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SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter summarizes the whole research process. It first provides a brief summary of the whole study with particular reference to the research problem, research methodology, results, the main contributions of the research and recommendations for future work. It provides a summary of the main findings of the study, conclusions and recommendations. This chapter should be reasonably short.

The readers would want to know whether the objectives of the study were achieved, and whether the work has contributed to knowledge. Therefore, when compiling this chapter, a researcher should focus on answering these questions.

Any conclusions drawn should be those resulting from the study. A researcher should make relevant references to chapters that support the listed findings and may also refer to the work of others for comparison. However, one should not discuss the stu1y’s results here.

Summary of the Main Findings

In summarizing, a researcher should identify the findings of the study and discuss them briefly. In addition, the methodological problems encountered should be outlined so that future/other researchers may take the relevant precautions. The researcher should clearly pinpoint if the study objectives were achieved or not. An effective summary has the following qualities:

It bases on results from the study.
It is brief, all statements are concise, and pinpoint to the contributions that the researcher has made.

Recommendations

All statements are factual.

One way to present the summary is to use one paragraph for each idea. Alternatively, the researcher can use a point-by-point format.

The Conclusion section should be very brief, about half a page. It should indicate what the study results reaffirm. It should also briefly discuss some of the strategies highlighted by the respondents. In this section, the researcher should clearly state how the study has contributed to knowledge.

The recommendations section is important in research. This section often exposes further problems and introduces more questions. As a researcher, there is a time limit to the research project, so it is unlikely that the study would have solved all the problems associated with the area of study. The researcher is therefore expected to make suggestions about how his/her work can be improved, and also based on the study findings, point out whether there are areas that deserve further investigation. This section will indicate whether a researcher has a firm appreciation of his/her work, and whether he/ she has given sufficient thought to its implications, not only within the narrow confines of the research topic but to related fields. This section reflects the researcher’s foresightedness and creativity.

Written by MJ

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Chapter 5 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

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How To Write A Research Summary

It’s a common perception that writing a research summary is a quick and easy task. After all, how hard can jotting down 300 words be? But when you consider the weight those 300 words carry, writing a research summary as a part of your dissertation, essay or compelling draft for your paper instantly becomes daunting task.

A research summary requires you to synthesize a complex research paper into an informative, self-explanatory snapshot. It needs to portray what your article contains. Thus, writing it often comes at the end of the task list.

Regardless of when you’re planning to write, it is no less of a challenge, particularly if you’re doing it for the first time. This blog will take you through everything you need to know about research summary so that you have an easier time with it.

What is a Research Summary?

A research summary is the part of your research paper that describes its findings to the audience in a brief yet concise manner. A well-curated research summary represents you and your knowledge about the information written in the research paper.

While writing a quality research summary, you need to discover and identify the significant points in the research and condense it in a more straightforward form. A research summary is like a doorway that provides access to the structure of a research paper's sections.

Since the purpose of a summary is to give an overview of the topic, methodology, and conclusions employed in a paper, it requires an objective approach. No analysis or criticism.

Research summary or Abstract. What’s the Difference?

They’re both brief, concise, and give an overview of an aspect of the research paper. So, it’s easy to understand why many new researchers get the two confused. However, a research summary and abstract are two very different things with individual purpose. To start with, a research summary is written at the end while the abstract comes at the beginning of a research paper.

A research summary captures the essence of the paper at the end of your document. It focuses on your topic, methods, and findings. More like a TL;DR, if you will. An abstract, on the other hand, is a description of what your research paper is about. It tells your reader what your topic or hypothesis is, and sets a context around why you have embarked on your research.

Getting Started with a Research Summary

Before you start writing, you need to get insights into your research’s content, style, and organization. There are three fundamental areas of a research summary that you should focus on.

While deciding the contents of your research summary, you must include a section on its importance as a whole, the techniques, and the tools that were used to formulate the conclusion. Additionally, there needs to be a short but thorough explanation of how the findings of the research paper have a significance.
To keep the summary well-organized, try to cover the various sections of the research paper in separate paragraphs. Besides, how the idea of particular factual research came up first must be explained in a separate paragraph.
As a general practice worldwide, research summaries are restricted to 300-400 words. However, if you have chosen a lengthy research paper, try not to exceed the word limit of 10% of the entire research paper.

How to Structure Your Research Summary

The research summary is nothing but a concise form of the entire research paper. Therefore, the structure of a summary stays the same as the paper. So, include all the section titles and write a little about them. The structural elements that a research summary must consist of are:

It represents the topic of the research. Try to phrase it so that it includes the key findings or conclusion of the task.

The abstract gives a context of the research paper. Unlike the abstract at the beginning of a paper, the abstract here, should be very short since you’ll be working with a limited word count.

Introduction

This is the most crucial section of a research summary as it helps readers get familiarized with the topic. You should include the definition of your topic, the current state of the investigation, and practical relevance in this part. Additionally, you should present the problem statement, investigative measures, and any hypothesis in this section.

Methodology

This section provides details about the methodology and the methods adopted to conduct the study. You should write a brief description of the surveys, sampling, type of experiments, statistical analysis, and the rationality behind choosing those particular methods.

Create a list of evidence obtained from the various experiments with a primary analysis, conclusions, and interpretations made upon that. In the paper research paper, you will find the results section as the most detailed and lengthy part. Therefore, you must pick up the key elements and wisely decide which elements are worth including and which are worth skipping.

This is where you present the interpretation of results in the context of their application. Discussion usually covers results, inferences, and theoretical models explaining the obtained values, key strengths, and limitations. All of these are vital elements that you must include in the summary.

Most research papers merge conclusion with discussions. However, depending upon the instructions, you may have to prepare this as a separate section in your research summary. Usually, conclusion revisits the hypothesis and provides the details about the validation or denial about the arguments made in the research paper, based upon how convincing the results were obtained.

The structure of a research summary closely resembles the anatomy of a scholarly article . Additionally, you should keep your research and references limited to authentic and scholarly sources only.

Tips for Writing a Research Summary

The core concept behind undertaking a research summary is to present a simple and clear understanding of your research paper to the reader. The biggest hurdle while doing that is the number of words you have at your disposal. So, follow the steps below to write a research summary that sticks.

1. Read the parent paper thoroughly

You should go through the research paper thoroughly multiple times to ensure that you have a complete understanding of its contents. A 3-stage reading process helps.

a. Scan: In the first read, go through it to get an understanding of its basic concept and methodologies.

b. Read: For the second step, read the article attentively by going through each section, highlighting the key elements, and subsequently listing the topics that you will include in your research summary.

c. Skim: Flip through the article a few more times to study the interpretation of various experimental results, statistical analysis, and application in different contexts.

Sincerely go through different headings and subheadings as it will allow you to understand the underlying concept of each section. You can try reading the introduction and conclusion simultaneously to understand the motive of the task and how obtained results stay fit to the expected outcome.

2. Identify the key elements in different sections

While exploring different sections of an article, you can try finding answers to simple what, why, and how. Below are a few pointers to give you an idea:

What is the research question and how is it addressed?
Is there a hypothesis in the introductory part?
What type of methods are being adopted?
What is the sample size for data collection and how is it being analyzed?
What are the most vital findings?
Do the results support the hypothesis?

Discussion/Conclusion

What is the final solution to the problem statement?
What is the explanation for the obtained results?
What is the drawn inference?
What are the various limitations of the study?

3. Prepare the first draft

Now that you’ve listed the key points that the paper tries to demonstrate, you can start writing the summary following the standard structure of a research summary. Just make sure you’re not writing statements from the parent research paper verbatim.

Instead, try writing down each section in your own words. This will not only help in avoiding plagiarism but will also show your complete understanding of the subject. Alternatively, you can use a summarizing tool (AI-based summary generators) to shorten the content or summarize the content without disrupting the actual meaning of the article.

SciSpace Copilot is one such helpful feature! You can easily upload your research paper and ask Copilot to summarize it. You will get an AI-generated, condensed research summary. SciSpace Copilot also enables you to highlight text, clip math and tables, and ask any question relevant to the research paper; it will give you instant answers with deeper context of the article..

