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Research essay: a ‘monster’ and its humanity.

Professor of English Susan J. Wolfson is the editor of Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein: A Longman Cultural Edition and co-editor, with Ronald Levao, of The Annotated Frankenstein.  

Published in January 1818, Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus has never been out of print or out of cultural reference. “Facebook’s Frankenstein Moment: A Creature That Defies Technology’s Safeguards” was the headline on a New York Times business story Sept. 22 — 200 years on. The trope needed no footnote, although Kevin Roose’s gloss — “the scientist Victor Frankenstein realizes that his cobbled-together creature has gone rogue” — could use some adjustment: The Creature “goes rogue” only after having been abandoned and then abused by almost everyone, first and foremost that undergraduate scientist. Facebook creator Mark Zuckerberg and CEO Sheryl Sandberg, attending to profits, did not anticipate the rogue consequences: a Frankenberg making. 

The original Frankenstein told a terrific tale, tapping the idealism in the new sciences of its own age, while registering the throb of misgivings and terrors. The 1818 novel appeared anonymously by a down-market press (Princeton owns one of only 500 copies). It was a 19-year-old’s debut in print. The novelist proudly signed herself “Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley” when it was reissued in 1823, in sync with a stage concoction at London’s Royal Opera House in August. That debut ran for nearly 40 nights; it was staged by the Princeton University Players in May 2017. 

In a seminar that I taught on Frankenstein in various contexts at Princeton in the fall of 2016 — just weeks after the 200th anniversary of its conception in a nightmare visited on (then) Mary Godwin in June 1816 — we had much to consider. One subject was the rogue uses and consequences of genomic science of the 21st century. Another was the election season — in which “Frankenstein” was a touchstone in the media opinions and parodies. Students from sciences, computer technology, literature, arts, and humanities made our seminar seem like a mini-university. Learning from each other, we pondered complexities and perplexities: literary, social, scientific, aesthetic, and ethical. If you haven’t read Frankenstein (many, myself included, found the tale first on film), it’s worth your time. 

READ MORE  PAW Goes to the Movies: ‘Victor Frankenstein,’ with Professor Susan Wolfson

Scarcely a month goes by without some development earning the prefix Franken-, a near default for anxieties about or satires of new events. The dark brilliance of Frankenstein is both to expose “monstrosity” in the normal and, conversely, to humanize what might seem monstrously “other.” When Shelley conceived Frankenstein, Europe was scarred by a long war, concluding on Waterloo fields in May 1815. “Monster” was a ready label for any enemy. Young Frankenstein begins his university studies in 1789, the year of the French Revolution. In 1790, Edmund Burke’s international best-selling Reflections on the French Revolution recoiled at the new government as a “monster of a state,” with a “monster of a constitution” and “monstrous democratic assemblies.” Within a few months, another international best-seller, Tom Paine’s The Rights of Man, excoriated “the monster Aristocracy” and cheered the American Revolution for overthrowing a “monster” of tyranny.

Following suit, Mary Shelley’s father, William Godwin, called the ancien régime a “ferocious monster”; her mother, Mary Wollstonecraft, was on the same page: Any aristocracy was an “artificial monster,” the monarchy a “luxurious monster,” and Europe’s despots a “race of monsters in human shape.” Frankenstein makes no direct reference to the Revolution, but its first readers would have felt the force of its setting in the 1790s, a decade that also saw polemics for (and against) the rights of men, women, and slaves. 

England would abolish its slave trade in 1807, but Colonial slavery was legal until 1833. Abolitionists saw the capitalists, investors, and masters as the moral monsters of the global economy. Apologists regarded the Africans as subhuman, improvable perhaps by Christianity and a work ethic, but alarming if released, especially the men. “In dealing with the Negro,” ultra-conservative Foreign Secretary George Canning lectured Parliament in 1824, “we are dealing with a being possessing the form and strength of a man, but the intellect only of a child. To turn him loose in the manhood of his physical strength ... would be to raise up a creature resembling the splendid fiction of a recent romance.” He meant Frankenstein. 

Mary Shelley heard about this reference, and knew, moreover, that women (though with gilding) were a slave class, too, insofar as they were valued for bodies rather than minds, were denied participatory citizenship and most legal rights, and were systemically subjugated as “other” by the masculine world. This was the argument of her mother’s Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), which she was rereading when she was writing Frankenstein. Unorthodox Wollstonecraft — an advocate of female intellectual education, a critic of the institution of marriage, and the mother of two daughters conceived outside of wedlock — was herself branded an “unnatural” woman, a monstrosity. 

Shelley had her own personal ordeal, which surely imprints her novel. Her parents were so ready for a son in 1797 that they had already chosen the name “William.” Even worse: When her mother died from childbirth, an awful effect was to make little Mary seem a catastrophe to her grieving father. No wonder she would write a novel about a “being” rejected from its first breath. The iconic “other” in Frankenstein is of course this horrifying Creature (he’s never a “human being”). But the deepest force of the novel is not this unique situation but its reverberation of routine judgments of beings that seem “other” to any possibility of social sympathy. In the 1823 play, the “others” (though played for comedy) are the tinker-gypsies, clad in goatskins and body paint (one is even named “Tanskin” — a racialized differential).

