psychology research topics about dreams

177 Dream Research Topics & How to Write a Research Paper on Dreams

People have dreams every night. Dreams are different – sweet dreams and nightmares, colored and colorless. However, every psychologist knows that people need to sleep. Why? Well, let us give you the right to answer this question in your research paper on dreams.

A research paper on dreams is a serious research project. That is why you cannot simply write how dreams can be interpreted or describe your dreams in the research paper on dreams. Research papers on dreams require more serious topics and approach.

Below you will find several possible ideas for research papers on dreams.

• 🔎 Dreams Research Topics
• 💤 Dreams Definition
• ✍️ How to Write about Dreams

😴 Easy Research Topics on Dreams

🛌 essay about dreams topics, 😪 topics for a research paper on sleep and dreams, ✏️ importance of sleep essay topics, 👻 nightmare essay topics.

• 📝 My Dreams Essay – Example

✅ Interesting Facts about Dreams

🔎 dreams research topics – 2024.

• The link between our dreams and emotions.
• What is the role of dreaming in creativity development?
• The gender-based patterns in dreaming experience.
• Sigmund Freud and his theory of dreams.
• The key mechanisms that underlie dreaming.
• What knowledge can you gain from your dreams?
• The impact of eating patterns on the quality of dreams.
• How do different cultures perceive and interpret dreams?
• The advantages and disadvantages of dreaming.
• How can people control their dreams?
• The role of dreams in processing emotions.
• How do bizarre and emotionally intense dreams occur?

💤 What Are Dreams?

Psychologists are sure that dreams are the result of what we wish or think about when we are awake. For example, Freud, a famous psychologist, considered that if a man did not have sexual relations for a long time, he would dream about them. If you think about someone, you may also dream about him/her. This is what you may write about in the research paper on dreams if you want to consider this aspect.

Nightmares can also be a very interesting issue to discuss in research papers on dreams. Psychologists relate nightmares to the field of “unconscious”. Very often, people forget about the stressful situations they once had. However, those situations are reflected in their minds and they can appear in dreams. You may also find other points of view on nightmares and discuss them in your research paper on dreams.

✍️ How to Write a Research Paper about Dreams

A research paper about dreams generally includes an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. First, it is crucial to choose a relevant and exciting topic to write on and decide on the type of research paper (analytical, argumentative, etc.).

Choosing a Topic

Pick a topic that corresponds to your interests and expertise. It will help you stay more motivated throughout the research process. In addition, ensure that your topic is specific, relevant, and follows the assignment instructions.

If you need help choosing a good topic for your paper, try our free research title generator .

Finding Sources

After you have found a perfect topic on dreams, it is time to look for sources for your research. You can look up information in books, similar research papers, or online sources. Communicating with professionals related to dreams , like psychologists or neurologists, is also a good idea since it is an effective method to gain new knowledge or advice.

Writing a Research Paper

The format of your research paper on dreams should consist of the following elements:

• The relation between dreaming and the role of deep-brain structures.
• Dreaming capacity to repeatedly simulate potential threatening events.
• The role of amygdala and hippocampus in the dreaming process.
• The spiritual significance of dreams in different cultures.
• Dream interpretation and its value in self-understanding.
• How does dream recall reflect social relationships?
• The positive impact of dreams on our physical health.
• Dreams and their role in predicting the future.
• The peculiarities of dreams in pregnant women.
• Why does Charcot-Wilbrand syndrome cause the loss of the ability to dream?
• The role of dreaming in developing cognitive capabilities.
• How can dreams reflect the aging process?
• The repetitive character of some dreams and their meaning.
• Why are young people more likely to dream in color?
• The benefits and cautions of lucid dreaming.
• The influence of smartphones on the content of dreams.
• Why do people forget their dreams after waking up?
• The impact of suppressing intrusive thoughts on dream content.
• What is the role of dreams in developing long-term memory?
• The key causes and types of dreams.
• The peculiarities of dreaming during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Everything you need to know about lucid dreams.
• The role of melatonin in determining the dream content.
• What can we learn from our dreams?
• The psychotomimetic nature of dreams.
• The terrors of sleep paralysis.
• Does screen time affect people’s dreams?
• Dreams and the future of sleep technology.
• Are AI technologies capable of generating dreams?
• The hidden cost of insufficient sleep.
• How can nap breaks improve your productivity at work?
• The main facts and myths about sleep and dreams.
• How can our understanding of dreams shape our worldview?
• The link between dreams and telepathy.
• The process of dreaming in animals.
• Why do some people wake up in the middle of the night?
• The impact of mental illnesses on dream content.
• The role of dreams in art as a source of inspiration.
• How do different societies interpret dreams?
• The power of dreaming in everyday life.
• How to become a morning person: the key strategies.
• The impact of sleep time on life length.
• Ways to decode the language of sleep.
• Using cannabis as a method to cope with nightmares.
• The impact of the daily schedule on improving the quality of sleep.
• How to get a good night’s sleep in a new place?
• Methods to combat morning grogginess.
• Taking care of your sleep as one of the pillars of health.
• The use of dreams in filmmaking and book writing.
• The phenomenon of dreaming during sleep.
• The main phases of sleep in a sleep cycle.
• How is alpha activity measured during sleep?
• The use of oneirology in uncovering the dreaming process.
• Dreaming in Christianity and Islam.
• What is the connection between race and sleep disorders?
• The theory of astral projection during sleep.
• The effect of sleep on pain thresholds and sensitivity.
• The consequences of chronic daytime sleepiness.
• Why is dreaming a key part of a sleep cycle?
• The natural patterns of sleeping in children and teenagers.
• REM and non-REM sleep : the difference.
• What is biphasic sleep, and how does it work?
• The influence of dreams on musical creativity.
• The cultural significance of dream symbols.
• How do moon phases affect your sleep?
• The nature and functions of dreaming.
• The use of dream content during expressive arts therapy.
• What are the possible functions of REM sleep and dreaming?
• The value of dreaming and sleep tracking.
• The analysis of mental activity of sleep and disturbing dreams.
• How do sleep disturbances impact skin health?
• The impact of age on our circadian rhythm.
• The phenomenon of conscious control in dreams.
• How do sleep patterns change across different life stages?
• The influence of sleep quality on academic performance.
• The psychological theories of dreaming purpose.
• The disadvantages of oversleeping for adults.
• How does your body use calories while you sleep?
• Factors influencing the memory of dreams.
• What impact does alcohol have on the sleep cycle and dreaming?
• How can dreams contribute to the healing process?
• The role of sleep in underlying psychological issues.
• The benefits of daytime napping for young people.
• Why does sleep deprivation increase the risk of substance abuse?
• The use of daytime naps to increase imagination.
• The value of bedtime routine for toddlers.
• The benefits of a good night’s sleep.
• What is the role of sleeping in achieving life goals?
• Lack of sleep as a key cause of hormonal imbalance.
• The damaging effect of shift work on sleep patterns and health.
• The link between sleep and the immune system.
• What impact does a change of clocks by an hour have on public health?
• The value of sleep for children’s physical, cognitive, and emotional development.
• What would happen if you did not sleep?
• The importance of sleep for children’s development and growth.
• The connection between good mood and quality sleep.
• Why does the lack of sleep increase aggression?
• The role of sleeping in cancer prevention and treatment.
• The value of sleep for the recovery process of athletes.
• How does the quality of sleep impact metabolism?

Essay about Sleep Deprivation

• The economic impact of sleep deprivation in the workplace.
• How can sleep deprivation lead to anxiety and depression?
• The role of sleep deprivation in worsening obesity and diabetes.
• The use of sleeping pills in sleep deprivation treatment.
• How is sleep deprivation diagnosed?
• The prevalence of sleep deprivation among shift workers.
• What is the difference between sleep deprivation and insomnia?
• The key stages of sleep deprivation.
• The role of DNA in the development of sleep deprivation.
• The unique challenges in diagnosing obstructive sleep deprivation.
• How does sleep deprivation affect the human body?
• The issue of sleep deprivation in teenagers due to exams.
• The role of medications in managing sleep deprivation.
• Ways of reducing the risk of developing sleep deprivation.
• What are the key symptoms of sleep deprivation?

Why Is Sleep Important? Essay Topics

• The efficiency of sleeping in losing weight.
• How can sleep improve concentration and productivity?
• Sleep as essential component of healthy aging.
• Why can a lack of sleep be dangerous?
• Sleep satisfaction and its impact on energy level.
• How is poor sleep linked to depression?
• The impact of sleep on emotional intelligence.
• How does sleep help to repair and restore tissues?
• The role of sleeping in removing toxins from the brain.
• Why can the lack of sleep be lethal?
• The link between sleep quality and mental resilience.
• Sleep loss and its impact on reducing the ability to regulate emotions.
• The role of sleep in the regulation of the central nervous system.
• How can the quality of sleep strengthen your heart?
• Sleeping as a method to maximize athletic performance.

Sleeping Disorders Essay Topics

• The connection between sleep disorders and dreaming.
• Do congenitally blind people have visual dreams?
• The effective ways of coping with insomnia.
• Sleep difficulties and their physical and emotional consequences.
• How does weight affect sleep apnea in adults?
• Breathing practices and their efficiency in overcoming sleep disorders.
• The key symptoms of sleep-related hypoventilation .
• What are the risk factors for sleep disorders?
• Minimizing stress as a method to cope with obstructive sleep apnea.
• The side effects of sleep disorder treatment.
• What are the major categories of sleep disorders, and how do they differ?
• Restless legs syndrome as one of the sleep disorder types.
• The effectiveness of light therapy in sleep disorder treatment.
• The peculiarities of sleep disorder diagnosis.
• How to deal with rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder?
• Nightmare disorder and its impact on sleep quality.
• The role of negative thinking, stress, and anxiety in worsening nightmares.
• How may nightmares help to express unresolved emotions?
• The influence of nightmares on interpersonal relationships.
• The use of cognitive behavioral therapy in nightmare treatment.
• Are nightmares a possible consequence of drug abuse?
• The key symptoms of experiencing nightmares.
• The health effects of nightmares in adults.
• How are nightmares connected to waking activity?
• The possible consequences of nightmares.
• The efficiency of psychotherapy in nightmare treatment.
• The main causes of nightmares and methods to cope with them.
• How are nightmares different from sleep terrors?
• The role of sleep hygiene practices in preventing nightmares.
• How do nightmares affect the daily life of teenagers?
• Nightmares as a result of trauma-related experience.
• The link between nightmares and sleep paralysis.
• How does genetics impact the occurrence of nightmares?
• The neurobiological aspects of nightmares in children.
• The risk factors of having nightmare disorder.