4. Include visuals

One of the best ways to summarize and consolidate a research paper is to provide visuals like graphs, charts, pie diagrams, etc.. Visuals make getting across the facts, the past trends, and the probabilistic figures around a concept much more engaging.

5. Double check for plagiarism

It can be very tempting to copy-paste a few statements or the entire paragraphs depending upon the clarity of those sections. But it’s best to stay away from the practice. Even paraphrasing should be done with utmost care and attention.

Also: QuillBot vs SciSpace: Choose the best AI-paraphrasing tool

6. Religiously follow the word count limit

You need to have strict control while writing different sections of a research summary. In many cases, it has been observed that the research summary and the parent research paper become the same length. If that happens, it can lead to discrediting of your efforts and research summary itself. Whatever the standard word limit has been imposed, you must observe that carefully.

7. Proofread your research summary multiple times

The process of writing the research summary can be exhausting and tiring. However, you shouldn’t allow this to become a reason to skip checking your academic writing several times for mistakes like misspellings, grammar, wordiness, and formatting issues. Proofread and edit until you think your research summary can stand out from the others, provided it is drafted perfectly on both technicality and comprehension parameters. You can also seek assistance from editing and proofreading services , and other free tools that help you keep these annoying grammatical errors at bay.

8. Watch while you write

Keep a keen observation of your writing style. You should use the words very precisely, and in any situation, it should not represent your personal opinions on the topic. You should write the entire research summary in utmost impersonal, precise, factually correct, and evidence-based writing.

9. Ask a friend/colleague to help

Once you are done with the final copy of your research summary, you must ask a friend or colleague to read it. You must test whether your friend or colleague could grasp everything without referring to the parent paper. This will help you in ensuring the clarity of the article.

Once you become familiar with the research paper summary concept and understand how to apply the tips discussed above in your current task, summarizing a research summary won’t be that challenging. While traversing the different stages of your academic career, you will face different scenarios where you may have to create several research summaries.

In such cases, you just need to look for answers to simple questions like “Why this study is necessary,” “what were the methods,” “who were the participants,” “what conclusions were drawn from the research,” and “how it is relevant to the wider world.” Once you find out the answers to these questions, you can easily create a good research summary following the standard structure and a precise writing style.

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Home » Research Findings – Types Examples and Writing Guide

Research Findings – Types Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Findings

Definition:

Research findings refer to the results obtained from a study or investigation conducted through a systematic and scientific approach. These findings are the outcomes of the data analysis, interpretation, and evaluation carried out during the research process.

Types of Research Findings

There are two main types of research findings:

Qualitative Findings

Qualitative research is an exploratory research method used to understand the complexities of human behavior and experiences. Qualitative findings are non-numerical and descriptive data that describe the meaning and interpretation of the data collected. Examples of qualitative findings include quotes from participants, themes that emerge from the data, and descriptions of experiences and phenomena.

Quantitative Findings

Quantitative research is a research method that uses numerical data and statistical analysis to measure and quantify a phenomenon or behavior. Quantitative findings include numerical data such as mean, median, and mode, as well as statistical analyses such as t-tests, ANOVA, and regression analysis. These findings are often presented in tables, graphs, or charts.

Both qualitative and quantitative findings are important in research and can provide different insights into a research question or problem. Combining both types of findings can provide a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon and improve the validity and reliability of research results.

Parts of Research Findings

Research findings typically consist of several parts, including:

Introduction: This section provides an overview of the research topic and the purpose of the study.
Literature Review: This section summarizes previous research studies and findings that are relevant to the current study.
Methodology : This section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used in the study, including details on the sample, data collection, and data analysis.
Results : This section presents the findings of the study, including statistical analyses and data visualizations.
Discussion : This section interprets the results and explains what they mean in relation to the research question(s) and hypotheses. It may also compare and contrast the current findings with previous research studies and explore any implications or limitations of the study.
Conclusion : This section provides a summary of the key findings and the main conclusions of the study.
Recommendations: This section suggests areas for further research and potential applications or implications of the study’s findings.

How to Write Research Findings

Writing research findings requires careful planning and attention to detail. Here are some general steps to follow when writing research findings:

Organize your findings: Before you begin writing, it’s essential to organize your findings logically. Consider creating an outline or a flowchart that outlines the main points you want to make and how they relate to one another.
Use clear and concise language : When presenting your findings, be sure to use clear and concise language that is easy to understand. Avoid using jargon or technical terms unless they are necessary to convey your meaning.
Use visual aids : Visual aids such as tables, charts, and graphs can be helpful in presenting your findings. Be sure to label and title your visual aids clearly, and make sure they are easy to read.
Use headings and subheadings: Using headings and subheadings can help organize your findings and make them easier to read. Make sure your headings and subheadings are clear and descriptive.
Interpret your findings : When presenting your findings, it’s important to provide some interpretation of what the results mean. This can include discussing how your findings relate to the existing literature, identifying any limitations of your study, and suggesting areas for future research.
Be precise and accurate : When presenting your findings, be sure to use precise and accurate language. Avoid making generalizations or overstatements and be careful not to misrepresent your data.
Edit and revise: Once you have written your research findings, be sure to edit and revise them carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, make sure your formatting is consistent, and ensure that your writing is clear and concise.

Research Findings Example

Following is a Research Findings Example sample for students:

Title: The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health

Sample : 500 participants, both men and women, between the ages of 18-45.

Methodology : Participants were divided into two groups. The first group engaged in 30 minutes of moderate intensity exercise five times a week for eight weeks. The second group did not exercise during the study period. Participants in both groups completed a questionnaire that assessed their mental health before and after the study period.

Findings : The group that engaged in regular exercise reported a significant improvement in mental health compared to the control group. Specifically, they reported lower levels of anxiety and depression, improved mood, and increased self-esteem.

Conclusion : Regular exercise can have a positive impact on mental health and may be an effective intervention for individuals experiencing symptoms of anxiety or depression.

Applications of Research Findings

Research findings can be applied in various fields to improve processes, products, services, and outcomes. Here are some examples:

Healthcare : Research findings in medicine and healthcare can be applied to improve patient outcomes, reduce morbidity and mortality rates, and develop new treatments for various diseases.
Education : Research findings in education can be used to develop effective teaching methods, improve learning outcomes, and design new educational programs.
Technology : Research findings in technology can be applied to develop new products, improve existing products, and enhance user experiences.
Business : Research findings in business can be applied to develop new strategies, improve operations, and increase profitability.
Public Policy: Research findings can be used to inform public policy decisions on issues such as environmental protection, social welfare, and economic development.
Social Sciences: Research findings in social sciences can be used to improve understanding of human behavior and social phenomena, inform public policy decisions, and develop interventions to address social issues.
Agriculture: Research findings in agriculture can be applied to improve crop yields, develop new farming techniques, and enhance food security.
Sports : Research findings in sports can be applied to improve athlete performance, reduce injuries, and develop new training programs.

When to use Research Findings

Research findings can be used in a variety of situations, depending on the context and the purpose. Here are some examples of when research findings may be useful:

Decision-making : Research findings can be used to inform decisions in various fields, such as business, education, healthcare, and public policy. For example, a business may use market research findings to make decisions about new product development or marketing strategies.
Problem-solving : Research findings can be used to solve problems or challenges in various fields, such as healthcare, engineering, and social sciences. For example, medical researchers may use findings from clinical trials to develop new treatments for diseases.
Policy development : Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies in various fields, such as environmental protection, social welfare, and economic development. For example, policymakers may use research findings to develop policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Program evaluation: Research findings can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions in various fields, such as education, healthcare, and social services. For example, educational researchers may use findings from evaluations of educational programs to improve teaching and learning outcomes.
Innovation: Research findings can be used to inspire or guide innovation in various fields, such as technology and engineering. For example, engineers may use research findings on materials science to develop new and innovative products.

Purpose of Research Findings

The purpose of research findings is to contribute to the knowledge and understanding of a particular topic or issue. Research findings are the result of a systematic and rigorous investigation of a research question or hypothesis, using appropriate research methods and techniques.

