types of research in chemistry

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Undergraduate Research in Chemistry

Undergraduate research in chemistry is self-directed experimentation work under the guidance and supervision of a mentor or advisor. Students participate in an ongoing research project and investigate phenomena of interest to them and their advisor.

There is a broad range of research areas in the chemical sciences. Today’s research groups are interdisciplinary, crossing boundaries across fields and across other disciplines, such as physics, biology, materials science, engineering and medicine.

Basic or Applied Research?

Basic research The objective of basic research is to gain more comprehensive knowledge or understanding of the subject under study, without specific applications in mind. In industry, basic research is defined as research that advances scientific knowledge but does not have specific immediate commercial objectives, although it may be in fields of present or potential commercial interest.

Applied research Applied research is aimed at gaining knowledge or understanding to determine the means by which a specific, recognized need may be met. In industry, applied research includes investigations oriented to discovering new scientific knowledge that has specific commercial objectives with respect to products, processes, or services.

• Undergraduate Research Opportunities
• International Research Experiences for Undergraduates Program (IREU)
• Opportunities

What is research at the undergraduate level?    

At the undergraduate level, research is self-directed work under the guidance and supervision of a mentor/advisor ― usually a university professor. A gradual transition towards independence is encouraged as a student gains confidence and is able to work with minor supervision. Students normally participate in an ongoing research project and investigate phenomena of interest to them and their advisor. In the chemical sciences, the range of research areas is quite broad. A few groups maintain their research area within a single classical field of analytical, inorganic, organic, physical, chemical education or theoretical chemistry. More commonly, research groups today are interdisciplinary, crossing boundaries across fields and across other disciplines, such as physics, biology, materials science, engineering and medicine.

What are the benefits of being involved in undergraduate research?

There are many benefits to undergraduate research, but the most important are:

• Learning, learning, learning. Most chemists learn by working in a laboratory setting. Information learned in the classroom is more clearly understood and it is more easily remembered once it has been put into practice. This knowledge expands through experience and further reading. From the learning standpoint, research is an extremely productive cycle.
• Experiencing chemistry in a real world setting. The equipment, instrumentation and materials used in research labs are generally more sophisticated, advanced, and of far better quality than those used in lab courses
• Getting the excitement of discovery. If science is truly your vocation, regardless of any negative results, the moment of discovery will be truly exhilarating. Your results are exclusive. No one has ever seen them before.
• Preparing for graduate school. A graduate degree in a chemistry-related science is mostly a research degree. Undergraduate research will not only give you an excellent foundation, but working alongside graduate students and post-doctorates will provide you with a unique opportunity to learn what it will be like.

Is undergraduate research required for graduation?

Many chemistry programs now require undergraduate research for graduation. There are plenty of opportunities for undergraduate students to get involved in research, either during the academic year, summer, or both. If your home institution is not research intensive, you may find opportunities at other institutions, government labs, and industries.

When should I get involved in undergraduate research?

Chemistry is an experimental science. We recommended that you get involved in research as early in your college life as possible. Ample undergraduate research experience gives you an edge in the eyes of potential employers and graduate programs.

While most mentors prefer to accept students in their research labs once they have developed some basic lab skills through general and organic lab courses, some institutions have programs that involve students in research projects the summer prior to their freshman year. Others even involve senior high school students in summer research programs. Ask your academic/departmental advisor about the options available to you.

What will I learn by participating in an undergraduate research program?

Conducting a research project involves a series of steps that start at the inquiry level and end in a report. In the process, you learn to:

• Conduct scientific literature searches
• Read, interpret and extract information from journal articles relevant to the project
• Design experimental procedures to obtain data and/or products of interest
• Operate instruments and implement laboratory techniques not usually available in laboratories associated with course work
• Interpret results, reach conclusions, and generate new ideas based on results
• Interact professionally (and socially) with students and professors within the research group, department and school as well as others from different schools, countries, cultures and backgrounds
• Communicate results orally and in writing to other peers, mentors, faculty advisors, and members of the scientific community at large via the following informal group meeting presentations, reports to mentor/advisor, poster presentations at college-wide, regional, national or international meetings; formal oral presentations at scientific meetings; or journal articles prepared for publication

How do I select an advisor?

This is probably the most important step in getting involved in undergraduate research. The best approach is multifaceted. Get informed about research areas and projects available in your department, which are usually posted on your departmental website under each professor’s name.

Talk to other students who are already involved in research. If your school has an  ACS Student Chapter , make a point to talk to the chapter’s members. Ask your current chemistry professor and lab instructor for advice. They can usually guide you in the right direction. If a particular research area catches your interest, make an appointment with the corresponding professor.

Let the professor know that you are considering getting involved in research, you have read a bit about her/his research program, and that you would like to find out more. Professors understand that students are not experts in the field, and they will explain their research at a level that you will be able to follow. Here are some recommended questions to ask when you meet with this advisor:

• Is there a project(s) within her/his research program suitable for an undergraduate student?
• Does she/he have a position/space in the lab for you?
• If you were to work in her/his lab, would you be supervised directly by her/him or by a graduate student? If it is a graduate student, make a point of meeting with the student and other members of the research group. Determine if their schedule matches yours. A night owl may not be able to work effectively with a morning person.
• Does she/he have funding to support the project? Unfunded projects may indicate that there may not be enough resources in the lab to carry out the project to completion. It may also be an indication that funding agencies/peers do not consider this work sufficiently important enough for funding support. Of course there are exceptions. For example, a newly hired assistant professor may not have external funding yet, but he/she may have received “start-up funds” from the university and certainly has the vote of confidence of the rest of the faculty. Otherwise he/she would not have been hired. Another classical exception is computational chemistry research, for which mostly fast computers are necessary and therefore external funding is needed to support research assistants and computer equipment only. No chemicals, glassware, or instrumentation will be found in a computational chemistry lab.
• How many of his/her articles got published in the last two or three years? When prior work has been published, it is a good indicator that the research is considered worthwhile by the scientific community that reviews articles for publication. Ask for printed references. Number of publications in reputable refereed journals (for example ACS journals) is an excellent indicator of the reputation of the researcher and the quality of his/her work.

Here is one last piece of advice: If the project really excites you and you get satisfactory answers to all your questions, make sure that you and the advisor will get along and that you will enjoy working with him/her and other members of the research group.

Remember that this advisor may be writing recommendation letters on your behalf to future employers, graduate schools, etc., so you want to leave a good impression. To do this, you should understand that the research must move forward and that if you become part of a research team, you should do your best to achieve this goal. At the same time, your advisor should understand your obligations to your course work and provide you with a degree of flexibility.

Ultimately, it is your responsibility to do your best on both course work and research. Make sure that the advisor is committed to supervising you as much as you are committed to doing the required work and putting in the necessary/agreed upon hours.

How much time should I allocate to research?

The quick answer is as much as possible without jeopardizing your course work. The rule of thumb is to spend 3 to 4 hours working in the lab for every credit hour in which you enroll. However, depending on the project, some progress can be achieved in just 3-4 hours of research/week. Most advisors would recommend 8-10 hours/week.

Depending on your project, a few of those hours may be of intense work and the rest may be spent simply monitoring the progress of a reaction or an instrumental analysis. Many research groups work on weekends. Saturdays are excellent days for long, uninterrupted periods of lab work.

What are some potential challenges?