📝 My Dreams Essay – Example

We have prepared a dream essay example to show you how everything works in practice!

How Do Different Societies Interpret Dreams?

Throughout history, dreams have been a mysterious experience for people worldwide, receiving various interpretations in many different countries and cultures. From ancient times to the present, people have believed that dreams provide crucial insights into our inner being and may even impact our perception of the universe.

For example, in ancient Egypt, snakes were often associated with danger, deceit, and the underworld. At the same time, seeing calm water in a dream was a good sign that meant peace and tranquility. If people were flying while asleep, it symbolized spiritual growth and escape from mortal concerns.

In ancient Mesopotamia, animals were frequently seen as symbols of the dreamer's personality traits. For instance, a lion might symbolize strength and power, while a sheep could represent humility and submission. Numbers also had a special meaning. People believed their appearance in dreams could be interpreted as messages from the gods.

Nowadays, people still interpret dreams in various ways based on their personal beliefs and traditions. However, it is crucial to understand that there is no correct or incorrect approach to interpreting dreams. The essential thing is to discover a method that resonates with you, allowing you to obtain insights into your subconscious mind. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful.

Do you want to make your research paper on dreams interesting? Then, include a couple of facts into your research paper on dreams:

• Blind people dream;
• You forget 90% of your dreams;
• Dreams prevent psychosis;
• Not everyone sees colorful dreams;
• When you are snoring, you are not dreaming.

Who knows, maybe you will manage to interpret one of these facts from the psychological point of view in your research paper on dreams.

On our blog, useful information on how to write a good research paper and make a cover page for research papers can also be found.

Argumentative Bioethics Essays

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April 14, 2024

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Untangling dreams and our waking lives: Latest findings in cognitive neuroscience

by Cognitive Neuroscience Society

"Dreams are messages from the deep." (Dune Part 1) Musings about dreams abound throughout society, from movies to TV to books. But despite being a constant source of fascination, the role of dreams in our lives still remains elusive.

As recently noted in the TV show Grey's Anatomy, "Honestly, no one knows why we dream or why we have nightmares." While true, neuroscientists are finding innovative new ways to study dreams and how they influence our cognition.

"Understanding how dreams are generated and what their function might be—if any—is one of science's biggest open questions right now," says Remington Mallett of University of Montréal, who is chairing a session today at the annual meeting of the Cognitive Neuroscience Society (CNS) in Toronto .

"Because we don't know much about dreams, it is hard to estimate their full impact on our waking lives. But current results suggest that indeed dreams influence our waking experiences."

As presented at CNS 2024, researchers are finding not only novel approaches to exploring dreams and the architecture of sleep, but also ways to engineer dreams to help people suffering from sleep disorders . In the process, scientists are seeing how perceptions of dreams and sleep quality often differ greatly from the objective measures traditionally used to evaluate them.

Perceptions versus reality

Claudia Picard-Deland posits that dreams are a window into understanding sleep quality. She and colleagues at the University of Montréal design studies that wake sleepers many times in the night to determine how the participants perceive their sleep.

"Dreams are not studied a lot in the context of sleep quality. The focus is more often on objective measures like brain activity or sleep stage, but I think we need to look closer at dream activity and its impact on how we perceive sleep." For people who suffer from insomnia and related disorders, perception of sleep is reality, and their dreams could offer possible ways to help shape those perceptions.

In their latest, unpublished study, Picard-Deland and colleagues woke 20 "good sleepers" some 12 times in the night, representing all four classic sleep stages at three different times in the night. At each awakening, the researchers would ask whether they had been awake or asleep, how deeply they were sleeping, what was last in their minds, and how immersed they felt in their dreams.

They found that sleep misperception—feeling awake even when electrodes measured they were asleep—was common among participants, especially in the early, dreamless stages of sleep. Likewise, they found that when the participants were able to recall their dreams, they perceived their sleep as deeper.

"And when they are more immersed in their dreams, feel more physically present, or have more vivid dreams, they wake up feeling their sleep was deeper compared to when they have no, or light, dream activity," Picard-Deland says.

The researchers were surprised to see how frequently participants thought they had been awake when they were actually sleeping ("paradoxical insomnia") and in the deeper, slow-wave phase of sleep. This work builds upon similar previous findings and has important implications for how scientists understand the architecture of sleep, as well as for people who report insomnia.

As someone who has experienced insomnia her whole life, Picard-Deland thinks it is crucial for people to realize that they may be sleeping more than they think. "It helped me to see it with my own eyes, happening in front of me, that participants were sleeping yet still felt awake."

Beyond that understanding, this work could have future applications for sleep rehabilitation based on dreams. For example, Picard-Deland would love to explore whether dream training, such as teaching people how to experience more immersive lucid dreams, could lead to better perceived sleep quality.

Lucid dreams as a tool

Lucid dreams are an important part of the work of Saba Al-Youssef whose team at Sorbonne Université leverages the ability of lucid dreamers to use facial muscles during sleep as a new tool for gathering data. "Dreams are a hidden world to which we have no direct access," she says.

"We mostly rely on dream reports no matter what study method we use. The capacity of lucid dreamers to communicate with us in real time gives us side door access to dreams, at least knowing when a specific event is happening."

In a new study with researchers at Northwestern University published in Current Biology , Al-Youssef and colleagues aim to better understand how the brain acts during dreams in comparison to its behavior when awake.

When people are awake and close their eyes, visual content disappears and specific electrical signals occur. Researchers therefore wondered what happens in the brain when someone closes their eyes in a dream. They hope to better understand the neural correlates of visual perception during dreams.

The researchers recruited participants who included lucid dreamers with narcolepsy. Over the course of five naps, the researchers instructed participants to close and open their "dream eyes" and signal so by sniffing once or twice. They then asked those with narcolepsy to report whether they had visual content in each condition by frowning or smiling.

"Surprisingly, we've found that closing our 'dream eyes' is not always accompanied by a loss of vision, as is the case when we're awake," Al-Youssef says. "I hope this work would help show how using lucid dreams can be helpful in studying dreams and even understanding their function."

Mallett is excited to see work like this to develop new methodology for studying dreams. "I think most scientists are skeptical that dreams can be studied, so before I tell them about what we found, I need to convince them that we can find something," Mallett says, "that we have the methods and tools to make discoveries about dreams."

Both Picard-Deland's and Al-Youssef's work open new avenues of research in manipulating dreams through new technology and with immediate clinical benefits. "You need to manipulate dreams for good experimentation, and you need to manipulate dreams to reduce nightmares," he says.

"Nightmares are incredibly frustrating for a variety of clinical populations, and there is great need for approaches to reducing them. Understanding how dreams are formed, and how to change them, is already laying paths forward for efficient nightmare reduction protocols."

Overall, the body of work presented at CNS 2024 is showing the myriad ways dreams affect our waking lives. "This is rather unsurprising when you consider that dreams are experiences, and your prior experience is always going to impact your experiences going forward."

The work also echoes a fundamental lesson from cognitive neuroscience, that whether awake or asleep, our perceptions of the world are but imperfect creations in our minds.

The symposium " Into the Night: The Cognitive Neuroscience of Dreaming " is taking place at 1:30pmEDT on Sunday, April 14, as part of the CNS 2024 annual meeting from April 13-16, 2024 in Toronto, Canada.

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July 26, 2011

The Science Behind Dreaming

New research sheds light on how and why we remember dreams--and what purpose they are likely to serve

By Sander van der Linden

Getty Images

For centuries people have pondered the meaning of dreams. Early civilizations thought of dreams as a medium between our earthly world and that of the gods. In fact, the Greeks and Romans were convinced that dreams had certain prophetic powers. While there has always been a great interest in the interpretation of human dreams, it wasn’t until the end of the nineteenth century that Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung put forth some of the most widely-known modern theories of dreaming. Freud’s theory centred around the notion of repressed longing -- the idea that dreaming allows us to sort through unresolved, repressed wishes. Carl Jung (who studied under Freud) also believed that dreams had psychological importance, but proposed different theories about their meaning.

Since then, technological advancements have allowed for the development of other theories. One prominent neurobiological theory of dreaming is the “activation-synthesis hypothesis,” which states that dreams don’t actually mean anything: they are merely electrical brain impulses that pull random thoughts and imagery from our memories. Humans, the theory goes, construct dream stories after they wake up, in a natural attempt to make sense of it all. Yet, given the vast documentation of realistic aspects to human dreaming as well as indirect experimental evidence that other mammals such as cats also dream, evolutionary psychologists have theorized that dreaming really does serve a purpose. In particular, the “threat simulation theory” suggests that dreaming should be seen as an ancient biological defence mechanism that provided an evolutionary advantage because of  its capacity to repeatedly simulate potential threatening events – enhancing the neuro-cognitive mechanisms required for efficient threat perception and avoidance.

So, over the years, numerous theories have been put forth in an attempt to illuminate the mystery behind human dreams, but, until recently, strong tangible evidence has remained largely elusive.

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Yet, new research published in the Journal of Neuroscience provides compelling insights into the mechanisms that underlie dreaming and the strong relationship our dreams have with our memories. Cristina Marzano and her colleagues at the University of Rome have succeeded, for the first time, in explaining how humans remember their dreams. The scientists predicted the likelihood of successful dream recall based on a signature pattern of brain waves. In order to do this, the Italian research team invited 65 students to spend two consecutive nights in their research laboratory.

