speech text type conventions

18 Text Types (with Examples) – Writing Styles Explained

Texts types, also known as genres or text forms, refer to categories of texts with different purposes. Depending on the purpose, each type of text will have have a different convention of style and structure.

It is essential to understand text types and their conventions because:

• Interpretation: It helps us understand the text’s intentions, trustworthiness, and bias
• Text Creation: It helps us to create texts that are most effective, depending upon the purpose

Below is a list of the most common text types and their key conventions, style, structure, and purpose.

Text Types Examples

1. narrative.

Purpose: A narrative text aims to tell a story to the reader. It isn’t always just about telling a story for entertainment, though. The purpose of narrative text also lies in its capacity to engage the reader’s imagination, impart a moral lesson, or just simply pass on a tale through generations. For example, narrative stories are used in folklore and folktales to pass-on cultural values and stories.

Style: The style of a narrative text is distinctive. It employs a chronological sequencing of events. Coherent, right-branching sentences, varying in length, create rhythm and draw the reader into the unfolding story. Active voice is favored to maintain directness and immediacy, bringing scenes alive.

Structure: Beginning with an orientation, it introduces characters, setting, and time. Short initial sentences establish the context. The complication, the next part, presents problems or conflicts. A series of sentences, varying in length and complexity, takes the reader through ups and downs. Ultimately, the story reaches a resolution, where the achievement or solution is laid out.

2. Descriptive

Purpose: A descriptive text is designed to describe something in a detailed manner. The writer attempts to paint a vivid image in the reader’s mind, often by intricately describing an object, person, place, experience, or situation.

Style: Adjectives play a significant role in a descriptive text. They enrich the text, adding depth to the description. Similes, metaphors, and other figurative language might also be used for more creative descriptions. The sentences can be diverse, ranging from concise statement of facts to long, detailed depictions .

Structure: A descriptive text often starts with a short, general overview of what is being described. Then, it delves into details, exploring appearance, characteristics, functions, and other aspects. It closes with a brief summary or a final remark on the described subject.

3. Expository

Purpose: The main goal of an expository text is to inform or explain. It aims to provide the reader with comprehensive information about a specific topic. This type of text gives out facts and provides deep insights, explaining complex concepts or procedures in a manner that the reader can understand.

Style: The style of an expository text is systematic and straightforward. It has an emphasis on clarity. It avoids ambiguity and confusion.

Structure: Beginning with an introduction that briefly outlines the topic, an expository text then offers a well-structured exploration of distinct aspects of the topic. Each paragraph introduces a different point related to the topic. The conclusion summarizes the main points and offers final insights.

Read More: Expository vs Argumentative Essay Writing

4. Argumentative / Persuasive

Purpose: An argumentative or persuasive text is structured to persuade the readers by presenting a point of view. It defends a position regarding an issue or topic, using reasoned arguments, facts, statistics, and real-life examples to convince readers and lure them into adopting this point of view.

Style: These texts should be precise, logical, and grounded in evidence. The use of rhetorical devices like ethos, logos, and pathos can help persuade and appeal to the reader’s sense of ethics, logic, or emotions.

Structure: Key here is to map out a clear and structured argument, often presenting the most compelling points at the beginning and end of the piece. Consider using an essay plan. Your piece may start with a clear statement of the thesis or position. Then, provide supporting evidence and arguments, section by section. Each paragraph can offer a different reason or piece of evidence supporting the thesis. A conclusion is then needed to sum up the argument, restate the thesis, and call the reader to action.

5. Instructional

Purpose: An instructional text serves to provide instructions or directions on how to do something. It aims to guide the reader through a sequence of steps to achieve a certain goal or complete a task efficiently.

Style: Unlike persuasive texts, instructional texts should not try to convince anyone of anything. Your job is to strictly provide facts. The language is direct, to-the-point, and unambiguous.

Structure: Instructional texts usually start with an overview of the task or goal, and possibly, what the end result should look like. Following that, a list of materials or requirements would come next. After this, a step-by-step guide detailing how to accomplish the task is written.

6. Procedural

Purpose: Procedural texts are designed to guide the reader through a sequence of actions or steps necessary to accomplish a specific task. These tasks might be related to cooking, science experiments, emergency procedures, or machinery operation, among others.

Style: Procedural texts are characterized by precise and unambiguous language. It is critical that the wording is exact to ensure clear communication of instructions.

Structure: Procedural texts should be written with the same goal in mind as instructional ones: begin with an overview of the task, followed by any necessary materials or preparation steps. Next, a detailed, step-by-step procedure is included. It often concludes with any necessary follow-up instructions or warnings.

Purpose: The purpose of a recount text is to retell past events, usually in chronological order. It serves to provide a detailed account of an event, experience, or historical occurrence.

Style: A recount is usually descriptive and personal, involving a chronological presentation of events, with expressive language to convey emotions or impressions that the writer felt during the events.

Structure: A typical recount text starts with the introduction, setting the scene, and often specifying the time, place, and participants involved. The series of events then unrolls in the order they occurred. Finally, it concludes with a personal comment, reflection, or evaluation of the event.

Purpose: Report texts are written to present information about a subject. The subject could range from real-world entities like animals, humans, or natural phenomena to abstract concepts like principles, theories, or ideas.

Style: Reports are communicated objectively without the use of personal pronouns or subjective language. They contain facts, statistics, and specific information related to the subject, presented in a clear, systematic manner.

Structure: A report usually begins with an introduction, defining the topic and offering a brief overview. A series of sections or subheadings then ‘chunk’ the content to make it easy to navigate, each covering different aspects of the topic. A conclusion or summary often ends the report.

9. Discussion

Purpose: A discussion text is intended to present multiple perspectives on a specific issue, allowing the reader to consider all angles before forming their own viewpoint. It aims to deepen understanding and foster a broader perspective by objectively exploring diverse opinions and arguments related to a topic.

Style: Discussion texts use neutral, unbiased language. The writer presents all sides of the argument fairly and objectively, without leaning towards supporting one over another.

Structure: The text begins with an introduction of the issue at hand. This is followed by presenting point and counterpoint for each aspect of the issue, examining arguments in favor and against it. An effective discussion text ends with a conclusion or summary that encapsulates the multiple perspectives without indicating a personal preference.

