., the ability to use knowledge and experience) (Klimova, 2018 ). Findings by Blumenfeld et al. ( 2017 ) indicate that older adults have better visual imagery and episodic memory than younger people.

In addition, learning a foreign language is considered to improve the quality of human life because, as proven by research, there is a definite correlation between life-long learning and the general well-being of a person (Pilar et al., 2014 ). Moreover, life-long learning, especially learning a foreign language, improves a person's social participation. Therefore, after a person's basic needs are covered, his/her general well-being can be improved through education-led personal improvement. Life-long learning, thus, touches upon a very important aspect, something that is inadequately addressed at the undergraduate level: education increases one's positive feelings about the self (Pilar et al., 2014 ; Narushima et al., 2018 ).

From a positive psychological perspective, FLL is not restricted to a young age—it is free of age-related constraints (cf. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2014 ). Current research into the impacts of bilingualism shows that it can boost a person's cognitive performance. However, bilingualism processes are bidirectional, i.e., language can impact cognitive functions and cognitive functions can impact language learning performance. Moreover, linguistic outcomes of third-age language learning are either not very important or they do not play a role at all (Pot et al., 2019 ).

Positive psychology holds immense promise for the improvement of positive emotions, well-being, and FLL (MacIntyre and Mercer, 2014 ). Learning is a process of acquiring new ideas, information, skills, and competencies with the eventual aim of attaining a state of knowledge. In this paper, the learning process focuses mostly on the journey, i.e., the process itself is sufficient when seen from a positive psychological perspective (Pot et al., 2019 ). The essential, and most positive, thing about the learning process is that the seniors are motivated to study a language for the sheer pleasure of learning (MacIntyre and Mercer, 2014 ), for the expressed purpose of learning another language and knowing about another culture, and for improving their social status as immigrants (Pot et al., 2018 ). The crucial point from a positive psychology perspective is that the outcomes of this learning process are significantly different from standard basic school or high school language education because in the older population the focus is on (1) the joy of lifelong learning, (2) their satisfaction with time well-spent in learning a new language, (3) their sense of belonging to a community of learners, and (4) the significant improvement of their cognitive functions, including memory, retention, and an enhanced sense of cognitive control (cf. MacIntyre and Devaele, 2014 ; Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2014 ).

There are few studies on the effects of FLL on cognitive functions in old age (Antoniou et al., 2013 ). The most significant studies on this topic include those by Bak et al. ( 2016 ), Ware et al. ( 2017 ), Kliesch et al. ( 2017 ), and Wong et al. ( 2019 )—the findings, however, are inconclusive. While Ware et al. ( 2017 ) claim that their research subjects found the program motivating and pleasant, they also admitted that scores in the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA)—a test designed to evaluate global cognitive functioning in older adults before and after instruction—did not differ significantly. On the contrary, Wong et al. ( 2019 ) proved that their computer-based language training software called Rosetta Stone had contributed to the improved cognitive abilities in healthy older Chinese. Bak et al. ( 2016 ) contend that even a short-term intensive language course is beneficial for participants' attentional functions.

The purpose of this review study is to explore the existing research focusing on the impact of FLL among healthy seniors on their cognitive functions from a positive psychology perspective.

The method used was the review of literature on the topic available on two acknowledged databases: Web of Science and Scopus. The search period was not restricted because there are not many studies on this topic. The collocated keywords are as follows: language learning AND healthy older people ; language learning AND healthy seniors ; language learning AND healthy older adults ; language learning AND cognitively unimpaired older people ; language learning AND cognitively unimpaired older adults; language learning AND cognitively unimpaired seniors; and language learning AND cognitively unimpaired elderly . The keywords were combined and integrated into database and journal searches. The terms were searched using AND to combine the keywords listed and using OR to remove search duplication where possible. A backward search was also conducted, i.e., references of retrieved articles were assessed for relevant articles that authors' searches may have missed.

From the database/journal searches, 69 titles/abstracts were identified on the basis of the keywords: 62 in Web of Science and seven in Scopus. Another two articles were identified from other sources, mostly references of the already detected articles. After removing duplicates and titles/abstracts unrelated to the research topic, 55 studies—all in English— remained. Of these, only 22 articles were relevant to the research topic. These studies were thoroughly investigated and considered against certain inclusion and exclusion criteria.

The inclusion criteria were as follows:

Only reviewed, full-text English studies in scientific journals were included.
Only randomized controlled trials and experimental/cross-sectional studies were included.
The primary outcome focused on the association between FLL in healthy seniors/older people/elderly and improvement and/or maintenance of their cognitive functions.
The subjects were cognitively unimpaired older individuals of 55+ years.

The exclusion criteria were as follows:

Descriptive studies (Panitsides, 2014 ); studies not focusing on the research topic, including the studies on bilingualism (Small et al., 1999 ; Friebe and Schmidt-Heartha, 2013 ; Clare et al., 2014 ; Zahodne et al., 2014 ; Narushima et al., 2018 ); studies having different age of the subjects (Schlegel et al., 2012 ; Bak et al., 2016 ; Ghazi-Saidi and Ansaldo, 2017 ); and review studies (Antoniou et al., 2013 ; Klimova, 2018 ) were excluded.

Based on these criteria, seven studies were included in the final analysis. Figure 1 illustrates the selection procedure.

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Object name is fpsyg-11-00765-g0001.jpg

An overview of the selection procedure.

Altogether seven original and relevant studies were detected. Two studies were randomized controlled trials (Bubbico et al., 2019 ; Wong et al., 2019 ) and five were experimental studies (Gruneverg and Pascoe, 1996 ; Kliesch et al., 2017 ; Ware et al., 2017 ; Pfenninger and Polz, 2018 ; Valis et al., 2019 ). Most of them originated in Europe: Austria, Czechia, France, Great Britain, Italy, and Switzerland (Gruneverg and Pascoe, 1996 ; Kliesch et al., 2017 ; Ware et al., 2017 ; Pfenninger and Polz, 2018 ; Bubbico et al., 2019 ; Valis et al., 2019 ) and one (Wong et al., 2019 ) was a joint research of China and Australia.

The main aims of these studies were to investigate whether FLL enhances cognitive skills among healthy older individuals; to detect functional changes in the brains of healthy seniors who have learnt a foreign language; to explore the effect of cognitive capacities on learning outcomes when learning a second language (L2); to investigate feasibility of a FLL course among healthy older people; and to test the keyword method for acquiring new L2 vocabulary.

The number of subjects in the above-mentioned studies ranged between 10 and 153 healthy older individuals. Except for one study (Pfenninger and Polz, 2018 ) where there were six German–Slovenian bilinguals, all subjects were monolingual native speakers. Apart from the study by Gruneverg and Pascoe ( 1996 ), whose subjects were studying Spanish, participants were studying English as a foreign language. In three studies (Gruneverg and Pascoe, 1996 ; Pfenninger and Polz, 2018 ; Wong et al., 2019 ) there were active control groups in addition to the experimental intervention groups. Two studies had passive control groups (Bubbico et al., 2019 ; Valis et al., 2019 ) and two studies did not have any control group. The intervention period ranged from 1 day to 6 months. All studies, except one (Gruneverg and Pascoe, 1996 ), were run onsite—most often in classrooms. As far as the teaching methods are concerned, four studies implemented different face-to-face approaches to FLL. Two studies (Ware et al., 2017 ; Wong et al., 2019 ) were computer-based and one study (Gruneverg and Pascoe, 1996 ) used a special self-study keyword method for acquiring new Spanish vocabulary. The key outcome measures usually included a battery of neuropsychological tests, foreign language assessment tests, and statistical analysis.

The findings of these studies revealed that FLL has a positive impact on the maintenance and/or enhancement of cognitive abilities (Gruneverg and Pascoe, 1996 ; Ware et al., 2017 ; Pfenninger and Polz, 2018 ; Bubbico et al., 2019 ; Valis et al., 2019 ; Wong et al., 2019 ), irrespective of age and bilingualism (Pfenninger and Polz, 2018 ), which is in contrast with another study (Kliesch et al., 2017 ). However, one has to be slightly critical of these results as some of the studies lacked control groups, some had passive groups, some employed qualitative analysis, and there were significant differences in the length of the intervention period. Despite these shortcomings, FLL courses appeared to be feasible and stimulating for healthy older people (Ware et al., 2017 ; Pfenninger and Polz, 2018 ; Valis et al., 2019 ) and positively affected their overall well-being, including their emotional well-being. Results showed that they felt optimistic and self-confident (Ware et al., 2017 ; Pfenninger and Polz, 2018 ; Valis et al., 2019 ). The participants also reported that they were proud of their families that supported them in their studies (Pfenninger and Polz, 2018 ; Valis et al., 2019 ). Furthermore, the research indicates that teaching methods such as group discussions, reading, playing games, watching YouTube videos, or singing in a foreign language can stimulate older adults learning a foreign language (Gruneverg and Pascoe, 1996 ; Kliesch et al., 2017 ; Pfenninger and Polz, 2018 ; Valis et al., 2019 ). Table 1 summarizes the key findings of the detected research studies, which are ordered alphabetically according to the surname of their first author.

An overview of the research studies on the intervention of foreign language learning among healthy older individuals.

As seen in Table 1 , FLL has a positive effect on the maintenance and/or improvement of cognitive functions in healthy seniors irrespective of their age and bilingualism, although bilingual participants, compared to monolinguals, performed better at task-switching in a color–shape task (i.e., categorization of images by their color and shape). Furthermore, fMRI scans taken during this activity revealed a decreased activity in the bilinguals' left lateral frontal cortex and cingulate cortex—an indication of efficient executive functioning (Antoniou and Wright, 2017 ).

Wong et al. ( 2019 ) conducted the first randomized controlled study on the potential influence of foreign language acquisition in old age on a person's cognitive functions and the study offers crucial empirical findings. After a 6-month period of foreign language training, the authors could measure improved cognitive skills in the test group, and similar improvements in the control group, which focused on participation in games. Particularly, foreign language training resulted in improved working memory; the games, however, improved attention. The preliminary findings—even if the researched sample was relatively small—proved to be significant for further research to show whether FLL has an advantage over other activities connected to the improvement of cognitive skills in elderly people. The results highlight that intensive FLL, even at a later age, can yield statistically relevant results regarding working memory and cognitive function improvement. These findings are in agreement with other studies such as Borella et al. ( 2013 ) who claim—on the basis of their verbal working memory training program in old-old individuals aged 75+ years—that there is still room for plasticity in the basic mechanisms of cognition in advance old age. The same is true for the study by Buschkuehl et al. ( 2008 ). In addition, Buitenweg et al. ( 2012 ) emphasize that for successful brain training among healthy seniors it is important to focus on memory strategy training, important to tailor the training to the needs of each individual, and include flexibility and novelty in the training.