During the first night, the students were left to sleep, allowing them to get used to the sound-proofed and temperature-controlled rooms. During the second night the researchers measured the student’s brain waves while they slept. Our brain experiences four types of electrical brain waves: “delta,” “theta,” “alpha,” and “beta.” Each represents a different speed of oscillating electrical voltages and together they form the electroencephalography (EEG). The Italian research team used this technology to measure the participant’s brain waves during various sleep-stages. (There are five stages of sleep; most dreaming and our most intense dreams occur during the REM stage.) The students were woken at various times and asked to fill out a diary detailing whether or not they dreamt, how often they dreamt and whether they could remember the content of their dreams.

While previous studies have already indicated that people are more likely to remember their dreams when woken directly after REM sleep, the current study explains why. Those participants who exhibited more low frequency theta waves in the frontal lobes were also more likely to remember their dreams.

This finding is interesting because the increased frontal theta activity the researchers observed looks just like the successful encoding and retrieval of autobiographical memories seen while we are awake. That is, it is the same electrical oscillations in the frontal cortex that make the recollection of episodic memories (e.g., things that happened to you) possible. Thus, these findings suggest that the neurophysiological mechanisms that we employ while dreaming (and recalling dreams) are the same as when we construct and retrieve memories while we are awake.

In another recent study conducted by the same research team, the authors used the latest MRI techniques to investigate the relation between dreaming and the role of deep-brain structures. In their study, the researchers found that vivid, bizarre and emotionally intense dreams (the dreams that people usually remember) are linked to parts of the amygdala and hippocampus. While the amygdala plays a primary role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions, the hippocampus has been implicated in important memory functions, such as the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory.

The proposed link between our dreams and emotions is also highlighted in another recent study published by Matthew Walker and colleagues at the Sleep and Neuroimaging Lab at UC Berkeley, who found that a reduction in REM sleep (or less “dreaming”) influences our ability to understand complex emotions in daily life – an essential feature of human social functioning.  Scientists have also recently identified where dreaming is likely to occur in the brain.  A very rare clinical condition known as “Charcot-Wilbrand Syndrome” has been known to cause (among other neurological symptoms) loss of the ability to dream.  However, it was not until a few years ago that a patient reported to have lost her ability to dream while having virtually no other permanent neurological symptoms. The patient suffered a lesion in a part of the brain known as the right inferior lingual gyrus (located in the visual cortex). Thus, we know that dreams are generated in, or transmitted through this particular area of the brain, which is associated with visual processing, emotion and visual memories.

Taken together, these recent findings tell an important story about the underlying mechanism and possible purpose of dreaming.

Dreams seem to help us process emotions by encoding and constructing memories of them. What we see and experience in our dreams might not necessarily be real, but the emotions attached to these experiences certainly are. Our dream stories essentially try to strip the emotion out of a certain experience by creating a memory of it. This way, the emotion itself is no longer active.  This mechanism fulfils an important role because when we don’t process our emotions, especially negative ones, this increases personal worry and anxiety. In fact, severe REM sleep-deprivation is increasingly correlated to the development of mental disorders. In short, dreams help regulate traffic on that fragile bridge which connects our experiences with our emotions and memories.

Are you a scientist who specializes in neuroscience, cognitive science, or psychology? And have you read a recent peer-reviewed paper that you would like to write about? Please send suggestions to Mind Matters editor Gareth Cook, a Pulitzer prize-winning journalist at the Boston Globe. He can be reached at garethideas AT gmail.com or Twitter @garethideas .

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50+ Research Topics for Psychology Papers

How to Find Psychology Research Topics for Your Student Paper

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

• Specific Branches of Psychology
• Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy
• Human Cognition
• Human Development
• Critique of Publications
• Famous Experiments
• Historical Figures
• Specific Careers
• Case Studies
• Literature Reviews
• Your Own Study/Experiment

Are you searching for a great topic for your psychology paper ? Sometimes it seems like coming up with topics of psychology research is more challenging than the actual research and writing. Fortunately, there are plenty of great places to find inspiration and the following list contains just a few ideas to help get you started.

Finding a solid topic is one of the most important steps when writing any type of paper. It can be particularly important when you are writing a psychology research paper or essay. Psychology is such a broad topic, so you want to find a topic that allows you to adequately cover the subject without becoming overwhelmed with information.

I can always tell when a student really cares about the topic they chose; it comes through in the writing. My advice is to choose a topic that genuinely interests you, so you’ll be more motivated to do thorough research.

In some cases, such as in a general psychology class, you might have the option to select any topic from within psychology's broad reach. Other instances, such as in an  abnormal psychology  course, might require you to write your paper on a specific subject such as a psychological disorder.

As you begin your search for a topic for your psychology paper, it is first important to consider the guidelines established by your instructor.

Research Topics Within Specific Branches of Psychology

The key to selecting a good topic for your psychology paper is to select something that is narrow enough to allow you to really focus on the subject, but not so narrow that it is difficult to find sources or information to write about.

One approach is to narrow your focus down to a subject within a specific branch of psychology. For example, you might start by deciding that you want to write a paper on some sort of social psychology topic. Next, you might narrow your focus down to how persuasion can be used to influence behavior .

Other social psychology topics you might consider include:

• Prejudice and discrimination (i.e., homophobia, sexism, racism)
• Social cognition
• Person perception
• Social control and cults
• Persuasion, propaganda, and marketing
• Attraction, romance, and love
• Nonverbal communication
• Prosocial behavior

Psychology Research Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy

Exploring a psychological disorder or a specific treatment modality can also be a good topic for a psychology paper. Some potential abnormal psychology topics include specific psychological disorders or particular treatment modalities, including:

• Eating disorders
• Borderline personality disorder
• Seasonal affective disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Antisocial personality disorder
• Profile a  type of therapy  (i.e., cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, psychoanalytic therapy)

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Cognition

Some of the possible topics you might explore in this area include thinking, language, intelligence, and decision-making. Other ideas might include:

• False memories
• Speech disorders
• Problem-solving

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Development

In this area, you might opt to focus on issues pertinent to  early childhood  such as language development, social learning, or childhood attachment or you might instead opt to concentrate on issues that affect older adults such as dementia or Alzheimer's disease.

Some other topics you might consider include:

• Language acquisition
• Media violence and children
• Learning disabilities
• Gender roles
• Child abuse
• Prenatal development
• Parenting styles
• Aspects of the aging process

Do a Critique of Publications Involving Psychology Research Topics

One option is to consider writing a critique paper of a published psychology book or academic journal article. For example, you might write a critical analysis of Sigmund Freud's Interpretation of Dreams or you might evaluate a more recent book such as Philip Zimbardo's  The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil .

Professional and academic journals are also great places to find materials for a critique paper. Browse through the collection at your university library to find titles devoted to the subject that you are most interested in, then look through recent articles until you find one that grabs your attention.

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Famous Experiments

There have been many fascinating and groundbreaking experiments throughout the history of psychology, providing ample material for students looking for an interesting term paper topic. In your paper, you might choose to summarize the experiment, analyze the ethics of the research, or evaluate the implications of the study. Possible experiments that you might consider include:

• The Milgram Obedience Experiment
• The Stanford Prison Experiment
• The Little Albert Experiment
• Pavlov's Conditioning Experiments
• The Asch Conformity Experiment
• Harlow's Rhesus Monkey Experiments

Topics of Psychology Research About Historical Figures

One of the simplest ways to find a great topic is to choose an interesting person in the  history of psychology  and write a paper about them. Your paper might focus on many different elements of the individual's life, such as their biography, professional history, theories, or influence on psychology.

While this type of paper may be historical in nature, there is no need for this assignment to be dry or boring. Psychology is full of fascinating figures rife with intriguing stories and anecdotes. Consider such famous individuals as Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Harry Harlow, or one of the many other  eminent psychologists .

Psychology Research Topics About a Specific Career

​Another possible topic, depending on the course in which you are enrolled, is to write about specific career paths within the  field of psychology . This type of paper is especially appropriate if you are exploring different subtopics or considering which area interests you the most.

In your paper, you might opt to explore the typical duties of a psychologist, how much people working in these fields typically earn, and the different employment options that are available.

Topics of Psychology Research Involving Case Studies

One potentially interesting idea is to write a  psychology case study  of a particular individual or group of people. In this type of paper, you will provide an in-depth analysis of your subject, including a thorough biography.

Generally, you will also assess the person, often using a major psychological theory such as  Piaget's stages of cognitive development  or  Erikson's eight-stage theory of human development . It is also important to note that your paper doesn't necessarily have to be about someone you know personally.

In fact, many professors encourage students to write case studies on historical figures or fictional characters from books, television programs, or films.

Psychology Research Topics Involving Literature Reviews

Another possibility that would work well for a number of psychology courses is to do a literature review of a specific topic within psychology. A literature review involves finding a variety of sources on a particular subject, then summarizing and reporting on what these sources have to say about the topic.

Literature reviews are generally found in the  introduction  of journal articles and other  psychology papers , but this type of analysis also works well for a full-scale psychology term paper.

Topics of Psychology Research Based on Your Own Study or Experiment

Many psychology courses require students to design an actual psychological study or perform some type of experiment. In some cases, students simply devise the study and then imagine the possible results that might occur. In other situations, you may actually have the opportunity to collect data, analyze your findings, and write up your results.

Finding a topic for your study can be difficult, but there are plenty of great ways to come up with intriguing ideas. Start by considering your own interests as well as subjects you have studied in the past.

Online sources, newspaper articles, books , journal articles, and even your own class textbook are all great places to start searching for topics for your experiments and psychology term papers. Before you begin, learn more about  how to conduct a psychology experiment .

What This Means For You

After looking at this brief list of possible topics for psychology papers, it is easy to see that psychology is a very broad and diverse subject. While this variety makes it possible to find a topic that really catches your interest, it can sometimes make it very difficult for some students to select a good topic.

If you are still stumped by your assignment, ask your instructor for suggestions and consider a few from this list for inspiration.

• Hockenbury, SE & Nolan, SA. Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers; 2014.
• Santrock, JW. A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2016.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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18 Interesting Psychology Research Paper Topics On Dreams

People have been interested in the topic of dreams since the early years of human civilization. Modern psychology allows us to learn more about dreams but there are still a lot of questions that we don’t have answers to. If you have to write a research paper about dreams, there are plenty of interesting topics to choose from.