10. Response

Purpose: A response text serves to provide a personal interpretation or reaction to a piece of content, such as a book, film, article, or speech. It aims to deepen the understanding of the original content, examine its components, and express personal thoughts, feelings, and reactions to it.

Style: Response writing is subjective, reflecting the opinion and personality of the writer. Despite the writer’s personal voice being apparent, a good response should maintain an even-handed and critical approach.

Structure: Commence with an overview of the content being responded to, including its title and creator. Next, give a brief summary or description of the content. Following this, present your personal reactions, impressions, and points of critique. Lastly, conclude by summarizing your views and stating your final thoughts.

Purpose: The purpose of a poetic text is to convey emotions, experiences, concepts, and ideas using creative and imaginative language. It’s a form of verbal art that uses aesthetics and rhythmic qualities to charm and engage readers.

Style: Poetic language heavily incorporates figurative and connotative language. It frequently uses devices such as similes, metaphors, rhyme, rhythm, assonance, and alliteration to create a specific mood or emotion.

Structure: The structure of a poem can vary vastly – it may adhere to a specific form (like sonnets, haikus, or limericks) complete with rules regarding rhyme, meter, and stanza length, or it may be free verse, with no such rules.

12. Journalistic

Purpose: Journalistic texts aim to report news stories to inform readers, viewers, or listeners about events happening locally or globally. These texts provide factual information about real-world event in a balanced, fair, accurate, and comprehensive manner.

Style: Journalistic writing requires use of clear, concise, and direct language. The language is primarily factual and explanatory, striving to be impartial and unbiased.

Structure: Journalistic texts usually adopt the “inverted pyramid” structure. The most crucial information is presented first – summarizing the ‘who, what, where, when, why, and how’ of the story. Following paragraphs provide further details and context, with the least important information towards the end.

See Also: Informational Texts Examples

13. Transactional

Purpose: Transactional texts serve to communicate an intended message between individuals or organizations. Common examples include emails, reports, proposals, business letters and memos.

Style: The tone and style of transactional texts depend on their intended audience and purpose. Formality levels may vary – generally, they are written in clear, straightforward language.

Structure: Transactional texts usually start with a salutation or an introduction, followed by the body containing the key message or information. They end with a closing, which may include a call-to-action, a closing remark or a sign-off.

14. Exemplification

Purpose: Exemplification texts are those which use examples to make a point, stress a point, or clearly present a pattern or form. These texts aim to make abstract ideas concrete, clarify concepts, or provide evidence supporting statements or theories.

Style: The language of exemplification texts is straightforward and facts-based, leveraging detailed examples to make concepts clearer and more understandable.

Structure: They start with a thesis statement or main idea. Next, they introduce and elaborate various specific examples to exemplify and prove the thesis statement. Finally, a conclusion wraps up the discussion and reiterates how the examples support the main idea.

15. Compare and Contrast

Purpose: The purpose of a compare and contrast text is to examine the similarities and differences between two or more subjects, such as concepts, items, people, or events. It aids in understanding and scrutinizing the association between the subjects.

Style: This kind of writing is analytical and require a balanced and objective presentation of facts, making sure to avoid bias or favoritism.

Structure: Such texts generally follow one of two structures: block or alternating. In the block method, all about the first subject is described, followed by all about the second. In the alternating method, corresponding points about the first and second subjects are alternated for comparison.

Read More: Compare and Contrast Essay Examples

16. Cause and Effect

Purpose: Cause and effect text is written to identify and explain the reasons or causes for an event or behavior and the resulting effects or outcomes. It establishes a relationship between variables and events.

Style: Clarity is particularly important in cause and effect writing because it should aim to lucidly explain causal chains where one thing leads to another.

Structure: Generally, the text starts with an introduction to the event. This is followed by the ’cause’ section explaining its origins or reasons. Then comes the ‘effect’ section detailing the outcomes, consequences, or results. Lastly, a conclusion synthesizes the major points and may contain author’s opinion on the event.

Read More: Cause and Effect Examples

17. Diary/Journal Entry

Purpose: A diary or journal entry is written to express personal thoughts, feelings, and experiences, making them a form of autobiographical writing. The objective is self-reflection, documentation of life events or ideas, and emotional exploration.

Style: Being highly personal, these texts don’t normally adhere to strict stylistic protocols. Language is informal and conversational, representing the writer’s voice.

Structure: Diary or journal entries do not follow a strict format. They often start with the date and proceed with the entries. Entries can range from brief notes to detailed narratives.

18. Critical Review

Purpose: A critical review analyses, interprets, and appraises a text or other work (like a film or play). It’s meant to provide an evaluation of the item’s merit, significance, value, or relevance, based on careful examination and evidence-based claims.

Style: Even though a critical review presents the writer’s opinion, it should be a balanced, logical, and professional examination of the work.

Structure: A traditional critical review includes an introduction summarizing the key details of the work being reviewed, the body containing the evaluation, and a conclusion summarizing the review.

Read More: Critical Analysis Examples

Full List of Text Types and Genres

• Descriptive
• Argumentative / Persuasive
• Instructional
• Journalistic
• Transactional
• Exemplification
• Compare and Contrast
• Cause and Effect
• Diary/Journal Entry
• Critical Review

Understanding text types allows you to effectively communicate ideas and information to your target audience. It provides a structured framework that guides the writing process, enhancing clarity and coherence. Additionally, it aids in comprehension, helping readers navigate and understand the text in its intended way. Lastly, knowledge of text types helps improve critical reading skills, enabling readers to discern the underlying purpose and structure of various texts.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 5 Top Tips for Succeeding at University
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• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 100 Consumer Goods Examples
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Dear Professor Drew,

My name is Ana de Mesquita and I am from Brazil. I have been teaching English, French and Brazilian Portuguese as a second language since 2008. I really appreciated your article about texts. It is quite helpful. Best regards,

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(9093) Conventions – Editorials, Speech

As level english (9093) conventions: editorials, speech.

Persuasive Texts: Editorials/Speech

Direct Approach: State opinion then argument

Indirect approach: Discuss / argue then state opinion

Editorials:

An editorial is an article that presents the newspaper’s opinion on an issue.