Valis et al. ( 2019 ) do not confirm a significant improvement in the cognitive functions in elderly people because of FLL. Instead they confirm the more realistic maintenance of cognitive skills rather than their improvement. Intuitively, as well as supported by various studies, we can accept that FLL will have some positive impact on cognitive skills. However, the most important question is that to what extent it will influence the cognitive skills in the older population. The research results do not confirm the hypothesis that the learning of a foreign language will naturally enhance cognitive skills. Nevertheless, they yield significant findings suggesting a possible impact of FLL on the maintenance of cognitive skills, i.e., there was, at least, no observable decline of cognitive functions in the test group. Regular cognitive training, such as FLL, thus, will not function as a way to improve cognitive skills but rather as an efficient tool for their maintenance. Therefore, FLL can sufficiently contribute to a non-pharmacological strategy in preventing the onset of cognitive decline.

Furthermore, short-term language training in healthy seniors can lead to a significant improvement in global cognition with increased functional connectivity in the right inferior frontal gyrus, the right superior frontal gyrus, and the left superior parietal lobule. These findings are part of the current neuroscience breakthroughs that reshape neural networks through foreign language training. Bubbico et al's ( 2019 ) recent study indicates that a 4-month language course of English in Italian seniors improves global cognitive functions and reorganizes functional cognitive connectivity. It was only the intervention group that yielded significant improvement results in both functional and behavioral measures after the intervention of the language class. In addition, FLL studies conducted among adult learners show that certain teaching methods, such as repetition, imitation, and drilling, can have a positive impact on higher network configuration (Ghazi-Saidi and Ansaldo, 2017 ).

The results of this review study also reveal that FLL in older adults contributes to establishing strong social ties between the participants, promoting social interaction and integration. Naturally, most language classes are held in classrooms, facilitating regular physical meetings of participants. This helps to develop social connections among participants and instills in them a sense of participation. The older generation often suffers from social isolation, which can possibly be an important factor of lower level of well-being and a source of depression (Popa-Wagner et al., 2014 ; Sandu et al., 2015 ). Therefore, language classes may not just improve or maintain cognitive functions but also create an environment of social meetings and networking (cf. Diaz-Orueta et al., 2012 ). As Narushima et al. ( 2018 ) point out, continuous participation in life-long learning courses, such as foreign language courses, can develop social cohesion and improve the sense of community participation, which may lead to improved social performance and enhanced well-being. Pot et al. ( 2018 ) expand that it is partly through the stimulation of social well-being that the cognitive effects of FLL might be observed.

In light of expected global demographic changes, the established cognitive and mental benefits of FLL in old age, and the role of FLL in the improvement of general human well-being, universities should offer relevant courses for the third-age learners. The breakthrough research by Singleton and Pfenninger ( 2018 ) moves our attention to the importance of language learning in old age. Their study highlights an abundance of research into second-language education in young people and a dearth research regarding the importance of such education in old people. They also confirm the hypothesis that FLL is a promising way to healthy and active aging because of its many advantages. Moreover, according to them the traditionally accepted approach that early exposure to foreign language necessarily brings better results than late exposure has not been proven. Early beginners did not necessarily outperform late beginners, therefore, this widely and intuitively accepted premise is not necessarily true and needs further investigation. Some research into specific learning needs of elderly students has been conducted and the findings are important. Take for example the research of Gruneverg and Pascoe ( 1996 ) into the efficiency of the keyword method for foreign language vocabulary learning in the elderly.

Yi-Yin ( 2011 ) researched the motivation paradigms in the older generation and concluded that they are rather different from the younger generation. The most important drives are desire for knowledge, desire for stimulation, desire for self-fulfillment, and desire for generativity. These findings are significant for the creation of curricula of the universities of the third-age creators.

Moreover, there is an emerging trend within learning psychology and related disciplines—the use of mobile technologies in the learning process. Again, there is a plethora of literature on the use of technology in basic, high school, and university education but little on the use of technological tools by older learners. Some introductory experimental findings are, however, described by Ware et al. ( 2017 ) and Wong et al. ( 2019 ). Additionally, the authors suggest future directions for the use of technology in FLL as a therapeutic and cognitive intervention.

Further pedagogical implementations of the findings will be important. Moreover, pedagogy and psychology of learning ought to try to find new pragmatic approaches and methodologies in the light of both expected global demographic changes and the possible positive outcomes of FLL in old age. There is immense scope for FLL in old age and we need to create courses that will incorporate earlier research findings with anticipated future developments in the field Kliesch et al. ( 2017 ).

It is important to highlight that even authoritative textbooks on psycholinguistics such as Traxler's Introduction to Psycholinguistics. Understanding Language Science (Traxler, 2012 ) totally ignore the area of language acquisition in old age, focusing entirely on language development in infancy and early childhood. A similar thing can be observed in An Introduction to Psycholinguistics by Steinberg and Sciarini ( 2006 ) where some references to old age and FLL can be found, but it is rather insufficient and unrepresentative of research in the area. Similarly, other authoritative textbooks on cognitive linguistics do not address the aspect of old age and/or do not take it into consideration—or do so only fleetingly (Ungerer and Schmid, 2006 ). It is for these reasons that this review attempts to bring this matter to the attention of scholars and researchers, so that research effort into the issue could be improved. The authors of this study believe that the findings of this research will expedite the implementation of the results into reality as the way to the sustainability of our society and also our global competitiveness.

The above-mentioned research has several limitations. The findings are usually not very systematic, the author applies different methodologies, and the results are difficult to replicate and difficult to verify by further research (cf. Melby-Lervag and Hulme, 2013 ). However, the data provided is relevant and presents a significant view of the multifaceted aspects of healthy aging. Naturally, cognitive aspects of old age need to be further investigated—including the importance of learning a foreign language—because almost the entire body of research conducted on the topic shows some degree of maintenance—in certain cases even improvement—of the cognitive functions of older people when they start intensive foreign language training.

The findings of this review study thus reveal that FLL has a positive impact on the maintenance and/or enhancement of cognitive abilities irrespective of age. In addition, FLL courses seem to offer opportunities to healthy seniors for socialization and integration into society, which may positively affect their overall well-being. Furthermore, research shows that it is partly through the stimulation of social well-being that the cognitive effects of FLL might be observed.

The topic of FLL in old age has attracted widespread attention of scholars in the past few years. The topic holds great promise for further development especially in the identification, analysis, and development of learning strategies to maintain—or even improve—cognitive and psychological aspects of older people's life. Foreign language education for older generation might offer crucial non-pharmacological strategies for healthy aging—a topic of utmost importance due to the negative demographic trends both in Europe and in the so-called developed world. However, further research is needed.

From a positive psychology perspective, future research should focus on what kind of positive instruction should be given to older adults so that we can understand them in a better way. It is also important to develop methodologies to improve old people's sense of accomplishment in the learning process. Last but not least: investigating how to improve the pleasure of learning in the older generation of learners because it is one of the most important aspects of their language education.

Data Availability Statement

Author contributions.

BK and MP drafted, analyzed, wrote, and read the entire manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding. This paper was supported by the project titled Excelence (2020) at the Faculty of Informatics and Management of the University of Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic.

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Review Article
Open access
Published: 23 April 2024

Research on flipped classrooms in foreign language teaching in Chinese higher education

Wen Kong 1 ,
Di Li 2 &
Quanjiang Guo ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7846-1363 3

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume 11 , Article number: 525 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Language and linguistics

This review examines 233 articles published in Chinese academic journals between 2011 and 2021, documenting the state of research concerning flipped classrooms (FCs) in foreign language teaching within the context of higher education in China. Employing the methodological approach of a scoping review, the investigation is underpinned by the five-stage framework articulated by Arksey and O’Malley. The results reveal a notable surge in FC-related studies between 2013 and 2017, with a subsequent decline in scholarly attention. The majority of the reviewed studies on FCs focused on English instruction at the college level, with a conspicuous dearth of inquiry into the application of FCs in the teaching of other foreign languages. All studies were categorized as either empirical or non-empirical, and the most frequently used instruments for data collection were surveys and interviews; case studies were underrepresented in the literature. Early studies focused on the introduction of the new model, while more recent investigations focused on the impact of its implementation. The findings of the in-depth content analysis unearthed a prevailing trend of high learner satisfaction with the FC model, along with favorable direct and indirect educational outcomes. Noteworthy factors influencing the efficacy of FCs included learners’ foreign language proficiency and their self-regulation or self-discipline abilities. The paper concludes with a discussion of the challenges in FC implementation and a call for future research on this promising pedagogy.

Introduction

The flipped classroom (FC), also known as the “inverted classroom”, is a pedagogical approach that first emerged in the 1980s and came into more widespread use in the 2000s (Baker, 2000 ; Bergmann and Sams, 2012 ; Khan, 2012 ). It has gained prominence as advances in technology afford increasing opportunities for ubiquitous access to a variety of online resources. The FC model removes in-class lectures, freeing up classroom time for more in-depth exploration of topics through discussion with peers or problem-solving activities facilitated by instructors. The removed content is often delivered to learners through pre-class materials like video recordings. As a result, in the FC, learning activities that are active and social occur inside the classroom while most information transmission occurs outside the classroom. Today, the FC has been implemented in many different disciplines and in schools and universities around the world (Akcayir and Akcayir, 2018 ).

Proponents of the FC assert its pedagogical merits on several fronts. First, it alleviates the constraints associated with requiring all learning to happen at the same time and place, furnishing learners with an individualized education that enables flexible online study at their own pace as long as an internet connection is available (Hung, 2014 ). Second, it allocates class time to the cultivation of learners’ higher-order cognitive skills, emphasizing application, analysis, and evaluation, as opposed to lower-order skills such as knowledge and comprehension (Brinks-Lockwood, 2014 ; Lee and Wallace, 2018 ). Third, in contrast to traditional lecturing, the FC is a student-centered approach emphasizing engagement and active learning (Steen-Utheim and Foldnes, 2018 ), fostering students’ autonomy by endowing them with heightened responsibility for their learning (Brinks-Lockwood, 2014 ; O’Flaherty and Philips, 2015 ).

Vygotsky’s social constructivism ( 1978 ) has frequently been adopted as a theoretical foundation for designing learning experiences in technologically rich environments (Marzouki et al., 2017 ), and this framework highlights the particular benefits of technology-enhanced FC pedagogy (Jarvis et al., 2014 ). As mentioned above, in an FC model, learners can watch pre-recorded videos in their own time before class to remember basic information and understand concepts as they prepare for classroom activities, while the higher-order skills of analyzing, applying, evaluating, and creating can be collaborative and interactive, taking place in class with the guidance of a teacher, and thus facilitating progression within the learners’ proximal developmental zone.