• Time management . Each project is unique, and it will be up to you and your supervisor to decide when to be in the lab and how to best utilize the time available to move the project forward.
• Different approaches and styles . Not everyone is as clean and respectful of the equipment of others as you are. Not everyone is as punctual as you are. Not everyone follows safety procedures as diligently as you do. Some groups have established protocols for keeping the lab and equipment clean, for borrowing equipment from other members, for handling common equipment, for research meetings, for specific safety procedures, etc. Part of learning to work in a team is to avoid unnecessary conflict while establishing your ground to doing your work efficiently.
• “The project does not work.”  This is a statement that advisors commonly hear from students. Although projects are generally very well conceived, and it is people that make projects work, the nature of research is such that it requires patience, perseverance, critical thinking, and on many occasions, a change in direction. Thoroughness, attention to detail, and comprehensive notes are crucial when reporting the progress of a project.

Be informed, attentive, analytical, and objective. Read all the background information. Read user manuals for instruments and equipment. In many instances the reason for failure may be related to dirty equipment, contaminated reagents, improperly set instruments, poorly chosen conditions, lack of thoroughness, and/or lack of resourcefulness. Repeating a procedure while changing one parameter may work sometimes, while repeating the procedure multiple times without systematic changes and observations probably will not.

When reporting failures or problems, make sure that you have all details at hand. Be thorough in you assessment. Then ask questions. Advisors usually have sufficient experience to detect errors in procedures and are able to lead you in the right direction when the student is able to provide all the necessary details. They also have enough experience to know when to change directions. Many times one result may be unexpected, but it may be interesting enough to lead the investigation into a totally different avenue. Communicate with your advisor/mentor often.

Are there places other than my institution where I can conduct research?

Absolutely! Your school may be close to other universities, government labs and/or industries that offer part-time research opportunities during the academic year. There may also be summer opportunities in these institutions as well as in REU sites (see next question).

Contact your chemistry department advisor first. He/she may have some information readily available for you. You can also contact nearby universities, local industries and government labs directly or through the career center at your school. You can also find listings through ACS resources:

• Research Opportunities (US only)
• International Research Opportunities
• Internships and Summer Jobs

What are Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REU) sites? When should I apply for a position in one of them?

REU is a program established by the National Science Foundation (NSF) to support active research participation by undergraduate students at host institutions in the United States or abroad. An REU site may offer projects within a single department/discipline or it may have projects that are inter-departmental and interdisciplinary. There are currently over 70 domestic and approximately 5 international REU sites with a chemistry theme. Sites consist of 10-12 students each, although there are larger sites that supplement NSF funding with other sources. Students receive stipends and, in most cases, assistance with housing and travel.

Most REU sites invite rising juniors and rising seniors to participate in research during the summer. Experience in research is not required to apply, except for international sites where at least one semester or summer of prior research experience is recommended. Applications usually open around November or December for participation during the following summer. Undergraduate students supported with NSF funds must be citizens or permanent residents of the United States or its possessions. Some REU sites with supplementary funds from other sources may accept international students that are enrolled at US institutions.

• Get more information about REU sites

How do I prepare a scientific research poster?

Here are some links to sites with very useful information and samples.

• Anatomy of an Ace Research Paper
• Getting Ready for the ACS National Meeting
• Survivng Your First ACS Undergraduate Poster Presentation
• Six Ways Research Can Fire Up Your Chapter

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Introduction to Chemistry

Pure and applied chemistry, learning objectives.

• Define pure and applied research.
• Explain the differences between the two.
• Give examples of pure and applied research.

How does research enable us to understand chemistry?

How did chemistry develop? What is happening in the field of chemistry today? What can I do with a chemistry degree?  All of these are good questions and they should be asked by students interested in chemistry.  Research in chemistry (or any other field, for that matter) is interesting and challenging.  But there are different directions a person can take as they explore research opportunities.

Types of Research

In science, we usually talk about two types of research: pure and applied.  Pure research focuses on answering basic questions such as, “how do gases behave?”  Applied research would be involved in the process of developing a specific preparation for a gas in order for it to be produced and delivered efficiently and economically. This division sounds like it would be easy to make, but sometimes we cannot draw a clear line between what is “pure” and what is “applied.”

Examples of “Pure” Research

Figure 1. Ancient Greek philosophers.

A lot of “pure” research is of the “what is this?” or “how does it work?” variety.  The early history of chemistry contains many examples.  The ancient Greek philosophers debated the composition of matter (earth? air? fire? water? all of the above?).  They weren’t going to do anything with their knowledge – they just wanted to know.

Studies on the elements (especially after Mendeleev’s periodic table was published) were primarily “pure” research types of experiments.  Does this element exist? What are its properties?  The scientists did not have any practical application in mind, but were curious about the world around them.

Examples of “Applied” Research

Figure 2. Gasoline pump.

There is a great deal of “applied” research taking place today.  In general, no new science principles are discovered, but existing knowledge is used to develop a new product.  Research on laundry detergents will probably not give us any new concepts about soap, but will help us develop materials that get our clothes cleaner, use less water, and create lower amounts of pollution.

A lot of research is done by petroleum companies.  They want to find better ways to power vehicles, better lubricants to cut down on engine wear, and better ways to lower air pollution.  These companies will use information that is readily available to come up with new products.

Some “In-Between” Examples

Sometimes it is hard to differentiate between pure and applied research.  What may start out as simply asking a question may result is some very useful information.  If scientists are studying the biochemistry of a microorganism that causes a disease, they may soon find information that would suggest a way to make a chemical that would inactivate the microorganism.  The compound could be used to learn more about the biochemistry, but could also be used to cure the disease.

Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen in the bloodstream.  Scientists studied hemoglobin simply to learn how it worked.  Out of this research came an understanding of how the protein changes shape when oxygen attaches to it.  This information was then applied to help patients with sickle cell anemia, a disorder caused by an abnormal hemoglobin structure that makes hemoglobin molecules clump up when oxygen leaves the protein.  Basic knowledge of protein structure led to an improved understanding of a wide-spread disease and opened the door for development of treatments.

• Pure research focuses on understanding basic properties and processes.
• Applied research focuses on the use of information to create useful materials.
• Sometimes there is no clear line between pure and applied research.

Use this profile on Sickle Cell Anemia to answer the following questions:

• What happens to red cells in sickle cell patients when the hemoglobin loses oxygen?
• What is the difference between sickle cell trait and sickle cell disease?
• List some symptoms of sickle cell disease.
• List three treatments used for sickle cell disease.
• What is pure research?
• What is applied research?
• Give one example of pure research.
• Give on example of applied research.
• Is it always easy to classify research as pure or applied? Explain your answer.
• pure research: Focuses on understanding basic properties and processes.
• applied research: Focuses on the use of information to create useful materials.
• Agency. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EPA_GULF_BREEZE_LABORATORY,_CHEMISTRY_LAB._THE_CHEMIST_IS_TESTING_WATER_SAMPLES_FOR_PESTICIDES_-_NARA_-_546277.tif .
• Michel Wolgemut, Wilhelm Pleydenwurff. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nuremberg_chronicles_f_60v_1.png .
• Orin Zebest. http://www.flickr.com/photos/orinrobertjohn/4388866449/ .
• Chemistry Concepts Intermediate. Authored by : Calbreath, Baxter, et al.. Provided by : CK12.org. Located at : http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Chemistry-Concepts-Intermediate/ . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial

Chemistry Research Guide

• Find Articles
• Web of Science and PubMed Video tutorials
• Print and Electronic Resources
• Web Resources

Scholarly vs Popular Sources

Researching an assignment topic, research tips, empirical research, identifying empirical research, reading and analyzing information sources, atkins resources.

• ACS Citation Style and EndNote
• CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
• Scientific Integrity and Publishing Standards
• Online Chemistry Teaching and Learning
• Scholarly vs Popular Sources Video

The scope of the literature search and type of information required will depend on the requirements of the assignment.

Books provide a useful starting point for an introduction to the subject. Books generally also provide an in-depth coverage of a topic.