• Types of editorials:
• Explain or interpret: Editors often use these editorials to explain the way the newspaper covered a sensitive or controversial subject. School newspapers may explain new school rules or a particular student-body effort like a food drive.
• Criticize: These editorials constructively criticize actions, decisions or situations while providing solutions to the problem identified. Immediate purpose is to get readers to see the problem, not the solution.
• Persuade: Editorials of persuasion aim to immediately see the solution, not the problem. From the first paragraph, readers will be encouraged to take a specific, positive action. Political endorsements are good examples of editorials of persuasion.
• Praise: These editorials commend people and organizations for something done well. They are not as common as the other three.
• Characteristics of editorials:
• The opinions of the writer, delivered in a professional manner.
• An objective explanation of the issue, especially complex issues
• Primary topic/topics
• Intended audience
• Facts and statistics
• Arguments to support the thesis
• Ideology/point of view of the writer
• Develop logical and ethical arguments; avoid purely emotional rhetoric.
• Collect evidence, examples, and support for the view you are promoting.
• Alternative solutions to the problem or issue being criticized.

• Structure: Introduction, body, conclusion
• Engaging, emotive language
• Rhetorical devices: Seek to make an argument more compelling than it otherwise would’ve been.
• Always link back to the main idea. Clarity.
• Informal touch, it should be presented in a personal way.
• Support arguments: Facts/statistics, anecdotes, humor.
• Consider the audience: expectations, interest, and nature of the audience.

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19.7 Spotlight on … Delivery/Public Speaking

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Implement various technologies effectively to address an audience, matching the capacities of each to the rhetorical situation.
• Apply conventions of speech delivery, such as voice control, gestures, and posture.
• Identify and show awareness of cultural considerations.

Think of a speech you have seen or heard, either in person, on television, or online. Was the speech delivered well, or was it poorly executed? What aspects of the performance make you say that? Both good and poor delivery of a speech can affect the audience’s opinion of the speaker and the topic. Poor delivery may be so distracting that even the message of a well-organized script with strong information is lost to the audience.

Speaking Genres: Spoken Word, Pulpit, YouTube, Podcast, Social Media

The world today offers many new (and old) delivery methods for script writing. While the traditional presidential address or commencement speech on a stage in front of a crowd of people is unlikely to disappear, newer script delivery methods are now available, including many that involve technology. From YouTube , which allows anyone to upload videos, to podcasts, which provide a platform for anyone, celebrities and noncelebrities alike, to produce a radio-like program, it seems that people are finding new ways to use technology to enhance communication. Free resources such as YouTube Studio and the extension TubeBuddy can be a good starting place to learn to create these types of media.

Voice Control

Whether the method is old or new, delivering communication in the speaking genre relies not only on words but also on the way those words are delivered. Remember that voice and tone are important in establishing a bond with your audience, helping them feel connected to your message, creating engagement, and facilitating comprehension. Vocal delivery includes these aspects of speech:

• Rate of speech refers to how fast or slow you speak. You must speak slowly enough to be understood but not so slowly that you sound unnatural and bore your audience. In addition, you can vary your rate, speeding up or slowing down to increase tension, emphasize a point, or create a dramatic effect.
• Volume refers to how loudly or softly you speak. As with rate, you do not want to be too loud or too soft. Too soft, and your speech will be difficult or impossible to hear, even with amplification; too loud, and it will be distracting or even painful for the audience. Ideally, you should project your voice, speaking from the diaphragm, according to the size and location of the audience and the acoustics of the room. You can also use volume for effect; you might use a softer voice to describe a tender moment between mother and child or a louder voice to emphatically discuss an injustice.
• Pitch refers to how high or low a speaker’s voice is to listeners. A person’s vocal pitch is unique to that person, and unlike the control a speaker has over rate and volume, some physical limitations exist on the extent to which individuals can vary pitch. Although men generally have lower-pitched voices than women, speakers can vary their pitch for emphasis. For example, you probably raise your pitch naturally at the end of a question. Changing pitch can also communicate enthusiasm or indicate transition or closure.
• Articulation refers to how clearly a person produces sounds. Clarity of voice is important in speech; it determines how well your audience understands what you are saying. Poor articulation can hamper the effect of your script and even cause your audience to feel disconnected from both you and your message. In general, articulation during a presentation before an audience tends to be more pronounced and dramatic than everyday communication with individuals or small groups. When presenting a script, avoid slurring and mumbling. While these may be acceptable in informal communication, in presented speech they can obscure your message.
• Fluency refers to the flow of speech. Speaking with fluency is similar to reading with fluency. It’s not about how fast you can speak, but how fluid and meaningful your speech is. While inserting pauses for dramatic effect is perfectly acceptable, these are noticeably different from awkward pauses that result from forgetting a point, losing your place, or becoming distracted. Practicing your speech can greatly reduce fluency issues. A word on verbal fillers , those pesky words or sounds used to fill a gap or fluency glitch: utterances such as um , ah , and like detract from the fluency of your speech, distract the audience from your point, and can even reduce your credibility. Again, practice can help reduce their occurrence, and self-awareness can help you speak with more fluency.

Gestures and Expressions

Beyond vocal delivery, consider also physical delivery variables such as gestures and facial expressions . While not all speech affords audiences the ability to see the speaker, in-person, online, and other forms of speech do. Gestures and facial expressions can both add to and detract from effective script delivery, as they can help demonstrate emotion and enthusiasm for the topic. Both have the ability to emphasize points, enhance tone, and engage audiences.

Eye contact is another form of nonverbal, physical communication that builds community, communicates comfort, and establishes credibility. Eye contact also can help hold an audience’s attention during a speech. It is advisable to begin your speech by establishing eye contact with the audience. One idea is to memorize your opening and closing statements to allow you to maintain consistent eye contact during these important sections of the script and strengthen your connection with the audience.

Although natural engagement through gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact can help an audience relate to a presenter and even help establish community and trust, these actions also can distract audiences from the content of the script if not used purposefully. In general, as with most delivery elements, variation and a happy medium between “too much” and “too little” are key to an effective presentation. Some presenters naturally have more expressive faces, but all people can learn to control and use facial expressions and gestures consciously to become more effective speakers. Practicing your speech in front of a mirror will allow you to monitor, plan, and practice these aspects of physical delivery.