Since its introduction in foreign language teaching (FLT) in China in 2011, the FC has attracted increasing research attention and has been welcomed by foreign language teachers (Yan and Zhou, 2021 ). Over the past decade, the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China has exerted increasing pressure on higher education institutions to transition from traditional teacher-centered lecture-style approaches to innovative methods integrating technology and the internet, with the goals of enhancing learning, sustaining student engagement, and improving student satisfaction (Ministry of Education of People’s Republic China, 2021 ). The FC model, combined with traditional face-to-face teaching and personalized online learning, has emerged as a popular strategy in China to meet ministry requirements while delivering cost-effective and learner-centered curricula in response to the increasing student enrollment in higher education.

Despite the wide adoption of FCs in FLT in China, literature reviews about their implementation and effects have been notably scarce in the last decade. A search of the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), the largest national research and information publishing company housing China’s most extensive academic database, revealed only three reviews—by Deng ( 2016 ), Qu ( 2019 ), and Su et al. ( 2019 )—published prior to the end of 2021. These reviews primarily focused on FCs in the context of English as a foreign language (EFL) education, overlooking most of the over 100 foreign languages taught in Chinese higher education. As a result, these reviews fell short of delivering a comprehensive analysis of research pertaining to FCs, and the reliability and generalizability of their findings in non-EFL contexts are questionable. Moreover, Deng ( 2016 ) and Su et al.’s (2019) reviews included all published papers without establishing clear inclusion and exclusion criteria. For example, they did not exclude articles that made a passing or token reference to the FC model, short papers of only one or two pages in length, book reviews, or editorials. Qu’s study ( 2019 ), on the other hand, was constrained in scope to articles within the Chinese Social Sciences Citation Index (CSSCI), a sub-database developed by Nanjing University of China Academy of Social Sciences Research Evaluation Center and the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, and thus omitted relevant contributions from other academic journals. The CNKI incorporates both the CSSCI and the Core Journals of China (CJC), an equally significant sub-database overseen by the Peking University Library and experts from relevant institutions. Given the exclusion of the latter, a reevaluation of the scope and potential limitations of Qu’s study is warranted.

Thus, there persists an imperative for a comprehensive synthesis of the extant studies on FCs in FLT within Chinese higher education over the past decade. The restricted visibility of studies conducted in China, owing to their publication in Chinese and confinement to Chinese academic journals, makes it difficult for international researchers and practitioners to access and comprehend this body of literature. Such understanding among the global academic community is necessary for exploring both the strengths and limitations of FCs in diverse cultural and linguistic contexts.

Research method

The current study adopts a scoping review approach based on the methodological framework developed by Arksey and O’Malley ( 2005 ) to provide both quantitative and qualitative data for researchers and practitioners.

A scoping review is a relatively new approach to synthesizing research data which has been gaining popularity in many disciplines (Davis et al., 2009 ; Daudt et al., 2013 ). It is often undertaken as an independent project when a research area is complex, and no review of that area has previously been made available. A scoping review serves to highlight the relevant literature to researchers with the aim of rapidly mapping the key concepts characterizing a research area and the main sources and types of evidence available (Arksey and O’Malley, 2005 ; Mays et al., 2005 ; Levac et al., 2010 ). According to Arksey and O’Malley ( 2005 ), this kind of review addresses four goals: to examine the extent, range, and nature of research activity; to determine the value of undertaking a full systematic review; to summarize and disseminate research findings; and to identify research gaps in the existing literature. The scoping review is increasingly being employed in the field of foreign language education to provide a comprehensive view of FLT studies, identify implications for theory and pedagogy, or inform subsequent in-depth reviews and empirical studies (Chan et al., 2022 ; Hillman et al., 2020 ; Tullock and Ortega, 2017 ).

The difference between a scoping review and a narrative or traditional literature review lies in the transparency of the review process. A narrative review usually depends on the author’s own knowledge or experience to describe the studies reviewed and uses an implicit process to provide evidence (Garg et al., 2008 ). The reader cannot determine how much literature has been consulted or whether certain studies have been ignored due to contradictory findings. A scoping review, in contrast, uses an explicit, rigorous, and systematic approach to retrieve relevant articles to ensure the transparency and replicability of the data extraction process. For example, the methodological framework adopted by Arksey and O’Malley ( 2005 ) for conducting a scoping study comprises five stages: identifying the research questions; identifying relevant studies; selecting studies for inclusion; charting the data; and collating, summarizing, and reporting the results. By presenting the process and results in an accessible and summarized format, reviewers are in a position to illustrate the field of interest in terms of the volume, nature, and characteristics of the primary research, enabling researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to make effective use of the findings.

Figure 1 presents the process of the scoping review in the current study based on the five-stage methodological framework developed by Arksey and O’Malley ( 2005 ).

Process of the scoping review.

Process of the scoping review

Identifying research questions.

This scoping review is driven by four research questions:

RQ1. What is the current state of FC research in FLT within the context of higher education in China?

RQ2. What research methods and instruments have been employed in the included FC studies?

RQ3. What research foci and trends are displayed in the included FC studies?

RQ4. What are the major findings of the included FC studies?

RQ1 aims to provide an overview of studies on FCs in FLT in Chinese higher education by providing details about the basic information about existing publications, such as the number of publications per year and the distribution of publications by foreign language context. RQ2 leads to a classification of the research methods and instruments used to collect data in FC research. RQ3 explores the topics and trends in FC research over the past decade with the help of the literature visualization and analysis tool CiteSpace5.8R3. RQ4 reveals the effects of the FC model on direct and indirect educational outcomes, learners’ satisfaction with FCs, and the factors influencing the impact of FCs, as documented in the reviewed sources.

Searching for relevant studies

To be as comprehensive as possible in identifying primary evidence and to ensure the quality of the published articles, we searched both CSSCI and CJC in the CNKI database. The key search terms were developed and categorized based on two dimensions according to the purpose of the review. One dimension related to teaching or learning in FCs, while the other dimension related to the types of foreign languages. The key search terms and search methods are listed in Table 1 .

As the FC approach was introduced into FLT in China in 2011, the search included articles published between 2011 and 2021. Further inclusion and exclusion criteria were developed to focus on the scope of the review; these are outlined in Table 2 .

Study selection

Figure 2 shows a process diagram of the study selection process, which consisted of four phases: searching the databases; identifying the total number of articles in each database; screening titles, abstracts, and full texts; and selecting eligible articles for inclusion.

Flowchart diagram for article selection.

The final database search was conducted on January 16, 2022, and resulted in the identification of a total of 333 articles. Subsequently, all potentially relevant articles went through a three-step screening process. The first step excluded 9 duplicates. The second step excluded irrelevant articles by screening titles and abstracts; 37 articles were removed at this stage as they were book reviews, conference proceedings, reports, editorials, or other non-refereed publications. The third step filtered articles by screening full texts; 54 articles were excluded because they made only passing reference to the FC or were not related to higher education. This meticulous selection yielded a corpus of 233 articles suitable for in-depth analysis, each of which was scrutinized by the authors to confirm its suitability for inclusion. During the selection process, the 233 articles were also systematically categorized into two groups: 131 non-empirical and 102 empirical studies. The non-empirical studies were further divided into two subcategories. The first type was literature reviews; the second type was those drawing on personal observations, reflections on current events, or the authority or experience of the author (Dan, 2021 ). The empirical studies used a variety of systematic methods of collecting materials and analyzing data, including quantitative methods (e.g., survey, correlational research, experimental research) and/or qualitative methods (e.g., interview, case study, record keeping, observation, ethnographic research) (Dan, 2021 ).

Data charting and collation

The fourth stage of Arksey and O’Malley’s scoping review framework is the charting of the selected articles. Summaries of each study were developed. for all studies, these summaries included the author, year of publication, citations per year, foreign language taught, and a brief description of the outcomes. For empirical sources, details related to the research design, study population, and sample size were also provided. Tables 3 and 4 list the top ten most-cited non-empirical and empirical sources. In Table 4 , which references experimental and control groups in results summaries, the experimental group (EG) was the group that took courses in the FC model, while the control group (CG) took courses in a traditional classroom.

Results and analysis

In accordance with the fifth stage of Arksey and O’Malley’s framework for a scoping review, the findings from the 233 included studies are summarized and discussed in the following three sections. Section 4.1 summarizes basic information regarding the included studies; section 4.2 presents a holistic analysis of the research foci and trends over time using keyword clustering analysis and keyword burst analysis; and section 4.3 offers an in-depth content analysis focusing on the categorization of the included studies and discussion of the major findings.

Basic information on the included studies

Distribution by year of publication.

As Fig. 3 shows, the first studies on FCs in the field of FLT in China emerged in 2013. The number of such studies began to steadily increase and reached a peak in 2016 and 2017. Although there was some decrease after that, the FC model has continued to attract research attention, in line with global trends. According to Akçayir and Akçayir’s (2018) review of the literature on FCs published in Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) journals as of 31 December 2016, the first article about the FC was published in 2000, but the second was not published until more than a decade later, in 2012; 2013 was also the year that FC studies became popular among scholars. A possible explanation for this increase in interest is the growing availability of internet technologies and the popularity of online learning platforms, such as MOOCs and SPOCs (Small Private Online Courses), along with the view of the FC as a promising model that can open doors to new approaches in higher education in the new century.

Number of articles published by year.

Distribution by foreign language

Figure 4 shows the distribution of foreign languages discussed in the FC literature. The FC model was mainly implemented in EFL teaching (93%), which reflects the dominance of English in FLT in Chinese higher education. Only five articles discussed the use of FC models in Japanese teaching, while one article was related to French teaching. Ten non-empirical studies (4%) reported the feasibility of FC models in FLT without mentioning a specific foreign language.

Distribution by foreign language type.

Research methods of the included studies

Figure 5 shows a breakdown of the methodologies adopted by the studies included in our review. Among the 131 non-empirical studies, three were literature reviews, while the remaining 128 (55%) were descriptive studies based on the introduction of the FC model, including descriptions of its strengths and associated challenges and discussions of its design and implementation in FLT.

Methodological paradigms.

Of the 102 empirical studies, 60 (26%) used quantitative methods for data collection, eight (3%) used qualitative methods, and 34 (15%) used mixed methods. It is interesting to note that although quantitative methods are more common in FC studies, seven of the top ten most-cited empirical studies (as listed above in Table 4 ) used mixed methods. A potential reason may be that research findings collected with triangulation from various data sources or methods are seen as more reliable and valid and, hence, more accepted by scholars.