Journal articles : for current research or information on a very specific topic, journal articles may be the most useful, as they are published on a regular basis. it is normally expected that you will use some journal articles in your assignment., free web publications : useful information can also be found in free web publications from government or research organizations. any web publications should be carefully evaluated. you are also required to view the whole publication, not just the abstract, if using the information in your assignment., empirical research is research that is based on experimentation or observation, i.e. evidence.  such research is often conducted to answer a specific question or to test a hypothesis (educated guess)..

Research articles that consist of empirical research are written in a specific manner.    They are always divided into the following sections: title, abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, and references.   Each of these sections may be further divided into subsections.   One quick way to determine if you are looking at an article that consists of empirical research is to see if it has these sections.

Title – offers a brief description of the research and includes the author(s).

Abstract – is a brief but comprehensive summary of the research, usually a paragraph long.  .

Introduction – this section gives background information about the research problem.   It often includes information on similar studies, explains the reason(s) for conducting the research and offers any additional information that might be needed to understand the research problem or research that is being described in the paper.   Sometimes the Introduction section isn’t titled, but it is always present.

Methods – gives a detailed description of how the research was conducted.   Some methods that could be used include surveying, experimentation and observation.   This is occasionally titled Methodology instead.

Results – the ‘answer’ to the research question.   the results section shows, describes and analyzes the data found by the research., discussion – discusses the implications of the results found.   the discussion section may also compare, contrast and discuss the data obtained to other research articles on similar topics.   it is sometimes called the conclusion or divided into a ‘discussion’ section and a ‘conclusion’ section ., references – is a list of citations for other books, journal articles, reports or studies mentioned in the article. sometimes called works cited or bibliography..

 Various phrases or keywords can identify articles that use empirical or qualitative research.  These include:

• How to Read Scientific Articles This link provides strategies for the active reading of an article.
• Critical Appraisal of Information Should the chosen material be included as a resource? Use this information to do a critical review of each item.
• Evaluating Information A guide for evaluating information from various sources.
• Case study: Reading a Primary Research Article from Plant Physiology Illustrative process of evaluating an article from the journal, Plant Physiology
• International Centre for Allied Health Evidence Critical Appraisal Tools A list of links to critical appraisal tools designed to be used when reading research. more... less... University of South Australia
• Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine Critical Appraisal Tools Information and worksheets to assist in critical appraisal of clinical research papers
• Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine CATmaker CEBM's computer-assisted critical appraisal software for the creation of Critically Appraised Topics
• Research Evaluation for Computer Science A viewpoint regarding the computer science research culture and bibliometrics. Note that ISI has changed to the Journal Citation Reports found in the Web of Science.

• << Previous: Web Resources
• Next: ACS Citation Style and EndNote >>
• Last Updated: Dec 4, 2023 9:39 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.charlotte.edu/Chemistry

The Future of U.S. Chemistry Research: Benchmarks and Challenges (2007)

Chapter: 2 key characteristics of u.s. chemistry research, 2 key characteristics of u.s. chemistry research.

Chemists view the world at the atomic and molecular levels. They relate the properties of all substances to the detailed chemical compositions and atomic arrangements of all the chemical components. Understanding how the properties of substances are related to their molecular structures helps chemists design new molecules and materials that have the desired properties, allows them to develop or invent new types of transformations for carrying out the syntheses of these substances, and assists in designing ways to manufacture and process the new substances and materials.

A 2003 National Research Council report, Beyond the Molecular Frontier: Challenges for Chemistry and Chemical Engineering described some of the key structures and cultures of the disciplines and “the common chemical bond” that joins the two. 1 Chemistry was described as an unusual natural science that pursues both discovery and creation . Chemists seek to discover the components of the chemical universe—from molecules to organized chemical systems such as materials, living cells, and whole organisms—and to understand how these components interact and change over time. Synthetic chemists create new substances unknown in the natural world and develop novel transformations needed to make them. Chemical scientists produce tangible benefits to society when they design and engineer useful substances, such as new pharmaceuticals and polymeric materials.

WHAT IS CHEMISTRY RESEARCH?

Chemists are concerned with the physical properties of substances. Are they solids, liquids, or gases? How much energy do they contain? Chemists are also concerned with chemical properties. Can they be transformed to other substances on heating or irradiating? What are the detailed mechanisms of these transformations?

Chemical scientists also seek to understand the biological properties of both natural and man-made substances. They strive to understand the molecular basis of life processes. Furthermore, chemical science is integral to all of bioengineering and biotechnology. Biosystems, from molecular assemblies to cells to organisms, require insight from synthetic and physical chemistry as well as analysis of complex chemical networks if they are to be understood and exploited for the benefit of society.

The Beyond the Molecular Frontier report provided a list of “Grand Challenges for Chemists and Chemical Engineers” that highlights modern issues in the chemical sciences. (See Box 2-1 .)

WHAT KEY FACTORS CHARACTERIZE CHEMISTRY RESEARCH?

Chemists have historically specialized in standard subdivisions: analytical, biochemical, inorganic, organic, physical, and theoretical. Increasingly, the boundaries between areas of chemistry and between chemistry and other disciplines are blurring. While some chemists focus on fundamental problems in core areas, an increasing number of chemists are using multidisciplinary approaches to solve problems at the interfaces with biology, physics, or materials science. For the purposes of this report, chemistry has been divided into 11 areas, most with multiple subareas, to assess the U.S. strength in modern chemistry. (See Box 2-2 .) The report from a related benchmarking study of chemical engineering should be seen for more information on the U.S. standing in green chemistry/engineering, sustainability, and energy production.

Academic chemists have traditionally operated as single investigators with a team of graduate students and postdoctoral research associates, but increasingly academic chemists are joining larger multidisciplinary teams that bring together chemists and scientists from other scientific and engineering areas (see Figure 4-1 ). Partnerships between industrial, university, and government laboratories are becoming more common. International collaborations made possible by improved Internet communications also are becoming more common.

Research in chemistry is often capital intensive and involves increasingly sophisticated instruments and equipment for synthesis, processing, characterization, and analysis. Such equipment ranges from simple labora-

tory glassware and spectrophotometers, to sophisticated lasers, and from other instruments dedicated to a single investigator, to instruments such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometers and mass spectrometers that serve a department or in some cases the entire country. Chemistry in the United States also benefits from a large base of research facilities, including synchrotron sources, nuclear reactors, and large-scale supercomputers. Computational research, involving supercomputers and computer

networks, is gaining importance in solving a wide range of chemistry problems—from the subatomic to the macroscopic scale.

HOW IMPORTANT IS IT FOR THE UNITED STATES TO LEAD IN CHEMISTRY RESEARCH?

Chemistry is both a central science and an enabling science. It is often called on to provide scientific solutions for national problems. Chemistry plays a key role in conquering diseases, solving energy problems, ameliorating environmental problems, providing the discoveries that lead to new

industries, and developing new materials for national defense and new technologies for homeland security.

Medical research in particular is moving toward the molecular level, and rigorous chemistry is central to future progress in medicine. As outlined in the National Institutes of Health Roadmap for Medical Research, 2 current national priorities include new pathways to discovery in emerging and needed areas of research such as biological pathways (including metabolism) and networks; structural biology; molecular libraries and imaging;

nanotechnology; bioinformatics and computational biology—which cut across addressing all types of diseases and medical issues.