Victor Frankenstein greets his awakening creature as a “catastrophe,” a “wretch,” and soon a “monster.” The Creature has no name, just these epithets of contempt. The only person to address him with sympathy is blind, spared the shock of the “countenance.” Readers are blind this way, too, finding the Creature only on the page and speaking a common language. This continuity, rather than antithesis, to the human is reflected in the first illustrations: 

In the cover for the 1823 play, above, the Creature looks quite human, dishy even — alarming only in size and that gaze of expectation. The 1831 Creature, shown on page 29, is not a patent “monster”: It’s full-grown, remarkably ripped, human-looking, understandably dazed. The real “monster,” we could think, is the reckless student fleeing the results of an unsupervised undergraduate experiment gone rogue. 

In Shelley’s novel, Frankenstein pleads sympathy for the “human nature” in his revulsion. “I had worked hard for nearly two years, for the sole purpose of infusing life into an inanimate body. For this I had deprived myself of rest and health ... but now that I had finished, the beauty of the dream vanished, and breathless horror and disgust filled my heart. Unable to endure the aspect of the being I had created, I rushed out of the room.” Repelled by this betrayal of “beauty,” Frankenstein never feels responsible, let alone parental. Shelley’s genius is to understand this ethical monstrosity as a nightmare extreme of common anxiety for expectant parents: What if I can’t love a child whose physical formation is appalling (deformed, deficient, or even, as at her own birth, just female)? 

The Creature’s advent in the novel is not in this famous scene of awakening, however. It comes in the narrative that frames Frankenstein’s story: a polar expedition that has become icebound. Far on the ice plain, the ship’s crew beholds “the shape of a man, but apparently of gigantic stature,” driving a dogsled. Three paragraphs on, another man-shape arrives off the side of the ship on a fragment of ice, alone but for one sled dog. “His limbs were nearly frozen, and his body dreadfully emaciated by fatigue and suffering,” the captain records; “I never saw a man in so wretched a condition.” This dreadful man focuses the first scene of “animation” in Frankenstein: “We restored him to animation by rubbing him with brandy, and forcing him to swallow a small quantity. As soon as he shewed signs of life, we wrapped him up in blankets, and placed him near the chimney of the kitchen-stove. By slow degrees he recovered ... .” 

The re-animation (well before his name is given in the novel) turns out to be Victor Frankenstein. A crazed wretch of a “creature” (so he’s described) could have seemed a fearful “other,” but is cared for as a fellow human being. His subsequent tale of his despicably “monstrous” Creature is scored with this tremendous irony. The most disturbing aspect of this Creature is his “humanity”: this pathos of his hope for family and social acceptance, his intuitive benevolence, bitterness about abuse, and skill with language (which a Princeton valedictorian might envy) that solicits fellow-human attention — all denied by misfortune of physical formation. The deepest power of Frankenstein, still in force 200 years on, is not its so-called monster, but its exposure of “monster” as a contingency of human sympathy.  

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Monster Essay

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by Walter Dean Myers

Monster essay questions.

The novel has a sub-theme of gang violence. How are gangs presented in the novel?

The central gang in the novel is called The Diablos (a Spanish word which translates to "Devils"). The Diablos and other gangs run the Harlem streets, and members of the community consider the gangs to be more of an authoritative presence than law enforcement. This complicated power dynamic explains why the detectives are unable to get unbiased accounts from potential eyewitnesses.

During Osvaldo's testimony, the cross-examiner points to Osvaldo's involvement in the Diablos in order to account for his violent tendencies. In this way, Osvaldo is not seen as "innocent until proven guilty." Rather, his gang involvement suggests that he regularly robs and harms people in his community.

What does Kathy O'Brien's rejection of Steve's gesture of friendship tell us about Steve's expectations?

O'Brien methodically and diligently handles Steve's defense case. Due to her hard work and effort, Steve believes that she truly believes in his innocence. However, O'Brien's behavior demonstrates that she sees her work as Steve's defense attorney strictly as a job. She does not get emotionally involved in the case, and she does not reveal any aspect of her interiority throughout the novel. When Steve learns that he has been acquitted, O'Brien's reaction suggests that she may actually believe that her client is guilty.

Mr. Sawicki believes that Steve's film footage speaks deeply about his character. Is it valid to judge an author's morality based on his or her body of artistic work?

Steve's writing process is his way of coping with the traumatic events in his life. However, Steve also distances himself from his reality by exaggerating the events in the format of a screenplay. The screenplay is a work of art, and thus there is not one objective way for it to be judged. It is clear that Steve's screenplay is an effective mechanism for distraction and creative control. However, it is incredibly difficult to judge someone's character based on their artistic creations. Although art provides an insight into the mind of its creator, its meaning must be seen on its own merits, rather than associating it simply with the views of its creator.