Posture and Movement

Other physical delivery considerations include posture and movement. Posture is the position of the body. If you have ever been pestered to “stand up straight,” you were being instructed on your posture. The most important consideration for posture during a speech is that you look relaxed and natural. You don’t want to be slumped over and leaning on the podium or lectern, but you also don’t want a stiff, unnatural posture that makes you look stilted or uncomfortable. In many speeches, the speaker’s posture is upright as they stand behind a podium or at a microphone, but this is not always the case. Less formal occasions and audiences may call for movement of the whole body. If this informality fits your speech, you will need to balance movement with the other delivery variables. This kind of balance can be challenging. You won’t want to wander aimlessly around the stage or pace back and forth on the same path. Nor will you want to shuffle your feet, rock, or shift your weight back and forth. Instead, as with every other aspect of delivery, you will want your movements to be purposeful, with the intention of connecting with or influencing your audience. Time your movements to occur at key points or transitions in the script.

Cultural Considerations

Don’t forget to reflect on cultural considerations that relate to your topic and/or audience. Cultural awareness is important in any aspect of writing, but it can have an immediate impact on a speech, as the audience will react to your words, gestures, vocal techniques, and topic in real time. Elements that speakers don’t always think about—including gestures, glances, and changes in tone and inflection—can vary in effectiveness and even politeness in many cultures. Consideration for cultural cues may include the following:

• Paralanguage : voiced cultural considerations, including tone, language, and even accent.
• Kinesics : body movements and gestures that may include facial expressions. Often part of a person’s subconscious, kinesics can be interpreted in various ways by members of different cultures. Body language can include posture, facial expressions (smiling or frowning), and even displays of affection.
• Proxemics : interpersonal space that regulates intimacy. Proxemics might indicate how close to an audience a speaker is located, whether the speaker moves around, and even how the speaker greets the audience.
• Chronemics : use of time. Chronemics refers to the duration of a script.
• Appearance : clothing and physical appearance. The presentation of appearance is a subtle form of communication that can indicate the speaker’s identity and can be specific to cultures.

Stage Directions

You can think proactively about ways to enhance the delivery of your script, including vocal techniques, body awareness, and cultural considerations. Within the draft of your script, create stage directions . An integral part of performances such as plays and films, stage directions can be as simple as writing in a pause for dramatic effect or as complicated as describing where and how to walk, what facial expressions to make, or how to react to audience feedback.

Look at this example from the beginning of the student sample. Stage directions are enclosed in parentheses and bolded.

student sample text Several years ago, I sat in the waiting area of a major airport, trying to ignore the constant yapping of a small dog cuddled on the lap of a fellow passenger. An airline rep approached the woman and asked the only two questions allowed by law. (high-pitched voice with a formal tone) “Is that a service animal? (pause) What service does it provide for you?” end student sample text

student sample text (bold, defiant, self-righteous tone) “Yes. It keeps me from having panic attacks,” the woman said defiantly, and the airline employee retreated. (move two steps to the left for emphasis) end student sample text

student sample text Shortly after that, another passenger arrived at the gate. (spoken with authority) She gripped the high, stiff handle on the harness of a Labrador retriever that wore a vest emblazoned with the words “The Seeing Eye.” (speed up speech and dynamic of voice for dramatic effect) Without warning, the smaller dog launched itself from its owner’s lap, snarling and snapping at the guide dog. (move two steps back to indicate transition) end student sample text

Now it’s your turn. Using the principle illustrated above, create stage directions for your script. Then, practice using them by presenting your script to a peer reviewer, such as a friend, family member, or classmate. Also consider recording yourself practicing your script. Listen to the recording to evaluate it for delivery, fluency, and vocal fillers. Remember that writing is recursive: you can make changes based on what works and what doesn’t after you implement your stage directions. You can even ask your audience for feedback to improve your delivery.

Podcast Publication

If possible, work with your instructor and classmates to put together a single podcast or a series of podcasts according to the subject areas of the presentations. The purpose of these podcasts should be to invite and encourage other students to get involved in important causes. Work with relevant student organizations on campus to produce and publicize the podcasts for maximum impact. There are many free resources for creating podcasts, including Apple’s GarageBand and Audacity .

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Features of Advertising

Mnemonic for Deconstructing Ads

There's more to learn! Add these skills to your toolbox.

15 Techniques of Advertising

More Tools of Persuasion

Put it all together and write an organized piece of academic writing.

The Model Paragraph

Opinion Articles

Whether they agree with what’s happening in our world or not, writers of opinion columns implement a series of choices in their work to maximize their persuasive effect.  A close cousin of speeches, these short and complete texts pack a punch.  Look carefully at how they’re structured, how they use rhetoric, and how they end strong.  Learn this stuff.  It’s Paper 1 gold.

What tools do these writers use? Add these terms to your list.

Persuasive Elements in Opinion Articles

Now that you’ve got some basic skills and some terms under your belt, let’s apply them to three different opinion articles and see what we can do.

Put it all together and see what it looks like.

Paper One Student Sample (original)

Paper One Student Sample (highlighted)

Literary Text Types

Regardless of the course you are enrolled in, we’re all studying literature.  How is prose fiction different than prose nonfiction?  What about drama and poetry?  Are there any special skills and tips to learn?  We’ve got the answers to these questions and more down below.  Consume these resources and become a better critical reader and writer.  

Prose Fiction

What’s prose fiction?  Think novels.  Think short stories.  Think “imaginative” writing.  It’s one of the cornerstones of the course for a reason, as it teaches us about the human condition and fosters empathy.  Learn how to be a close reader of prose fiction and let your knowledge shine when you write your Paper 1.

Literature can be tough. This acronym for deconstruction will help.

SCASNI acronym for annotating fiction

Learn more about how our SCASNI protocol can foster deeper analysis.

SCASNI applied to a Paper One Text

Put it all together and check out this full Paper 1 response.

Paper One – Full Student Response

Prose Non-Fiction

This course requires exploration of nonfiction texts as well.  So what exactly is this stuff anyway?  Think memoirs.  Think travelogues.  Think philosophy and other insightful texts that present factual information in an entertaining and literary way.  We love prose non-fiction, and so do our students.  These were our mock exams as well as former IB exams.  

Remember: Paper 1 is a reading test first. Watch this video.