A breakdown of the data collection approaches used in the 102 reviewed empirical studies is displayed in Table 5 . It is important to note that most studies used more than one instrument, and therefore, it is possible for percentages to add up to more than 100%. The survey, as a convenient, cost-effective, and reliable research method, was the tool most frequently used to gain a comprehensive picture of the attitudes and characteristics of a large group of learners. Surveys were used in 79 of the 102 studies—73 times with learners and six times with teachers—to explore students’ learning experiences, attitudes, and emotions, as well as teachers’ opinions. Some studies used paper-based surveys, while others used online ones. Interviews with learners were used in 33 studies to provide in-depth information; one study used interviews with teachers. Surveys and interviews were combined in 24 studies to obtain both quantitative and qualitative data. Other research approaches included comparing the test scores between experimental and control groups (used in 25 studies) or using the results of course assessments (17 studies) to investigate the effects of the FC on academic performance. Learners’ self-reports (9 studies) were also used to capture the effects of the FC on learners’ experience and cognitive changes that could not be obtained in other ways, while one study used a case study for a similar purpose. Teachers’ class observations and reflections were used in eight studies to evaluate students’ engagement, interaction, activities, and learning performance.

Holistic analysis of the research foci and the changing trends of the included studies

A holistic analysis of the research foci in studies of FCs in China was conducted using CiteSpace5.8.R3, a software developed by Chaomei Chen ( http://cluster.cis.drexel.edu/~cchen/citespace/ , accessed on 20 February 2022), to conduct a visual analysis of the literature. This software can help conduct co-citation analysis, keyword co-occurrence analysis, keyword clustering analysis, keyword burst analysis, and social network analysis (Chen, 2016 ). In this study, keyword clustering analysis and keyword burst analysis were chosen to capture important themes and reveal changing trends in FC research.

Keyword clustering analysis primarily serves to identify core topics in a corpus. Figure 6 presents a graph of the top ten keyword clusters identified in the included studies. In this graph, the lower the ID number of a given cluster, the more keywords are in that cluster. As shown in the top left corner of Fig. 6 , the value of modularity q is 0.8122, which is greater than the critical value of 0.3, indicating that the clustering effect is good; the mean silhouette value is 0.9412, which is >0.5, indicating that the clustering results are significant and can accurately represent hot spots and topics in FC research (Hu and Song, 2021 ). The top ten keyword clusters include #0翻转课堂 (flipped classroom), #1大学英语 (college English), #2 MOOC, #3教学模式 (teaching model), #4元认知 (metacognition), #5微课 (micro lecture), #6微课设计 (micro lecture design), #7英语教学 (English teaching), #8 SPOC, and #9 POA (production-oriented approach).

The graph of the top ten keyword clusters.

Keyword burst analysis is used to showcase the changes in keyword frequencies over a given period of time. By analyzing the rise and decline of keywords, and in particular, the years in which some keywords suddenly become significantly more prevalent (“burst”), we can identify emerging trends in the evolution of FC research. Figure 7 displays the 11 keywords with the strongest citation bursts. We can roughly divide the evolution of FC research documented in Fig. 7 into two periods. The first period (2014 to 2017) focused on the introduction of the new model and the analysis of its feasibility in FLT. The keywords that underwent bursts in this period included “MOOC”, “自主学习” (independent learning), “模式” (model), “学习模式” (learning model), “教师话语” (teacher discourse), “茶文化” (tea culture), and “可行性” (feasibility). The reason for the appearance of the keyword “tea culture” lies in the fact that three articles discussing the use of FCs in teaching tea culture in an EFL environment were published in the same journal, entitled Tea in Fujian , during this period. The second period (2018–2021) focused on the investigation of the effect of FCs and the design of micro lectures. Keywords undergoing bursts during this period included “互联网+” (internet plus), “课堂环境” (classroom environment), “教学效果” (teaching effect), and “微课设计” (micro lecture design). The latter two topics (“teaching effect” and “micro lecture design”) may continue to be prevalent in the coming years.

Top 11 keywords with the strongest citation bursts.

In-depth content analysis of the included studies

Along with the findings from the keyword clustering analysis and keyword burst analysis, an open coding system was created to categorize the research topics and contents of the 233 articles for in-depth analysis. Non-empirical and empirical studies were classified further into detailed sub-categories based on research foci and findings. It is important to note that some studies reported more than one research focus. For such studies, more than one sub-category or more than one code was applied; therefore, it is possible for percentages to add up to more than 100%. The findings for each category are discussed in detail in the following sections.

Non-empirical studies

The 131 non-empirical studies can be roughly divided into two categories, as shown in Table 6 . The first category, literature reviews, has no sub-categories. The second, descriptive studies, includes discussions of how to use FCs in FLT; descriptions of the process of implementing the FC in FLT; and comparisons between FCs and traditional classes or comparisons of FCs in Chinese and American educational contexts.

The sub-categories of “introduction and discussion” and “introduction and description” in Table 6 comprise 91.6% of the non-empirical studies included in our review. The difference between them lies in that the former is based on the introduction of the FC literature, while the latter is based both on the introduction of the FC literature and exploration of researchers’ teaching experience; the latter might have become qualitative studies if researchers had gone further in providing systematic methods of collecting information or an analysis of the impact of FCs.

Empirical studies

The 102 empirical studies were divided into four categories based on the domain of their reported findings: the effect of FCs on learners; learners’ satisfaction with FCs; factors influencing FCs; or other research foci. Each group was further classified into more detailed sub-categories.

Effect of FCs on learners

Studies on the effect of FCs on learners were divided into two types, as presented in Table 7 : those concerned with the direct effect of FCs on learning performance and those exploring the indirect effect on learners’ perceptions. Eight codes were applied to categorize the direct effect of FCs on learning performance, which was usually evaluated through test scores; 14 codes were used to categorize the indirect effect of FCs on learners’ perceptions, which were usually investigated through surveys or questionnaires. We do not provide percentages for each code in Tables 7 – 9 because, given that the total number of empirical studies is 102, the percentages are almost identical to the frequencies.

The results shown in Table 7 reveal that 84 studies of direct educational outcomes reported that FCs had a positive effect on basic language skills, content knowledge, and foreign language proficiency. Of these, 64 were concerned with the positive effect of FCs on foreign language proficiency, speaking skills, or listening skills. This result might be explained by the features of FCs. The main difference between FCs and traditional classrooms is that the teaching of content in FCs has been removed from the classes themselves and is often delivered to the students through video recordings, which can be viewed repeatedly outside of the class. In-class time can thus be used for discussion, presentations, or the extension of the knowledge provided in the videos. It is evident that students have more opportunities to practice listening and speaking in FCs, and foreign language proficiency is naturally expected. Only three studies reported that FCs had no effect or a negative effect on the development of foreign language proficiency, speaking, listening, and writing skills. Yan and Zhou ( 2021 ) found that after the FC model had been in place for one semester, college students’ reading abilities improved significantly, while there was no significant improvement in their listening and writing abilities. Yin ( 2016 ) reported that after FC had been implemented for one semester, there was no significant difference in college students’ speaking scores.

A total of 96 studies reported positive effects on indirect educational outcomes, including: boosting learners’ motivation, interest, or confidence; enhancing engagement, interaction, cooperation, creativity, independent learning ability, or critical thinking ability; fostering information literacy, learning strategies, learning efficiency, or self-efficacy; or relieving stress or anxiety. The most frequently documented indirect effect of FCs is improvement in students’ independent learning ability. Only one study found that the FC did not significantly increase student interest in the course (Wang, 2015 ). Similarly, only one study found that students’ anxiety in the FC was significantly higher than that in a traditional class (Gao and Li, 2016 ).

Learners’ satisfaction with FCs

Table 8 presents the results regarding learners’ satisfaction with FCs. Nine codes were used to categorize the different aspects of learners’ satisfaction investigated in the 102 empirical studies. Some researchers represented learner satisfaction using the percentage of students choosing each answer on a five-point Likert scale from 1 (not at all satisfied) to 5 (very satisfied), while others used average scores based on Likert scale values. For the purposes of our synthesis of findings, if the percentage is above 60% or the average score is above 3, the finding is categorized as satisfied; otherwise, it is categorized as not satisfied.

The results in Table 8 show that among the nine aspects investigated, teaching approach and learning outcomes were most frequently asked about in the research, and learners were generally satisfied with both. Only one study (Li and Cao, 2015 ) reported significant dissatisfaction; in this case, 76.19% of students were not satisfied with the videos used in college English teaching due to their poor quality.

Factors influencing the effect of FCs

Eleven factors were found to influence the effect of FCs; these are categorized in Table 9 .

The results shown in Table 9 indicate that learners’ foreign language proficiency and self-regulation or self-discipline abilities are two important factors influencing the effect of FCs. Learners with high foreign language proficiency benefited more from FCs than those with low foreign language proficiency (Lv and Wang, 2016 ; Li and Cao, 2015 ; Wang and Zhang, 2014 ; Qu and Miu, 2016 ; Wang and Zhang, 2013 ; Cheng, 2016 ; Jia et al., 2016 ; Liu, 2016 ), and learners with good self-regulation and self-discipline abilities benefited more than those with limited abilities (Wang and Zhang, 2014 ; Lu, 2014 ; Lv and Wang, 2016 ; Dai and Chen 2016 ; Jia et al. 2016 ; Ling, 2018 ). It is interesting to note that two studies explored the relationship between gender and FCs (Wang and Zhang, 2014 ; Zhang and He, 2020 ), and both reported that girls benefited more from FCs because they were generally more self-disciplined than boys.

Studies with other research foci

There were six studies with other research foci, three of which investigated teachers’ attitudes toward FCs (Liao and Zou, 2019 ; Zhang and Xu, 2018 ; Zhang et al., 2015 ). The results of the surveys in these three studies showed that teachers generally held positive attitudes towards FCs and felt that the learning outcomes were better than those of traditional classes. However, some problems were also revealed in these studies. First, 56% of teachers expressed the desire to receive training before using FCs due to a lack of theoretical and practical expertise regarding this new model. Second, 87% of teachers thought that the FC increased their workload, as they were spending a significant amount of time learning to use new technology and preparing online videos or materials, yet no policy was implemented in the schools to encourage them to undertake this work. Third, 72% of teachers felt that the FC increased the academic burden students faced in their spare time (Zhang and Xu, 2018 ; Zhang et al., 2015 ). The final three studies include Cheng’s ( 2016 ) investigation of the mediative functions of college EFL teachers in the FC, Wang and Ma’s ( 2017 ) construction of a model for assessing the teaching quality of classes using the FC model, and Luo’s ( 2018 ) evaluation of the learning environment of an FC-model college English MOOC.