The plot revolves around a story of conspirators and murderers. What is the difference between these two different roles and their respective punishments by law?

A conspirator is someone who is involved in a plan to do something harmful or illegal. A murderer is someone who kills another person. Steve Harmon is on trial for being a conspirator, as he was allegedly the lookout boy in the drugstore robbery. On the other hand, James King is on trial for shooting and killing Arnaldo Nesbitt. They face the same sentence. During her prosecution, Petrocelli argues that all of the four men that are allegedly involved in the murder are equally culpable and should thus receive the same sentence.

Steve's involvement in the murder of Mr. Nesbitt affects more people than just himself. Who are the other people affected by Steve's behavior?

Steve's family suffers as a result of the crime, both as a unit and individually. Steve's younger brother must cope with the absence of his role model. Mrs. Harmon defends her son's innocence, but she is deeply concerned for his emotional and physical well-being. Mr. Harmon's belief and trust in his son wavers, ultimately leading him to abandon his family.

Monster Questions and Answers

The Question and Answer section for Monster is a great resource to ask questions, find answers, and discuss the novel.

Wednesday, July 8th

The script allows Steve to speak and express himself when in court... it symbolizes his reality.

Please post your questions separately.

Edgar Allan Poe

This depends on what you want to comment on. Can you be more specific? Is it a specific work that he has done?

what page number is "You do the crime, you do the time. You act like garbage, they treat you like garbage" on

Page numbers differ depending on your book copy but you can find this quote in chapter 6.

Study Guide for Monster

Monster study guide contains a biography of Walter Dean Myers, literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis.

• About Monster
• Monster Summary
• Character List

Essays for Monster

Monster essays are academic essays for citation. These papers were written primarily by students and provide critical analysis of Monster by Walter Dean Myers.

• Race and Identity: 'The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian' and 'Monster'
• A Modernist Monster: Techniques and Social Messaging in Myers' Novel

Wikipedia Entries for Monster

• Introduction
• Themes and format
• Autobiographical elements

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How to Write a Monsters Essay?

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Writing an essay about monsters is not a walk in the park. It is a deeply creative and difficult piece of academic work in terms of cultural, psychological, and societal analyses it stipulates. Students tasked with an essay devoted to monsters need to show a thorough cultural understanding of the topic of their essay, be it about a folkloric monster character or a fantasy one.

In this article, we will tell you what makes a monster essay so special, and guide you on how to write a decent essay on monster of your choice, apart from providing some original ideas on possible topics for this kind of essay.

How to write a monster essay

An essay about these creepy creatures – monsters, is not much different from any other college essay when it comes to structural composition and other formal requirements, including length. A typical high school or college paper about monsters as the main theme is 2–3 pages long, and it is usually an open-topic type of paper, i.e., you are responsible for choosing the topic. This freedom is both good and bad news since modern and classic literature and cinema offer us a whole army of monsters to choose from. Check out the very last chapter for some original ideas on topics of essays about monsters.

Meanwhile, you can try out [Company] for immediate and high-quality help with writing your essay assignment. This is a trustworthy academic support agency capable of writing a great essay devoted to the topic of monsters, as well as providing any other academic assistance, including editing, counselling, proofreading, grammar and format check & cleanup, etc.

If you are resolved on writing an essay by yourself, however, below please review several important steps you should consider taking:

• Define a promising topic. Unless you already have a brilliant topic idea in mind, this step may require you to conduct thorough research – recalling the latest fantasy movies you’ve watched about monsters, checking out your folk literature, going online, and generating a couple of relevant search engine results. The result should be an interesting topic, that you find inspiring and can talk about describing its cultural significance, and societal meaning.
• Make a thesis statement. Even an essay about such a popular topic as monsters must have a clear thesis statement. It can be your personal claim, an intriguing opinion you might have about your topic or an assertion that you can prove with reasoning and logic (it would be naïve to expect facts in connection with a fantasy topic).
• Develop a good outline. For your writing to run smoothly, you need to follow a clear plan or an outline. A monster outline essay is equally important as the text of your essay.
• Introduction (including some background information about the topic and a clear thesis statement);
• The main body, which consists of arguments in the form of logic or reasoning. The main body is also the place to “present” your monster, and talk about its place in the society (culture, whether global or local).
• Conclusion – reflect on the chosen topic and its cultural significance. Talk about how you managed to prove/disprove the central point you made in the introductory paragraph.
• Check and edit. Give some time to carefully read your essay, perhaps after a small break. Edit and proofread your text.

We cannot stress enough that your writing would be easier if you spent a little time researching the topic. Even though your favourite monster may be “famous” and you may have plenty of information about it, some background research and extra online reading would always bring additional details (often unexpected), highlight the historical context, and open up new aspects and dimensions.

Monster essay topics

Below, please find several ideas for topics of essays on monsters. You are welcome to change and modify them should you find promising topics for your essay that you’d like to adjust and improve.