Assessment Text (original) Assessment Text (annotated)

Yes, diaries show up on assessments. Familiarize yourself with this text type.

Assessment Text (original)

Assessment Text (annotated)

We love a good memoir. Another former IB Lit assessment here.

Check out what this writer does. They know what they're doing!

Student Response (original) Student Response (highlighted)

Another strong Lit response. You getting the hang of this yet?

Student Response (original)

Student Response (highlighted)

Our final mock exam in this Lit series. Another strong response.

Student Response (original and highlighted) Three Different Styles of Introductions

Sure, we understand poetry is abstract, but we promise it can be fun! It’s complex and requires deep thinking, but that’s where the magic lives.  Check out the videos and documents below.  You’ll find poetic terminology, close reading strategies, and sentence stems to guide your writing.  Watch.  Learn.  Master.  You’ve got this!  

Just like any text type, poetry has its own set of terms. Learn them!

Poetic Terms

Sample Poem with Annotations

Now you know some terms. A few more pieces and you're on your way.

How to Read a Poem

Acronym for Analyzing Poetry

Words to Describe Mood and Tone

Maya Angelou Poem For Analysis

Let's practice our new skills with a nature poem from Mary Oliver.

Mary Oliver Poem for Analysis

Mary Oliver Poem (fully annotated)

Check out this former IB Exam where we break down a great poem.

Document: Poem – “Tyre Shop” by Bob Orr

Check out the full student response and compare your work to the sample.

Document: “Tyre Shop” – Full Student Response

Andrew and Dave love drama.  But, you’ve got to remember to pay attention to the stage directions. What can you see and hear on stage?  What props do you notice?  How are costume and staging used for effect?  So many things to explore!  It’s important to learn the basics for now, but stay tuned for more content in the future.  Our students love drama, and so will you.  Immerse yourself in this text type and enjoy!

We'll add more content soon. For now, master these important conventions of drama.

Dramatic Terms Annotated Passage

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• Text type expectations

What should we be teaching our students about the text types required under the 2018 Subject Guide?

To put it another way, how will they be expected to handle each text type in Paper 1: Productive skills - writing ? Basically, what instructions do we give the students ... what plans do we provide them, so that they can construct something that will fly ?

Command of text types is assessed principally under Criterion C: Conceptual understanding (see the page Writing criteria, unpacked  ). This criterion includes the following general areas:

• context, audience, purpose - normally, as set out in the question
• register and tone - generally implied by the norm in the type of text, but may be altered by the nature of the task
• conventions - the standard techniques of format, address, rhetoric, structure, etc

The task involves a "choice of text type" which demonstrates "appropriate" understanding, and handling, of the general areas. So, students have to be taught how the general areas apply to each of the text types - and then how to adapt the general characteristics of each text type to the particular requirements of each specific task / question.

Key Issue: the meaning of 'appropriate'

It would appear that the most important factor in choosing the right text type is to think about whether the text type will reach correctly the specified audience. This in turn means that students should understand where each text type is used, and for which purpose.

• To illustrate, if the task is to explain a personal experience to a friend ... and the options are # Speech; # News report; and # E-mail ... it would be inappropriate to choose the first two, and appropriate to choose the last.

Each text type page has a box entitled 'Appropriate?' - this contains guidance about how and why this text type would be 'appropriate' to particular sorts of task.

Here is an example of what the box looks like . ..

Appropriate?

A blog will be appropriate if the task requires you to ... (+ explanation of when the text type would be appropriate)

Not to be confused with...

'article' or ' opinion column ' or 'essay' .. . (+ explanation of why these possibly similar text types would not be appropriate)

Text type pages

As you can see from the index at top left, all the text types that may be used in examinations have a dedicated page.

Each page sets out to provide brief summary notes about the likely expectations of how Conceptual understandings should be applied to each text type included in the IB-specified list of text types for exams (see the page Exam list of text types  ). These notes are organised as follows:

Key features

This box provides the important elements to remember about each text type, thus -

• context, audience, purpose
• register and tone
• conventions - (the first three in the list will be the most likely to be expected in marking)

'Appropriate?'

This box contains advice about how to choose each text type as the most 'appropriate' for the task required by the question, from the choice of three presented.

In addition, the key features are developed in more detail, in this section:

Format and approach, discussed

The recognisable features of each text type have been organised according to two categories :-

Basic Format ... the most easily visible (and teachable) features of the text type - 'format' in the sense of layout, the physical organisation of the script

I list all of the common features that I can think of; not all of these would need to be present for the text type to be clearly recognisable.

Approach ... the less visible features of how the text type would normally be handled - register, author's voice and tone, address to audience, organisation of ideas, and so on.

I list major elements, in descending order of importance (most important, in my view, first). Again, not all of these need to be present - indeed in some cases, some of the approaches may be contradictory and would need to be selected according to the precise nature of the task.

The Basic Format elements can easily be taught and even the weakest students should be able to reproduce them. The Approach elements are intrinsically more difficult to teach, since they often involve quite sophisticated mental procedures - but surely students should be appropriately challenged with these.

• Finally, note that I regularly refer to 'an exam script', in the context of defining what a 'good' version of the text type should display. This is simply being realistic - the point of this list is not primarily to teach students how to write, for example, good diaries in real life, but rather how to be able to produce a realistic version of a diary in an exam.

Relevant writing purposes

Links are provided to the most useful of the skills presented in the writing purposes section, for teaching approaches, examples and models.

Finally, the following resources relevant to the text type are provided:-

* Materials & models ... blue boxes like this contain links to selected examples of each text type, elsewhere in the site

* Suggested 'new style' exam tasks ... cream boxes like this provide tasks in the format of the current Guide's assessment system - in each of these tasks, the required 'appropriate' text type is the one to which the page is dedicated.

* Recent exam tasks ('old' style) ...pink boxes like this contain examples of how each text type has been set in Paper 2.

Note - at present, all these examples are 'old style' i.e. written according to the old Paper 2 Writing which applied up to November 2019. So, you shouldn't set these as they stand for student practice purposes. However, you can adapt and re-write them, always remembering that :-

1. You need to make clear the expected audience

2. There should be three actions that the student should perform - e.g. 'describe...' + 'explain...' + 'comment...'

3. Three optional text types should be provided - chosen so that there is an appropriate text type (the one you want the students to choose) + a generally appropriate text type (one that might be more or less suitable, but not really) + an inappropriate text type (one that is evidently unsuitable for audience and purpose)

Writing practice TASKS

Under each text type, there is a page which provides a task which enables the student to carry out basic practice in producing that text type.