Chemistry is playing a central role in helping the United States attain energy independence. Almost all aspects of the national response to alternative energy issues involve chemistry—carbon dioxide sequestration, liquid fuels from coal, ethanol from corn and cellulose, the hydrogen economy, fuel cells, new battery concepts, and new concepts for solar energy. These involve energy storage and conversion into and out of chemical bonds. They also involve kinetics and multielectron catalysis. Solutions to energy problems will require a combination of basic research in chemistry with advanced chemical engineering and materials science. Chemists are now working to develop sustainable energy sources, including new photovoltaic devices and catalysts for the photo splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen and synthetic systems that mimic natural photosynthesis. The greater utilization of nuclear energy will depend on chemists developing better ways for separating and storing nuclear waste. The new hydrogen economy will require chemists to develop better fuel cells and new ways of storing hydrogen. Chemists will be called on to play key roles in developing biofuels and will be needed to develop new materials from biomass to replace the use of petroleum-derived materials. 3

While chemistry has inadvertently contributed to environmental problems, chemistry also is essential to improving our environment. Chemists have developed sensitive and specific analyses to monitor our environment, alternative environmentally benign pesticides and herbicides to aid agriculture, and new materials from renewable or recycled resources. Chemists aim to develop highly selective, energy-efficient, and environmentally benign new synthetic methods for the sustainable production of materials. New processes for synthesizing sustainable materials will have to be greener by design to reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances. A success story involves the replacement of persistent chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants that led to the ozone hole. With replacements that are degraded in the lower atmosphere, the ozone hole is recovering.

The linkage between energy and climate will remain one of the most important challenges for the physical sciences for decades to come. It is certain the climate is warming, and chemistry will play a central role in understanding these changes and mitigating problems associated with global warming. Chemists are monitoring the increase in greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide that lead to global warming and will be involved in numer-

ous strategies to ameliorate global warming, including developing new energy sources and developing strategies for carbon dioxide sequestration.

WHAT ARE SOME CAVEATS?

There are well-known limitations associated with measures of scientific excellence, including publication and prize analysis. An additional problem arose for “virtual congresses,” where the panel found small but significant differences depending on whether the organizer was from the United States or not.

There are also important factors that are advantageous for chemistry in the United States that must be taken into account when analyzing the state of the field of chemistry. English is the dominant language for chemistry research and publications, likely stemming from the historical U.S. dominance of the field of chemistry. This historical U.S. dominance has also been the major contributing factor for the literature dominance of ACS journals, which are highly regarded and enjoy great popularity as indicated by their associated impact factors. A strong case can be made that the dominance of the United States in the field of chemistry has been historically tied to the prominence of ACS journals, and the choice of English as the language of chemistry.

Because of the sheer size and strength of the U.S. chemistry research community, it cannot be compared meaningfully with those of other single countries. The only sensible method is to compare the United States with regional groups within Europe or Asia. To the extent possible, in this report, specific countries are mentioned in connection with particular areas of chemistry. While ample data were available on human resources and research funding for the United States, the panel had little comparable data for Europe and Asia.

With the enormous breadth of the chemical sciences, it was necessary to divide chemistry into 11 areas, each of which is also extremely broad. Undoubtedly, some areas have been left out. The U.S. standing in green chemistry/engineering, sustainability, and energy production was not addressed because the subjects are being covered extensively in the related benchmarking study of U.S. chemical engineering research.

Chemistry plays a key role in conquering diseases, solving energy problems, addressing environmental problems, providing the discoveries that lead to new industries, and developing new materials and technologies for national defense and homeland security. However, the field is currently facing a crucial time of change and is struggling to position itself to meet the needs of the future as it expands beyond its traditional core toward areas related to biology, materials science, and nanotechnology.

At the request of the National Science Foundation and the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Research Council conducted an in-depth benchmarking analysis to gauge the current standing of the U.S. chemistry field in the world. The Future of U.S. Chemistry Research: Benchmarks and Challenges highlights the main findings of the benchmarking exercise.

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MSc by Research in Chemistry

• Entry requirements
• Funding and Costs

College preference

• How to Apply

About the course

This is a research degree leading to the award of an MSc(Res) in Chemistry. The course admits students across the full breadth of research in the department, which focuses on fundamental science aimed at making significant and sustained long-term impact.

The main aspect of the course is an original research project, which develops research skills, knowledge and expertise in an area of cutting-edge chemistry. In many ways, the course is very similar to the DPhil in Chemistry, the key difference being that a DPhil project would normally take longer to complete and would be expected to make more significant advances in the field of research. The MSc(Res) offers an alternative to a DPhil, for students wishing to undertake a shorter research degree.

You will work with one or more academic supervisors, on a project that falls within the department's research themes:

• Advanced Functional Materials and Interfaces
• Chemistry at the interface with Biology and Medicine
• Energy and Sustainable Chemistry
• Innovative Measurement and Photon Science
• Kinetics, Dynamics and Mechanism
• Theory and Modelling in the Chemical Sciences

Many students work on projects that cut across the traditional boundaries of chemistry, and some work in interdisciplinary fields that exploit the department's strong connections with other departments of the University.

A typical week would primarily be spent carrying out your research, along with attending research group meetings, preparing reports, and keeping up-to-date with the scientific literature. You will also have access to a range of training opportunities, including specialist training within the department on key research techniques. Alongside your research project, you will be expected to develop your transferable skills, and many courses and opportunities for this are provided by the MPLS Division and the wider University.

The Department of Chemistry has a strong and vibrant research community, of which you will become part, and you will be encouraged to attend a range of events including seminar series, lectures from distinguished visiting researchers, and the annual Graduate Symposium.

Supervision

The allocation of graduate supervision for this course is the responsibility of the Department of Chemistry and it is not always possible to accommodate the preferences of incoming graduate students to work with a particular member of staff. Under exceptional circumstances a supervisor may be found outside the Department of Chemistry.

You will join a research group supervised by one or more members of the Department of Chemistry, sometimes in collaboration with other departments.

If you require specific help to adjust to an academic programme or to develop a new range of skills, your supervisor will work with you to ensure that you have additional support.

All students have meetings with their research supervisors to discuss and review their progress. These typically occur weekly or fortnightly.

You will be admitted as a Probationary Research Student. At the end of the first year, you will undergo a Transfer of Status assessment, to ensure that you have the potential to gain an MSc by Research degree. This assessment is made by independent assessors on the basis of a report, a short presentation and an oral examination. Assuming that you satisfactorily transfer to MSc by Research status, your research proceeds with quarterly reporting throughout the remainder of the course.

You will be expected to submit an MSc by Research thesis within, at most, three years from the date of admission. The vast majority of students submit their thesis within two years. Your thesis will be read by two examiners, one of whom is normally from Oxford and one from elsewhere, and you will be assessed via the thesis and an oral (viva voce) examination. The examiners will judge, along with other requirements, whether you have made a worthwhile contribution to your particular field of learning.

Graduate destinations

This is a new course, formed by the amalgamation of four of our previous courses: MSc by Research in Chemical Biology, MSc by Research in Inorganic Chemistry, MSc by Research in Organic Chemistry, MSc by Research in Physical & Theoretical Chemistry.

Students who have graduated from our previous chemistry research courses often remain in chemistry. Some go into the educational sector, and some go into industry (particularly the health-related industries such as pharmaceuticals). There is a wide variety of other destinations, including scientific writers, patent attorneys, government and the civil service; and a few go into financial services.

The department runs annual careers events for graduate students, and the Oxford University Careers Service offers a variety of specialist support. The department also hosts a large number of visits from prospective employers, where students can find out more information. There is an Alumni Officer, who keeps in touch with graduates, and the department runs a number of social and scientific events for them.

Changes to this course and your supervision

The University will seek to deliver this course in accordance with the description set out in this course page. However, there may be situations in which it is desirable or necessary for the University to make changes in course provision, either before or after registration. The safety of students, staff and visitors is paramount and major changes to delivery or services may have to be made in circumstances of a pandemic, epidemic or local health emergency. In addition, in certain circumstances, for example due to visa difficulties or because the health needs of students cannot be met, it may be necessary to make adjustments to course requirements for international study.

Where possible your academic supervisor will not change for the duration of your course. However, it may be necessary to assign a new academic supervisor during the course of study or before registration for reasons which might include illness, sabbatical leave, parental leave or change in employment.