• Vampires: discuss the historical origins and cultural connection of the vampire monsters. How they came into being, and what continues to make them an interesting topic for modern book and movie plots.
• Zombies: explore the fears that zombies represent in the global culture. If you are knowledgeable in the local cultural aspects of the zombie phenomenon – that would make up an excellent essay topic!
• Ghosts: what makes the fear of ghosts so ubiquitous? Pick up and explore a ghost story of your choice that is different from the mainstream ghost stories often presented in Hollywood movies.
• Bigfoot: the fictitious and non-fictitious aspects of the Bigfoot. Which cultures and nations are more susceptible to the sighting and stories about Bigfoot, and why?
• Loch Ness Monster: what does the Loch Ness Monster represent? Is it more of a legend or a scientific phenomenon? Talk about the origins of this legend/phenomenon.
• Sirens: what is the exact mythological symbolism of sirens, and why stories about them were so popular during the age of Great Discoveries on the Sea?

Monster essay examples

To aid your writing work, we have located a couple of great examples of essays about monsters online. Check them out below.

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Essay Topics

Steve continually thinks back to the opening statement of the prosecutor in which she referred to him as a “monster.” Sandra essentially refers to Steve as someone who is not human or who has acted in a grossly inhumane manner. Why does this description haunt him?

Kathy, Steve’s attorney, acknowledges to him that his race predisposes many on the jury to assume Steve is guilty. What role does the race play in the trial of the two defendants? Consider whether Sandra’s description of Steve as a monster have any intentional or implicit racial implications and what Kathy does or doesn’t do to fight against racial stereotypes on Steve’s behalf?

Steve himself as the producer, director, and star of his autobiographical motion picture. This portrayal, however, clashes with his frequent protestations that his prosecution is something that simply happened to him and is beyond his control. Is Steve the master of his own story who is responsible for all that is happening to him or a naïve teenager who accidentally falls into a situation beyond his control? Or is he both? Explain your response using examples from the text.

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Monster - Free Essay Examples And Topic Ideas

The concept of monsters has been a part of human culture and literature for centuries. Essays could explore the symbolic meaning of monsters, their representation in media and literature, or societal fears embodied by monsters. A vast selection of complimentary essay illustrations pertaining to Monster you can find at PapersOwl Website. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Who is the Real Monster in Frankenstein

Monsters in literature are normally characterized as a creature that possesses some type of inhuman qualities or deformities, is perceived as evil, and has no compassion for mankind. The term monster can also refer to a person who has done a terrible thing in life that poorly affects others around them. In literature, outcasts are people who are not wanted and are rejected by society. In the novel Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley, many readers label the creature as a monster […]

Grendel is not Necessarily a Monster

The epic poem Beowulf portrays a story about a hero, Beowulf, fighting several monsters, including Grendel and his mother, and a dragon that eventually kills him. Grendel, a novel by John Gardner, describes situations that led Grendel to become who he is in Beowulf and helps readers understand the motives behind his behaviors. Some might argue that the monster is Grendel; however, after reading both texts, I argue that Grendel is not necessarily a monster. Instead, humans are the real […]

Frankenstein Dangerous Knowledge

Isolation is a dangerous act. Whether it is forced by the ones around us or a choice made by us to be alone isolation separates the victim from society damaging them emotionally. In Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, the monster, Frankenstein's monster, comes to know the true act of isolation. The monster was not only cast out by the townspeople but by his creator. Their prejudiced views of the monster as only that, a monster, turned him into what they truly sought […]

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Monsters in Society: the Trial and Tribulations of Steve Harmon in ‘Monster’

Monster by Walter Dean Myers tells the story of Steve Harmon, a sixteen-year-old boy that is on trial for his part in a drugstore robbery it's a realistic fiction that is written like a film script and diary. Monster tells the readers the mystery and horrible death of Mr. Nesbitt, the drugstore owner. While people read the novel they pick up the fact that Steve isn't responsible for the death of Mr. Nesbitt. It shows being even a little apart […]

The Monster King Kong Film Review

The Monster I am writing about is King Kong. A good movie can either be captivating or thrilling depending on the plot of the movie. like the thrill of a rollercoaster, so is that thrill that comes from watching the King Kong movie. It's both captivating as well as intriguing. Additionally, sense that it provides rich thematic presence and sceneries. In this paper, the reader will take a glance at the King Kong movie from a critical perspective to deduce […]

Frankenstein Critical Analysis

In Mary Shelley's novel, Frankenstein, isolation is a motif, or recurring idea with symbolic importance, revealed throughout the story between two characters, Victor Frankenstein, and his scientifically animated monster, the Creature. They both engage in acts and narratives of projecting the consequential dogma of isolation, that inevitably isolation results negatively and perpetuates misanthropy. Victor on one hand is an obsessive personality, lost in his studies he removes himself from very much human contact and engaging society. It results in his […]

