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School of Law

MPHIL/PHD IN LAW

Writing Guide 1: Writing an Assessed Essay

ROBIN C A WHITE

7 th Edition 2009 www.le.ac.uk/law

and

School of Law, The University of Leicester 2009

Published by the School of Law, The University of Leicester

All rights reserved

The author asserts his moral rights

No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed, stored in a retrieval system or

translated into any other language in any form whatsoever or by any means without the written permission of

the copyright holder and publisher.

Feedback from users is welcomed. Please contact:

School Administrator, School of Law, The University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester LE1 7RH

Tel +44 116 252 2363 Fax +44 116 252 5023 email [email protected]

Acknowledgments

Many colleagues and students have contributed ideas to the various editions. Particular thanks in connection

with this edition go to Brian Marshall in the David Wilson Library, Stuart Johnson in the Student Learning

Centre, and Stella Smyth of the English Language Teaching Unit.

This guide is also available in electronic form on the School of Law’s web pages

www.le.ac.uk/law/

CONTENTS

Who should use this guide .......................................................................................................................... 1

Assessed essays ........................................................................................................................................... 1

The basics .................................................................................................................................................... 2

Our expectations ......................................................................................................................................... 2

Requirements .............................................................................................................................................. 2

Essay questions and problem questions .......................................................................................... 2

Word limits ....................................................................................................................................... 3

Submission deadlines ....................................................................................................................... 3

Managing your time .................................................................................................................................... 4

Understanding the question........................................................................................................................ 5

Topic are, focus and instruction ....................................................................................................... 5

Essay questions ................................................................................................................................ 5

Problem questions ........................................................................................................................... 5

Selecting a question from a list ........................................................................................................ 6

Gathering material ...................................................................................................................................... 6

Planning ............................................................................................................................................ 6

Research ........................................................................................................................................... 7

Web-based resources ...................................................................................................................... 7

Note taking ....................................................................................................................................... 8

Avoiding plagiarism ..................................................................................................................................... 8

Your ideas .................................................................................................................................................... 9

Planning your answer ................................................................................................................................ 10

Expressing yourself clearly ........................................................................................................................ 10

Some general principles ................................................................................................................. 10

Using gender neutral language ...................................................................................................... 11

Some general practices in writing .................................................................................................. 12

Writing and revising a draft ....................................................................................................................... 13

The first draft is for you .................................................................................................................. 13

The introduction............................................................................................................................. 13

The body of the answer ................................................................................................................. 13

The conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 14

Revising the first draft .................................................................................................................... 14

The bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 15

Using your tutor effectively ....................................................................................................................... 15

Word processing........................................................................................................................................ 15

Specific requirements for particular essays .............................................................................................. 16

Feedback on your work ............................................................................................................................. 16

Some resources ......................................................................................................................................... 16

Citing authorities

The Oxford Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities........................................................................ 18

Primary and secondary sources ................................................................................................................ 18

Using footnotes ......................................................................................................................................... 18

Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 18

Frequently cited material ............................................................................................................... 19

Location references ........................................................................................................................ 19

Signals used in footnotes ............................................................................................................... 20

Some key rules in citing legal materials .................................................................................................... 20

Cases .............................................................................................................................................. 20

Statutes .......................................................................................................................................... 20

Books .............................................................................................................................................. 21

Journal articles ............................................................................................................................... 21

Square brackets and round brackets ............................................................................................. 21

Recognized abbreviations of journals ............................................................................................ 21

Use of full stops .............................................................................................................................. 21

Appendix: Critical Writing

University of Leicester, School of Law

1

THE WRITING GUIDE

WHO SHOULD USE THIS GUIDE

This guide is written for undergraduates writing practice essays, semester essays, and course work in law. It is

directed primarily at those modules which are assessed by course work, though much of what it says is equally

relevant to writing essays which do not count for formal assessment.

There are three types of essay which form part of the undergraduate syllabus in law:

Practice essays: these are essays whose purpose is formative, that is, to allow you to practise your writing.

They do not count towards your final grade in the module. But failure to submit practice essays is recorded

and treated in much the same way as an unexplained absence from a tutorial.

Semester essays: those courses which consist of two modules running back to back across the two semesters

and which do not have any course work component include a requirement that each student produce a

semester essay at the end of the first semester. It does not count towards the final grade in the two modules.

However, visiting students here for only one semester may be formally assessed through semester essays.

Course work refers to written work undertaken outside the examination room which counts, in whole or in

part, for the final grade in the module.

This guide addresses the task of writing essays, of structuring your arguments, of properly referencing your

material, and of presenting your material in an attractive manner.

There is a more advanced guide entitled Writing a Research Paper, which is written for final year

undergraduates writing dissertations and for taught postgraduates writing research papers and dissertations

on their degree programmes.

It is important to spend some time studying the conventions of legal writing as presented in this guide before

starting to write your first essay. There is no reason why, as a consequence of studying this guide, your essay

cannot be very well presented and perfectly referenced. The guide highlights practical ways in which you can

produce an essay which is well organized, clearly presented and correctly referenced.

The matter of achieving a good writing style and critical engagement with the focus of the title is more

complex. That will develop the more you read, the more you write, the more you work at your writing, and the

more you listen to and reflect upon the feedback you get on your writing.

When writing any essay, you should always consult the relevant regulations, any Code of Practice applicable

to your programme, your Undergraduate Handbook, and any specific guidance provided in relation to the

module in which you are writing your essay. Follow any specific guidance for the essay in preference to the

general guidance given in this guide.