For further information please see our page on changes to courses and the provisions of the student contract regarding changes to courses.

Entry requirements for entry in 2024-25

Proven and potential academic excellence.

The requirements described below are specific to this course and apply only in the year of entry that is shown. You can use our interactive tool to help you  evaluate whether your application is likely to be competitive .

Please be aware that any studentships that are linked to this course may have different or additional requirements and you should read any studentship information carefully before applying. 

Degree-level qualifications

As a minimum, applicants should hold or be predicted to achieve the following UK qualifications or their equivalent:

• a first-class or strong upper second-class undergraduate degree with honours in a subject relevant to the proposed research. Normally this will be a chemistry degree, but degrees in other physical sciences or in a biological science may be suitable.

Entrance is very competitive and most successful applicants have a first-class degree or the equivalent.

For applicants with a degree from the USA, the minimum GPA sought is 3.5 out of 4.0.

If your degree is not from the UK or another country specified above, visit our International Qualifications page for guidance on the qualifications and grades that would usually be considered to meet the University’s minimum entry requirements.

GRE General Test scores

No Graduate Record Examination (GRE) or GMAT scores are sought.

Other qualifications, evidence of excellence and relevant experience

• Prior publications are not expected but may help to indicate your aptitude for research.
• Applicants with substantial professional experience are welcome.
• It would be expected that graduate applicants would be familiar with the recent published work of their proposed supervisor and have an understanding of the background to their proposed area of study.

English language proficiency

This course requires proficiency in English at the University's  standard level . If your first language is not English, you may need to provide evidence that you meet this requirement. The minimum scores required to meet the University's standard level are detailed in the table below.

*Previously known as the Cambridge Certificate of Advanced English or Cambridge English: Advanced (CAE) † Previously known as the Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency in English or Cambridge English: Proficiency (CPE)

Your test must have been taken no more than two years before the start date of your course. Our Application Guide provides further information about the English language test requirement .

Declaring extenuating circumstances

If your ability to meet the entry requirements has been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic (eg you were awarded an unclassified/ungraded degree) or any other exceptional personal circumstance (eg other illness or bereavement), please refer to the guidance on extenuating circumstances in the Application Guide for information about how to declare this so that your application can be considered appropriately.

You will need to register three referees who can give an informed view of your academic ability and suitability for the course. The  How to apply  section of this page provides details of the types of reference that are required in support of your application for this course and how these will be assessed.

Supporting documents

You will be required to supply supporting documents with your application. The  How to apply  section of this page provides details of the supporting documents that are required as part of your application for this course and how these will be assessed.

Performance at interview

Interviews are normally held as part of the admissions process.

The criteria for shortlisting are academic merit, references and motivation. 

Interviews are arranged directly by the prospective supervisors and usually they are conducted via MS Teams. Typically, the interview lasts 30 minutes and it may include discussion on your research interests and subject-related questions.

How your application is assessed

Your application will be assessed purely on your proven and potential academic excellence and other entry requirements described under that heading.

References  and  supporting documents  submitted as part of your application, and your performance at interview (if interviews are held) will be considered as part of the assessment process. Whether or not you have secured funding will not be taken into consideration when your application is assessed.

An overview of the shortlisting and selection process is provided below. Our ' After you apply ' pages provide  more information about how applications are assessed . 

Shortlisting and selection

Students are considered for shortlisting and selected for admission without regard to age, disability, gender reassignment, marital or civil partnership status, pregnancy and maternity, race (including colour, nationality and ethnic or national origins), religion or belief (including lack of belief), sex, sexual orientation, as well as other relevant circumstances including parental or caring responsibilities or social background. However, please note the following:

• socio-economic information may be taken into account in the selection of applicants and award of scholarships for courses that are part of  the University’s pilot selection procedure  and for  scholarships aimed at under-represented groups ;
• country of ordinary residence may be taken into account in the awarding of certain scholarships; and
• protected characteristics may be taken into account during shortlisting for interview or the award of scholarships where the University has approved a positive action case under the Equality Act 2010.

Processing your data for shortlisting and selection

Information about  processing special category data for the purposes of positive action  and  using your data to assess your eligibility for funding , can be found in our Postgraduate Applicant Privacy Policy.

Admissions panels and assessors

All recommendations to admit a student involve the judgement of at least two members of the academic staff with relevant experience and expertise, and must also be approved by the Director of Graduate Studies or Admissions Committee (or equivalent within the department).

Admissions panels or committees will always include at least one member of academic staff who has undertaken appropriate training.

Other factors governing whether places can be offered

The following factors will also govern whether candidates can be offered places:

• the ability of the University to provide the appropriate supervision for your studies, as outlined under the 'Supervision' heading in the  About  section of this page;
• the ability of the University to provide appropriate support for your studies (eg through the provision of facilities, resources, teaching and/or research opportunities); and
• minimum and maximum limits to the numbers of students who may be admitted to the University's taught and research programmes.

Offer conditions for successful applications

If you receive an offer of a place at Oxford, your offer will outline any conditions that you need to satisfy and any actions you need to take, together with any associated deadlines. These may include academic conditions, such as achieving a specific final grade in your current degree course. These conditions will usually depend on your individual academic circumstances and may vary between applicants. Our ' After you apply ' pages provide more information about offers and conditions . 

In addition to any academic conditions which are set, you will also be required to meet the following requirements:

Financial Declaration

If you are offered a place, you will be required to complete a  Financial Declaration  in order to meet your financial condition of admission.

Disclosure of criminal convictions

In accordance with the University’s obligations towards students and staff, we will ask you to declare any  relevant, unspent criminal convictions  before you can take up a place at Oxford.

Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS)

Some postgraduate research students in science, engineering and technology subjects will need an Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS) certificate prior to applying for a  Student visa (under the Student Route) . For some courses, the requirement to apply for an ATAS certificate may depend on your research area.

Students are supervised by some of the country’s most gifted research chemists, many of whom have world-class reputations. You will work in an environment which encourages and inspires you to acquire and develop a wide range of communication, study, and research skills.

Workspace will be related to individual circumstances. If undertaking experimental work, you will be provided with space in a laboratory with access to all the required equipment. If undertaking theoretical research, you will have shared office space.

The department has one of the largest and well-resourced research laboratories in the world. You will have access to the Department of Chemistry IT support staff, to the Radcliffe Science Library and other university libraries, and centrally provided electronic resources, technical workshops and glass workshops. Experimental facilities are available as appropriate to the research topic. The provision of other resources specific to your project should be agreed with your supervisor as a part of the planning stages of the agreed project.

Oxford is one of the leading chemistry research departments in the world, with around 80 academic staff carrying out international level research and an annual research income of around £15 million.

In the most recent national assessment of research (REF 2021) 66% of our research output was judged world-leading, and 32% was judged internationally excellent. The department has a number of research themes, including:

• chemistry at the interface with biology and medicine
• sustainable energy chemistry
• kinetics, dynamics and mechanism
• advanced functional materials and interfaces
• innovative measurement and photon science
• theory and modelling of complex systems.

The facilities at Oxford for research and teaching are among the best available in the UK, with a wide range of the latest instrumentation and a huge computational resource networked throughout the University and beyond to national computing centres. Among the facilities available are the latest in automated X-ray diffractometers, electron microscopes, scanning tunnelling microscopes, mass spectrometers, high-field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometers and specialised instruments for the study of solids.

For 2024 entry and beyond, the Department of Chemistry will offer the DPhil in Chemistry and MSc by Research in Chemistry courses, which amalgamate the previous research degrees offered in Chemical Biology, Inorganic Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, and Physical & Theoretical Chemistry.