Similarities between Frankenstein and the Monster

On the surface, many stories offer a simple narrative, a straightforward tale of heroes and villains. Yet, when we dare to dive deeper, we often discover layers of complexity and nuance. Just like an iceberg, most of the story's depth remains hidden beneath, waiting for the curious and the discerning to explore. In "Frankenstein," it's easy to label the monster as the antagonist and Dr. Victor Frankenstein as the tormented genius. But is it that simple? Are they just characters […]

One of the most “Useful” Monsters is Zombies

Is the idea that monsters are useful insane to even consider? Stephen T. Asma once stated, "The monster concept is still extremely useful, and it's a permanent player in the moral imagination because human vulnerability is permanent" (65). Most people would agree with this statement, although many of us are not fans of monsters. The term monsters do not only pertain to the big furry creatures that star in our nightmares. 'Monster' is a very broad term that can be […]

Zombies and our Culture

In trying to understand the influence zombies have on the society, it is relevant to know the origin of zombies. The first mention of zombie was in Haiti to represent the returned body. Then films began creating this monsters, and one thing led to another. The word monster can be defined as fear taking a physical form. The society makes a physical form of something that is perceived to cause concern. Zombies, Vampires and even Godzilla's are all created due […]

This is the Monster Celebrated on Columbus Day

Christopher Columbus, the famous sailor who discovered America, and the hero that led us to where we are today. At least, that’s what schools want us to believe. Every year on Columbus Day, children learn about how great Columbus was. They learned songs, poems, and held discussions about how great of a man he was. That’s nothing but untruthful deception. As the children grow up, they will be bitter and upset when they realise that Columbus was nothing more than […]

The Macbeth Book Review

Can corruption of the innocent can lead to the unwanted destruction caused by the individual that was once innocent? It is evident in books such as Macbeth, Frankenstein, Wuthering Heights, Brave New World, and Lord of the Flies. Each one has examples some better than others but all of them once had an innocence that got ripped from their bare hands all while they still thought they had it making confusion for those around them. So in all reality are […]

The Many Faces of Monster: a Look Beyond the Myths

Monsters, from the shadowy depths of ancient myths to the pages of modern literature, have always captivated human imagination. But what defines a monster? Is it their grotesque appearance, their supernatural powers, or something more intangible? The concept of a monster transcends physical attributes, embedding itself deeply within the psychological and cultural fabric of societies. This exploration seeks to unravel the essence of monsters, revealing not just creatures of fear but symbols of deeper truths. At its core, the definition […]

Monsters: a Dynamic Exploration of Fear Across Culture and Time

In the intricate tapestry of human thought, the concept of a "monster" weaves a rich and diverse narrative, surpassing its conventional definition as a mere grotesque or supernatural entity. This elusive term unfurls through the corridors of literature, mythology, and popular culture, taking on a multifaceted identity that extends beyond the boundaries of the eerie and the unnatural. A monster, at its essence, often embodies a departure from the norm, unsettling established norms and instigating a visceral response of fear […]

Joyce Dahmer: Unraveling the Mother Behind the Monster

In the complex tapestry of criminal psychology, the family background of a notorious figure often becomes a topic of intense scrutiny. Joyce Dahmer, the mother of one of America's most infamous serial killers, Jeffrey Dahmer, is a figure shrouded in controversy and mystery. This essay aims to explore Joyce's life and her potential impact on the psychological development of her son, delving into the nuances of their familial relationship and the environment that possibly shaped one of the most heinous […]

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Monsters Essay Examples

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: United States , Literature , Culture , Athens , Ethics , Greece , America , Greek

Published: 02/16/2020

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There are many ancient stories about horrifying creatures that live on this planet and pose danger to all the people. In every culture, you will find the tales of these creatures called ‘monsters’ and how they hurt humans. Monsters are basically mythical characters and people really enjoy listening to their stories; that is the reason why various writers have written books and filmmakers have made films on monsters as they knew that this concept would definitely be a hit. Monsters are found both in Greek methodology as well as in American methodology. In both the methodologies, monsters are scary for living beings. However, there are some visible differences noted between the concept of monsters in Greek and American cultures. First of all, monsters in Greek culture are tremendously horrific. Not only do they have frightening appearances but they have really strong evil powers. In Greek stories, these creatures had only been defeated by Greek gods or goddesses who also possessed supernatural powers. Common people could not fight with them because those monsters like Centaur, Chimera, Hydra, Scylla, etc were very powerful. On the other hand, in American culture or in other words, the modern depiction of monsters is that their appearances can sometime be mistaken as of humans. Hence, we can say that they are not very hideous looking. They can be defeated by a group of people strategically because they are not very powerful. Greek culture is rich with the stories of gods and goddesses. In those stories monsters played a part of powerful villains who were destroyed by different gods and goddesses to show that good always wins and evil always loses. In American culture, monsters are somewhat related to humans. They are the projections of humans gone off the limits. They are similar to humans but just do one or more activities that are considered abnormal. They can easily be destroyed by human crowds.