The main purposes of research findings are:

To generate new knowledge : Research findings contribute to the body of knowledge on a particular topic, by adding new information, insights, and understanding to the existing knowledge base.
To test hypotheses or theories : Research findings can be used to test hypotheses or theories that have been proposed in a particular field or discipline. This helps to determine the validity and reliability of the hypotheses or theories, and to refine or develop new ones.
To inform practice: Research findings can be used to inform practice in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and business. By identifying best practices and evidence-based interventions, research findings can help practitioners to make informed decisions and improve outcomes.
To identify gaps in knowledge: Research findings can help to identify gaps in knowledge and understanding of a particular topic, which can then be addressed by further research.
To contribute to policy development: Research findings can be used to inform policy development in various fields, such as environmental protection, social welfare, and economic development. By providing evidence-based recommendations, research findings can help policymakers to develop effective policies that address societal challenges.

Characteristics of Research Findings

Research findings have several key characteristics that distinguish them from other types of information or knowledge. Here are some of the main characteristics of research findings:

Objective : Research findings are based on a systematic and rigorous investigation of a research question or hypothesis, using appropriate research methods and techniques. As such, they are generally considered to be more objective and reliable than other types of information.
Empirical : Research findings are based on empirical evidence, which means that they are derived from observations or measurements of the real world. This gives them a high degree of credibility and validity.
Generalizable : Research findings are often intended to be generalizable to a larger population or context beyond the specific study. This means that the findings can be applied to other situations or populations with similar characteristics.
Transparent : Research findings are typically reported in a transparent manner, with a clear description of the research methods and data analysis techniques used. This allows others to assess the credibility and reliability of the findings.
Peer-reviewed: Research findings are often subject to a rigorous peer-review process, in which experts in the field review the research methods, data analysis, and conclusions of the study. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
Reproducible : Research findings are often designed to be reproducible, meaning that other researchers can replicate the study using the same methods and obtain similar results. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.

Advantages of Research Findings

Research findings have many advantages, which make them valuable sources of knowledge and information. Here are some of the main advantages of research findings:

Evidence-based: Research findings are based on empirical evidence, which means that they are grounded in data and observations from the real world. This makes them a reliable and credible source of information.
Inform decision-making: Research findings can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and business. By identifying best practices and evidence-based interventions, research findings can help practitioners and policymakers to make informed decisions and improve outcomes.
Identify gaps in knowledge: Research findings can help to identify gaps in knowledge and understanding of a particular topic, which can then be addressed by further research. This contributes to the ongoing development of knowledge in various fields.
Improve outcomes : Research findings can be used to develop and implement evidence-based practices and interventions, which have been shown to improve outcomes in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and social services.
Foster innovation: Research findings can inspire or guide innovation in various fields, such as technology and engineering. By providing new information and understanding of a particular topic, research findings can stimulate new ideas and approaches to problem-solving.
Enhance credibility: Research findings are generally considered to be more credible and reliable than other types of information, as they are based on rigorous research methods and are subject to peer-review processes.

Limitations of Research Findings

While research findings have many advantages, they also have some limitations. Here are some of the main limitations of research findings:

Limited scope: Research findings are typically based on a particular study or set of studies, which may have a limited scope or focus. This means that they may not be applicable to other contexts or populations.
Potential for bias : Research findings can be influenced by various sources of bias, such as researcher bias, selection bias, or measurement bias. This can affect the validity and reliability of the findings.
Ethical considerations: Research findings can raise ethical considerations, particularly in studies involving human subjects. Researchers must ensure that their studies are conducted in an ethical and responsible manner, with appropriate measures to protect the welfare and privacy of participants.
Time and resource constraints : Research studies can be time-consuming and require significant resources, which can limit the number and scope of studies that are conducted. This can lead to gaps in knowledge or a lack of research on certain topics.
Complexity: Some research findings can be complex and difficult to interpret, particularly in fields such as science or medicine. This can make it challenging for practitioners and policymakers to apply the findings to their work.
Lack of generalizability : While research findings are intended to be generalizable to larger populations or contexts, there may be factors that limit their generalizability. For example, cultural or environmental factors may influence how a particular intervention or treatment works in different populations or contexts.

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Published: 10 July 2023

Metacognitive reading strategies and its relationship with Filipino high school students’ reading proficiency: insights from the PISA 2018 data

Allan B. I. Bernardo ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3938-266X 1 &
Ma. Joahna Mante-Estacio ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5394-1475 1

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume 10 , Article number: 400 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Learners’ metacognitive reading strategies support their attempts to draw meaning from texts and to overcome comprehension difficulties. For second language readers, such strategies may compensate for lack of language proficiency while reading. Taking a sample from a country that ranked last in the PISA 2018 reading assessment, this study aims to investigate potential discrepancies in how students evaluate the usefulness of specific reading strategies and how these conceptions are associated with related to the students’ reading proficiency. We explored the association between metacognitive reading strategies with reading proficiency by analysing data from a nationally representative sample of 15-year-old students who participated in the PISA 2018 ( N = 6591). Awareness of different reading strategies was compared using repeated measures ANOVA; relationships with reading proficiency were examined using regression analysis. Self-reports on metacognitive reading strategies accounted for a significant portion of the variation in Filipino students’ English reading proficiency, after controlling for SES, sex, and number of books at home. The reading strategies perceived as most useful were not the most strongly associated with reading proficiency, suggesting that students may not be aware of which reading strategies are helpful in learning to read in English. The results indicate variations in the students’ awareness of which strategies aid in their reading comprehension and point to the need to better understand how effective reading strategy instruction is taught to and is engaged by Filipino students in their reading classes.

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Introduction

In 2018, Filipino students participated in the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) for the first time, and the results revealed that Filipino students ranked last among 79 countries/economies in the domain of reading (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2019b ). Around 80% of the Filipino students who participated in the assessment failed to meet the minimum reading proficiency level. A few studies (e.g., Bernardo 2023 ; Bernardo et al. 2021 ; Haw et al. 2021 ) have attempted to explore the factors that may be related to variations in Filipino students reading proficiency in PISA, and in this study, we focus on one factor, metacognitive awareness of reading strategies, which has been associated with reading proficiency of readers in different parts of the world (Alkhateeb et al. 2021 ; Pinninti 2016 ; Sheikh et al. 2019 ). We inquire into metacognitive strategies considering that the Filipino students were tested on their reading proficiency in English, the official medium of instruction for most high school subjects in Philippine schools, but a language that was not used at the homes of 94% of the students. Researchers have noted how reading strategies play a very important role in learning to read in a second language or foreign language (Chen and Chen 2015 ; Friesen and Haigh 2018 ); in particular, metacognitive strategies help students attain better reading proficiency even as they have low language proficiency (Kolić-Vehovec and Bajšanski 2007 ). In this study, we use data from the PISA 2018 database drawn from a nationally representative sample of 15-year-old Filipino students to explore how awareness of 11 different reading strategies relate to Filipino students’ reading proficiency in English.

Reading strategies of second language learners

Among the variables that affect the process of reading in the second language, reading strategy use is one of the most studied (Chen and Chen 2015 ; Friesen and Haigh 2018 ). Second language and foreign language readers need to be proficient in the use of reading strategies to be able to understand a text (Hong-Nam and Page 2014 ; Schiff and Calif 2004 ; Sheorey and Mokhtari 2001 ; Zhang et al. 2014 ). Reading strategies are actions undertaken by readers to support their comprehension and attempts to draw meaning from texts (Garner 1987 ; Yoshikawa and Leung 2020 ). Reading strategies also involve readers’ perceptions of the reading tasks and how they respond to difficulties encountered while reading (Singhal 2001 ), as the students’ reading strategies indicate how they are attempting to overcome their comprehension difficulties (Tercanlioglu 2004 ). Without the use of the appropriate reading strategies, comprehension difficulties are likely to arise among second or foreign language readers, and the difficulties might result in detachment from reading activities (Kasemsap and Lee 2015 ). On the other hand, the use of appropriate reading strategies can compensate for second language readers’ lack of language proficiency while engaged in reading tasks (Carell 1989 ; Kolić-Vehovec and Bajšanski 2007 ).