Each of these pages includes:

The task - Note that the task is not written as in the real IB Paper 1 Writing exam. It does not provide three options for the student to choose from - the purpose of the exercise is precisely to focus on practising that one text type. This means that you cannot apply Criterion C in full: you can't apply the first bullet point about 'choice', but you can apply the other two, about 'Register and tone' and 'Conventions'.

Heading: 'Approach, with tips ' - This section provides general advice on the nature of the text type, and the basic principles of how to write it

Heading: 'Exploration' - Suggestions for how the student should tackle the job of thinking out ideas in preparation, and of how to fit those ideas to the requirements of the task.

Heading: 'Organising and planning' - Suggestions for how to organise preparatory exploratory notes into a clear and effective running order for the text.

Online writing exercise - for students to write and submit the practice through Student Access

****************

Writing Conventions: What They Are & How To Use Them

• February 22, 2024

Table of Contents Hide

What is a writing convention, 1. spelling and grammar, 2. punctuation, 3. capitalization, 4. paragraphing, 5. formatting, 6. citation and referencing , narrative writing conventions, persuasive writing conventions, letter writing conventions, instructional writing conventions, formal writing conventions, why do writing conventions matter, faqs on writing conventions, we also recommend.

Have you ever wondered why some writing just seems to flow effortlessly, while others seem confusing and disjointed? The secret lies in understanding and utilizing writing conventions effectively.

Writing conventions are the basic rules and norms that govern the way we write. They encompass everything from grammar and punctuation to formatting and structure. Mastering these conventions can make a world of difference in the clarity and impact of your writing.

Whether you are a student, a professional, or simply someone who wants to improve your writing skills, understanding writing conventions is essential. In this article, we will explore what writing conventions are, why they matter, and how you can use them to enhance your writing.

Writing and language conventions encompass the guidelines individuals need to adhere to when composing any type of written content. Whether crafting a narrative or delivering a political address, adherence to certain fundamentals, such as constructing complete sentences and correctly spelling words, is crucial for ensuring coherence and impact on the audience.

In addition to the broader writing conventions applicable to all forms of text, specific genres have distinct regulations and principles that govern them. For instance, the presence of stage directions, scenes, and dialogue without quotation marks signifies a play script.

Keep reading below to learn all about language conventions and techniques, including a language conventions list for you to use with your class.

READ ALSO: 50 Exclusive 6th Grade Writing Prompts that are Printable for Free

What Are The Basic Writing Conventions?

The basic writing conventions and rules that must be followed in all writing tasks, to help the reader understand what has been written are:

Accurate spelling and proper grammar form the foundation of effective communication. They play a crucial role in ensuring that your words are transparent, succinct, and easily comprehensible to your audience. Beyond just enhancing the readability of your writing, adherence to correct spelling and grammar reflects your commitment to precision and professionalism.

Typos and grammatical missteps have the potential to diminish the impact of your work, obscuring its intended meaning. Proficiency in spelling and grammar conventions empowers you to articulate your thoughts with clarity and precision, allowing you to express ideas with confidence and authority. Therefore, giving due attention to this essential writing convention is a key step toward honing your skills as a proficient wordsmith.

READ ALSO: Free Copywriting Courses For Freelancers In 2024

Punctuation is crucial in sentences for several reasons. Firstly, it helps to clarify the structure and organization of your writing, guiding readers on how to interpret the text. Punctuation marks, such as commas, periods, and colons, create pauses, indicate the end of a sentence, and separate different elements within a sentence.

Secondly, punctuation contributes to the overall tone and meaning of a sentence. For example, the placement of a comma can change the emphasis or nuance of a phrase. It helps to convey the intended emotions and nuances, preventing misunderstandings.

Punctuation marks like commas, periods, semicolons, and dashes should be used correctly since they may distinguish between poorly and flawlessly formed sentences. Every mark has a unique function and, when utilized skillfully, can elevate an ordinary statement to the level of an artistic creation. Take advantage of the power of punctuation and your writing will flow naturally, captivating your audience with your deft use of language.

Capitalization serves as a means of adding sophistication and lucidity to your writing, aiding in the differentiation of proper nouns, titles, and the commencement of sentences. This writing convention is indispensable as it imparts a sense of significance and emphasis to your words, guiding the reader’s focus toward the most pivotal aspects of your text.

Using capitalization at the onset of a sentence or for the initial letter of a proper noun establishes a formal and professional tone. Additionally, capitalizing the first word in a title or heading introduces a touch of creativity and style. Therefore, utilizing capitalization judiciously enhances your writing, allowing each letter to stand prominently, and capturing the reader’s attention with pride and clarity.

READ ALSO: 25 Inspiring Freelance Writing Quotes

Paragraphing enhances readability by breaking down a piece of text into manageable and organized chunks. This structure provides visual cues to readers, guiding them through the flow of ideas and making the content more digestible.

It helps to organize and group related information together. Each paragraph typically focuses on a specific point or idea, allowing readers to follow the logical progression of your thoughts. This organizational structure makes it easier for readers to understand the connections between different concepts.

Formatting in writing refers to the arrangement and presentation of text to enhance its readability, clarity, and overall visual appeal. Proper formatting is crucial for various reasons:

Well-formatted text is easier to read. The right use of fonts, font size, and line spacing contributes to a comfortable reading experience.

Furthermore, formatting aids in organizing ideas and information logically. Headings, subheadings, and bullet points create a visual hierarchy, making it clear how different pieces of information relate to each other. This improves the overall structure and coherence of the document.

By mastering formatting conventions, you can make your writing more attractive and engaging, ensuring that your message is received loud and clear. So, embrace the power of formatting and watch your writing come to life on the page!

Citing and referencing form the basis of academic writing, serving to acknowledge the sources you’ve consulted and utilized to bolster your ideas.

Accurate citation not only showcases your research acumen but also underscores your commitment to intellectual integrity and recognition of others’ contributions. Proper citation and referencing play a pivotal role in enhancing the credibility and authority of your writing, enabling readers to trace your sources and validate your assertions.