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The Bombastic 19th-Century Anti-Vaxxer Who Fueled Montreal's Smallpox Epidemic

“VACCINATE! VACCINATE!! VACCINATE!!! THERE’S MONEY IN IT!!! TWENTY THOUSAND VICTIMS!!! will be Vaccinated within the next ten days in this City under the present ALARM!!! That will put $10,000 into the pockets of the Medical Profession.” In case all the exclamation points and capitalized letters didn’t do the trick, Alexander Milton Ross embellished his poster with a large drawing of a police officer restraining a mother while Death vaccinated her child. It was terrifying, no doubt. For extra emphasis, the police officer held a piece of paper that read “Vaccination for the Jenner-ation of Disease,” a reference to the English physician Edward Jenner, who developed and promoted vaccination.

In 1885, Canada had no greater adversary of smallpox vaccination than Ross, an Anglo-Canadian physician and naturalist whose medical training was informed by the sanitary movement of the 19th century. Opposed to the germ theory emerging in Europe (that same year, Louis Pasteur’s rabies vaccine was announced to the world), Ross believed that smallpox was a filth disease and its only antidote was cleanliness. And though it’s true that smallpox could spread through soiled fabrics used by smallpox patients (such as bedding and clothing), its primary route of transmission was virus-laden respiratory droplets. The real danger thus lay in close and prolonged contact with smallpox patients, independent of how clean the setting was.

Vaccination, in Ross’s mind, was poisonous. He wanted everyone to know it too. Besides papering the city of Montreal with antivaccination posters and pamphlets, writing letters to newspapers and professional journals, and founding a magazine called the Anti-Vaccinator , he formed the Canadian Anti-Vaccination League as part of an international antivaccination crusade. “Though Police and the Profession cry Vaccinate! Vaccinate!! Vaccinate!!! and people in thousands follow their blind leaders, — I still say, DON’T,” Ross urged in a circular that he distributed throughout the city.

Ross believed that smallpox was a filth disease and its only antidote was cleanliness.

At the time, Montreal was struggling to fight off the largest epidemic of smallpox that it would ever face. For almost a century, smallpox vaccination had been widely used to prevent the disease, but many of the city’s inhabitants had refused the procedure.

Some of the holdouts were surely persuaded by Ross and his English-only propaganda. But most of the unvaccinated population and therefore the bulk of the cases consisted of French Canadians. To convince them of the evils of vaccination, French Canadian physician Joseph Emery Coderre formed the first Canadian antivaccination society in Montreal and published numerous antivaccination pamphlets in French in the 1870s. His ardent antivaccination views fed the fervor of protesters who attacked the city council in 1875, halting efforts to enact mandatory smallpox vaccination in Montreal and leaving the city vulnerable to devastating disease 10 years later. When compulsory vaccination was attempted again in 1885, the riot was even bigger. Shortly thereafter, Coderre and colleagues created an antivaccination journal , L’Antivaccinateur canadien-français , the Francophone counterpart to Ross’s magazine.

The misinformation promoted by Ross, Coderre, and their contemporaries should be familiar to anyone with a social media account in the 21st century. First off, they downplayed the threat of the epidemic in Montreal. Francophone newspapers wrote little about it, except to dismiss the panic, while Ross stressed in one of his pamphlets, “CAUTION. Do not be alarmed by the smallpox.” Simultaneously, they insisted that vaccination was the true danger. In the Anti-Vaccinator , Ross explained that vaccination didn’t prevent smallpox and actually infected people with the smallpox virus, along with other equally lethal pathogens. Coderre likewise insisted that victims of vaccination were everywhere. His writings included pages of individuals whom he believed were sickened or killed by the vaccine, either from contracting smallpox or some other malady such as gangrene and syphilis.

And then, of course, they spouted conspiracy theories. Provaccination doctors were accused of profiting from the practice, as Ross broadcast in his poster. One French Canadian doctor, in an open letter to Coderre published by the medical journal L’Union Médicale du Canada in 1875, laid out the same charge. He also perceived another conspiracy among English physicians in particular, attributing their advocacy of the smallpox vaccine to nationalistic conflicts of interest given that English physician Jenner was associated with it. Coderre replied in agreement, affirming that English doctors and public vaccinators practiced vaccination par intérêt — purely out of self-interest. These beliefs were consistent with a general distrust of the Anglophone elite, whose vaccines were seen as both poisoning and punishing the French Canadian community , which mostly lived in overcrowded tenements in the poorest quarters of the city.