Reading strategies have been classified by experts as low-level and high-level strategies, and both types need to be activated and coordinated by a reader throughout the reading process (Grabe Stoller 2013 ). Low-level strategies refer to the basic strategies for literal interpretation of texts that include skimming, underlining, and rereading. On the other hand, high-level strategies are those essential to be able to regulate and monitor one’s understanding of a text like interpreting, summarizing, and evaluating the text. In the case of second and foreign language readers who are not yet skilled in the target language, many are forced to use low-level reading strategies which reduces their employment of the higher-level strategies (Zhang 2001 ).

The importance of reading strategies does not simply depend on the quantity (range and frequency) of strategies. While studies show that learners with higher reading proficiency tend to use more strategies (Sheorey and Mokhtari 2001 ), some non-proficient readers also use many strategies (Hong-Nam and Page 2014 ). Instead, awareness and appropriate use of reading strategies seems more important in predicting reading proficiency (Hong-Nam and Page 2014 ), which has shifted the focus on learners’ metacognitive reading strategies (Fitrisia et al. 2015 ; Hong-Nam and Page 2014 ). Metacognitive reading strategies refers to learners’ knowledge of their reading processes, and in particular, the self-controlled techniques they use while monitoring their reading comprehension (Ahmadi et al. 2013 ; Mokhtari and Reichard 2002 ). Research has consistently shown that metacognitive reading strategies differentiates highly proficient readers from less skilled ones (Mohseni et al. 2020 ; Pinninti 2016 ; Sheikh et al. 2019 ) particularly among second language readers (Meniado 2016 ; Sheorey and Mokhtari 2001 ; Singhal 2001 ; Tavakoli 2014 ). Second language learners who know and understand their strengths and weaknesses and who know which controlled learning strategies work for them are better able to overcome the difficulties they encounter in second language reading tasks.

PISA cognitive framework for reading

The PISA 2018 assessment framework also underscored the importance of metacognitive research strategies in the overall assessment of reading proficiency (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2019a ). The PISA 2018 framework for reading proficiency features a “typology of cognitive processes involved in purposeful reading activities as they unfold in single or multiple text environments” (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2019a , p. 36). Three categories of cognitive processes are defined with specific subprocesses specified in each category: (a) locate information (access and retrieve information within a text, search for and select relevant text), (b) understand (represent literal meaning, integrate and generate inferences), and (c) evaluate and reflect (assess quality and credibility, reflect on content and form, detect and handle conflict). But in addition to the cognitive processes associated with text processing, the PISA reading framework also emphasizes the goal-driven and intertextual nature of reading proficiency (McCrudden and Schraw 2007 ; White et al. 2010 ). As such, the framework also highlights the role of the learners’ strategies and motivations that drive the management processes of the reading task (Vidal-Abarca et al. 2010 ). In this regard, PISA 2018 also assessed a range of non-cognitive variables associate with the learners’ beliefs, motivations, engagement, practices, and experiences in the reading classroom; one of the variables they assessed was metacognitive awareness of reading strategies related to two important cognitive processes: (a) understanding and memorizing the text, and (b) summarizing the text.

Various measures have been developed to measure metacognitive reading strategies including the Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI, Mokhtari and Reichard 2002 ), and the Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS, Sheorey and Mokhtari 2001 ) which was developed for second language learners. In the PISA reading assessment, the measure of metacognitive reading strategies was measured using two reading scenarios (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2019a ). The first reading scenario involved understanding and remembering a text, and the second scenario involved summarizing information in a text. For each scenario, the students were asked to evaluate a list of reading strategies and to indicate how effective each was to fulfill the goal of the scenario. Two indexes of metacognitive awareness of reading strategies were computed from responses to a list of strategies for each scenario.

The current study

The main objective of the current study is to explore how Filipino students’ metacognitive reading strategies is related to their reading proficiency in English as a second language. There have not been many previous studies that inquired into Filipino students’ reading strategies. Mante-Estacio ( 2016 ) surveyed students from one Philippine university using the SORS (Sheorey and Mokhtari 2001 ) and found overall high use of reading strategies, with problem-solution strategies used more than support and global strategies. Cirocki et al. ( 2019 ) surveyed high school students from a school in a rural region of the Philippines, and also found them preferring to use more problem-solving strategies than the global and support types. But Filipino students’ responses to these quantitative scales do not always converge with qualitative inquiries into the reading strategies. For example, Mante ( 2009 ) administered the MARSI (Mokhtari and Reichard 2002 ) among university students and found that the top reported reading strategies were reading the sentence again, relating an unknown word to something you already know, using context clues, and reading the text until it is clarified. But when given a reading task and then asked to respond to an open-ended question on what strategies they used in the task, the students reported a different set of strategies: making previews, identifying relevant and useful learning strategies, relating one’s prior knowledge, and double-checking on comprehension. The study also showed that the students reported using some ineffective reading strategies and not using some effective strategies (e.g., doing close reading as an initial strategy and throughout the reading process despite difficulties encountered, and paraphrasing and checking comprehension during reading) (Mante 2009 ).

The above studies merely describe what strategies tended to be used by Filipino students, but two studies inquired into how the students’ strategies related to their reading comprehension performance. Ilustre ( 2011 ) used the SORS and a researcher-made reading comprehension test with university students. Only problem-solving strategies subscale was positively associated with text comprehension; text comprehension was negatively correlated with support reading strategies. Mante ( 2013 ) administered the MARSI among Filipino high school students and two comprehension tests after reading four reading materials. Similar to previous studies, the students reported frequent use of all three types of metacognitive reading strategies, problem solving, global reading strategies, and support reading strategies, and that the last two were strongly correlated with each other. But only support reading strategies predicted the reading scores of the students’ unaided written recall.

While these few studies seem to suggest the use of metacognitive strategies (particularly, problem solving strategies) based on the quantitative scales, at least one study (Mante 2009 ) showed that the responses to the scale did not correspond to the students’ self-reports of actual strategies use after completing a reading task, and there is inconsistency in results showing which of these strategies relate to better reading performance. We note that these studies all involved small sample sizes of students drawn from one school or university.

As the Filipino students’ performance in the reading domain of PISA 2018 was disappointing, the PISA assessment provides data on reading proficiency and on metacognitive awareness of reading strategies from a nationally representative sample. The PISA 2018 database provides a good dataset to inquire into Filipino students’ reading strategies and proficiency in ways that previous Philippine research studies were unable to. More importantly, the inquiry allows for an investigation of a potentially important factor that explains reading proficiency, when that proficiency is very low. We note that there are previous studies that attempt to identify factors to explain the low reading proficiency (e.g., Bernardo 2023 ; Bernardo et al. 2021 ; Haw et al. 2021 ), those studies did focus on reading strategies. In the current study, we explored two related questions: (1) What strategies are perceived to be more useful by Filipino high school students? (2) What strategies are associated with Filipino high school students’ total reading proficiency and with each of the three cognitive subscales of reading proficiency?

We will seek answers to these questions using data from the PISA 2018 survey, and the PISA definition and framework for assessing reading proficiency is adopted. In particular, the PISA 2018 framework for reading proficiency features a “typology of cognitive processes involved in purposeful reading activities as they unfold in single or multiple text environments” (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2019a , p. 36). Thus, aside from the overall reading proficiency, we also explore how the perceived usefulness of the strategies related to the three broad categories of cognitive processes described earlier: locate information, understand, and evaluate and reflect. As regards metacognitive reading strategies, we explore each of the 11 strategies measured in PISA 2018 instead of using the two indexes of metacognitive strategies computed in the database. We believe that using the 11 strategies will provide more detailed analysis and answers to the main research questions.

Previous preliminary analysis of the Philippines PISA 2018 data (Besa 2019 ) indicated significant sex differences (i.e., girls outperform the boys), and across different socioeconomic statuses (socioeconomically advantaged students outperformed socioeconomically disadvantaged ones). In this regard, we decided to include sex and socioeconomic status of the student as control variables. We included one other home background variable from the PISA survey as another control variable in the analysis; students were asked the number of books in their home, and this factor has been consistently identified as an important home variable that predicts reading proficiency in many different countries (Chiu and McBride-Chang 2006 ; Park 2008 ).