Whether you’re crafting an essay, research paper, or any academic document, proficiency in citation and referencing conventions is indispensable. Embrace this writing practice as an opportunity to exhibit your academic prowess, thereby making your writing more compelling and persuasive.

Check out 10 Tips on How to Increase Readability Score While Writing

Tone is the emotional quality or attitude that comes across in your writing. It is a subtle but powerful writing convention that can shape the way your message is received by your audience. Tone can be playful or serious, formal or informal, optimistic or pessimistic, and it sets the overall mood of your writing.

By mastering tone, you can effectively convey your message and connect with your readers on an emotional level. It is important to keep your audience in mind when choosing your tone, as different readers may respond better to different emotional appeals.

Style represents the distinctive and individualized touch that a writer imparts to their writing. It includes various components such as sentence construction, vocabulary selection, figurative expressions, and overall tone. Cultivating a unique style allows a writer to distinguish their work, making it memorable and impactful for their readers.

A strong writing style can also make your writing more engaging and memorable, drawing your readers in and keeping them hooked until the very end. However, style is not just about aesthetics – it is also about clarity, coherence, and effectiveness. By mastering the conventions of style, you can ensure that your writing is both beautiful and effective, leaving your readers with a lasting impression of your talent and skill.

SEE ALSO: Chinese vs Japanese Writing: A Side-by-Side Comparison

Writing Conventions For specific Genres

While the rules of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and grammar are necessary for all texts, some genres have their own sets of rules and principles to follow. These features help the reader to identify what kind of text they are looking at.

Here are the different writing conventions for specific genres:

Like a book, a narrative text recounts a tale. Characters, dialogue, and an obvious narrative structure are some characteristics of a narrative work. To ensure that their narrative text has a distinct beginning, build-up, climax, resolution, and finish, children might prepare utilizing a tale mountain framework. You can be certain that you are reading a narrative if the material you are reading has a plot like this.

Persuasive writings can take the form of speeches, articles, posters, or other written works to persuade the reader to share the author’s viewpoint. Possessing a distinct point of view, which is usually expressed in the opening and conclusion, is an illustration of a persuasive writing convention. Rhetorical inquiries, emotive language, and facts and numbers will also be common elements.

READ ALSO: 21 Best Online Grant Writing Classes for Beginners

Numerous visual cues indicate the kind of text you are reading when you are reading a letter. A letter’s address, date, and salutation (such as “Dear Sir/Madam”) are all located in the upper right-hand corner. Additionally, it is probably going to be written in paragraphs and end with a salutation like “Yours Sincerely.”

Instructional writing covers text types such as recipes, instruction manuals, and how-to articles. This genre has many defining conventions, such as having a numbered list of instructions. This will be written in chronological order, and include imperative verb commands, such as “Mix the batter”. Instructions are unlikely to include any speech or descriptive features. This specific list of conventions helps the reader to know they are reading a set of instructions and to follow them effectively.

Writing conventions extend to distinct registers and genres. When creating a formal text, like a letter to your headteacher, particular guidelines govern your writing, signaling to the reader the formal nature of the communication. This involves refraining from using contractions, opting for expressions like “cannot” instead of the more casual “can’t.” A formal text is also unlikely to incorporate nicknames or slang terms. Adhering to these conventions assists in establishing the appropriate tone for your writing.

Writers utilize conventions to enrich and elucidate the meaning of their written expressions. These conventions empower writers to articulate precisely how a word or phrase should be comprehended by the reader, facilitating a clear grasp of the writer’s intended message. In instances where the writer is not physically present to orally convey the text, conventions serve the function of reading the content on behalf of the writer.

When composing any piece of writing, the writer typically envisions and hears the words internally before putting them to paper. While the writer has a distinct auditory perception, the reader lacks this personal insight. Conventions function as a roadmap, directing the reader through the text—signaling pauses, advancements, accelerations, decelerations, and other nuances. Essentially, conventions ensure that the written composition resonates with the intended tone and rhythm as perceived by the writer during the writing process.

Without conventions, writing would be a mess. If we didn’t put a space between each word just as you can see, everything would run together. Without the convention of correct spelling, writers could never be sure if readers would be able to read the words they had written. And even if we all spelled each word the same way, without the convention of punctuation, writers would still have trouble getting their message across.

Writing conventions are established rules and practices governing the mechanics, structure, and presentation of written language. They include elements like grammar, punctuation, spelling, and formatting.

Writing conventions are crucial for effective communication. They ensure clarity, consistency, and understanding in written content, making it easier for readers to comprehend the message.

Reading widely, studying grammar guides, and practicing writing are effective ways to enhance your grasp of writing conventions. Seeking feedback from peers or instructors can also be beneficial.

Regular proofreading, attention to detail, and awareness of common mistakes (e.g., grammatical errors, punctuation misuse) are key to minimizing language convention errors in writing.

Writers utilize conventions to enrich and elucidate the meaning of their written expressions. These conventions empower writers to articulate precisely how a word or phrase should be comprehended by the reader, facilitating a clear grasp of the writer’s intended message.

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Text-type Conventions | Critical Studies | HSC English

Text-type conventions | critical studies.

What do we mean by Text-type?

A text-type conventions  is both the major structure and format of the text, such as a speech, novel or poem, and the intent or function of that format.

It is about the macrocosm or ‘big picture’ view. You should therefore look at stanzas, chapters, or soliloquy and act structure in your varied texts. You should also understand the relationship between the macrocosm and the microcosm, which might be sentence structure, use of grammar, or the individual shots of a film. Consider the ‘BIG PICTURE’ view: look at stanzas, chapters, soliloquies and act structure in your text.

You will be expected to be aware of the ‘usual’ structure or general conventions employed by your text-type’s format, its usual purpose, and how your prescribed text meets the conventions in some ways and bends or breaks them in others.

Understand the relationship between the big picture view and the small details:  sentence structure, use of grammar or the individual shots of a film.

Be aware of the usual structure employed by your text-type’s format and how your text meets the conventions or breaks them.

The narrative

Is any text-type where the intent is to tell a story.  It is based on perception in time: the events are given in chronological order. The main purpose of narrative is to entertain, to gain and hold the reader’s interest.