Their arguments are reminiscent of misinformation during subsequent epidemics and pandemics, all the way up to the present. It’s also noteworthy that while Ross thought sanitation was the answer to smallpox, Francophone newspapers printed recipes for at-home remedies , such as buckwheat root or mixtures of zinc sulfate, digitalis, and sugar. (A cure was never found for smallpox before its eradication, and treatments generally consisted of cleaning the wounds and easing the pain of the ill.) These ideas are akin to the popularization in the United States of non-FDA-approved treatments for COVID-19, such as ivermectin (an antiparasitic agent used to treat patients with certain worm infections and head lice) and hydroxychloroquine (a medication used for malaria and autoimmune conditions such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis), which many people learned about through the internet, social media, and celebrity testimonials. Despite early hopes, neither of them turned out to be effective for preventing or treating COVID-19. But without any specific treatments for COVID-19 until long into the pandemic, it’s not surprising that some patients opted to take risks with these unproven remedies rather than heed public health warnings against them. Some physicians even participated in misinformation about the efficacy of these drugs and continued to prescribe them for COVID-19. And although many studies haven’t observed that ivermectin and hydroxychloroquine cause serious adverse effects in COVID-19 patients, they can still be dangerous if the patients forgo evidence-based COVID-19 treatments or vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 as a result of using them, as editors at the Journal of the American Medical Association pointed out last year .

To be fair, smallpox vaccination was far from perfectly safe in the late 19th century. Even Jenner himself couldn’t explain how his vaccine worked, and some methods (such as passing infectious material directly from the arm of a vaccinated person to an unvaccinated one) undoubtedly had the potential to introduce other infections. There were also some cases where children may have died as a result of faulty vaccine preparations. Furthermore, even if the vaccination was successful, it didn’t guarantee complete or lifelong immunity. Antivaccinationists, though, were incorrect about the risks and effects of the vaccine. And their dishonesty, at least in the case of Ross, raised questions about their own motives.

One State Board of Health report called him “a monster in human form who desired that a most terrible disease should decimate his patrons, that he might grow fat on their putrid bodies.”

Ross, the bombastic pamphleteer, was apparently a hypocrite at heart. In October 1885, while the smallpox epidemic was still raging in Montreal, he boarded a train to Toronto. As reported afterward by the Gazette , a medical inspector at the Ontario border asked Ross to show proof of recent smallpox vaccination, either in the form of a certificate or scar. It was a standard policy for travelers, but Ross tried his best to get out of it. Then when he couldn’t produce a certificate, he reluctantly took off his coat, rolled off his sleeve, and revealed “three perfect vaccination marks” on his arm. One of them was relatively fresh, and the others were from infancy and childhood, according to Ross. The article about the incident offered little by way of commentary, except to note the long history of doctors who believed in the efficacy of vaccination but opposed the practice since they would lose a source of revenue if smallpox declined. (Similarly, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the Fox News channel was a top broadcaster of vaccine skepticism in the United States, even though nearly all of the corporation’s employees were vaccinated .)

The news about Ross reached the United States, where it was met with outrage among the public health community. One State Board of Health report called him “a monster in human form who desired that a most terrible disease should decimate his patrons, that he might grow fat on their putrid bodies.”

By the end of the smallpox epidemic in Montreal in 1886, more than 3,200 people had died from the disease. The city lost almost 2 percent of its total population in 1885 alone, and more than 3 percent of its French Canadian community. Most of them were children. There were numerous blunders that helped the disease spread, as historian Michael Bliss recounts in his book “Plague: How Smallpox Devastated Montreal,” and the large population of unvaccinated children created by fear and ignorance was a major factor. Every one of the deaths could have been prevented, Bliss emphasizes. Unfortunately, it wasn’t until the disease ran out of unvaccinated or otherwise vulnerable hosts that the epidemic finally waned.

Misinformation about diseases is a timeless human challenge. Some opinions offered about the antivaccination riot in Montreal, such as in a New York Times editorial in 1875, ring a bell 150 years later. With shock that anyone would harbor such an absurd preconception against vaccination, a triumph of modern medicine, the editorial lamented that “in spite of all our boasted progress, curious revelations of popular ignorance and superstition are constantly showing us how little progress has been made.” But after laying blame on the fortune tellers in large cities, the quacks in medicine that flourished everywhere, and even the scientific research and scholarly writings that went above the heads of the public, there was still optimism: “When knowledge is more evenly distributed, there will be less of this fantastic and ignorant prejudice.”

Evenly distributed knowledge? That sounds a lot like the internet to me.

Sabrina Sholts is the curator of biological anthropology at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History, where she developed the major exhibit “Outbreak: Epidemics in a Connected World.” She is the author of “ The Human Disease ,” from which this article is excerpted.

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Justice Dept. Reaches $138.7 Million Settlement Over F.B.I.’s Failures in Nassar Case

The settlement likely signifies the end of a yearslong effort by U.S. Olympic gymnasts to seek justice for early failures by the F.B.I. to investigate Lawrence G. Nassar, the team’s doctor.

By Glenn Thrush and Juliet Macur

Reporting from Washington

The Justice Department said on Tuesday it would pay $138.7 million to resolve claims by young women and girls, including many top female gymnasts, of sexual abuse by the former U.S.A. Gymnastics doctor Lawrence G. Nassar.

The far-reaching settlement, which covers 139 claims, stems from the failure of F.B.I. officials to promptly investigate allegations that would ultimately lead to a horrifying conclusion: Mr. Nassar had sexually assaulted hundreds of women and girls under the guise of examinations and treatment.