Discussion and conclusions

This investigation employed literature visualization to systematically analyze 233 research papers sourced from CSSCI and CJC in the CNKI database, thereby conducting a scoping review delineating the landscape of FC research within the domain of FLT in the context of higher education in China.

Our findings in relation to RQ1 highlight a substantial surge in the number of articles relating to FCs in FLT between 2013 and 2017, followed by a discernible, albeit moderate, decrease. Despite this trend, FC studies continue to be of significant interest to foreign language educators and researchers. This may be attributed to Chinese government policies encouraging higher education reform, increased internet access among educators and learners, and the burgeoning popularity of online courses such as MOOCs and SPOCs. However, the majority of the reviewed FC studies were conducted in college English classes, with only 6 studies on classes teaching foreign languages other than English. It seems that foreign language education in China (and in much of the world) has become synonymous with the teaching and learning of English, with other languages occupying a marginal position, struggling to find space in educational programs. In a multilingual world in which each language offers different possibilities for understanding others, their cultures, their epistemologies, and their experiences, this monolingual approach to FLT is dangerous (Liddicoat, 2022 ). The promotion of linguistic diversity in foreign language education policies and research is thus imperative. Another gap that needs to be addressed is the paucity of studies on the implementation of FCs in adult education. The FC model is expected to be potentially effective for teaching adult learners because it is similar in some respects to online distance learning.

In answer to RQ2, we found that the commonly used research methods and instruments in studies of the FC model include surveys, interviews, comparisons of academic measures between EGs and CGs, and course assessments. The case study is the least used method, likely due to limitations such as time demand, researcher bias, and the fact that it provides little basis for the generalization of results to the wider population. However, more case studies are needed in future research on FCs because they can provide detailed and insightful qualitative information that cannot be gathered in other ways.

Our findings regarding RQ3 show that research foci within the FC domain have evolved over time from initial exploration and feasibility discussions to a subsequent focus on the design of FCs incorporating micro-lectures based on MOOC or SPOC structures, and then to the present focus on the examination of FCs’ impacts on learners. The results of the keyword burst analysis indicate that these thematic areas are likely to persist as prominent subjects of research interest for the foreseeable future.

In response to RQ4, our in-depth content analysis found that FCs, on the whole, yield positive outcomes, although isolated studies identify limited negative impacts. FCs are most frequently associated with enhancements in student learning performance, fostering independent learning, promoting engagement and cooperation, and mitigating stress or anxiety. The results of this study suggest that well-designed FCs present a significant opportunity for foreign language educators to revolutionize instructional approaches. Furthermore, well-structured FCs can facilitate the development of learners’ potential while concurrently enabling the seamless integration of digital technology into FLT.

Most learners are satisfied with FCs, particularly with the innovative pedagogical approach of reversing traditional classes. FCs are perceived as beneficial for improving learning outcomes, creating an environment conducive to peer interaction, and gaining immediate teacher feedback and support. In addition, students’ interest in classes is enhanced by the rich and diverse online learning materials uploaded by teachers, which can be accessed conveniently at any time in any place. Furthermore, the dynamic and formative online assessment approach is also welcomed by students because it provides immediate feedback and the ability to discuss any problems they have with teachers or peers online or offline.

However, it is worth noting that most of the reviewed studies on FCs focused on one course, usually over only one semester. Students’ increase in motivation or improvements in learning outcomes might, therefore, be a result of the Hawthorne effect. Compared with the traditional didactic lecture format, the novelty of FCs, when used for the first time, might generate excitement among students, thus increasing their attention and enhancing learning outcomes, but such benefits will diminish over time. Therefore, there is a need to examine whether this model is suitable for large-scale implementation and whether its effects might be sustained over longer periods of implementation.

Learners’ foreign language proficiency and self-regulation or self-discipline abilities are the two key factors influencing the effect of FCs. These two factors are closely related; self-regulation or self-discipline is a prerequisite for successful foreign language learning in FC contexts and plays a crucial role in students’ success in the pre-class sessions for which they are personally responsible. In addition, factors such as learners’ attitudes, expectations of and adaptability to the FC model, the learning tasks and learning environment, the teaching organization and assessment methods, and the learner’s gender also have some impact on the effect of FCs. However, due to the limited number of studies, there is not sufficient evidence to warrant the generalization of any of these effects.

This scoping review highlights some potential challenges that need to be addressed for the effective implementation of FCs.

First, despite the benefits of the FC model, FCs are not equally advantageous to all students due to the self-regulated nature of the model. Many learners have reported difficulties in completing their individual online tasks outside the classroom (Yoon et al., 2021 ). The non-traditional configuration of FCs poses a formidable challenge, particularly for students less inclined to engage in pre-class online activities characterized by a lack of interactivity and for those who are less self-disciplined. Consequentially, students may attend class without having assimilated the pre-assigned material, thereby diminishing the efficacy of this instructional approach. To address this issue, additional support or prompts for students should be provided to remind them of the need to self-regulate their learning. For example, Park and Jo ( 2015 ) employed a learning analytics dashboard displaying visual representations of students’ learning patterns derived from login traces, such as login frequency and interval regularity, within the course’s learning management system. These visual indicators allowed students to monitor their learning engagement and performance in comparison to those of their peers.

Second, a persistent problem with FCs is the inability of students to interact with their peers or receive prompt feedback from instructors after completing independent online learning activities. While some researchers identified a need for teachers to provide immediate online feedback or opportunities for peer discussion, our review of the literature shows that scant attention has been given to this issue. Researchers note that under-stimulation, low perceived control over tasks, and delayed or insufficient feedback in online learning contribute significantly to learner boredom or absenteeism (Yazdanmehr et al., 2021 ; Tao and Gao, 2022 ). Online pedagogical innovations are needed to solve these new problems. For instance, the establishment of online groups employing chat software like QQ or WeChat could facilitate instantaneous feedback or peer interaction through text-based communication, thereby enhancing learners’ satisfaction with FC courses.

Third, despite recognizing the value of FCs in enhancing the learning experience for students, teachers often lack the requisite training to implement FCs effectively. Insights derived from interviews with teachers, as noted in several of the reviewed studies, reveal a pronounced desire for increased opportunities to learn about the underlying theories of FCs and acquire the skills necessary for the translation of FC concepts into pedagogical practice. Specifically, teachers express a need for guidance in creating engaging instructional videos, determining optimal video length to sustain learner interest, and ascertaining the ideal duration for online quizzes to foster optimal learner performance. Further research is required on strategies and technologies that can help teachers produce high-quality videos despite limited time and technical skills. Support from professional communities, institutions, and technology specialists is thus essential for the provision of effective hybrid offline and online instruction.

Fourth, additional research is required to determine whether workloads for students and teachers are increased by the use of FCs. If this is the case, as found in some of the reviewed studies, then the compelling benefits of FCs would be offset by the extra time needed, making it difficult to draw the conclusion that FCs are more efficient than traditional classes. The majority of language teachers, due to limited skills in technology, online environment management, and online interaction, feel too physically and emotionally overworked to expend more time and energy on enhancing teaching effectiveness. With few teachers having excess spare time, the thought of designing and creating new content might discourage even the most enthusiastic teachers.

Finally, robust empirical evidence is needed to evaluate whether FCs can facilitate students’ higher-order thinking through the use of creative technologies and assessment approaches. Constructs such as creativity and critical thinking are not always easily reduced to measurable items on survey instruments or scores on examinations (Haladyna et al., 2002 ).

In conclusion, the insights garnered from this study have the potential to enrich the global discourse on the benefits and limitations of FCs in diverse cultural and linguistic contexts. Our review included literature accessible through CSSCI and CJC in the CNKI database, and while this provides a thorough selection of the Chinese literature on the subject, our search approach may have excluded valuable FC-related papers published in other languages and countries. Consequently, different search criteria might yield different selection and data results. Future researchers are encouraged to undertake more comprehensive literature reviews encompassing broader databases to fill the gaps in our work and to augment the depth and breadth of knowledge in this domain.

Data availability

The raw data for this paper were collected from articles in Chinese Social Sciences Citation Index (CSSCI) journals and A Guide to the Core Journals of China of Peking University (PKU journals) in the database of China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) ( https://www.cnki.net/ ). The raw data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

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Acknowledgements

This research was funded by The 14th Five-year Plan for Education Science of Jiangsu Province (Grant number: D/2021/01/79), Changzhou University (Grant number: GJY2021013), and Department of Education of Zhejiang Province, China (Project of Ideological and Political Construction of Courses 2021-337).

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Kong, W., Li, D. & Guo, Q. Research on flipped classrooms in foreign language teaching in Chinese higher education. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 525 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03019-z

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

Foreign language anxiety research in system between 2004 and 2023: looking back and looking forward.

Faculty of Humanities and Foreign Languages, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China

With the deepening of the research on emotional factors, foreign language anxiety (FLA) has become the focus of researchers in the field of foreign language learning (FLL) and teaching. This paper aims to provide an overview of the historical trajectory of FLA research that has been published in System between 2004 and 2023. While examining the retrieved 49 studies, focus has been laid on the methodologies including research instruments, methods, participants, major themes and key findings of FLA research. Although almost all of the studies employed quantitative and mix-methods methodologies, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were the most preferred research methods. FL learners from 21 countries/regions were represented, but a significant number of the studies came from China, Japan and Iran. And an overwhelming majority of the studies focused on FLA among the learners learning English as a foreign language (EFL). The review concluded with some research lacunae and possible directions for future research on FLA.

Introduction

FLA, prevalent among foreign language (FL) learners ( Dewaele and Macintyre, 2014 ; Li, 2020 ), is a very special and complex psychological phenomenon during the process of FLL ( Gardner, 1985 ; Macintyre and Gardner, 1994 ). FLA is regarded as the biggest emotional obstacle during the process of FLL ( Arnold and Brown, 1999 ), which may undermine students’ confidence and motivation in FLL ( Macintyre, 2017 ). Horwitz (2010) considered FLA as one of the strongest predictors of success or failure in FLL. Previously, anxiety in FFL, as an auxiliary variable in FLL research, had only drawn scarcity of attention from researchers ( Chastain, 1975 ; Dewaele and Li, 2021 ). It was not until 1986 that Horwitz et al. (1986) , for the first time, proposed the concept of FLA, reckoning that FLA is a unique synthesis of self-perception, belief, emotion and behavior associated with FLL. Meanwhile, Horwitz et al. (1986) developed the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), which has become the most widely accepted FLA scale. Since then, researchers have conducted a plethora of studies on the connotations ( Macintyre and Gardner, 1994 ; Oxford, 1999 ), categorization ( Horwitz et al., 1986 ; Ellis, 1994 ; Macintyre and Gardner, 1994 ), impacts ( Steinberg and Horwitz, 1986 ; MacIntyre and Charos, 1996 ), sources ( Young, 1991 ; Macintyre, 2017 ), and measurement tools ( Macintyre and Gardner, 1994 ; Satio et al., 1999 ; Kim, 2000 ; Elkhafaifi, 2005 ; Woodrow, 2006 ; Cheng, 2017 ) of FLA.