View all courses   View taught courses View research courses

The University expects to be able to offer over 1,000 full or partial graduate scholarships across the collegiate University in 2024-25. You will be automatically considered for the majority of Oxford scholarships , if you fulfil the eligibility criteria and submit your graduate application by the relevant December or January deadline. Most scholarships are awarded on the basis of academic merit and/or potential. 

For further details about searching for funding as a graduate student visit our dedicated Funding pages, which contain information about how to apply for Oxford scholarships requiring an additional application, details of external funding, loan schemes and other funding sources.

Please ensure that you visit individual college websites for details of any college-specific funding opportunities using the links provided on our college pages or below:

Please note that not all the colleges listed above may accept students on this course. For details of those which do, please refer to the College preference section of this page.

Annual fees for entry in 2024-25

Further details about fee status eligibility can be found on the fee status webpage.

Information about course fees

Course fees are payable each year, for the duration of your fee liability (your fee liability is the length of time for which you are required to pay course fees). For courses lasting longer than one year, please be aware that fees will usually increase annually. For details, please see our guidance on changes to fees and charges .

Course fees cover your teaching as well as other academic services and facilities provided to support your studies. Unless specified in the additional information section below, course fees do not cover your accommodation, residential costs or other living costs. They also don’t cover any additional costs and charges that are outlined in the additional information below.

Continuation charges

Following the period of fee liability , you may also be required to pay a University continuation charge and a college continuation charge. The University and college continuation charges are shown on the Continuation charges page.

Where can I find further information about fees?

The Fees and Funding  section of this website provides further information about course fees , including information about fee status and eligibility  and your length of fee liability .

Additional information

There are no compulsory elements of this course that entail additional costs beyond fees (or, after fee liability ends, continuation charges) and living costs. However, please note that, depending on your choice of research topic and the research required to complete it, you may incur additional expenses, such as travel expenses, research expenses, and field trips. You will need to meet these additional costs, although you may be able to apply for small grants from your department and/or college to help you cover some of these expenses.

Living costs

In addition to your course fees, you will need to ensure that you have adequate funds to support your living costs for the duration of your course.

For the 2024-25 academic year, the range of likely living costs for full-time study is between c. £1,345 and £1,955 for each month spent in Oxford. Full information, including a breakdown of likely living costs in Oxford for items such as food, accommodation and study costs, is available on our living costs page. The current economic climate and high national rate of inflation make it very hard to estimate potential changes to the cost of living over the next few years. When planning your finances for any future years of study in Oxford beyond 2024-25, it is suggested that you allow for potential increases in living expenses of around 5% each year – although this rate may vary depending on the national economic situation. UK inflationary increases will be kept under review and this page updated.

Students enrolled on this course will belong to both a department/faculty and a college. Please note that ‘college’ and ‘colleges’ refers to all 43 of the University’s colleges, including those designated as societies and permanent private halls (PPHs). 

If you apply for a place on this course you will have the option to express a preference for one of the colleges listed below, or you can ask us to find a college for you. Before deciding, we suggest that you read our brief  introduction to the college system at Oxford  and our  advice about expressing a college preference . For some courses, the department may have provided some additional advice below to help you decide.

The following colleges accept students on the MSc by Research in Chemisty:

• Balliol College
• Brasenose College
• Campion Hall
• Christ Church
• Corpus Christi College
• Exeter College
• Hertford College
• Jesus College
• Keble College
• Lady Margaret Hall
• Linacre College
• Lincoln College
• Magdalen College
• Merton College
• New College
• Oriel College
• Pembroke College
• The Queen's College
• Reuben College
• St Anne's College
• St Catherine's College
• St Cross College
• St Edmund Hall
• St Hilda's College
• St Hugh's College
• St John's College
• St Peter's College
• Somerville College
• Trinity College
• University College
• Wadham College
• Wolfson College
• Worcester College
• Wycliffe Hall

Before you apply

Our  guide to getting started  provides general advice on how to prepare for and start your application. You can use our interactive tool to help you  evaluate whether your application is likely to be competitive .

If it's important for you to have your application considered under a particular deadline – eg under a December or January deadline in order to be considered for Oxford scholarships – we recommend that you aim to complete and submit your application at least two weeks in advance . Check the deadlines on this page and the  information about deadlines  in our Application Guide.

Application fee waivers

An application fee of £75 is payable per course application. Application fee waivers are available for the following applicants who meet the eligibility criteria:

• applicants from low-income countries;
• refugees and displaced persons; 
• UK applicants from low-income backgrounds; and 
• applicants who applied for our Graduate Access Programmes in the past two years and met the eligibility criteria.

You are encouraged to  check whether you're eligible for an application fee waiver  before you apply.

Readmission for current Oxford graduate taught students

If you're currently studying for an Oxford graduate taught course and apply to this course with no break in your studies, you may be eligible to apply to this course as a readmission applicant. The application fee will be waived for an eligible application of this type. Check whether you're eligible to apply for readmission .

Do I need to contact anyone before I apply?

You should make contact with the academic (s) in your area of research to discuss potential research topics. You can approach academic staff directly via the contact details provided.

General enquiries should be made to the Graduate Studies Team.

Completing your application

You should refer to the information below when completing the application form, paying attention to the specific requirements for the supporting documents .

For this course, the application form will include questions that collect information that would usually be included in a CV/résumé. You should not upload a separate document. If a separate CV/résumé is uploaded, it will be removed from your application .

If any document does not meet the specification, including the stipulated word count, your application may be considered incomplete and not assessed by the academic department. Expand each section to show further details.

Proposed field and title of research project

Under the 'Field and title of research project' please enter your proposed field or area of research if this is known. If the department has advertised a specific research project that you would like to be considered for, please enter the project title here instead.

You should not use this field to type out a full research proposal. You will be able to upload your research supporting materials separately if they are required (as described below).

Proposed supervisor

Under 'Proposed supervisor name' enter the name of the academic(s) who you would like to supervise your research. 

The department recommends that you name three to four proposed supervisors and list them in order of preference. Your proposed supervisors can be from different sections of the chemistry department. Assessment of your application may be delayed if no proposed supervisors are listed.

Referees: Three overall, of which at least two must be academic

Whilst you must register three referees, the department may start the assessment of your application if two of the three references are submitted by the course deadline and your application is otherwise complete. Please note that you may still be required to ensure your third referee supplies a reference for consideration.

Academic references are preferred, although a maximum of one professional reference is acceptable where you have completed an industrial placement or worked in a full-time position.

Your references will be assessed for:

• your intellectual ability
• your academic achievement
• your motivation and interest in the course and subject area
• your ability to work effectively both in a group and independently
• your research potential in the chosen area

Official transcript(s)

Your transcripts should give detailed information of the individual grades received in your university-level qualifications to date. You should only upload official documents issued by your institution and any transcript not in English should be accompanied by a certified translation.

More information about the transcript requirement is available in the Application Guide.

Statement of purpose: A maximum of 1,000 words

Rather than a research proposal, you should provide  a statement of purpose. 

Your statement should be written in English and explain your motivation for applying for the course at Oxford, your relevant experience and education, and the specific areas that interest you and/or you intend to specialise in.

If possible, please ensure that the word count is clearly displayed on the document.

Your statement will be assessed for:

• your reasons for applying
• your ability to present a coherent case in proficient English
• your commitment to the subject
• your preliminary knowledge of the subject area and research techniques
• your capacity for sustained and intense work
• reasoning ability
• your ability to absorb new ideas, often presented abstractly, at a rapid pace

Start or continue your application

You can start or return to an application using the relevant link below. As you complete the form, please  refer to the requirements above  and  consult our Application Guide for advice . You'll find the answers to most common queries in our FAQs.