Data and participants

We use data from the Philippine sample in the OECD PISA 2018 database. The complete nationally representative sample comprised 7233 15-year-old Filipino students, who were randomly selected using a two-stage stratified random selection system. First, stratified sampling was used to select 187 schools from the country’s 17 regions, and then students were randomly sampled from each school to participate in the PISA assessment (Besa 2019 ). Because English is the official medium of instruction in most subjects in high school, reading proficiency was assessed in English, although only 408 (or 5.64%) reported that the main language they used at home was English.

Reading proficiency

To assess reading proficiency, we referred to the plausible values provided in the PISA 2018 dataset. To clarify, the PISA 2018 assessment does not provide actual achievement scores for each student; instead, it assesses cognitive learning in the reading domain using ten plausible values that represent ten random values drawn from the posterior distribution of the student’s scores for reading (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2019b ). In addition to the plausible value for the overall reading proficiency, PISA 2018 also provided plausible values for three cognitive process subscales of reading: (a) locate information, (b) understand, and (c) evaluate and reflect. For the current study, we used the first plausible for the overall reading proficiency and for the three cognitive subscales. Previous studies on PISA data have used only one plausible value (e.g., Bernardo et al. 2023 ; Gomez and Suarez 2020 ; Spiezia 2010 ; Trinidad 2020 ) based on the assumption that one plausible value is said to provide unbiased estimates of population parameters. Prior to deciding to use only one plausible value, we examined the distribution and correlations among the ten plausible values for overall reading proficiency and for the three cognitive subscales and we found the means and standard deviations of the ten distributions are almost identical and are highly correlated with each other. Thus, it is unlikely that an analysis with only one of ten plausible values would lead to loss of information.

Metacognitive reading strategies

The student questionnaire of PISA included 11 items that referred to different strategies that students use in their reading and writing tasks (see Table 1 for the items); 6 items referred to strategies to help them understand and memorize the text that they read, and five items referred to strategies to help them write summaries of the text that they read. The students were asked whether they perceived each strategy as being useful for the different reading tasks indicated, and they answered using a scale from 1 ( not useful at all ) to 6 ( very useful ).

Economic, social, and cultural status

Several indexes of the students’ SES were computed in the PISA 2018, and for this study the index of economic, social, and cultural status (henceforth, ESCS) was used. The ESCS was derived from the students’ report on the availability of 16 household items (e.g., a room of one’s own, air-conditioning unit, and three country-specific items), other possessions in the students’ homes (e.g., cell phones with internet access, computers), education and work status of the students’ parents.

Number of books at home

The students were also asked to estimate how many books there were in their home. They were instructed to exclude magazines, newspapers, and their schoolbooks, and they responded by ticking one of six options: 0–10 books, 11–25, 26–100, 101–200, 201–500, and more than 500 books.

Data analysis

There were numerous missing data across the different variables, and we conducted analysis only on participants with complete data on all the main variables and control variables. The final sample for the analysis comprised 6591 students (53.86% were girls). To answer the first research question, mean scores of the 11 metacognitive reading strategies were computed and then analyzed using a completely repeated analysis of variance. The analysis of the main effect of type of learning strategy was followed by a post hoc multiple comparison of means using Bonferroni test. To answer the second set of questions, four hierarchical regression analyses were conducted. In each analysis, the reading proficiency score or subscale score was first regressed to three control variables (sex, ESCS, and number of books at home). In the second step of each hierarchical regression, the 11 learning strategies were added to the model. At each step, the overall model and change in R 2 of the model was assessed.

The first research question of the study investigates which learning strategies for reading are perceived to be most useful by Filipino 15-year-old learners. The results are summarized in Table 1 , which lists the different learning strategies according to their perceived usefulness. As the standard deviations indicate, the students varied in their perceptions of the different strategies, and the students’ responses spanned the full range of options for each strategy. The repeated measures ANOVA (with learning strategy as within group factor) indicated a statistically significant difference across the means, F (10, 6649) = 56463.08, p < 0.001, partial η 2 = 0.90. The Bonferroni test used in the post hoc multiple comparison of means indicated that the first three strategies were perceived most useful by the Filipino students compared to the other eight strategies, although the means of the three were not statistically different from each other. The top two strategies are similar as both include underlining, with the first involving the additional strategy of writing the underlined texts in their own words. The two strategies rated least useful are low-level reading strategies commonly chosen by readers whose repertoire of strategies is limited. Underlining involves separating content based on importance, which is not always enough promote learning (Dunlosky et al. 2013 ) and is typically effective in reading comprehension when used in combination with other strategies (Pugalee 2007 ).

For the second question, we first investigated the learning strategies that predicted overall reading proficiency. The results of the hierarchical regression analysis are summarized in Table 2 . First, we note that adding the perceived usefulness of the 11 strategies in the regression model explained an additional 18% of the variations in overall reading proficiency, relative to the variation explained by sex, socioeconomic status, and number of books at home. Therefore, we can infer that the Filipino students’ metacognitive reading strategies are relevant factors in understanding their reading achievement. Second, we note (as the learning strategies are listed according to their perceived usefulness following Table 1 ) that the strategies perceived most useful are not always the ones most strongly associated with the students’ overall reading proficiency. As shown in Table 2 , perceiving the first two strategies as useful was positively associated with reading proficiency, but perceiving some lower ranked strategies as useful (i.e., ranked 3, 4, and also 6, 7, and 9) was more strongly associated with reading proficiency. In contrast, the perceived usefulness of the last two strategies was strongly negatively associated with the students’ overall reading proficiency. That is, the students who perceived these two strategies as useful were more likely to have lower reading proficiency. Finally, the perceived usefulness of two strategies (see, ranked 5 and 8) was not significantly associated with the students’ reading proficiency.

We then ask, was the pattern of results similar when we examined the three cognitive subscales of reading? Generally, the results in Table 3 suggest yes, except for a few interesting differences. Again, we note that adding the 11 metacognitive reading strategies in the regression model explained an additional portion of the variations in overall reading proficiency, relative to the variation explained by the three control variables. For locate information, adding the 11 strategies in the model resulted in Δ R 2 = 0.16, F (11, 6576) = 149.77, p < 0.001; for understand, Δ R 2 = 0.18, F (11, 6576) = 170.06, p < 0.001; and for evaluate and reflect, Δ R 2 = 0.14, F (11, 6576) = 123.75, p < 0.001. Across these three cognitive subscales, there are two notable differences. In both cases, the perceived usefulness of strategy is associated with the more basic cognitive processing but not for the higher-level processes. As shown in Table 3 , perceiving “underlining important parts of the texts” [see (2)] as useful is positively associated with scores for locating information and for understanding, but not for evaluate and reflect. Similarly, perceiving “reading the text as many times as possible” [see (5)] as useful is positively associated with scores for locate information, but not for understand nor for evaluate and reflect.

This study was conducted to explore whether Filipino students’ metacognitive reading strategies is associated with their reading proficiency. As the data analyzed were from the Philippines’ PISA 2018, where the Filipino students performed rather poorly, ranking last among all the participating countries/economies, the inquiry investigated whether the reading strategies used (or not used) by the Filipino students could explain the poor reading performance. The results indicate that metacognitive reading strategies explains a significant portion of the variation in Filipino students’ overall reading proficiency and also in each of the three cognitive subscales. The specific results point to some useful observations about the Filipino students’ metacognitive strategies, which we briefly discuss below.