Narratives may also be written to change attitudes and social opinions. Narratives differ from recounts because instead of simple retelling, a narrative sets up one or more problems, which the characters must eventually overcome.

• Any text-type where the intent is to tell a story.
• Events are given in chronological order.
• Purpose is to entertain or to change social attitudes and opinions.
• Narratives differ from recounts because instead of simple retelling, a narrative sets up one or more problems which the characters must eventually overcome.

The exposition

Is any text type which intends to give an explanation. It may involve analysis or comparison of complex facts. Logical order will be important, and both theory and examples will be touched upon. Text-books, discussion essays, documentaries, oral presentations and some speeches are expository.

• Any text-type which intends to give an explanation.
• Involves analysis or comparison of complex facts.
• Uses a logical order, theory and examples.
• Text-books, discussion essays, documentaries, oral presentations and some speeches are expository.

The argument

Is any text type which intends to present a point of view or an answer to a question or problem. It involves evaluation and subjective judgment of relevant information and refers to the reasons for or against. Analytical essays, most speeches, feature articles, political satire and comedy shows, and most formal letters are argumentative.

• Any text-type which presents a point of view or answers a problem.
• Involves evaluation and judgment of information, referring to the reasons for or against.
• Analytical essays, most speeches, feature articles, political satire, comedy shows and most formal letters are argumentative.

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Speech Acts: Conventions and Intentions

• First Online: 03 August 2021

Cite this chapter

• Pavel Slutskiy 2  

216 Accesses

The praxeological approach understands communication as a sub-category of human action—the conscious aiming at ends and intentional utilisation of communicative means for the attainment of goals in social world. This approach corresponds to the views of speech act theory, which suggests that certain communicative actions—performatives—function normatively within a structured system of communication. Such performative speech acts possess “illocutionary force”, which enables them to accomplish things with normative consequences. Speech act theory and praxeology seem to be in accord on multiple issues, including the notions of the requirements of meeting both external and internal conditions (maintaining necessary social conventions and mental states accordingly) in order for a performative to succeed. However, not all performatives create normative (and legal) effects; instead, they can be viewed as a continuum. In addition, a necessary distinction must be made between felicitous and infelicitous performatives, as well as communicative actions that are not performatives at all.

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Throughout this book, I will use the terms “speech” and “communication” interchangeably (with the term “speech act” being the equivalent of “communicative act”), reflecting the idea that contemporary speech act theory encompasses written, spoken and non-verbal discourse.

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Faculty of Communication Arts, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand

Pavel Slutskiy

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Slutskiy, P. (2021). Speech Acts: Conventions and Intentions. In: Communication and Libertarianism. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6664-0_4

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6664-0_4

Published : 03 August 2021

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Cartoon/Graphic Novel/Comic Strips

Conventions of a cartoon, written codes, technical codes, symbolic codes [emanata], effects of panels, moment to moment, action to action, subject to subject, scene to scene, aspect to aspect, non-sequitur, graphic weight, what is a cartoon, what is a comic strip, what is a graphic novel.

All three text types have very similar formal elements.

All three text types are forms of visual sequential art which have a narrative thread or a main theme. These appeal to both realms of our identity and awareness:

• The Sensual – the physical world
• The Conceptual – the world within. For example, inanimate objects would have their own identities

When analysing any of these three text types, you need to identify both the realms to give a good analysis.

• Panel (refers to the framed image)
• Splash (a kind of panel that spans the width of the page)
• Voice over (refers to the hard line where the narrator can speak to the reader)
• Speech bubble / Speech balloon / Thought balloon
• Emanata (refers to the teardrops, sweat drops, question marks, or motion lines)
• Gutter (refers to the space between panels)
• Minor details
• Shape of text (bubbles)
• Exaggeration
• Stereotypes
• Use of words
• Target audience
• Perspective

upper case, lower case, Font, Speech bubbles

Written codes - upper case, lower case, Font, Speech bubbles

• Special effects lettering
• Emotions through lettering

layout, sequencing, framing, angle, lines, shape

• Color - affects the reader’s experience.
• Graphic weight – contrast in an icon/panel.
• Degree or intensity of colour and its effect
• Camera angles

colours, objects, body language, clothing, setting

• Normal panel - One single idea
• Splash – Two or more panels clubbed – run on ideas
• Bleed – The panel goes beyond the page - Emphasis on a Single idea

Types of Transitions

Moment to mom.

a single subject in distant action to action progression

This is from idea to idea.

Transition in place and time

wandering eye effect, seeing different aspects of a place, idea or mood.

• no relationship between the two panels whatsoever.

Positioning of the Icons

The object is closer to the reader as compared to the other objects in the scene. It’s the first thing the reader sees.

The object stands in the middle of the scene that is being shown. Allows centering of image by using natural resting place for vision. The artist deliberately decides to place the image where a viewer would be most likely to look first.

Not in the positions stated above. Placing a subject off-centre can also be used to create visual tension.

The objects in the background (not usually the subject) help add contextual /sub-textual information for the reader

Contrast in an icon/panel.

• Degree or intensity of colour and its effect : A term that describes the way some images draw the eye more than others,
• Creating a definite focus using color and shading in various ways including:
• The use of light and dark shades; dark-toned images or high-contrast images draw the eye more than light or low-contrast images do
• A pattern or repeated series of marks
• Colors that are more brilliant or deeper than others on the page
• Single panelled, simplified line drawing encasing a comprehensive idea – either critical, satirical or simply humorous Sequential visual art
• Simple line drawings – Iconic characters – Simple style - objective - universal appeal –
• The reader identifies himself with the cartoon
• A series of sequential visual art with multiple panels that tells a story – humorous, with content that appeals to a younger audience [ Garfield, Archie ]
• Serialized, episodic collection of comic strips with the themes of adventure, fantasy, mythology, Romance etc. - that appeal to the younger audience – Ex. Marvel comics
• Mature, complex content - deliberately try to dissociate themselves with comics that have a juvenile content .
• One single story neither serialized nor episodic
• Audience : Adults (mostly who are enamored by the comic form)
• Themes : serious themes which have a deeper impact on a community – call for a change or illustration of an issue
• Example : Persepolis – Issues of marginalized women, Growing up during Islamic revolution
• Maus : Holocaust experiences

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