System , one of the most influential and prestigious international journals devoted to FL teaching and learning, has stayed abreast of the development of FLA research. The articles having been published on FLA in System represent to a large extent the development trajectory of FLA research. Therefore, this review paper chooses System as the material to provide the historical trajectory of FLA research and suggest some under-researched topics and future directions of FLA research.

Foreign language anxiety

FLA, a principal learner emotional factor in foreign language learning (FLL), has become one of the significant research focuses in FLL since the 1970s. Originating from psychology, anxiety is defined as “an unpleasant state of mind that is characterized by individual perceived feelings like nervous, fear, and worry, and is activated by the autonomic nervousness system” ( Spielberger, 1972 ). FLA is a unique form of anxiety in the specific context of foreign language learning ( Horwitz et al., 1986 ; MacIntyre, 1995 ). Horwitz et al. (1986) conceptualized FLA as “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process.”

Horwitz et al. (1986) first studied FLA as an independent phenomenon. In order to resolve the deficiency and insufficiency of traditional research tools in respect of FLA, Horwitz et al. (1986) framed the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), putting an end to the history of FLA study having no standardized measurement tools ( Guo and Xu, 2014 ), foreboding that FLA research entered a period of relative maturity when researchers began to focus on the overall performance of FLA and its relationship with a variety of variables ( Young, 1986 , 1992 ; Aida, 1994 ), as well as the relationship between FLA and some basic language skills like listening, speaking, reading and writing ( Gungle and Taylor, 1989 ; Vogely, 1998 ; Sellers, 2000 ).

Simply put, FLA is the feeling of tension, fear and nervousness in self-consciousness, emotions, beliefs, and behaviors ( Aida, 1994 ) associated with a context which requires an individual to use a foreign language he or she is not proficient with ( MacIntyre and Gardner, 1991 ).

Research design

In order to present a systematic analysis of FLA research published in System , a narrative approach of systematic review was adopted. Systematic review involves “a clearly formulated question” and adopts “systematic and explicit methods to identify, select, and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review” ( Cochrane Collaboration, 2003 ). A narrative approach relies “primarily on the use of words and text to summarize and explain the findings,” and is considered helpful to systematically review topics that have been studied differently researchers ( Popay et al., 2006 ), highlight the strengths and limitations of studies being reviewed ( Wong et al., 2013 ).

The review aims to provide a systematic analysis of FLA research during the past two decades between 2004 and 2023 by answering the following questions:

Question 1: What is the overall trend in FLA research published in System during the past two decades? Question 2: What are the major themes and the key findings of FLA research? Question 3: What are the existent gaps in the current research and the potential directions for future research?

Data collection

Following the PRISMA guidelines ( Moher et al., 2009 ), an extensive literature search was conducted to ensure a comprehensive analysis of the current FLA research published in System . The data selection criteria and collection process are summarized in Figure 1 .

Figure 1 . PRISMA flow chart.

Firstly, relevant studies published until and including December 15, 2023 were searched in the database of Elsevier ScienceDirect. The author conducted advanced searches in the database with the following searching parameters: In this journal or book title = ( System ) AND Title, abstract, or author-specific keywords = (anxiety). Overall, the database returned 185 publications, among which 95 were published in journals other than System and therefore were deleted. Then, 2 book reviews and 1 review article were deleted. The remaining 87 publications were evaluated for the eligibility by reading and analyzing the titles, abstracts and full texts, and 38 publications were excluded based on the following criterion that the studies focused on topics other than FLA.

Data analysis

This review first conducted a bibliometric analysis of the retrieved records. A coding analysis was then performed through iterative reading with the highlights on the following categories that guided the data analysis: year of publication, characteristics of samples, research methodologies, and key findings.

Descriptive characteristics of studies

Publishing years.

There is a dynamic upward trend in the number of studies on FLA over the past two decades (see Figure 2 ). 2021 witnessed a surge in the number of publications, reaching an all-time peak of 8 papers. There is a gradual downward trend in the following 2 years, but compared with the average of about 2 papers per year, there is still an increase in the number of papers in 2022 and 2023.

Figure 2 . Trend of FLA research in System (2004–2023).

Countries/regions of research

There was diversity of countries/ regions where the studies took place, with 21 countries/regions represented. Twenty-one papers (42.86%) came from China, followed by 6 papers (12.24%) from Japan and 4 papers (8.16%) from Iran. Three papers were conducted in Korea and USA each, followed by 2 papers from Saudi Arabia, and 1 paper from Canada, Australia, Indonesia, Austria, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Slovakia, Macau, Chile, Thailand, Turkey, and UK each.

Research participants

The overwhelming majority of the studies ( n = 43, 87.76%) focused on FLA among university students, with 3 papers focused on primary school students and 5 on secondary school students. It is noteworthy to point out that there were 3 studies which focused on PhD students, adult students, and vocational high school students, respectively.

Foreign languages studied

Since the status of English as a universal language is beyond doubt, almost all the studies examined FLA in the context of EFL learning. Among the 49 papers, there were only 4 papers focusing on FLA in the context of FLL other than EFL learning. These foreign languages included Korean, Arabic, German and Chinese. There was 1 paper comparing the possible FLA differences between the contexts of German as L1 learning and English as LX learning.

Research methodologies

Of the retrieved records, 38 were cross-sectional studies and 11 were longitudinal studies. The average length of time for the longitudinal studies was approximately 11.36 weeks, ranging from the shortest length of 1 week to the longest length of 18 weeks. The studies adopting quantitative methods ( n = 24, 48.98%) and the studies using mix-methods ( n = 24, 48.98%) markedly dwarfed the only one study using qualitative methods (2.04%).

Questionnaires were the most common research method in both quantitative studies and mix-methods studies. The FLCAS was the most frequently-used scale ( n = 22, 48.83%), which a significant number of studies used directly ( n = 7, 14.58%), adapted ( n = 4, 8.33%), modified ( n = 6, 12.50%) or translated ( n = 5, 10.42%). Besides, a number of studies used questionnaires that adopted, modified or translated other scales such as the FLRAS ( Satio et al., 1999 ), the FLLAS ( Elkhafaifi, 2005 ), and the S-FLCAS ( Dewaele and Macintyre, 2014 ) among many others. Notwithstanding, some researchers devised targeted questionnaires ( Hurd, 2007 ; Woodrow, 2011 ; Lee, 2016 ; Li, 2018 ; Wang H. et al., 2021 ; Alrabai, 2022 ).

With regard to qualitative methodology, the research methods frequently used to measure FLA embraced interviews ( n = 15, 62.50%), classroom observations ( n = 5, 20.83%), students’ reflective journals ( n = 5, 20.83%), open-ended questions ( n = 3, 12.50%). Of note, Hurd (2007) employed audio-recorded think-aloud protocols combined with questionnaires and one-to-one semi-structured telephone interviews to explore FLA in a distance learning environment. Dryden et al. (2021) used linguistic ethnography to investigate how four migrant EFL learners in Australia experienced FLA.

Research themes and key findings

Level of fla.

Twelve papers (24.49%) were found to investigate FLA level of FL learners, however, no consensus has been reached on the level of FLA among FL learners, possibly due to the fact that the participants of the retrieved studies were different. For example, Jiang and Dewaele (2020) found 1,031 university freshmen in China experienced a moderate level of FLA. Zuniga and Simard (2022) and Lee et al. (2023) had similar findings. However, Jiang and Dewaele (2019) found a higher level of FLA among 564 EFL university freshmen in China than the counterpart participants in the study of Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) . Similarly, Bekleyen (2009) found the language teacher candidates in Turkey experienced a high level of FL listening anxiety.

Dynamicity of FLA drew attention from some scholars. Koga (2010) investigated the dynamicity of FLA among 88 first-year university students in Japan and found FLA decreased significantly at the end of the 15-week English courses. Veenstra and Weaver (2022) investigated 341 students from two private universities in Japan and a continuum of FL speaking anxiety showed that the participants’ overall level of FL speaking anxiety decreased after finishing an English presentation course lasting 15 weeks.

Some studies explored some potential differences of FLA among different participants or among the same participants in different contexts. For example, Chen et al. (2022) found Chinese undergraduates had a higher level of EFL reading anxiety than Spanish undergraduates. Resnik and Dewaele (2020) found the participants experienced a higher level of FLA in English (LX) classes than in German (L1) classes.

Sources of FLA

Nine studies (18.37%) explored sources or causes of FLA. Bekleyen (2009) revealed some major sources of FL listening anxiety, including low priority of listening in previous FLL, and failure to recognize the spoken form of word, phrase or sentence. Jiang and Dewaele (2019) uncovered a number of factors contributing to FL class anxiety, including exams and quizzes, speaking in front of the class without preparation, challenging classroom activities, and teacher questioning. Bashori et al. (2021) identified insufficient vocabulary knowledge as one of the factors provoking FL speaking anxiety. Besides, speaking strategies, willingness to communicate, speaking self-efficacy and speaking proficiency were found to have positive direct effects on FLA ( Sun and Teng, 2021 ). Of note, Zare et al. (2022) focused on FLA outside the traditional face-to-face classroom and found that autonomous learning was the source of the participants’ anxiety during the data-driven FFL.

Correlation of FLA with other variables

Some studies ( n = 5, 10.20%) explored the correlation of FLA with demographic variables of the participants. Park and French (2013) found female students had significantly higher levels of FLA than male students. However, Jiang and Dewaele (2020) found gender and ethnic affiliation were not correlated with FLA while geographical background and experience in traveling abroad had a weak correlation with FLA. Similarly, Matsuda and Gobel (2004) found EFL learners with overseas experience experienced lower anxiety when speaking English and gender did not have a significant effect on FLA. However, Yim (2014) found gender had a significant effect of FLA. The discrepancies in the correlation with demographic variables may be attributed to the different samples or the possibility that male learners are not inclined to willingly admit anxiety than female learners ( Williams, 1996 ; Pappamihiel, 2002 ).

A number of studies ( n = 9, 18.37%) explored the correlation of FLA with academic performance/ achievement. For example, Pyun et al. (2014) found that oral achievement of the participants was negatively correlated with FLA. However, Tsang and Lee (2023) found FL speaking anxiety was not significantly related to speaking proficiency. Hamada and Takaki (2021) found FL reading anxiety had significantly direct effects on course achievement. Woodrow (2011) and Li et al. (2023) found FL writing anxiety was significantly negatively correlated with writing performance, but FLA did not have a significant prediction on writing achievement ( Li et al., 2023 ). Besides, In’nami (2006) found that test anxiety did not affect FL listening test performance.