First, the two reading strategies that Filipino students perceived as very useful were not the strongest predictors of reading proficiency. These two strategies were “I underline important parts of the text” and “I read through the text, underlining the most important sentences, [t]hen I write them in my own words as a summary,” which were rated “very useful” by 32.3% and 30.7% of the Filipino students, respectively. Both strategies involve underlining parts that are considered important. This selective highlighting allows readers to focus on important parts of a given text, thereby enabling them to organize the material being read. Effective highlighting allows readers to discriminate between minor and major details of a text. These highlighting strategies may lead to an “isolation effect” (Hunt 1995 ) wherein the highlighted sections of a text are better remembered and the text, in general, is better processed (Cashen and Leicht 1970 ). The use of both strategies was positively associated with reading proficiency, but the relationships were weak ( β coefficients ≤0.05) and the first of these strategies was not associated with the scores in the higher cognitive subscale of evaluate and reflect. This result might indicate some overestimation of the usefulness of the two strategies in aiding reading comprehension; the overestimation may be in reference to their appreciation of the usefulness of the other strategies.

In contrast, the two strategies that were perceived least useful on the average were both strongly negatively associated with reading proficiency and its cognitive subscales. These two strategies were, “I try to copy out accurately as many sentences as possible” and “I read the text aloud to another person,” which both involve repeating the encoding of the text. Copying sentences exactly does not engage readers to think and might be a waste of their time as it does not involve higher level processing like what is used in selective note taking. On the other hand, reading aloud may develop reading fluency but is not likely to help in reading comprehension tasks like understanding and summarizing. Yet, these two strategies were rated as “very useful” by 12.4% and 13.3% of the Filipino students, respectively; around 25% of the Filipino students actually rated these two strategies using the two highest points in the 6-point scale of usefulness. This set of results indicate a sizable proportion of the students’ lacking awareness of the efficacy of two strategies, which are strongly and negatively associated with reading proficiency according to the data. In this case, the students might be underestimating the usefulness of the two strategies relative to their actual relationship with reading proficiency.

The results point to another concern regarding two strategies that were not significantly associated with reading proficiency. These two strategies are “Before writing the summary, I read the text as many times as possible” and “I write a summary [t]hen I check that each paragraph is covered in the summary, because the content of each paragraph should be included.” Around 40% of the Filipino students rated the first strategy as very useful in 6-point scale of usefulness, and it was only weakly positively associated with the most basic cognitive subscale (locate information). Around a third of the students rated the second strategy as useful, suggesting the students’ lack of awareness regarding the usefulness of the two strategies which were not predictive of reading proficiency according to the results.

In contrast, consider the two strategies that were most strongly associated with higher achievement. The strategy “I summarize the text in my own words” was rated as “very useful” by 27.1% of the students, yet another 27.3% rated the same strategy as not useful. A student who uses this strategy is engaging in many different processes such as differentiating minor from major details, getting the main idea, identifying the author’s purpose, integrating several ideas into one message or theme among others. The strategy “I carefully check whether the most important facts in the text are represented in the summary” was rated as very useful by 27.8% of the students, but 31.19% indicated that they perceived this strategy as not useful. This strategy entails examining the accuracy of their output against the given reading material, and students must evaluate if the ideas presented in the summary are complete and are all crucial in restating the original text. Therefore, it includes judging and critiquing their own work based on how they understood the reading material. These two strategies help not only to understand the text but also to analyze, evaluate, and critique the text; yet a significant proportion of Filipino students consider them not useful.

These results taken together suggest possible gaps in Filipino students’ awareness of and appreciation of metacognitive reading strategies. For both sets of strategies for understanding and for writing, their awareness of the usefulness of the strategies varied across students; and some strategies that are associated with reading proficiency were not rated as useful on the average, while other strategies not associated with reading proficiency were rated as useful on the average. The data cannot provide for explanations for these patterns, and we should use caution in attributing these patterns to students’ lack of understanding of such strategies. Indeed, students’ responses regarding the usefulness of the strategies might reflect what they were told by their teachers, or what their classmates shared to them, or they might indicate a limited exposure to the possible reading strategies available to them. The students’ perceived usefulness of the strategies might also reference their own understanding of what reading proficiency means, which might not align with the PISA reading assessment definitions. We should also consider that the students’ understanding of reading proficiency might also reflect their experiences in their reading class instruction and assessment.

Indeed, one possible important implication relates to the question of whether the Filipino students are being taught these reading strategies in their reading education, and what competencies of reading proficiency they are assessed in their reading classes. An analysis of the Philippine high school reading curriculum in comparison to the PISA 2018 reading framework (Romero and Papango 2020 ) found that the task management skills (which include reading strategies) are found in the Philippine reading curriculum for Grades 7 to 10. But their analysis suggests that these task management skills are taught as discreet topics independent of the teaching of the text processing skills. More importantly, Romero and Papango ( 2020 ) noted that the task management skills found in the Philippine curriculum did not fully align with those indicated in the PISA 2018 reading framework (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2019a ).

The results and preceding discussions point to the need for an efficient and integrated reading strategy instruction that will focus on knowledge, skills, and experience development across the grade levels in the Philippine reading curriculum. Strategy instruction should also present a wide range of strategies from the simple strategies to the more complex, which Filipino learners can explore and use in various types of texts in both print and online modes of reading. For instance, visualizing and connecting-to-oneself strategies are likely to be developed when the texts are culturally relevant to the reader. Culturally relevant texts in turn are found to positively affect one’s reading comprehension (Tan and Mante-Estacio, 2021 ). Related to this point, further research could inquire into how reading teachers in the Philippines actually teach reading strategies and how students engage such instructional activities intended to develop metacognition in reading.

It is also important to acknowledge that there is a threshold of reading proficiency which needs to be met before metacognitive strategies can become a significant factor in one’s reading performance (Schoonen et al. 1998 ). Thus, it is possible that the 15-year-old Filipino participants in PISA may not have reached the threshold level of reading proficiency in English for metacognitive reading strategy to make a difference in their reading performance. While it is the case that the positive statistical relationship between some of the reading strategies and reading proficiency suggests that metacognitive reading strategies statistically predicts the Filipino students’ reading proficiency, this notion of a threshold level of reading proficiency might be relevant to consider in deciding how early metacognitive reading strategies is introduced in the task management components of the reading curriculum in English as a second language. Consider the rather low overall levels of reading proficiency assess in the PISA 2018, it is possible that Filipino reading teachers might need to focus on other more basic components of reading competencies before focusing on metacognitive strategies for reading.

In this regard, it is also important to underscore that the reading proficiency analyzed in this study refers to reading in a second language. Second language research has underscored how reading in a second language is essentially a cross-linguistic process, which means that the students’ reading in their first language has an important role in developing skills in reading in their second language and vice versa (Koda 2005 ). The reading processes in the two languages can mutually facilitate and accelerate learners’ overall reading abilities. It is quite likely that the Filipino students’ proficiency, strategies, and other cognitive and noncognitive factors related to reading in their first language also affect their reading proficiency in English. Thus, it is probable that various other factors contribute to the differences in the reading performance of Filipino students in PISA reading assessment, and future research needs to inquire into these, as well.

The preceding arguments point to some important limitations in the study. As our analysis solely focussed on metacognitive strategies as main predictors of reading proficiency, we included only a few control variables to those known to be very strongly associated with the PISA reading outcomes. This limitation in the scope of the analysis did not allow us to explore the relative importance of metacognitive reading strategies together with other cognitive and non-cognitive student-level variables, family background, classroom and school experiences, among others. The analysis was also limited to those strategies included in the PISA 2018 measure, and as such did not allow for the investigation of other reading strategies that may have been important and/or useful for Filipino readers in English. Future research that analyze a wider range of relevant factors and reading strategies would be very useful in deepening the findings of the current study.

Even with the limitations of the study, we believe that this exploration of how metacognitive reading strategies among 15-year-old Filipino readers in English extends the very limited empirical research on reading strategies of Filipino readers in English. As most previous research on Filipino readers’ reading strategies typically relied on small sample sizes of students in selected schools, the nationally representative sample analyzed in the study allow for greater confidence in the conclusions regarding the role of reading strategies in second language reading of Filipinos. The results also contribute further evidence to the growing research on strategies in second language reading in general and to the continuing need for discussions on effective reading strategy instruction among second language learners. In particular, as the results show that Filipino students’ perceptions on the usefulness of the strategies might not always align with the strategies’ usefulness as indicated by their associations with reading proficiency, we could reflect further on what reading competencies in the second language are actually understood and experienced by Filipino students in their classrooms. Understanding the students’ notions of reading proficiency might help us to better understand why they perceive some strategies as more useful than others. The results also point to the need to inquire into how metacognitive reading strategies are taught and modeled by teachers and how students engage these strategies in reading classrooms, because such experiences are likely to also shape how the students perceive the effectiveness of the strategies.