The List of Research Paper Topics about Dreams

• A detailed definition of a dream.
• The reasons for us to dream.
• People who don’t have dreams.
• The duration of a dream.
• The meaning of dreams.
• The formula of most dreams.
• The features of lucid dreams.
• The nature of nightmares.
• Ways to deal with anxiety dreams.
• The meaning of repetitive dreams.
• Patients with REM behavior disorder.
• Dreams with empty emotional content.
• Dreams that portend psychosis.
• Measures to take for remembering more of your dreams.
• Dreams of animals.
• Remembering dreams under hypnosis.
• Sigmund Freud’s theory about dreams.
• Psychotherapy and dreams.

Tips for Writing Your Psychology Project

To get an excellent grade for your work, you should organize it in a correct order. First, pick an interesting topic like the ones above. Then, look for books and other sources to gain deep knowledge about the background of the question that you’re going to discuss. The next step is to make your own analysis and carry out your own experiments. Only when you have some research results, you may start writing.

Make a good outline in order to follow it during the writing process. This will help you remember to include every important detail in your text. You may start writing with body chapters rather than with an introduction, however. Usually, if you start with an introduction, you might have to make changes in it later. The contents of the body chapters might differ a little bit from your initial ideas.

Don’t forget to edit your paper so that it doesn’t contain typos and grammar mistakes. You should also format it in accordance with the requirements of your psychology teacher if you want to submit it without problems at the first attempt.

Where to Purchase Psychology Research Papers

If you don’t have enough time to complete your psychology project on your own, you may try out this resource to order a custom-written paper. This agency is famous for composing papers of the highest quality and completing their orders within the deadlines indicated by their customers.

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Understanding Dreams

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Dreams are imaginary sequences—some with clear narratives, and some without—that play out in people’s minds as they sleep. Most dreams consist of a series of images, sensations, and emotions, and range from pleasant and exciting to boring or even terrifying.

Dreams have long captured the imagination of humankind; early in recorded history, they were thought to be messages from deities or a means to predict the future. In more recent years, they have drawn the focus of psychologists, neurologists, philosophers, and biologists, all of whom continue to study dreams, what they mean, and why dreaming is necessary for humans and animals alike.

On This Page

• What We Know About Dreaming
• Understanding Common Dreams

Despite the fact that everyone is thought to dream, there remains much that we don’t understand about how dreaming occurs, how long it lasts, and the exact purpose—or purposes—that it serves. What is known, however, is that dreams appear primarily in the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) stage of sleep and are typically accompanied by high levels of brain activity and some physical movement (particularly in the eyes). Even people who never recall dreaming are thought to dream at least occasionally, but the fact that they take place during sleep means that researchers have difficulty confirming whether or not dreams actually occur.

Many researchers believe that dreaming has a purpose , but what exactly that purpose is remains an open question. Some believe it helps the brain consolidate memories and may aid learning; others believe it allows the brain to simulate threats to better protect itself in the future. More philosophical and psychodynamic theories suggest that dreams help us process difficult thoughts, emotions, and experiences in order to boost psychological well-being upon waking.

Forgetting dreams is far from uncommon. Many (if not most) dreams are forgotten, either immediately after waking or later on. Some researchers refer to immediately-forgotten dreams as “white dreams” ; some evidence suggests that as many as one-third of awakenings are associated with white dreams, and may be due to the fact that the brain does not encode memories the same way while dreaming as it does while awake.

Someone who wants to remember their dreams more often can take certain steps to do so, such as keeping a journal by their bed so they can record details from their dreams immediately upon waking.

The National Sleep Foundation estimates that in a typical 8-hour night, approximately 2 hours (at least) is spent dreaming. While dreaming is theorized to be most prevalent during REM sleep (which comprises approximately 20 percent of overall sleep time), some evidence suggests that dreaming can occur to some extent in other stages of sleep as well; if such findings are supported further, they may indicate that people dream all (or most) of the time .

Estimates range from a few seconds to up to 45 minutes; since people typically have several dreams in an evening, it’s highly likely that the length of individual dreams varies over the course of a night. Researchers have no exact way to measure how long dreams last , but they are able to estimate based on sleep stages, dream recall, and physical signs. Early in the night, dreams are thought to be shorter; the longest dreams are theorized to occur right before waking.

Yes; in fact, it’s likely more common than not. As their body and brain cycle through the different sleep stages, people typically go in and out of several different dreams. The dreams that occur right after someone drifts off are typically the shortest; dreams tend to get longer as the night progresses and the individual spends longer amounts of time in each sleep phase.

The phrase “lucid dreaming” refers to dreams in which the person recognizes that they are dreaming and feels as if they can take control of what happens in the dream. Most people are thought to experience lucid dreaming at least once in their lifetime; a smaller percentage report doing so regularly. Some evidence suggests that specific strategies such as self-suggestion (the dreamer saying to himself that he will have a lucid dream before falling asleep) may increase the odds of an individual triggering a lucid dream .

Many dreams are entirely unique. But some dream themes may be universal; indeed, multiple studies have found that people from different locations, cultures, and ethnic groups report several common dream themes. Certain dream themes may be indicative of stress or preoccupation with a particular person or event, but most experts agree that dreams don’t necessarily “mean” anything or indicate the individual’s true nature. Many people are occasionally alarmed by the content of their dreams. But it may give them comfort to know that the vast majority of people have had unpleasant or embarrassing dreams and that such dreams do not indicate any abnormality.

Some of the most common dream themes include being chased, falling, going to school, or engaging in sexual activity. Other research indicates that dreams about flying , trying to do the same thing over and over again, or spending time with someone who is dead in real life may also be common around the globe.

Whether dreams really mean anything—or whether they’re just random images cobbled together by the brain—has been debated by psychologists and neuroscientists for many years. Freud, for instance, theorized that dreams give insight into the unconscious mind and provide clues to one’s deeper self; though many modern researchers disagree with his theories, some continue to speculate that dream imagery is relevant to our day-to-day emotional states and may signal that certain thoughts are preoccupying us. Some neurologists, on the other hand, theorize that dreams are just a side effect of memory consolidation and other brain-based processes, with little to no meaning beyond that. Many lay people, however, instinctively feel as if their dreams are trying to tell them something, and the question remains up for debate in many corners of the scientific community.

Someone who is deeply stressed about work or a personal situation may very well find the same scenario popping up in their dreams. It’s no surprise, then, that some researchers believe that one potential purpose of dreams is to help the brain process stress and other difficult emotions. Stress dreams typically focus on the more mundane aspects of daily life—an upcoming deadline, for instance—but people who live through traumatic events or natural disasters (like earthquakes or the COVID-19 pandemic) also report repetitive stress dreams centering on the event.

Infants and their parents have curiously mismatched sleep cycles. Although babies sleep twice as much as their parents, it is bundled into short snatches an hour or two at a time.

Are you wondering whether your sleep issue warrants treatment? Do you want to know what doctors suggest? A board-certified behavioral sleep medicine specialist answers.

Exploring mental health during pregnancy and postpartum.

Personal Perspective: A healthy sleep cycle eludes many people with bipolar disorder, yet few things are more important for recovery.

Here's a guide to creating your personal restoration toolkit.

As sleep loss becomes an almost universal phenomenon, research supports a growing body of evidence showing its adverse impact.

Researchers are working on developing a blood test to identify sleep deprivation, a step that could be a deterrent for risky behaviors while fatigued.

Getting a good night’s sleep is becoming the stuff of which midlife dreams are made.

It has long been known that insufficient sleep is related to academic and emotional functioning in adolescents. New research shows that irregular sleep habits are harmful as well.

The debate over daylight-saving time may seem trivial. However, the time shift significantly impacts our physical and mental health.

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5 Interesting Psychological Facts About Dreams

You may have spent some time thinking about your dreams. Like, what is the meaning of your dreams or why did you dream something scary? Maybe you’ve asked yourself why you forget most details of your dreams when you’re sharing them with another person. Is there any hidden meaning to your dream? You can check out the hidden secret of dreaming on rslonline .

Dreams really are an interesting topic in psychology. In fact, dreams have been studied so many times and, according to some psychologists, getting a better handle on the nature of dreams can boost self-knowledge and aid personal growth. However, the experiences we have in our dreams can be mysterious.

But before we take a look at some interesting facts about dreams , what are dreams really, and what do they mean?

What are dreams?

Dreams are a succession of sensations, emotions, ideas, and images that occur involuntarily in a person’s mind during certain stages of sleep. Dreams occur in the rapid eye movement (REM) stage of sleep because this is when brain activity is high and most resembles that of being awake. When in REM sleep, profound rest stages are a typical time for snoring . Despite what might be expected, dreams happen only at the last REM phase of each cycle. It would appear that you don’t snore when you dream, as these conditions show up in various rest stages. There are some mattresses in the market that can help you snore less. You can find more on Insidebedroom . 

It’s the continuous movements of the eyes during sleep that identifies REM sleep; however, dreams can occur during other sleep stages, but these dreams tend to be less memorable and much less vivid. It is thought that dreams containing particular objects or subjects can tell us about our personalities and what is playing on our minds.

What do dreams mean?

In the early 1900s, Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, wrote about the theory of dreams and their interpretations. Freud believed that dreams are a manifestation of our deepest anxieties and desires, often relating to repressed childhood obsessions or memories. In addition, it was his belief that almost every dream topic, irrespective of its content, represented the release of sexual tension.

In Freud’s  Interpretation of Dreams  (1899), he developed a psychological technique whereby dreams could be interpreted; he also devised a series of guidelines to help us understand the motives and symbols that appear in our dreams.

Throughout cultures and time, opinions have varied and shifted about the meaning of dreams. It seems that people generally endorse the Freudian theory of dreams, which is that dreams reveal hidden emotions and desires. Other theories are that dreams help us with problem-solving or memory formation or that they occur simply due to random brain activation.

Now that we know what dreams are, and what they mean, here are some interesting facts about dreams.