Many studies ( n = 19, 38.78%) focused on the correlation of FLA with other student-specific variables, including learning motivation ( Tsai and Liao, 2021 ), willingness to communicate ( Lee and Hsieh, 2019 ; Wang H. et al., 2021 ), language proficiency ( Jiang and Dewaele, 2020 ) and trait emotional intelligence ( Resnik and Dewaele, 2020 ; Li et al., 2021 ) among many others. Several studies ( n = 5, 10.20%) focused on the correlation of FLA with teacher-specific variables, such as teachers’ oral corrective feedback ( Lee, 2016 ), perceived teacher emotional support ( Jin and Dewaele, 2018 ), and teaching styles ( Briesmaster and Briesmaster-Paredes, 2015 ).

Ways to relieve FLA

Ways to relieve FLA was also a topic of immense interest to researchers. Ten studies (20.41%) explored how to relieve or alleviate FLA. Jin et al. (2021) and Alrabai (2022) applied positive psychology intervention to reduce leaners’ FLA. Alrabai (2022) revealed that the integration of positive and negative emotions in FLL could result in alleviation of FLA among Saudi EFL learners. Jin et al. (2021) uncovered that reminiscing about language achievements significantly mitigated the levels of FLA among Chinese EFL learners. Similarly, Lee et al. (2023) found that constructing learners’ growth language mindset relieved their FLA.

Besides, Tsai and Liao (2021) found using machine translation systems had a positive effect on lowering FLA among EFL learners in Taiwan. Bashori et al. (2021) investigated the potential effects of Automatic Speech Recognition-based websites on EFL learners’ vocabulary, FLA and FLE. Other studies found that self-regulatory strategies ( Guo et al., 2018 ), recasts ( Li, 2018 ), and translanguaging ( Dryden et al., 2021 ) had a significant effect on mitigating the levels of FLA among EFL learners. Of note, Kralova et al. (2017) employed psycho-social training as a strategy to alleviate FLA among 68 Slovak EFL learners.

During the past two decades between 2004 and 2023, System has been an ardent supporter of FLA research, committed to probing into and resolving FLA-related problems of foreign language teaching and learning. However, based on the review, some research lacunae are discerned concerning samples, methodologies and themes of FLA research, and some possible directions for future FLA research are also suggested.

Research samples

Notwithstanding the FLA studies in System involved a variety of FL learners as the participants, there was a serious polarization phenomenon concerning the diversity of the research samples. An overwhelmingly large number of the studies focused on FLA among the FL learners in school and few studies focused on FLA among non-school FL learners. Moreover, a majority of the studies explored FLA among undergraduate students, especially the non-English-major university students, and there is a scarcity of studies investigating FLA among students in primary schools, secondary schools, vocational colleges as well as postgraduate students. In terms of geographical distribution of the research samples, most studies focused on FL learners from Asian countries including China, Japan and Iran among many others, and less attention was paid to FL learners from Europe, North America and South America. And no studies on FLA involving FL learners in Africa have been found. Meanwhile, most participants were from urban places, and only a couple of studies explored FLA among rural FL learners ( Hamada and Takaki, 2021 ; Li et al., 2023 ). Last but not the least, with regard to the types of FL, a plethora of studies concentrated on English as a FL. Of the 49 retrieved studies, only 4 studies focused on FLA among the participants learning Korean, Arabic, German and Chinese as a FL, respectively.

Future research should diversify the research objects and focus increasing attention on the FLA research among primary school students, secondary school students, vocational college students and non-school FL adult learners, and moderate attention should be paid to the FLA research among preschool children and postgraduate students, so as to avoid the polarization of research samples. Besides, the dominance of English as a lingua franca has made English the FL taught in schools around the globe ( Rose et al., 2020 ), facilitating FLA studies among EFL learners. However, recent years has witnessed frequent calls for conducting research on teaching and learning of foreign languages other than English ( Zhang et al., 2019 ; Guo et al., 2021 ). Future studies can also focus on FLA among learners of foreign languages other than English as well as FL learners in countries and regions outside Asia.

Notwithstanding an increasing number of studies combined quantitative methods and qualitative methods in recent years, questionnaires were still the staple tool for quantitative data collection, and semi-structured interviews for qualitative data collection. A few mix-methods studies used classroom observation, student journals, field investigation and case studies for qualitative analysis. In addition, the FLCAS was the most popular scale for quantitative data collection and analysis, and only a few studies devised target questionnaires for their research. Moreover, cross-sectional studies far exceeded longitudinal studies, and the average length of time for longitudinal studies were relatively short, lasing about 10 weeks. Finally, there were only three comparative studies on FLA, probing into FLA differences among the participants ( Resnik and Dewaele, 2020 ; Hamada and Takaki, 2021 ; Chen et al., 2022 ).

Future FLA research should adopt mix-methods studies with qualitative research not just being confined to semi-structured interviews, but embracing a variety of methods, such as classroom observation, video recording, student journals, field investigation, case study and particularly audio-recorded think-aloud protocols. And path analysis and structural equation modeling analysis should be increasingly employed to analyze the quantitative data. Meanwhile, some advanced techniques such as Event-related Potentials (ERP), Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) can be used in future research to analyze FLA from the perspective of neural mechanism by measuring the electromagnetic, blood flow and neuronal activities of the human brain. In addition, it is necessary to devise localized FLA scale with ideal validity and reliability in accordance with the cultural background and educational environment of the country or region where the research objects are located. Moreover, the dynamic nature of FLA requires more longitudinal studies to explain how FLA changes dynamically and what impacts FLA exerts on FLL. Finally, future studies can pay more attention to the comparative study of FLA differences among different groups, which is more conducive to understanding the characteristics and distribution of FLA among different groups of FL learners, so as to put forward targeted strategies to mitigate FLA in FLL.

Research themes

Research themes of the studies on FLA in System were of rich variety. However, no research has been found on translation anxiety and interpretation anxiety. Besides, there was a scarcity of research on the effectiveness of alleviating FLA. Studies on strategies to reduce FLA were mostly conducted from the perspective of teachers, and few studies revealed how to alleviate FLA from the perspective of learners. And most of the specific strategies to mitigate FLA were only at the theoretical level, lacking sufficient theoretical and empirical evidence, which were not applicable in practical FL teaching.

The following research themes deserve more attention in future research: translation anxiety and interpretation anxiety, types and effectiveness of strategies for alleviating FLA among different groups of FL learners, FLA among learners of heritage languages as well as non-heritage languages, and comparative studies on the effects of regional locations and mother languages on FLA. Moreover, future studies should not only focus on the theoretical research of FLA, but also carry out more empirical studies on strategies on how to alleviate FLA among different FL learners, such as learners from different regional locations, learners in monolingualism, bilingualism and multilingualism, and the effectiveness of FLA-alleviating strategies.

By reviewing the 49 studies on FLA published in System between 2004 and 2023, this paper demonstrates that the journal’s commitment to FLA research embraces a wide range of research themes being explored with different research methods. Based on the findings of the review, some research lacunae regarding samples, methodologies and themes of FLA research are discussed, and some possible directions for future FLA research are also suggested.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

QY: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This work was supported by grants from the Research Project of Humanities, Foreign Languages and Arts, Xi’an University of Technology (110-451623011) and the Research Project on Graduate Education and Teaching Reform, Xi’an University of Technology (310-252042342).

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: foreign language anxiety, foreign language learning, English as a foreign language, foreign language learners, literature review

Citation: Yu Q (2024) Foreign language anxiety research in System between 2004 and 2023: looking back and looking forward. Front. Psychol . 15:1373290. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1373290

Received: 19 January 2024; Accepted: 09 April 2024; Published: 22 April 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Yu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Qiangfu Yu, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Students at a degree ceremony at Harvard University in Massachusetts.

Chinese students in US tell of ‘chilling’ interrogations and deportations

As tensions with China rise, scientists at America’s leading universities complain of stalled research after crackdown at airports

Stopped at the border, interrogated on national security grounds, laptops and mobile phones checked, held for several hours, plans for future research shattered.

Many western scholars are nervous about travelling to China in the current political climate. But lately it is Chinese researchers working at US universities who are increasingly reporting interrogations – and in several cases deportations – at US airports, despite holding valid work or study visas for scientific research.

Earlier this month the Chinese embassy in Washington said more than 70 students “with legal and valid materials” had been deported from the US since July 2021, with more than 10 cases since November 2023. The embassy said it had complained to the US authorities about each case.

The exact number of incidents is difficult to verify, as the US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) agency does not provide detailed statistics about refusals at airports. A spokesperson said that “all international travellers attempting to enter the United States, including all US citizens, are subject to examination”.

But testimonies have circulated on Chinese social media, and academics are becoming increasingly outspoken about what they say is the unfair treatment of their colleagues and students.

“The impact is huge,” says Qin Yan, a professor of pathology at Yale School of Medicine in Connecticut, who says that he is aware of more than a dozen Chinese students from Yale and other universities who have been rejected by the US in recent months, despite holding valid visas. Experiments have stalled, and there is a “chilling effect” for the next generation of Chinese scientists.

The number of people affected is a tiny fraction of the total number of Chinese students in the US. The State Department issued nearly 300,000 visas to Chinese students in the year to September 2023. But the personal accounts speak to a broader concern that people-to-people exchanges between the world’s two biggest economies and scientific leaders are straining.

The refusals appear to be linked to a 2020 US rule that barred Chinese postgraduate students with links to China’s “military-civil fusion strategy”, which aims to leverage civilian infrastructure to support military development. The Australian Strategic Policy Institute thinktank estimates that 95 civilian universities in China have links to the defence sector.

Nearly 2,000 visas applications were rejected on that basis in 2021 . But now people who pass the security checks necessary to be granted a visa by the State Department are being turned away at the border by CBP, a different branch of government.

“It is very hard for a CBP officer to really evaluate the risk of espionage,” said Dan Berger, an immigration lawyer in Massachusetts, who represents a graduate student at Yale who, midway through her PhD, was sent back from Washington’s Dulles airport in December, and banned from re-entering the US for five years.

“It is sudden,” Berger said. “She has an apartment in the US. Thankfully, she doesn’t have a cat. But there are experiments that were in progress.”

Academics say that scrutiny has widened to different fields – particularly medical sciences – with the reasons for the refusals not made clear.

X Edward Guo, a professor of biomedical engineering at Columbia University, said that part of the problem is that, unlike in the US, military research does sometimes take place on university campuses. “It’s not black and white … there are medical universities that also do military. But 99% of those professors are doing biomedical research and have nothing to do with the military.”