Data availability

The data analyzed in this study are available in the PISA 2018 Database page on the website of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 1 .

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Acknowledgements

This research was funded by a Research Fellowship from the National Academy of Science and Technology, Philippines to the first author. The APC was funded by the De La Salle University Science Foundation, Inc.

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Bernardo, A.B.I., Mante-Estacio, M.J. Metacognitive reading strategies and its relationship with Filipino high school students’ reading proficiency: insights from the PISA 2018 data. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 400 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01886-6

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A person standing on asphalt road with gender symbols of male, female, bigender and transgender

Gender medicine ‘built on shaky foundations’, Cass review finds

Analysis finds most research underpinning clinical guidelines, hormone treatments and puberty blockers to be low quality

Review of gender services has major implications for mental health services

The head of the world’s largest review into children’s care has said that gender medicine is “built on shaky foundations”.

Dr Hilary Cass, the paediatrician commissioned to conduct a review of the services provided by the NHS to children and young people questioning their gender identity, said that while doctors tended to be cautious in implementing new findings in emerging areas of medicine, “quite the reverse happened in the field of gender care for children”.

Cass commissioned the University of York to conduct a series of analyses as part of her review.

Two papers examined the quality and development of current guidelines and recommendations for managing gender dysphoria in children and young people. Most of the 23 clinical guidelines reviewed were not independent or evidence based, the researchers found.

A third paper on puberty blockers found that of 50 studies, only one was of high quality.

Similarly, of 53 studies included in a fourth paper on the use of hormone treatment, only one was of sufficiently high quality, with little or only inconsistent evidence on key outcomes.

Here are the main findings of the reviews:

Clinical guidelines

Increasing numbers of children and young people experiencing gender dysphoria are being referred to specialist gender services. There are various guidelines outlining approaches to the clinical care of these children and adolescents.

In the first two papers, the York researchers examined the quality and development of published guidelines or clinical guidance containing recommendations for managing gender dysphoria in children and young people up to the age of 18.

They studied a total of 23 guidelines published in different countries between 1998 and 2022. All but two were published after 2010.

Most of them lacked “an independent and evidence-based approach and information about how recommendations were developed”, the researchers said.

Few guidelines were informed by a systematic review of empirical evidence and they lack transparency about how their recommendations were developed. Only two reported consulting directly with children and young people during their development, the York academics found.

“Healthcare services and professionals should take into account the poor quality and interrelated nature of published guidance to support the management of children and adolescents experiencing gender dysphoria/incongruence,” the researchers wrote.

Writing in the British Medical Journal (BMJ) , Cass said that while medicine was usually based on the pillars of integrating the best available research evidence with clinical expertise, and patient values and preferences, she “found that in gender medicine those pillars are built on shaky foundations”.

She said the World Professional Association of Transgender Healthcare (WPATH) had been “highly influential in directing international practice, although its guidelines were found by the University of York’s appraisal to lack developmental rigour and transparency”.

In the foreword to her report, Cass said while doctors tended to be cautious in implementing new findings “quite the reverse happened in the field of gender care for children”.

In one example, she said a single Dutch medical study, “suggesting puberty blockers may improve psychological wellbeing for a narrowly defined group of children with gender incongruence”, had formed the basis for their use to “spread at pace to other countries”. Subsequently, there was a “greater readiness to start masculinising/feminising hormones in mid-teens”.

She added: “Some practitioners abandoned normal clinical approaches to holistic assessment, which has meant that this group of young people have been exceptionalised compared to other young people with similarly complex presentations. They deserve very much better.”

Both papers repeatedly pointed to a key problem in this area of medicine: a dearth of good data.

She said: “Filling this knowledge gap would be of great help to the young people wanting to make informed choices about their treatment.”

Cass said the NHS should put in place a “full programme of research” looking at the characteristics, interventions and outcomes of every young person presenting to gender services, with consent routinely sought for enrolment in a research study that followed them into adulthood.

Gender medicine was “an area of remarkably weak evidence”, her review found, with study results also “exaggerated or misrepresented by people on all sides of the debate to support their viewpoint”.

Alongside a puberty blocker trial, which could be in place by December, there should be research into psychosocial interventions and the use of the masculinising and feminising hormones testosterone and oestrogen, the review found.

Hormone treatment

Many trans people who seek medical intervention in their transition opt to take hormones to masculinise or feminise their body, an approach that has been used in transgender adults for decades.

“It is a well-established practice that has transformed the lives of many transgender people,” the Cass review notes, adding that while these drugs are not without long-term problems and side-effects, for many they are dramatically outweighed by the benefits.

For birth-registered females, the approach means taking testosterone, which brings about changes including the growth of facial hair and a deepening of the voice, while for birth-registered males, it involves taking hormones including oestrogen to promote changes including the growth of breasts and an increase in body fat. Some of these changes may be irreversible.

However, in recent years a growing proportion of adolescents have begun taking these cross-sex, or gender-affirming, hormones, with the vast majority who are prescribed puberty blockers subsequently moving on to such medication.

This growing take-up among young people has led to questions over the impact of these hormones in areas ranging from mental health to sexual functioning and fertility.

Now researchers at the University of York have carried out a review of the evidence, comprising an analysis of 53 previously published studies, in an attempt to set out what is known – and what is not – about the risks, benefits and possible side-effects of such hormones on young people.

All but one study, which looked at side-effects, were rated of moderate or low quality, with the researchers finding limited evidence for the impact of such hormones on trans adolescents with respect to outcomes, including gender dysphoria and body satisfaction.

The researchers noted inconsistent findings around the impact of such hormones on growth, height, bone health and cardiometabolic effects, such as BMI and cholesterol markers. In addition, they found no study assessed fertility in birth-registered females, and only one looked at fertility in birth-registered males.

“These findings add to other systematic reviews in concluding there is insufficient and/or inconsistent evidence about the risks and benefits of hormone interventions in this population,” the authors write.

However, the review did find some evidence that masculinising or feminising hormones might help with psychological health in young trans people. An analysis of five studies in the area suggested hormone treatment may improve depression, anxiety and other aspects of mental health in adolescents after 12 months of treatment, with three of four studies reporting an improvement around suicidality and/or self-harm (one reported no change).

But unpicking the precise role of such hormones is difficult. “Most studies included adolescents who received puberty suppression, making it difficult to determine the effects of hormones alone,” the authors write, adding that robust research on psychological health with long-term follow-up was needed.

The Cass review has recommended NHS England should review the current policy on masculinising or feminising hormones, advising that while there should be the option to provide such drugs from age 16, extreme caution was recommended, and there should be a clear clinical rationale for not waiting until an individual reached 18.

Puberty blockers

Treatments to suppress puberty in adolescents became available through routine clinical practice in the UK a decade ago.

While the drugs have long been used to treat precocious puberty – when children start puberty at an extremely young age – they have only been used off-label in children with gender dysphoria or incongruence since the late 1990s. The rationale for giving puberty blockers, which originated in the Netherlands, was to buy thinking time for young people and improve their ability to smooth their transition in later life.

Data from gender clinics reported in the Cass review showed the vast majority of people who started puberty suppression went on to have masculinising or feminising hormones, suggesting that puberty blockers did not buy people time to think.

To understand the broader effects of puberty blockers, researchers at the University of York identified 50 papers that reported on the effects of the drugs in adolescents with gender dysphoria or incongruence. According to their systematic review, only one of these studies was high quality, with a further 25 papers regarded as moderate quality. The remaining 24 were deemed too weak to be included in the analysis.

Many of the reports looked at how well puberty was suppressed and the treatment’s side-effects, but fewer looked at whether the drugs had their intended benefits.