Fact #1: Violent dreams can be a warning sign

A new study suggests that a rare sleep disorder in which people act out their dreams, sometimes with violent thrashes, kicks, and screams, may be an early sign of brain disorders, including Parkinson’s disease and dementia.

In this study, researchers examined Mayo Clinic medical records to identify cases of the so-called REM sleep behaviour disorder reported from 2002 to 2006 and identified 27 patients who developed the disorder at least 15 years before showing symptoms of neurodegenerative ailments.

They found out that 13 patients developed what was likely dementia and mild cognitive impairment, 12 patients developed Parkinson’s disease, one person had Parkinson’s dementia; and one person had multiple system atrophy.

The main symptom of REM sleep behaviour disorder is dream-enacting behaviour, which can result in the person injuring themselves or a bedmate. Past research has also suggested a link between dream-enacting behaviours and certain neurodegenerative ailments.

Fact #2: Men and women dream differently

If there are differences between the physiological aspects of men and women, researchers have found that there are also some differences between men and women when it comes to the content of their dreams. There are several studies that found that men reported dreaming about weapons significantly more often than women did, while women dreamed about references to clothing more often than men.

Women tend to have slightly longer dreams that feature more characters. When it comes to the characters that typically appear in dreams, men dream about other men twice as often as they do about women, while women tend to dream about both sexes equally.

Men’s dreams tend to have more aggressive content and physical activity, while women’s dreams contain more rejection and exclusion, as well as more conversation than physical activity, another study suggests.

Another study by psychologist Dr Jennie Parker of the University of the West of England showed that men are more likely than women to dream about sex and women are more likely to have experienced nightmares.

Fact #3: You can control your dreams

It is possible to control your dreams and it’s called “lucid dreaming”. A lucid dream is one in which you are aware that you are dreaming even though you’re still asleep. Lucid dreaming is thought to be a combination of both consciousness and REM sleep, during which you can often direct or control the dream content.

According to the research of Dr Jayne Gackenbach, a psychologist at Grant MacEwan University in Canada, people who frequently play video games are more likely than non-gamers to have lucid dreams where they view themselves from outside their bodies; they are also better able to influence their dream worlds, as if controlling a video-game character.

“Gamers are used to controlling their game environments, so that can translate into dreams,” Dr Gackenbach says. That level of control may also help gamers turn a bloodcurdling nightmare into a carefree dream, which could help war veterans suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) after combat, as suggested by Dr Gackenbach.

Fact #4: Dreams help us solve puzzles

Have you ever experienced being stressed over a problem that you couldn’t solve and just decided to go to sleep? According to the theory of Deirdre Barrett, a Harvard psychologist, sleeping hours may help us solve puzzles that have plagued us during daylight hours. According to her, it’s the visual and often illogical aspects of dreams that make them perfect for out-of-the-box thinking that is necessary to solve some problems.

‘Whatever the state we’re put in, we’re still working on the same problems,’ Barrett said, adding that while dreams may have originally evolved for another purpose, they have likely been refined over time for multiple tasks, including helping the brain reboot and helping us solve problems. 

Fact #5: Blind people may dream visually

Researchers have found out in a study of people who have been blind at birth that they still seemed to experience visual imagery in their dreams, and they also had eye movements that correlated to visual dream recall.

They also found out that although their eye movements were fewer during REM than the sighted participants of the study, the blind participants reported the same dream sensations, including visual content .

Nikka Celeste , a psychology graduate from the University of Hertfordshire, has a keen interest in the fields of mental health, wellness, and lifestyle.

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74 Dreaming Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best dreaming topic ideas & essay examples, ✍️ interesting topics to write about dreaming, 🔖 good essay topics on dreaming, ❓ research questions about dreams.

• The Importance of Sleeping and Dreaming Finally, I would not take this pill since I love seeing dreams and realize that this “miracle medicine” will cause too many negative consequences.
• Dreaming in Christianity and Islam Indeed, I was influenced mainly by the studies that explained this phenomenon from the point of continuous activity of people’s minds that processes daily routine during the night. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Dreaming, Consciousness and Cognition For instance, the behaviorist supposition that the brain is always awakened and only from the external by sense organ procedures cannot define daydreams; likewise, for the statement that consciousness is the straight or restricted product […]
• Dreams and the Process of Dreaming Analysis Dreams are said to be like opening a door to the rest of the mind, all of one’s friends, fears, phobias, hopes, wishes, good times, and bad times are there.
• Lucid Dreaming in Science Fiction and Technology The author provides an interesting and intriguing article about the phenomenon of lucid dreaming and its representation in culture and media.
• Impoverished and Excessive Dreaming Many patients saw a dog in their dreams that tried to bite them; they began to defend themselves or hit the dog, and, in reality, they hit their spouses or walls/beds.
• Nature and Functions of Dreaming Still, other researchers argue that one of the key functions of dreams is to maintain our bodily and psychological health. To conclude, it is obvious that many suggestions have been put forward by researchers about […]
• Kertha Gosa Ceiling vs. “Dreaming” paintings by Aborigines of Australia Over a long period, Aborigine’s paintings have advanced to the point of intertwining with the public dissertation, with a great recognition in Australia and the rest of the world.
• Concept of Dreaming Theories in Psychology One of the theories that are common is the belief that dreams occur as a result of the human mind trying to incorporate external stimuli while one is sleeping.
• The Use of Illusion Argument, Dreaming Argument, and Evil Genius Argument by Descartes
• The Centrality of the Dreaming and Its Importance for Aboriginal Spirituality
• An Overview of the Dream State and the Concept of Human Dreaming
• Animal Dreaming And Substantiation A Connection To Humanity
• Understanding the Unconcious Dreaming
• How Is the Power of Dreams and Dreaming in the Novel of Mice and Men
• Dreams, Dreaming and Phases of Sleep
• Phenomenology of Dreaming
• The Beauty Of Dreaming: How Dreams Drive The Individual
• The Dreaming and Traditional Aboriginal Spirituality
• Freud’s Theory of Dreaming and Repression
• Sleeping and Dreaming and Theories of Sleep
• Gender And Dreaming In Mapuche Shamanistic Practices
• The Benefits Of Lucid Dreaming
• An Overview of the Controversy of Dreaming, a Cognitive Activity During Sleep
• The Importance of Dreaming and Sleeping
• Procrastination and Day Dreaming
• The Psychological Theories Of The Function Of Dreaming
• Difference Between Astral Projection And Lucid Dreaming
• Dreaming as Significant Process in Human Life Experience
• Exploring Causes of Sleep Difficulty and Dreaming Problems
• Dreams and Dreaming Nightmares in Children
• Dreaming Can Bring Misery in the Great Gatsby By F. Scott
• Varieties of Lucid Dreaming Experience, by Stephen Laberge
• The Significance of Land to the Dreaming for Aboriginal People and the Impact of the Land Rights Movement
• Dreaming And Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
• Understanding the Science of Dreaming Through Oneirology
• The Importance of Dreaming and the Sub-Conscious
• Descartes’ Meditations: Dreaming and Evil Demon Arguments
• Dreaming Various Amount Of People Experiences Different Effects
• Comparing and Contrasting Psychological Theories of Dreaming
• The Skeptical Dreaming Argument of Rene Descartes, and the Priori and the Posteriori
• Dreaming Is Known As The Journey Your Mind
• Day Dreaming in the Middle of the Summer Heat
• Synchroncities in the History of Paranormal Dreaming
• What Dreams May Come True?
• What Every Athlete Dreams, of but Few Achieve?
• What Makes Your Friend’s Dreams Come True?
• What Does the Bible Say About Dreams?
• When Dreams and Reality Collide?
• Why Do We Forget Dreams?
• Why Are Dreams Interesting for Philosophers?
• What Makes a Nightmare a Nightmare?
• What’s the Most Common Nightmare?
• What Are the Most Typical Nightmare Themes and What Do They Mean?
• Why Are Dreams Important to Duddy Kravitz?
• Why Do People Dream and What the Dreams Mean?
• What Are Dreams, and Do They Affect Us in a Good Way or a Bad Way?
• What Are the Key Similarities and Differences Between Freud and Jung’s Theories of Dreams?
• What Are You Doing to Achieve Your Dreams?
• How Dreams Affect Our Personalities?
• How Dreams and Omens Support the Theme of Interconnection?
• How Can Dreams Sustain People Through Life, or Can Break Them Down When It Doesn’t Come True?
• How Do Dreams Have Symbolic Meaning?
• How Women Follow Their Dreams Without Embarrassment?
• How Do Different People Use Different Things to Escape Life Problems or Find Motivation to Dreams?
• Can Dreams Tell the Future?
• Are Dreams Messages From Our Subconscious Mind or Insignificant Manifest?
• Are Dreams the Reason for Mythology?
• Can Blind Person See Dreams?
• What Are the Most Rare Dreams?
• How Long Do Dreams Last?
• Can You Learn From Your Dreams?
• Do We Dream Differently Across the World?
• Do We Know When We Are Dreaming?
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What Do You Think About Your Dreams? The Construction of a Belief About Dreams Questionnaire

1 Department of Clinical Psychology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410013, People’s Republic of China

Feilong Yang

2 Psychosomatic Health Institute, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410013, People’s Republic of China

3 Medical Psychological Center, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, People’s Republic of China

4 Center for Psychological Development and Service, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, 410208, People’s Republic of China

5 Mental Health Education Center, Hunan University of Technology and Business, Changsha, Hunan, 410205, People’s Republic of China

Yunlong Deng

Background and purpose.

Nightmare distress (ND) is associated with a broad spectrum of psychopathological conditions such as anxiety, depression and bipolar disorder. Some studies have indicated that dream beliefs play an important role in the occurrence and treatment of nightmare distress. However, existing instruments used to assess dream beliefs either fail to satisfy the requirements of the psychometrics or fail to capture the essence of dream beliefs. This research pursued two objectives: (1) to develop a questionnaire, called the Beliefs About Dreams Questionnaire (BADQ), to measure beliefs people hold about their dreams and (2) to describe the dream beliefs of Chinese college students.