But “if you want to come to the US to study AI, forget it,” Guo said.

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One scientist who studies the use of artificial intelligence to model the impact of vaccines said he was rejected at Boston Logan International airport. He was arriving to take up a place at Harvard Medical School as a postdoctoral researcher. “I never thought I would be humiliated like this,” he wrote on the Xiaohongshu app, where he recounted being quizzed about his masters’ studies in China and asked if he could guarantee that his teachers in China had not passed on any of his research to the military.

He did not respond to an interview request from the Observer . Harvard Medical School declined to confirm or comment on the specifics of individual cases, but said that “decisions regarding entry into the United States are under the purview of the federal government and outside of the school’s and the university’s jurisdiction.”

The increased scrutiny comes as Beijing and Washington are struggling to come to an agreement about the US-China Science and Technology Agreement , a landmark treaty signed in 1979 that governs scientific cooperation between the two countries. Normally renewed every five years, since August it has been sputtering through six-month extensions.

But following years of scrutiny from the Department of Justice investigation into funding links to China, and a rise in anti-Asian sentiment during the pandemic, ethnically Chinese scientists say the atmosphere is becoming increasingly hostile.

“Before 2016, I felt like I’m just an American,” said Guo, who became a naturalised US citizen in the late 1990s. “This is really the first time I’ve thought, OK, you’re an American but you’re not exactly an American.”

Additional research by Chi Hui Lin

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Graphic representation of artificial intelligence.

From literature to AI: UC grad shares career path to success

Humanities and storytelling lead to lucrative tech entrepreneurship.

Before Katie Trauth Taylor worked with international organizations like NASA, Boeing and Hershey, and before receiving accolades for her work in the generative AI space, she was in a much different industry – English and literature.

Taylor earned her master's in English and Comparative Literature in UC’s College of Arts and Sciences. She completed her educational journey at Purdue University with a doctorate degree in rhetoric and composition. After working as a graduate assistant at Purdue and UC, she became a research professor at Miami University.

It might seem from there that her career was set—perhaps a tenured professorship or a university administrative position. That might have been her path, but Taylor had her eyes set on different goals.

So how did Taylor transition from literature and composition to tech entrepreneurship? She enjoys sharing that part of her story.

A&S masters grad Katie Trauth Taylor, who has launched two businesses. Photo/Provided

“I love that question, and I think it's so important for everyone in the humanities to see that they have just as much entrepreneurial potential as any other person.”

Taylor founded Untold Content in 2015, jumping from academia to entrepreneurship. Untold Content is a business-to-business content strategy company that recognizes storytelling patterns and frameworks that will help innovative companies make their ideas, clear, compelling and impactful to an audience.

She then took innovation to the next level in 2022 with the launch of Narratize, a generative-AI storytelling platform that transforms the ideas of scientific, technical and medical innovators into impactful and detailed content and stories quickly.

It's so important for everyone in the humanities to see that they have just as much entrepreneurial potential as any other person.

Katie Trauth Taylor Entrepreneur and A&S master's grad in English

English to entrepreneurship

With 10 years of successful partnerships with lucrative companies like AAA and Boeing, Taylor is just getting started. And yet, it took a while for her to get here.

“I think sometimes we feel stuck—like, ‘I have to follow a path because I made us a choice about what to major in or what to study.’

“But really, once you get out into the workforce, you see that everything is almost interdisciplinary and you can see and cut across those boundaries more seamlessly as long as you're a strong critical thinker, a great communicator, and hungry to constantly learn.”

Taylor was just that person during college. As she matriculated through her institutions, she formed bonds and met many mentors along the way who pushed her towards starting her own business.

“I think wherever you want to grow in your professional life, you just have to ask those questions. Ask ‘what do I need to learn to get there and find my mentors?’ And sometimes, mentors are thrust upon you in the most wonderful ways. And it surprises you,” said Taylor.

Along the way she continued her love for storytelling and sharing that passion. And yet, she felt that she could help scientists, tech moguls, and medical professionals share their stories in more effective and impactful manners.

“I had a mentor somewhere along the way, who said ‘look me in the eyes. You know, you could just start a business, right?’”

And Taylor did just that with Untold Content while she was a research professor at Miami University. Untold Content kept growing and growing, so she made her decision and pursued her new passion full-time, as the leader of the then up-and-coming narrative storytelling strategy company.

Making her mark in tech

“I never got a business degree, but here I am running my second company,” Taylor said.

The generative AI leader took herself into a new avenue of business and networking. However, she identified the potential of using generative AI to push the ideas of innovators in science, technology and medicine into impactful storytelling and long-form content. As such, she found what would be her company’s foothold in the tech industry.

“We came to generative AI as a way to solve a problem that we had already discovered, so we already knew the problem. The problem was, it is so challenging to communicate effectively within science, tech and medical industries, and there are so many roadblocks related to that,” said Taylor.

“I've always been in love with that problem. So, we were in this really intensive moment in my first company where we were trying to ask ‘how do we solve that problem at scale?’And so, we were designing tech platform for communicating internally and help people craft more clear and impactful messages.”

She received the perfect gem of knowledge pertaining to this issue during her time at UC from associate professor of English Laura Micciche—a lesson at the basis of her women-led companies.

UC for me was completely life-changing. The people I met were the most generous and thoughtful subject-matter experts that I have ever met, and they remain strong forces in my success today.

Katie Trauth Taylor A&S alum, tech entrepreneur

“Laura Micciche taught me about rhetoric and composition and the way that words hold power and how they structure society and public rhetoric the way they shape opinion,” Taylor said.

Taylor and her company never left their storytelling roots. Her team consists of data scientists, engineers, and ‘narrative scientists,’ people who are science, tech and medical communicators with journalistic and marketing backgrounds.

“Narrative scientists see the way words make meaning. And that is essentially the design of the predictive models,” said Taylor. “That is the most exciting, possible moment to be able to bring those diverse skill sets together. That's where the magic happens with Gen AI. And that's where we see solutions that will actually be transformative.”

The teams at Narratize and Untold Content continue with these tenets in mind under Taylor’s leadership.

To the future

Narratize and Untold Content work to help a variety of stakeholders understand the ideas and insights of innovators around the world, from consumers to potential investors. However, given the recent surge in open AI, creatives like journalists and marketers are concerned.

AI software continues to evolve, and as technology advances, it is inevitable that jobs may be lost. And yet, Taylor has her own response to this question: ‘What happens to creatives as AI continues to get better?'

“It's the question everybody is asking. How do we keep pace with this rapid rise of technology? We set out really early on to ask how do we empower people? How do we do AI with good intent?”

One of the major pillars of both companies is to keep AI in the hands of creatives and to ensure AI is nothing but human-led.

“And that means that we design the user experience to pull insights from the person and to support the person in their workflow and embed the AI into those workflows so they can be more effective in their work and do that more efficiently.”

The focus is on teaching and empowering creatives with generative AI, and according to Taylor, the best path forward is through embracing AI and maintaining focus on amplifying storytelling. An emphasis on focus that she strengthened during her time at UC.

"UC for me was completely life-changing. The people I met were the most generous and thoughtful subject-matter experts that I have ever met," Taylor said, "and they remain strong forces for my success today."

Featured image at top: Graphic representation of artificial intelligence. Credit/Steve Johnson on Unsplash.

By Serigne Thiam

Student Journalist , A&S Department of Marketing and Communication

[email protected]

Department of English
College of Arts and Sciences

UC offers new social justice, Latin American studies degrees

October 7, 2020

University of Cincinnati students can now enroll to earn a Bachelor’s degree in two new humanities programs: Social Justice, and Latin American, Caribbean and Latinx Studies, offered through UC’s College of Arts and Sciences.

UC to offer certificate in disability studies

June 30, 2022

Students at the University of Cincinnati will be able to enroll to earn a certificate in disability studies in fall semester, 2022. Offered through the College of Arts and Sciences, the certificate will explore the experiences of disabled people, and the role of the disability community and the community at large in addressing equity, access and justice. The creation of the certificate program was inspired in part by the experiences of students, says Cheli Reutter, associate professor of American and African-American literature, who helped develop the program.

Title: Security Studies Program Welcomes Renanah Joyce to Faculty

The Georgetown Security Studies Program is delighted to welcome Renanah Joyce to the faculty starting in the fall of 2024. Renanah Joyce joins SFS as an Assistant Professor in Security Studies. Her research interests include security cooperation, military and economic statecraft, and US foreign policy. Starting her journey as a student in the Security Studies Program, Professor Joyce will be beginning a new chapter right from where it all began. “My career in security studies began in SSP as a student,” said Joyce, “SSP gave me a strong foundation in security studies and forged an intellectual curiosity that continues to shape my work. I’m thrilled to return to SSP as a faculty member and I’m ready to equip students with the knowledge and skills to navigate complex security issues in their careers–as SSP did for me.”

Before joining SFS, Joyce was an assistant professor of politics at Brandeis University from 2022-2024, where she taught courses on international relations and US foreign policy. Her current book project, Exporting Might and Right: Security Assistance and Liberal International Order , examines security assistance as a tool of statecraft. The book draws on her dissertation, which won the American Political Science Association’s Kenneth N. Waltz Award for best dissertation in security studies in 2021. Joyce’s work is published or forthcoming in International Security , Perspectives on Politics , International Studies Quarterly , Security Studies , Journal of Conflict Resolution , Journal of the Middle East and Africa , Political Science Quarterly , and policy outlets including The Washington Quarterly , The National Interest , Lawfare , Inkstick , War on the Rocks , and PRISM .

Joyce is also an external adviser for the US Institute of Peace’s Security Sector Governance and Reform Program and an adjunct political scientist with the RAND Corporation. Previously, she has held fellowships with the Irregular Warfare Initiative, Harvard Kennedy School’s International Security Program, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Security Studies Program, and George Washington University’s Institute for Security and Conflict Studies. She has also worked as a program analyst in the Department of Defense.

At SSP, Joyce is eager to work with colleagues and students to use social science tools to better understand contests over power, influence, and order in the international system—and the military, economic, and ideological tools that states use to manage those contests. Over the coming academic year, she will teach classes in international security, US national security policy, and the causes and consequences of security cooperation and assistance. We welcome back Professor Renanah Joyce to the Security Studies Program and wish her all the best for the journey ahead.

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The Georgetown Security Studies Program is delighted to welcome Renanah Joyce to the faculty starting in the fall of 2024. Renanah Joyce joins SFS as an Assistant Professor in Security Studies. Her research interests include security cooperation, military and economic statecraft, and US foreign policy. Starting her journey as a student in the ...

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