Of two studies that investigated gender dysphoria and body satisfaction, neither found a change after receiving puberty blockers. The York team found “very limited” evidence that puberty blockers improved mental health.

Overall, the researchers said “no conclusions” could be drawn about the impact on gender dysphoria, mental and psychosocial health or cognitive development, though there was some evidence bone health and height may be compromised during treatment.

Based on the York work, the Cass review finds that puberty blockers offer no obvious benefit in helping transgender males to help their transition in later life, particularly if the drugs do not lead to an increase in height in adult life. For transgender females, the benefits of stopping irreversible changes such as a deeper voice and facial hair have to be weighed up against the need for penile growth should the person opt for vaginoplasty, the creation of a vagina and vulva.

In March, NHS England announced that children with gender dysphoria would no longer receive puberty blockers as routine practice. Instead, their use will be confined to a trial that the Cass review says should form part of a broader research programme into the effects of masculinising and feminising hormones.

Transgender
Young people

More on this story

Veteran trans campaigner: ‘Cass review has potential for positive change’

Cass review must be used as ‘watershed moment’ for NHS gender services, says Streeting

‘This isn’t how good scientific debate happens’: academics on culture of fear in gender medicine research

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PAANO ISULAT ANG CHAPTER 5, Summary of Findings, Conclusions ...
About Press Copyright Contact us Creators Advertise Developers Terms Privacy Policy & Safety How YouTube works Test new features NFL Sunday Ticket Press Copyright ...
Chapter 5 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECCOMENDATION
Summary of Findings The salient findings of the study are as follows: 1. How do the local tourists assess the Filipino Tour Guides in terms of: 1.1 Personality The local tourists assessed the Filipino Tour Guides in terms of Personality as Outstanding with weighted mean of 4.44. 1.2 Communication Skills.
(PDF) CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND ...
The conclusions are as stated below: i. Students' use of language in the oral sessions depicted their beliefs and values. based on their intentions. The oral sessions prompted the students to be ...
Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations
An effective summary has the following qualities: It bases on results from the study. It is brief, all statements are concise, and pinpoint to the contributions that the researcher has made. Recommendations. All statements are factual. One way to present the summary is to use one paragraph for each idea. Alternatively, the researcher can use a ...
Chapter 5
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Chapter 5 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
View PDF. Chapter 5 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION This chapter presents the summary, conclusion, and recommendation of the study. Summary of Findings The following findings were drawn from the analysis of the data. The highest percentage of respondents participated in the study are dominant were between the ages of thirty ...
Chapter 5 Sample
53 Chapter 5 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter shows the summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations of the study. Summary of findings. In this study various statistical methods were used to address the problems encountered such as the use of frequency, mean, percentage, significant value to determine the grammatical competence of selected education ...
Chapter 3 Summary of Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations
1. CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS2. References pages3. Appendices4. Preliminary pages
Chapter V Summary Recommendation AND Conclusion
CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION. CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION. This is the last chapter of the thesis and the most important part because this where the findings, and the whole thesis for that matter, are summarized; generalizations in the form of conclusions are made; and the recommendations for the solution of problems discovered in the study are ...
PDF KARANASAN NG ISANG BATANG INA: ISANG PANANALIKSIK
Psychological Research Vol. 2 No.2 September 2015 Research and Statistics Center LPU Laguna 128 Sa Talahanayan 2, ipinapakita ang edad ng mga respondente ng sila ay magbuntis, Isa (1) o 2.86 porsyento ang batang ina na nanganak sa edad na labing tatlo (13) at labing apat (14), Apat (4) o 11.43 porsyento ang ...
Summary of Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics. Summary Distribution Strategy. Introduction to CBE Feasibility Manual. Chapter 3 Marketing and Operational Analysis. Chapter 2 Industry Analysis. summary of findings, conclusion and recommendations this chapter presents the summary of findings, conclusions made and the recommendations offered. summary of.
Research Summary
Research Summary. Definition: A research summary is a brief and concise overview of a research project or study that highlights its key findings, main points, and conclusions. It typically includes a description of the research problem, the research methods used, the results obtained, and the implications or significance of the findings.
How To Write A Research Summary
So, follow the steps below to write a research summary that sticks. 1. Read the parent paper thoroughly. You should go through the research paper thoroughly multiple times to ensure that you have a complete understanding of its contents. A 3-stage reading process helps.
The Tagalogs
Welcome to The Tagalogs Page. This page contains materials on Tagalog history, the people, literature, and culture and the Tagalog areas. These sources are available at the University of Hawai'i. Use the drop down menu affixed on The Tagalogs page tab to get to the different subjects. Please note, that this guide lists the basic resources and ...
PDF Research Capsule Summary
the topic of the research proposal This section should discuss design, participant, instrument, Procedure, analysis and Ethical Consideration. This refers to the end results Expected upon. completion of the research. The output needs. to be identified to highlight impact and importance of the research. EXPECTED OUTPUT. This section indicate the ...
How to write Research Paper| Tagalog explanation #research # ...
This video is all about tips and guides on how to make a research paper with tagalog explanations.#researchpaper #research #howtomakeresearchpaperHow to writ...
Research Findings
Qualitative Findings. Qualitative research is an exploratory research method used to understand the complexities of human behavior and experiences. Qualitative findings are non-numerical and descriptive data that describe the meaning and interpretation of the data collected. Examples of qualitative findings include quotes from participants ...
Metacognitive reading strategies and its relationship with Filipino
Future research that analyze a wider range of relevant factors and reading strategies would be very useful in deepening the findings of the current study. Conclusion
Summary of Findings
SUMMARY-OF-FINDINGS - Free download as Word Doc (.doc / .docx), PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online for free.
Chapter 5
Summary The researchers focuses on the common grammatical errors in the English writing of second year students English major at Bulacan State University- Sarmiento Campus. The researchers identify the common errors committed by the fifty (50) respondents in terms of writing. The research instruments used in the study was a standardized test.
Research in Tagalog
2.) pagsiy a sat - 1) the act of destroying crops by stepping on them; 2) formal and systematic questioning, researching, or studying to discover and examine information, events, and other matters towards clarifying the truth.; investigation; inquiry; examination; scrutiny; research; more... 3.) é ksperimentasy ó n - conducting an experiment ...
Summary in Tagalog
More matches for "summary" in Tagalog: 1.) min u ta - minutes; a summary of the discussions in a meeting; an official memorandum that grants permission for the execution of tasks; summary; memorandum; record; more... 2.) abstr a kto - abstract; summary; anything that is not concrete; a style of 20th-century art that expressed a departure from ...
findings in Tagalog
Translation of "findings" into Tagalog . Sample translated sentence: Christians who have a genuine interest in one another find no difficulty in spontaneously expressing their love at any time of the year. ↔ Ang mga Kristiyano na may tunay na interes sa isa't isa ay hindi nahihirapang kusang magpahayag ng kanilang pag-ibig anumang panahon sa loob ng isang taon.
What are the key findings of the NHS gender identity review?
Last modified on Wed 10 Apr 2024 04.37 EDT. A review into the NHS's gender identity services has found that children and young people have been let down by a lack of research and evidence on ...
Gender medicine 'built on shaky foundations', Cass review finds
The head of the world's largest review into children's care has said that gender medicine is "built on shaky foundations". Dr Hilary Cass, the paediatrician commissioned to conduct a ...

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Chapter 5 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

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1. Read the parent paper thoroughly

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Research Findings – Types Examples and Writing Guide

Research Findings

Types of Research Findings

Qualitative Findings

Quantitative Findings

Parts of Research Findings

How to Write Research Findings

Research Findings Example

Applications of Research Findings

When to use Research Findings

Purpose of Research Findings

Characteristics of Research Findings

Advantages of Research Findings

Limitations of Research Findings

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Muhammad Hassan

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Introduction

Reading strategies of second language learners

PISA cognitive framework for reading

The current study

Data and participants

Reading proficiency

Metacognitive reading strategies

Economic, social, and cultural status

Number of books at home

Data analysis

Data availability

Acknowledgements

Author information

Contributions

Corresponding author

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