The structure and items on the BADQ were based on the previous literature and were the result of an open questionnaire. Some items were deleted through expert review and the result of predict test. To evaluate its validity and reliability, a sample of 1408 Chinese college students from two universities answered the BADQ, the Chinese version of Van Dream Anxiety Scale (CVDAS), the Dream Survey Questionnaire (DSQ), the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7(GAD-7) Questionnaire. After two weeks, 95 of them answered the BADQ again. Exploratory factor analysis (n=704) and confirmatory factor analysis (n=704) were conducted to explore and verify the structure of BADQ. The correlation between the CVDAS and the BADQ was calculated to evaluate the divergent validity.

The BADQ contains 26 items. Exploratory factor analysis indicated a five-factor structure: Dream omen and health, Dream superstitions, Dream meaninglessness, Dream reality, and Dream attitude. The result of the confirmatory factor analysis also supported the five-factors structure. Acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s α of all subscales exceeded 0.80) and ordinary to moderate test-retest reliability (the intraclass correlation coefficient of all subscales ranged from 0.467 to 0.713) of the BADQ were presented. Low degree correlation between the CVDAS and the BADQ (ranged from to −0.052 to 0.219) showed that they were two different variables, indicating a good divergent validity.

The present investigation revealed moderate to high construct validity and reliability of the BADQ.

Introduction

Nightmares are disturbing dreams that involve unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, fear, sadness, anger, and desperation and result in abrupt awakenings. 1 , 2 A number of studies have suggested that the frequency and distress of nightmares are related to a broad spectrum of mental health disorders. 3 – 7 Nightmare distress (ND) refers to the waking suffering or distress associated with nightmares, 8 , 9 which mainly consists of sleep-related complaints and daytime dysfunction. 10 With the deepening of the research, numerous researchers have pointed out that compared with nightmare frequency (NF), ND is more closely related to psychopathology, 8 , 9 , 11 , 12 especially for psychological disorders marked by a high level of negative affect (eg, anxiety and depression). 13 , 14

In the field of ND, Belicki believes that ND partly arises from the people’s views and their evaluation of their dreams after they wake up. 9 In one of his studies, he interviewed people with frequent nightmare but different level of ND, and he found that high-distress people regarded their nightmares more seriously, paid more attention to their nightmares, and were less likely to dismiss their nightmare as merely dreams (e.g., they see nightmares as a sign that something bad will happen). 9 Furthermore, researchers also found that in the treatment of nightmares, ND can be effectively reduced by modifying the beliefs about dreams (e.g., that what happens in dreams will come true). In a treatment study for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), nightmare distress was reduced by psychoeducation, which allowed beliefs about dreams to be corrected. 15 In a clinical treatment of nightmares, Belicki taught nightmare sufferers to modify their beliefs about nightmares (instead of attempting to reduce nightmare frequency) and found that ND was alleviated. 16 As mentioned above, we know that people’s beliefs about dreams play an important role in the occurrence and treatment of nightmare distress.

Besides, the associations between dream beliefs and other variables (e.g., dream recall frequency, dream content, physical health, personality, and treatment effect) also indicated the importance of dream beliefs. Some researchers suggested that those who regarded dreams as meaningful and valuable reported a higher dream recall frequency. 17 – 19 Hall’s study suggested that people who deemed dreams have no meaning tended to be creative and think independently. 20 King and Decicco found that individuals who hold the belief that dreams reflect their physical health reported more body parts in their dreams and showed significantly lower physical functioning, and people who were indifferent to their dreams actually reported higher levels of well-being. 21 Furthermore, people who believed that dreams contained information about spiritual beliefs reported fewer misfortunes in their dreams, and they scored higher on meta-personal self-construal. 21 A therapy patient who views dreams as symbolic and psychological will gain more useful information from his or her dream during psycho-analytical treatment. 22 Several studies have found gender differences concerning dream beliefs; usually, females have a more positive attitude toward their dreams than males, and they are more likely to believe that dreams have some special functions, such as reflecting our daily life or carrying a message from God or the devil. 19 , 23 – 25 In conclusion, dream beliefs are important, and it is necessary for us to be concerned with them.

Nowadays, several questionnaires and scales are used to study dream beliefs. Hall developed a 35-items Dream Belief Questionnaire (DBQ), which contained eight types of dream beliefs. 20 However, in this scale, two subscales (mystical and religious) had a similar meaning. For example, “I believe that a dream can carry a message from the spirit world (mystical)” and “I believe that a dream can contain a spiritual or religious message (religious)”. It is inappropriate that two similar dimensions appear in one scale. Dominic et al developed the Inventory of Dream Experiences & Attitude (IDEA) to assess dream beliefs. 26 Some of the 50 items measured dream beliefs, and other items measured dream content and dream recall. It is known that dream recall and content do not figure into dream beliefs; therefore, this questionnaire cannot accurately capture the importance of dream beliefs. Mazandarani et al developed the Iranian version of the Dream Belief Questionnaire, called My Beliefs About Dream Questionnaire (MBDQ). 27 MBDQ contained 25 items and identified six subscales. However, the last subscale “Dreams as essential to health,” only had two items, which does not meet the requirements of psychometrics. 28 Furthermore, except for “Dream as carrying a message”, the internal consistency coefficient for the other five subscales were found to be 0.65 or lower, suggesting that these factors are somewhat heterogeneous. 29 At present, only one dream attitude scale has been used in China, but this scale has not been standardized. 30 As mentioned above, the existing instruments are subject to shortcomings. Since ancient times, China has a keen interest and a unique view about dreams. It is worthwhile to develop a new questionnaire that combines the existing achievements with Chinese native culture to measure Chinese people’s beliefs about dreams.

This research pursued two main objectives: (1) to develop a questionnaire, the Beliefs about Dreams Questionnaire (BADQ), to measure beliefs people hold about their dreams. (2) to describe the dream beliefs of Chinese college students. For the purposes of this study, dream beliefs are defined as people’s views on dreams, including whether dreams having meanings, and what these meanings are.

Scale Design and Development

In formulating the dimensions of dream beliefs, we made use of existing measures of dream beliefs. We excluded the dimensions that are not related to the dream beliefs, and added dimensions based on the literature to create our preset dimensions: Dream omen (e.g., I believe that what I have dreamed may happen), Dream reality (e.g., I believe that dream contents are linked with my experiences), Dream creativity (e.g., I believe that a dream can inspire me), Dream health (e.g., I believe that dreams are related to a dreamer’s health and mood state), Dream superstition (e.g., I believe that we can communicate with people who have passed away through dreams), Dream learn (e.g., I believe that dreams can consolidate memories), and Dream attitude (e.g., I like dreaming).

Items were compiled in three ways. First, many the items are based on previous scales measuring beliefs about dreams, such as the BDQ, the IDEA and the MADQ. Second, we reviewed Chinese classical literature, refined the description of dreams in Chinese culture, and then compiled some items. Third, we developed an open questionnaire and surveyed 150 college students, and some items were added using the results of the open questionnaire. This led to the original version of the Beliefs about Dreams Questionnaire, which included 52 items describing different beliefs about dreams.

To ensure the content validity of the questionnaire, 14 psychologists were invited to evaluate the questionnaire. They modified the wording of some items, deleted the duplicated items, and ensured that the sentences are simple and easy to understand. Finally, 29 items were left. These 29 items were tested by 128 college students, and none of the items were deleted after the item analysis. There were no any sentences that were difficult to understand.

The instructions were

Some attitudes and beliefs about dreams follow. Please read them carefully and state your opinion (to what extent you agree or disagree) on each sentence. Please answer the question according to your general attitude and opinion in most cases.

The response format entailed a five-point Likert-type scale reflecting similarity ratings (1=strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 3=neutral or do not know, 4=agree, 5=strongly agree).

Participants

The cluster stratified random sampling method was used to conduct a collective survey in two universities (Hunan Business University and Hunan University of Chinese Medicine). The participants included 1600 undergraduate students: 1408 (606 males, 802 females) fully completed the questionnaires. The effective return ration was 88%. The mean age of the sample was 19.39 (SD=1.63), with ages ranging from 16 to 25. We randomly divided the subjects into two equal groups using the SPSS algorithm. The first group, for exploratory analysis, consisted of 704 people, and the second group, for confirmatory analysis, consisted of 704 people. In order to examine the test-retest reliability of the BADQ, 110 students were randomly chosen for a second round of testing after two weeks, and 95 completed the BADQ. Participants under the age of 18 years not required parental content to join in this research. The research protocol was approved by the local ethics committee. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

All participants were informed of the purpose and content of the study, and informed consent was obtained. Participants used their break time or elective course time to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire takes 15–20 mins to complete. All materials were collected within two weeks.

Dream Survey Questionnaire

An original Dream Survey Questionnaire (see Appendix ) was developed and utilized; items were selected from the Mannheim Dream Questionnaire 31 and Sleep and Dream Questionnaire. 4 Dream recall frequency was measured with a question requiring participants to estimate the number of dreams typically recalled per week. To determine nightmare and bad dream frequency, two seven-point scales (1=never, 2=less than once a month, 3=about once a month, 4=about two to three times a month, 5=about once a week, 6=several times a week, 7=almost every morning) were used.

The Chinese Version of Van Dream Anxiety Scale (CVDAS)

We used the Chinese version of Van Dream Anxiety Scale (CVDAS) to measure ND. The CVDAS is an assessment instrument that can evaluate dream anxiety caused by nightmare. Wang et al tested its reliability and validity in a Chinese population. 14 The contents of CVDAS include most impacts of nightmares on health, such as sleep problems, morning anxiety, psychological problems, impairment of daytime functioning, and autonomic symptoms. The CVDAS consists of 17 items, among which four items (items 7–10) are used to collect clinical information and are not included in the total scores, and the remaining 12 items are rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (often). Item 5 is related to autonomic hyperactivity and consists of 12 symptoms. Each of the 12 symptoms is also rated on a 0–4 scale. If the total score obtained for the 12 symptom scores is between 0 and 10, the sum score of this item is 0; if it is between 11 and 20, it is 1; if it is between 21 and 30, it is 2; if it is between 31 and 40, it is 3; and if it is between 41 and 48, it is 4. Thus, the scores for the 13 items are summed up to yield a global CVDAS score of 0–52. The CVDAS showed excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s α coefficient was 0.926) and good test-retest reliability (the intraclass correlation coefficient was 0.942).

The Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9)

Depression will be assessed using the patient health questionnaire (PHQ-9). The PHQ-9 consists of nine items. All items are rated on a four-point scale (ranging from 0 to 3), with higher total scores indicating more severe depression (scores of 5–9, 10–14, 15–19 and ≥20 indicate mild, moderately severe, and severe depression, respectively). 32 The PHQ-9 demonstrates high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α between 0.86 and 0.89) and high test-rest reliability (ICC between 0.84 and 0.95). 32 – 34 The Chinese version of the PHQ-9 is a nine-items, self-reported inventory that has shown good reliability and validity (Cronbach’s α=0.86). 33

The Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) Questionnaire

Anxiety will be assessed using the generalized anxiety disorder-7 questionnaire (GAD-7). It is a seven-item self-reported scale which is used to measure the severity of generalized anxiety disorders. 35 All items are rated on a four-point scale; the total score ranges from 0 to 21. Scores of 5–9, 10–14 and ≥15 indicate mild, moderate, and severe anxiety, respectively. 35 The GAD-7 has shown good validity and reliability in several languages (Cronbach’s α between 0.89 and 0.92). 35 – 37 The Chinese version of GAD-7 showed an excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s α coefficient was 0.898) and good test-retest reliability (the intraclass correlation coefficient was 0.856). 37

Data Analysis

SPSS24.0 and Amos23.0 were used to analyze data. The exploratory factor analysis (EFA), using principal axis factoring (PAF) and Promax rotation, was employed to explore the factor structure. Meanwhile, Amos 23.0 was used to perform confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to verify the structural validity of the questionnaire. Means and standard deviations of the BADQ and the correlation between the factors were calculated. To study the internal consistency of the BADQ, the Cronbach’ α was calculated. Intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) was used to analysis the test-retest reliability. The correlation between the CVDAS and of the BADQ was calculated to test the divergent validity of BADQ.

In addition to the basic reliability and validity analysis, we also did some auxiliary analysis. In order to verify if there were gender differences between participants on dream beliefs, an independent-samples t -test was computed. To better understand the variation and variability of BADQ, a hierarchical cluster analysis was used. The cluster analysis, which allows for the systematic identification, organization, and description of behavioral patterns observed within a group of individuals, 38 was performed on group participants based on similarities in the types of dream beliefs. The Ward method and Euclidean distance were used for computing cluster analysis. 38 The final clusters were identified based on interpretability of clusters and also based on the significant difference between two clusters. Next, an independent-samples t -test or analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were used to compare the difference between dream beliefs and various variables (e.g., nightmare distress, nightmare and bad dream frequency, dream recall frequency, and psychopathology).

Item Analyses

There were no items that produced an extreme means, and there were not any items that showed a 75% endorsement of a single Likert response. Items 11, 12, and 14 were dropped due to redundancy (they were correlated 0.612, 0.630, 0.721 with other items). The total scores of all items in the questionnaire were ranked from low to high. The first 27% were selected as the low group and the last 27% as the high group. The mean values of the two groups on the same question were tested for differences, and all items reached a significant level.

Structure Validity

The EFA was performed on scores from a randomly selected subsample (n=704). The significance of Bartlett’s test of sphericity was observed (χ 2 =9680.23, p<0.001). The KMO value was 0.914, which was considered perfect. 39 These results suggested that the factor analysis was appropriate. The final analysis, which produced the best solution, was comprised of 26 items. As is seen in Table 1 , five factors were extracted (based on an eigenvalue>1 and scree criterion). In totally, these factors accounted for a total of 63.88% of the variance in item responses (Factor 1=32.24%, Factor 2 =13.08%, Factor 3=8.78%, Factor 4=5.26% and Factor 5=4.51%). According to the results of the EFA and the content of the five factors, the five factors were labeled as follows: Factor 1 (7 items): Dream omen and health, Factor 2 (6 items): Dream superstition, Factor 3 (5 items): Dream meaninglessness, Factor 4 (4 items): Dream reality, Factor 5 (4 items): Dream attitude.

Factor Loadings for BADQ Items in Pattern Matrix

Note: Bold data indicates which factor the items belong to.

The CFA was conducted on the remaining members of the sample (n=704) using maximum likelihood estimation to evaluate the fitness of the EFA identified five-factor model. Generally, the cut-offs for acceptable fit are χ 2 /df≤5, RMSEA≤0.08 and GFI, CFI and IFI≥0.9. 40 As is shown in Table 2 , the five-factor model (model 1) did not fit the data well. We therefore modified the model according to the item contents and modification index. Both item 17 (“I believe that dreams can affect mental health”) and item 18 (“I believe that dreams are related to a dreamer’s health and mood state”) belonged to Factor 1: Dream omen and health. Both of the two items were associated with health, so the error correlation between item 17 and 18 was acceptable. After setting the error of these two items as free estimation, model 2 was established, and the CFA was conducted again. As is seen in Table 2 , model 2 fitted the data well.

Comparison of Fitting Indexed for Models 1 and 2 (N=704)

Pearson correlations between the factors of the BADQ were calculated ( Table 3 ), ranging from −0.251 (Dream meaninglessness and Dream attitude) to 0.656 (Dream omen & health and Dream attitude). Just as we expected, Dream meaninglessness was negatively correlated with the other four factors.

Pearson Intercorrelations Between BADQ Factors, Reliability and Divergent Validity

Notes: *p<0.05, **p<0.01

Abbreviations: CVDAS, the Chinese version of Van Dream Anxiety Scale; ICC, interclass correlation coefficient.

Divergent Validity

The divergent validity of the scale was evaluated through the examination of correlations between the BADQ and the CVDAS (see Table 3 ). Both the BADQ and then CVDAS are used to measure dreams, but the former focuses on beliefs and the latter focuses on subjective distress. A low correlation with other confounding variables indicates good divergent validity. 41 The four factors of BADQ were found to show consistently positive correlations of low magnitude with the ND measure of the CVDAS (r=0.150 for Dream omen and health, r=0.219 for Dream superstitions, r=0.050 for Dream reality and r=0.125 for Dream attitude). Dream meaninglessness was negatively correlated with CVDAS (r=−0.052) in a low magnitude. These findings indicated that the BADQ had good divergent validity.

Reliability

Internal consistency was evaluated by Cronbach’s α. The alpha reliabilities of all BADQ factors were high, they ranging from 0.821 to 0.902, which was acceptable 29 (Dream omen and health: α=0.848, Dream superstition: α=0.902, Dream meaninglessness: α=0.821, Dream reality: α=0.836, and Dream attitude: α=0.868) (see Table 3 ).

The test-retest reliability was tested by ICC. 42 The reliability coefficients for the Dream omen and health, Dream superstition, Dream meaninglessness, Dream reality and Dream attitude were 0.713, 0.467, 0.521, 0.497 and 0.505, respectively, reflecting ordinary to moderate stability for these factors 43 (see Table 3 ).

Gender Differences

An independent-samples t -test was used to examine the beliefs about dream across genders. As is seen in Table 4 , except for Dream attitude, females obtained significantly higher scores than males across the rest of the four factors.

Mean Score for Males and Females and Gender Difference for Each Factor of BADQ

Notes: *p<0.05, **p<0.01.

Dreamer Profiles Differences

Two distinct profiles were elucidated. In total, 412 participants (29.3% of the sample) are Indifferent Dreamers: they believe that dreams have no real meaning. The remaining 996 participants (70.3% of the sample) are Interested Dreamers: they consider dreams to be meaningful. As can be seen in Table 5 , except for Dream meaninglessness, Interested Dreamers obtained significantly higher scores than Indifferent Dreamers across the other four factors. The t -test showed a significant difference between the two profiles on DRF and in the frequency of bad dreams/nightmares. The Indifferent Dreamers showed lower level of nightmare distress, depression and anxiety than Interested Dreamers, as measured by the CVDAS, PHQ-9 and GAD-7, respectively.

Comparison Between Different Dreamers Profiles

Notes: *p<0.05, ** p<0.01.

Abbreviations: DRF, dream recall frequency; BDF, bad dream frequency; NF, nightmare frequency; CVDAS, the Chinese version of Van Dream Anxiety Scale; PHQ-9, the Patient Health Questionnaire-9; GAD-7, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 Questionnaire.

In the present study, a multidimensional scale of belief about dreams was developed. The BADQ consisted of five factors and assessed beliefs about dreams. The hypothesized Dream creativity did not emerge in this analysis. The final factors, which included Dream omen and health, Dream superstition, Dream meaninglessness, Dream reality and Dream attitude all showed adequate internal consistency, two-weeks test-retest reliability, and divergent validity. The differences in beliefs about dreams between males and females were examined. A hierarchical cluster analysis was used to divide the participants into two categories, and the Indifferent Dreamers showed higher levels of well-being than the Interested Dreamers.