Application Guide   Apply

ADMISSION STATUS

Open - applications are still being accepted

Up to a week's notice of closure will be provided on this page - no other notification will be given

12:00 midday UK time on:

Friday 19 January 2024 Latest deadline for most Oxford scholarships

Friday 1 March 2024 Applications may remain open after this deadline if places are still available - see below

A later deadline shown under 'Admission status' If places are still available,  applications may be accepted after 1 March . The 'Admissions status' (above) will provide notice of any later deadline.

† Contact the department using the details below if you wish to discuss an alternative start date

Further information and enquiries

This course is offered by the Department of Chemistry

• Course page on the department's website
• Funding information from the department
• Academic and research staff
• Departmental research
• Residence requirements for full-time courses
• Postgraduate applicant privacy policy

Course-related enquiries

Advice about contacting the department can be found in the How to apply section of this page

✉ [email protected] ☎ +44 (0)1865 272569

Application-process enquiries

See the application guide

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Types of Research – Explained with Examples

• By DiscoverPhDs
• October 2, 2020

Types of Research

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it.

It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated.

Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to better plan your project, utilises the most appropriate methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other researchers and supervisors.

Classification of Types of Research

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical research.

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge , regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

• Technological applied research : looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes.
• Scientific applied research : has predictive purposes. Through this type of research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects.

According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory research.

Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated.

Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.

Descriptive Research

The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.

In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor is involved.

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions with the environment.

Correlational Research

The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change.

According to the Type of Data Used

Qualitative research.

Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.

In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them . This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental research.

It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method.

Non-Experimental Research

Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.

Quasi-Experimental Research

It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations . This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.

According to the Type of Inference

Deductive investigation.

In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly.

Inductive Research

In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation

It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience.

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal study (also referred to as diachronic research).

It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas .

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time.

According to The Sources of Information

Primary research.

This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research

Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.

According to How the Data is Obtained

Documentary (cabinet).

Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study.

Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory

Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary sources through field or laboratory research.

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1.4: The Scientific Method- How Chemists Think

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Learning Objectives

• Identify the components of the scientific method.

Scientists search for answers to questions and solutions to problems by using a procedure called the scientific method. This procedure consists of making observations, formulating hypotheses, and designing experiments; which leads to additional observations, hypotheses, and experiments in repeated cycles (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).

Step 1: Make observations

Observations can be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative observations describe properties or occurrences in ways that do not rely on numbers. Examples of qualitative observations include the following: "the outside air temperature is cooler during the winter season," "table salt is a crystalline solid," "sulfur crystals are yellow," and "dissolving a penny in dilute nitric acid forms a blue solution and a brown gas." Quantitative observations are measurements, which by definition consist of both a number and a unit. Examples of quantitative observations include the following: "the melting point of crystalline sulfur is 115.21° Celsius," and "35.9 grams of table salt—the chemical name of which is sodium chloride—dissolve in 100 grams of water at 20° Celsius." For the question of the dinosaurs’ extinction, the initial observation was quantitative: iridium concentrations in sediments dating to 66 million years ago were 20–160 times higher than normal.

Step 2: Formulate a hypothesis

After deciding to learn more about an observation or a set of observations, scientists generally begin an investigation by forming a hypothesis, a tentative explanation for the observation(s). The hypothesis may not be correct, but it puts the scientist’s understanding of the system being studied into a form that can be tested. For example, the observation that we experience alternating periods of light and darkness corresponding to observed movements of the sun, moon, clouds, and shadows is consistent with either one of two hypotheses:

• Earth rotates on its axis every 24 hours, alternately exposing one side to the sun.
• The sun revolves around Earth every 24 hours.

Suitable experiments can be designed to choose between these two alternatives. For the disappearance of the dinosaurs, the hypothesis was that the impact of a large extraterrestrial object caused their extinction. Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately), this hypothesis does not lend itself to direct testing by any obvious experiment, but scientists can collect additional data that either support or refute it.

Step 3: Design and perform experiments

After a hypothesis has been formed, scientists conduct experiments to test its validity. Experiments are systematic observations or measurements, preferably made under controlled conditions—that is—under conditions in which a single variable changes.

Step 4: Accept or modify the hypothesis

A properly designed and executed experiment enables a scientist to determine whether or not the original hypothesis is valid. If the hypothesis is valid, the scientist can proceed to step 5. In other cases, experiments often demonstrate that the hypothesis is incorrect or that it must be modified and requires further experimentation.

Step 5: Development into a law and/or theory

More experimental data are then collected and analyzed, at which point a scientist may begin to think that the results are sufficiently reproducible (i.e., dependable) to merit being summarized in a law, a verbal or mathematical description of a phenomenon that allows for general predictions. A law simply states what happens; it does not address the question of why.

One example of a law, the law of definite proportions , which was discovered by the French scientist Joseph Proust (1754–1826), states that a chemical substance always contains the same proportions of elements by mass. Thus, sodium chloride (table salt) always contains the same proportion by mass of sodium to chlorine, in this case 39.34% sodium and 60.66% chlorine by mass, and sucrose (table sugar) is always 42.11% carbon, 6.48% hydrogen, and 51.41% oxygen by mass.

Whereas a law states only what happens, a theory attempts to explain why nature behaves as it does. Laws are unlikely to change greatly over time unless a major experimental error is discovered. In contrast, a theory, by definition, is incomplete and imperfect, evolving with time to explain new facts as they are discovered.

Because scientists can enter the cycle shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) at any point, the actual application of the scientific method to different topics can take many different forms. For example, a scientist may start with a hypothesis formed by reading about work done by others in the field, rather than by making direct observations.

Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Classify each statement as a law, a theory, an experiment, a hypothesis, an observation.

• Ice always floats on liquid water.
• Birds evolved from dinosaurs.
• Hot air is less dense than cold air, probably because the components of hot air are moving more rapidly.
• When 10 g of ice were added to 100 mL of water at 25°C, the temperature of the water decreased to 15.5°C after the ice melted.
• The ingredients of Ivory soap were analyzed to see whether it really is 99.44% pure, as advertised.
• This is a general statement of a relationship between the properties of liquid and solid water, so it is a law.
• This is a possible explanation for the origin of birds, so it is a hypothesis.
• This is a statement that tries to explain the relationship between the temperature and the density of air based on fundamental principles, so it is a theory.
• The temperature is measured before and after a change is made in a system, so these are observations.
• This is an analysis designed to test a hypothesis (in this case, the manufacturer’s claim of purity), so it is an experiment.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\) 

Classify each statement as a law, a theory, an experiment, a hypothesis, a qualitative observation, or a quantitative observation.

• Measured amounts of acid were added to a Rolaids tablet to see whether it really “consumes 47 times its weight in excess stomach acid.”
• Heat always flows from hot objects to cooler ones, not in the opposite direction.
• The universe was formed by a massive explosion that propelled matter into a vacuum.
• Michael Jordan is the greatest pure shooter to ever play professional basketball.
• Limestone is relatively insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in dilute acid with the evolution of a gas.

The scientific method is a method of investigation involving experimentation and observation to acquire new knowledge, solve problems, and answer questions. The key steps in the scientific method include the following:

• Step 1: Make observations.
• Step 2: Formulate a hypothesis.
• Step 3: Test the hypothesis through experimentation.
• Step 4: Accept or modify the hypothesis.
• Step 5: Develop into a law and/or a theory.

Contributions & Attributions

How scientists are accelerating chemistry discoveries with automation

New statistical-modeling workflow may help advance drug discovery and synthetic chemistry.

A new automated workflow developed by scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) has the potential to allow researchers to analyze the products of their reaction experiments in real time, a key capability needed for future automated chemical processes.

The developed workflow -- which applies statistical analysis to process data from nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy -- could help speed the discovery of new pharmaceutical drugs, and accelerate the development of new chemical reactions.