It likely signals the end of a yearslong effort by the gymnasts — including the Olympic gold medalists Simone Biles, McKayla Maroney and Aly Raisman — to achieve a measure of justice in the courtroom. It also reflects public recognition that the institutions entrusted to protect young female athletes failed to protect them.

Lawyers for the young women hailed the settlement, which brings total civil payouts associated with Mr. Nasser to about $1 billion. But they cast the government’s monetary compensation for its early reluctance to fully investigate Mr. Nassar as a case of too little, too late.

“These women were assaulted because of the F.B.I.’s failure and there is no amount of money that will make them whole again,” said Mick Grewal, a lawyer for 44 of the claimants, including one who died by suicide. “Their goal with all this was to make sure that this never happens again.”

Mr. Grewal said he hoped the deal would “close the book on this, and this will help lead them on the path to healing.”

The broad outlines of the agreement were reached late last year. Lawyers on both sides have spent months determining the specific payouts, which vary based on the abuse claims, but amount to around $1 million per woman or girl, according to two people familiar with the discussions.

Mr. Nassar is serving a 60-year sentence in federal prison in Florida, where he was stabbed multiple times by an inmate in July . He suffered a collapsed lung but survived his injuries.

For victims like Alexis Hazen, who said she was abused by Mr. Nassar from age 12 to 18, a resolution was a long time coming. She reported the abuse in 2016 and she is now 26, married and a mother of three boys.

“I’m relieved but disappointed that no one person is being held accountable for failing to report the abuse and for sweeping it under the rug,” Ms. Hazen said in a telephone interview. “In a way, this helps me be able to move past this, but it’s always in the back of my mind that, wow, if the F.B.I. didn’t protect me, could something like this happen to my children? And that makes me really, really mad.”

“I definitely have no trust in that institution anymore,” she added.

John Manly, a lawyer who represents 34 victims in this case, said that “every survivor that I know would have traded all of their money for this not to have happened to them.”

Mr. Manley said that the F.B.I. had showed a commitment to settling “from the get-go,” but that he was troubled by what he described as the silence of the bureau’s director at the time, James B. Comey — and unanswered questions about the actions of frontline F.B.I. officials involved in the early days of the case.

Mr. Comey did not immediately respond to a request for comment.

The settlement comes two and a half years after senior F.B.I. officials publicly admitted that agents had failed to take quick action when U.S. national team athletes complained about Mr. Nassar to the bureau’s Indianapolis field office in 2015.

Mr. Nassar, known for working with Olympians and college athletes, has been accused of abusing hundreds of women and girls — some as young as 8 — over the years while working with athletes at Michigan State University, U.S.A. Gymnastics, local teams and high schools.

“These allegations should have been taken seriously from the outset,” said Benjamin C. Mizer, acting associate attorney general, whose office negotiated the settlement. “While these settlements won’t undo the harm Nassar inflicted, our hope is that they will help give the victims of his crimes some of the critical support they need to continue healing.”

In 2018, Michigan State paid more than $500 million into a victim compensation fund, believed to be the largest settlement by a university in a sexual abuse case. Three years later, U.S.A. Gymnastics and the United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee reached a $380 million settlement .

Many of the girls and women who reported abuse by Mr. Nassar have battled mental health issues, including anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, and some have attempted suicide.

A 2021 report by the Justice Department’s inspector general found that senior F.B.I. officials in the Indianapolis field office had failed to respond to the allegations “with the utmost seriousness and urgency that they deserved and required” and that the investigation did not proceed until after the news media detailed Mr. Nassar’s abuse.

F.B.I. officials in the office also “made numerous and fundamental errors when they did respond” to the allegations and failed to notify state or local authorities of the allegations or take other steps to address the threat posed by Mr. Nassar, the inspector general’s report said.

In heart-wrenching testimony two months later, former members of the national gymnastics team described how the F.B.I. had turned a blind eye to Mr. Nassar’s abuse as the investigation stalled and children suffered. Some, including Ms. Raisman, said that agents moved slowly to investigate even after they presented the bureau with graphic evidence of his actions.

The revelations prompted an extraordinary apology from the F.B.I. director, Christopher A. Wray, who did not oversee the bureau when the investigation began. “I am sorry that so many people let you down over and over again, and I am especially sorry that there were people at the F.B.I. who had their own chance to stop this monster back in 2015,” he said.

The settlement is one of several that the Justice Department has reached over the past decade.

The others have involved victims of mass shootings. Families of 26 people killed in a 2017 shooting at a church in Texas received $144.5 million. The mass shooting in 2018 at a high school in Parkland, Fla. , resulted in the Justice Department paying families $127.5 million.

Glenn Thrush covers the Department of Justice. He joined The Times in 2017 after working for Politico, Newsday, Bloomberg News, The New York Daily News, The Birmingham Post-Herald and City Limits. More about Glenn Thrush

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Monster by Dean Myers Summary

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Published: Mar 25, 2024

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