Factor Interpretations

The results of the EFA and CFA provided support to the allocation of the items to the five factors. We titled Factor 1 as Dream omen and health, and it had 15% variance. This factor consisted of seven items expressing the underlying idea that dreams can foretell the future and can reflect upon one’s health. This is in line with the views of ancient Chinese thinkers and medical experts on dreams: medical experts believed that the main function of dreams was to reflect people’s health, and thinkers believed that the function of dreams was mainly to predict good or bad luck. 44 In ancient China, most people believed that dreams could foretell the future. There were professional dream interpreters and specialized books (such as the Duke of Zhou) that helped people to interpret the meaning of their dreams. Even today, there are still many people who explain their dreams using the book above. In addition, the earliest Chinese medical classics (such as Huangdi’s Classic on Medicine) explained the relationship between dreams and physical health: for example, if a person was weak, he/she would dream of water; and if the person was strong, he/she would dream of fire. 45 In Western dream theory, dreams also have these two functions. 46 , 47

The second factor was Dream superstition with six items. This factor was related to people’s beliefs that dream are closely connected to spiritual dimensions. People who scored high on this factor usually believed that dreams could reflect their previous lives and the activity of their soul. At the same time, they agreed that they could communicate with Bodhisattva, ghosts, and the dead through dreams. This factor was similar to both “Dream Guidance” in IDEA and “Carrying message” in MBAD. In ancient China, there were many literary works describing the dream superstitions. Ghosts, Bodhisattva and deceased people enter people’s dreams, make confessions, reveal the truth to clear up injustices, warn, and persuade people to be good. 48 In the famous Chinese story “Injustice to Dou E”, Dou appeared to her father in a dream and said, “I was wrongfully killed, please find out the truth”. Her father investigated and was able to wash away the grievances of Dou E. 49 Western prescientific dream theories saw dreams as messages coming from outside the individual, mostly from god-like creatures. 46

Factor 3 (Dream meaninglessness) comprised five items. Meaninglessness was similar to Hobson’s view on dreams: he asserted that dreams are the result of limbic activity and have no meaning. 50 People who scored high in this factor tended to believe that dreams had no impact on their life; consequently, they did not pay attention to their dreams. No research regarding this belief has been conducted in China. A Canadian study showed that only 6.5% of the participants thought that dreams are meaningless. 21

We named the Factor 4 as Dream reality, which was analogous to the Dream Continuity of IDEA. The four items in this factor assessed people’s beliefs that the content of their dreams is related to waking-life experiences and that dreams could reflect conscious and unconscious desires. 21 , 51 A number of patients believed that daytime problems played an important role in their dreams. 52 There is a saying in China that men do not dream of giving birth and women do not dream of bows and arrows. This is because that they have not experienced these events and, therefore, did not dream about them. 45 At present, some research supports the “continuity hypothesis”, that is, that the content of dreams reflects waking activities. 53 , 54

The last factor is Dream attitude with four items concerning people’s attitude about dreams. This factor contains items about whether participants are willing to remember their dreams, whether they are willing to share their dreams, and whether they like or dislike dreams. Only one study in China focused on the attitude towards dreams, and it found that the positive attitudes towards dreams can predict individuals’ willingness to engage in psychoanalytic interpretation therapy. 30

The result of the current study indicated that the BADQ was a reliable test for the measurement of dream beliefs. According to Cuieford, alpha coefficients greater than 0.70 are acceptable. 29 The alpha coefficients in this study for all factors were good to excellent (0.821–0.902). As all alpha coefficients in the current study were greater than 0.80, the BADQ possessed stronger internal consistency than the MADQ, which had yielded factor alphas below 0.50.

The retest results after two weeks showed that the retest correlation of the five factors of BADQ ranged from 0.467 to 0.713. A phenomenon that may affect retest reliability in the fact that we often have different views about different dreams. For example, if I dream of being rich, I hope it will come true. However, if I lose money in a dream, I will decide that the dream is fake. It is likely that participants had different dreams between the two tests, leading to ordinary(0.41<ICC<0.60) retest reliability.

The results of the current study suggest that the BADQ exhibited high levels of factorial validity. First, the degree of intercorrelation observed among the five factors ranged from weak (Dream meaninglessness/Dream superstition: −0.045) to moderate (Dream omen and health/Dream attitude: 0.656) suggesting that the factors were related but distinct. Dream meaninglessness was significantly negatively correlated with the other four factors. Second, the results of the confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the BADQ five-factor model provided a good fit of the data.

For the divergent validity, we calculated the Pearson correlation between dream beliefs and CVDAS. A Low degree of correlation showed that they were two different variables, indicating good divergent validity.

Gender Difference

When compared with males, females elicited higher scores in Dream omen and health, Dream superstition, Dream meaninglessness, and Dream reality; males and female showed similar scores in Dream Attitude. Females were more likely to agree that dreams had special functions, such as foretelling the future and reflecting mental and physical health, 27 , 46 , 55 which was the exact was the content of the Dream omen and health dimension. This study observed the same phenomenon. In the present study, females scored higher than males in Dream superstition, which was consistent with the previous result. 26 , 27 , 46 We also found that females scored higher than males in Dream meaninglessness. It was interesting that on the one hand, females agreed that dreams were meaningless, but on the other hand, they agreed that dreams had special functions as well. However, in previous studies, males generally found that dreams have no particular meaning. In Dominic’s study, he suggested that females were more likely to agree that dreams reflected our daily lives than males, 26 and we got the same result. Among the five factors, Dream attitude are the most studied. A lot of research has focused on attitudes towards dreams, and it has suggested that females generally have a more positive attitude towards dreams than males. 19 , 23 – 25 In this study, although females scored higher than males, the difference was insignificant.

Dream Profiles

As shown in the results, most of the participants (70.3%) are Interested Dreamers. The MADQ and this questionnaire have a similar structure: Mazandarani et al divided the Iranian participants into two groups using the same method (Convinced Dreamers and Unconvinced Dreamers). However, the Convinced Dreamers, who held the view that dreams are meaningful, only accounted for 57.0%. 27 Perhaps it is the strong culture of dream interpretation atmosphere in China that makes most people consider their dreams are meaningful. In future research, we can compare the differences in dream belief questionnaires (eg, BADQ and MADQ) between different regions and countries to explore cultural differences.

Furthermore, the results suggested that Interested Dreamers have a higher dream frequency (both bad dreams and nightmares) and a lower level of psychological health. What is the relationship between the frequency of nightmares/bad dreams, the belief about dreams and well-being? Maybe, as Dominic speculated, psychological distress makes people pay attention to all aspects of themselves, increasing people’s sensitivity and interest in their dream experiences. 26 Or, as well as affecting health, maybe frequent bad dreams and nightmares give people more insight into the dream itself and its content. In any case, we can know that the beliefs about dreams can reflect people’s health status.

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

The primary limitation of this research is the employment of a student sample. Such a sample may not be representative of individuals within the community or patients who suffer from nightmares, thus affecting the generalizability of our results. Besides, participants in this sample are of similar age and education; however, previous research has shown that people of different ages and education levels had different beliefs about dreams. Further research should examine the psychometric properties of the BADQ in samples more representative of the general population. Second, the design was cross-sectional, making it impossible to draw conclusions about the causality of the relationship between dream beliefs and psychological health. Does pre-existing dream beliefs influence psychological health or psychological health contribute to people’s increased sensitivity and interest in their dream? In order to figure out this question, longitudinal studies are needed.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Miss Yin Meng and Miss Li Siya for their help in data collection.

Ethical Approval

The Institutional Review Board (IRB) of The Third Xiangya Hospital in Hunan approved the study (2019-S255).

The authors declared no conflicts of interests in this work.

School suspensions and exclusions put vulnerable children at risk

Managing problematic student behaviour is one of the most persistent, challenging, and controversial issues facing schools today. Yet despite best intentions to build a more inclusive and punitive-free education system, school suspensions and expulsions remain.

Now, new research from the University of South Australia shows that exclusionary practices not only fail to identify the deep-rooted causes of challenging student behaviours but exacerbate negative issues rather than resolve them.

Lead researcher, UniSA's Professor Anna Sullivan, says schools face difficult decisions around suspensions and expulsions.

"Suspensions and expulsions have been the mainstay of schools' behaviour management practices for decades, regardless of research finding that they are ineffective for disciplining bad behaviours," Prof Sullivan says.

"In fact, there is a clear relationship between school suspensions and a range of detrimental health outcomes, including alienation from school, involvement with antisocial peers, use of alcohol and smoking, and a lower quality of school life -- and this contributes to a higher risk of dropping out of school and possible illegal behaviour.

"What makes things worse is that vulnerable students have a higher risk of being suspended or expelled, which in many cases exacerbates their circumstances and life chances.

"Boys, Aboriginal students, students from low SES backgrounds, and students with a disability are disproportionately excluded from schools.

"There is a distinct blind spot about how school suspensions and expulsions perpetuate wider social inequalities.

"Schools and policy makers must look beyond challenging behaviours to understand what is contributing to the cause -- rather than treating the effect -- and it's this missing information that's needed to develop new school policies."

Analysing the recently reviewed NSW Student Behaviour Strategy, researchers found that while there was more behaviour support and management, the new iterations still included punitive practices.

"When a student is suspended or expelled from school, we're ultimately removing them from their education and limiting their life outcomes. And knowing that vulnerable groups are more at risk, these exclusion policies are ultimately discriminatory," Prof Sullivan says.

"We also see situations where children with disabilities -- some on prescribed medications -- are being excluded from school on the basis that 'they have problems already'. As a consequence, exclusion appears to be a reasonable solution given schools do not have the time, expertise or resources to manage complex and challenging behavioural needs.

"Adding to such deficit thinking is removing a 'problem child' from the learning environment of others. Instead of helping these students, the policies are exacerbating their struggles.

"What we need is more listening, more empathy to students at risk, and a willingness to challenge the impact of wider social inequalities including poverty, race, housing, and unemployment on the most vulnerable people in society. These things do not operate in isolation; they affect families and children and cannot simply be left at the school gate.

"It's time to look afresh at the complex and challenging circumstances in which many young people find themselves. Only then can we hope to create a more inclusive and fair education system."

Notes to editors:

• Published paper: Down, B., Sullivan, A., Tippett, N., Johnson, B., Manolev, J., & Robinson, J., (2024). What is missing in policy discourses about school exclusions?, Critical Studies in Education , DOI: 10.1080/17508487.2024.2312878

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Media contact: Annabel Mansfield M: + 61 479 182 489 E: @unisa.edu.au" title="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]

Researcher : Prof Anna Sullivan E: @unisa.edu.au" title="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]

• Educational Psychology
• K-12 Education
• Child Psychology
• Educational Policy
• Poverty and Learning
• STEM Education
• Education and Employment
• Sex education
• Intellectual giftedness
• Social movement
• Early childhood education
• Visual system
• Schizophrenia

Story Source:

Materials provided by University of South Australia . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Barry Down, Anna Sullivan, Neil Tippett, Bruce Johnson, Jamie Manolev, Janean Robinson. What is missing in policy discourses about school exclusions? Critical Studies in Education , 2024; 1 DOI: 10.1080/17508487.2024.2312878

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