The Berkeley Lab scientists who developed the groundbreaking technique say that the workflow can quickly identify the molecular structure of products formed by chemical reactions that have never been studied before. They recently reported their findings in the Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling .

In addition to drug discovery and chemical reaction development, the workflow could also help researchers who are developing new catalysts. Catalysts are substances that facilitate a chemical reaction in the production of useful new products like renewable fuels or biodegradable plastics.

"What excites people the most about this technique is its potential for real-time reaction analysis, which is an integral part of automated chemistry," said first author Maxwell C. Venetos, a former researcher in Berkeley Lab's Materials Sciences Division and former graduate student researcher in materials sciences at UC Berkeley. He completed his doctoral studies last year. "Our workflow really allows you to start pursuing the unknown. You are no longer constrained by things that you already know the answer to."

The new workflow can also identify isomers, which are molecules with the same chemical formula but different atomic arrangements. This could greatly accelerate synthetic chemistry processes in pharmaceutical research, for example. "This workflow is the first of its kind where users can generate their own library, and tune it to the quality of that library, without relying on an external database," Venetos said.

Advancing new applications

In the pharmaceutical industry, drug developers currently use machine-learning algorithms to virtually screen hundreds of chemical compounds to identify potential new drug candidates that are more likely to be effective against specific cancers and other diseases. These screening methods comb through online libraries or databases of known compounds (or reaction products) and match them with likely drug "targets" in cell walls.

But if a drug researcher is experimenting with molecules so new that their chemical structures don't yet exist in a database, they must typically spend days in the lab to sort out the mixture's molecular makeup: First, by running the reaction products through a purification machine, and then using one of the most useful characterization tools in a synthetic chemist's arsenal, an NMR spectrometer, to identify and measure the molecules in the mixture one at a time.

"But with our new workflow, you could feasibly do all of that work within a couple of hours," Venetos said. The time-savings come from the workflow's ability to rapidly and accurately analyze the NMR spectra of unpurified reaction mixtures that contain multiple compounds, a task that is impossible through conventional NMR spectral analysis methods.

"I'm very excited about this work as it applies novel data-driven methods to the age-old problem of accelerating synthesis and characterization," said senior author Kristin Persson, a faculty senior scientist in Berkeley Lab's Materials Sciences Division and UC Berkeley professor of materials science and engineering who also leads the Materials Project.

Experimental results

In addition to being much faster than benchtop purification methods, the new workflow has the potential to be just as accurate. NMR simulation experiments performed using the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center (NERSC) at Berkeley Lab with support from the Materials Project showed that the new workflow can correctly identify compound molecules in reaction mixtures that produce isomers, and also predict the relative concentrations of those compounds.

To ensure high statistical accuracy, the research team used a sophisticated algorithm known as Hamiltonian Monte Carlo Markov Chain (HMCMC) to analyze the NMR spectra. They also performed advanced theoretical calculations based on a method called density-functional theory.

Venetos designed the automated workflow as open source so that users can run it on an ordinary desktop computer. That convenience will come in handy for anyone from industry or academia.

The technique sprouted from conversations between the Persson group and experimental collaborators Masha Elkin and Connor Delaney, former postdoctoral researchers in the John Hartwig group at UC Berkeley. Elkin is now a professor of chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Delaney a professor of chemistry at the University of Texas at Dallas.

"In chemistry reaction development, we are constantly spending time to figure out what a reaction made and in what ratio," said John Hartwig, a senior faculty scientist in Berkeley Lab's Chemical Sciences Division and UC Berkeley professor of chemistry. "Certain NMR spectrometry methods are precise, but if one is deciphering the contents of a crude reaction mixture containing a bunch of unknown potential products, those methods are far too slow to have as part of a high-throughput experimental or automated workflow. And that's where this new capability to predict the NMR spectrum could help," he said.

Now that they've demonstrated the automated workflow's potential, Persson and team hope to incorporate it into an automated laboratory that analyzes the NMR data of thousands or even millions of new chemical reactions at a time.

Other authors on the paper include Masha Elkin, Connor Delaney, and John Hartwig at UC Berkeley.

NERSC is a DOE Office of Science user facility at Berkeley Lab.

The work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Science, the U.S. National Science Foundation, and the National Institutes of Health.

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Story Source:

Materials provided by DOE/Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory . Original written by Theresa Duque. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Maxwell C. Venetos, Masha Elkin, Connor Delaney, John F. Hartwig, Kristin A. Persson. Deconvolution and Analysis of the 1H NMR Spectra of Crude Reaction Mixtures . Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling , 2024; DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.3c01864

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Friedel-crafts reactions for biomolecular chemistry.

Chemical tools and principles have become central to biological and medical research/applications by leveraging a range of classical organic chemistry reactions. Friedel-Crafts alkylation and acylation are arguably some of the most well-known and used synthetic methods for preparation of small molecules but their use in biological and medical fields is relatively less frequent than the other reactions, possibly owing to the notion about its plausible incompatibility with biological systems. This review demonstrates advances of Friedel-Crafts alkylation and acylation reactions in a variety of biomolecular chemistry fields. With the discoveries and applications of numerous biomolecule-catalyzed or –assisted processes, the reactions have garnered considerable interests in biochemistry, enzymology, and biocatalysis. Despite the challenges of reactivity and selectivity of biomolecular reactions, the alkylation and acylation reactions demonstrated their utility for construction and functionalization of all the four major biomolecules (i.e., nucleosides, carbohydrates/saccharides, lipids/fatty acids, and amino acids/peptides/proteins), and their diverse applications in biological, medical, and material fields are discussed. As the alkylation and acylation reactions are often fundamental educational components of organic chemistry courses, the review is intended for both experts and nonexperts by discussing their basic reaction patterns (with the depiction of each reaction mechanism in the Electronic Supplementary Information) and relevant real-world impacts in order to enrich chemical research and education. The significant growth of biomolecular Friedel-Crafts reactions described here is a testament to their broad importance and utility, and further development and investigations of the reactions will surely be the focus in the organic biomolecular chemistry fields.

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J. Ohata, Org. Biomol. Chem. , 2024, Accepted Manuscript , DOI: 10.1039/D4OB00406J

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Use of Type 5 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms Allows Noninvasive Prenatal Diagnosis for Consanguineous Families

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Erik A Sistermans, Use of Type 5 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms Allows Noninvasive Prenatal Diagnosis for Consanguineous Families, Clinical Chemistry , 2024;, hvae040, https://doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/hvae040

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Noninvasive prenatal tests based on the presence of fetal cell-free DNA (cfDNA) in maternal plasma have only recently been developed. The tests can be divided into 2 groups, the most well-known being the detection of large fetal chromosomal anomalies, such as trisomies and structural abnormalities. This test is often referred to as noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT), or noninvasive prenatal screening (NIPS). Although the latter name is more adequate as this test is mainly used in a screening setting, either as a first-tier test or contingent after combined testing, it is less commonly used. As the so-called fetal cfDNA is in fact derived from the placenta, and not from the fetus, confined placental mosaicism (CPM) can give false-positive NIPT results, necessitating confirmation of a high-risk result by a diagnostic invasive test. However, prenatal diagnostics based on cfDNA is possible in pregnancies where pathogenic variants are inherited from carrier parents and CPM is not a problem. This leads us to the second group of noninvasive prenatal diagnosis (NIPD), which is mainly used for monogenic disorders. In contrast to NIPT, NIPD is only offered in a few countries by a limited number of specialized laboratories. Performing NIPD is much more complex than NIPT, and the number of tests much smaller. Until now, NIPD could not be offered to consanguineous couples, as their shared genomes hampered reliable analysis.

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• Expanding Access to Noninvasive Prenatal Diagnosis for Monogenic Conditions to Consanguineous Families

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