ASSESSED ESSAYS

Most of you will be familiar with this form of assessment. For some, however, it will be new. All essays are

asking you to express your knowledge and understanding of aspects of your subject. Writing an essay is a form

of active learning. Your essays will enable your tutors to assess the extent and depth of your knowledge,

Seventh edition 2009

2 The basics

including your abilities at legal research, the construction of argument, and the effective presentation of your

ideas. We will also want to see that you can write concisely, clearly and accurately.

THE BASICS

The task of writing an assessed essay involves:

• finding out what is expected of you;

• managing your time;

• understanding what the essay title requires;

• selecting a title that offers you sufficient scope to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding ;

• occasionally selecting and developing critical points from lectures and tutorials;

• gathering material for the essay;

• summarizing and reflecting on information from a range of legal resources;

• putting in your own ideas and conclusions;

• planning the structure of the essay;

• expressing yourself clearly and succinctly;

• writing and revising a draft, that is, editing the text by checking the relevance of what you have

written and the clarity of its content;

• citing authority for your arguments;

• using the required form of citation for the authorities that you use.

• proof reading to correct surface errors in grammar, spelling and punctuation;

• avoiding plagiarism.

OUR EXPECTATIONS

Those who are charged with the assessment of your work will assume that it is a serious piece of work seeking

to answer the question set. In assessing your work, the examiners will be looking for evidence that:

Seventh edition 2009

• you have read the key sources relevant to your title with a questioning mind;

• you have understood the material and arguments contained in your main sources;

• you can relate general theory to specific examples;

• everything in the essay, whether it is based on your reading materials or your own ideas, is relevant to

the title;

• you can construct a reasoned argument, taking account of differing points of view;

• you can write clearly and use the terminology of the subject appropriately;

• you can follow the correct conventions as to the presentation of your material;

• you can reference your writing in accordance with the standard conventions for the citation of

authorities, inclusion of footnotes, and a bibliography, if required.

REQUIREMENTS

ESSAY QUESTIONS AND PROBLEM QUESTIONS

What you are asked to do may take a number of forms. It could be a ‘traditional’ essay asking you to consider

some aspect of the law, or it could be a problem testing your ability to apply your knowledge to a factual

situation. Most writing you are asked to do as a law student involves a structured piece of writing and the

ordered presentation of an argument well supported by authority. You will not be asked simply to ‘write all

3

you know about’ a particular topic; yet some students cannot resist surveying an area of law when something

much more discriminating is being requested. Many lecturers report that this remains a common defect found

both in course work and in examination scripts.

WORD LIMITS

All essays will carry a word limit. This may vary. Footnotes are always included in the word limit. Writing to a

prescribed length and format involves skills which you will find useful in a wide range of vocational settings

after you have graduated.

Whatever the word limit, it has not been fixed at random, but has been determined as the appropriate space

in which to answer the questions set. You may feel that not enough space has been allowed, but you should

realize that the word limit is imposed to test your ability to express yourself clearly and concisely. By refining

your essay plan, you should be able to gauge the amount of detail needed to develop the main points.

Failure to comply with the word limits will result in the imposition of penalties in accordance with the

University’s procedures; do check these in your Undergraduate Handbook. You will be required to declare the

number of words in your essay, which directs your mind to the required word limit. Word limits are strictly

applied; there is no policy of ignoring small over-runs in word limits. It is cheating to declare an inaccurate

word count.

SUBMISSION DEADLINES

Always check the deadline for submission, and keep to it. The time and manner of submission are formal

requirements, and must be strictly observed. If the deadline is noon and you submit an hour later, you have

missed the deadline. A standard system of penalties operates in the University in relation to late submission.

Again familiarize yourself with the rules which can be found in your Undergraduate Handbook. You may be

required to submit both hard copy and an electronic copy of your work.

The standard rule in the law school is that tutors will set out their requirements for submission of practice

essays. But there is a much more formal system for submission of course work which is for formal assessment,

that is, which provides or contributes to your final mark for a particular module. Such work must be handed in

personally to the School Office, and you will be given a receipt for it. Do not lose this; it is your proof that you

have submitted the material in time.

If for any reason you wish to submit your work in any form other than personal submission, you must seek

formal permission to do so. Permission will only be given for special reasons. The procedure is set out in your

Undergraduate Handbook.

We do, however, take a sympathetic view of problems beyond your control which affect your ability to submit

work by the required deadline. There is a system under which you can ask for an extension of the deadline for

the submission of any work.

For practice essays, you should see your tutor and explain the problem.

For course work, there is a more formal procedure which is explained in your Undergraduate Handbook. But

you should also see your subject tutor and your personal tutor for advice as soon as it becomes clear that you

may have a problem meeting a deadline. Where the reasons for the extension are health-related, some

medical evidence is required to support your application. You may also be asked for some evidence of other

personal circumstances which affect your ability to submit work on time.

4 Managing your time

Retrospective extensions of the deadline for submission are only given in the most exceptional circumstances.

You are normally required to seek the extension in advance of the deadline for submission or you run the risk

that you will incur the penalties set out above.

Never be casual or cavalier about deadlines; the law school takes them very seriously. Organizing your life to

meet deadlines is part of developing a sense of responsibility in managing the many demands on your time.

MANAGING YOUR TIME

Find out the deadline for submission. Then work backwards to determine how much time you will be able to

spend on the assignment. The time you need to write a good essay for assessment should not take you away

from the study of other subjects.

Think carefully and constructively about the time and resources you will need to write the essay. This is the

way to avoid panic and staying up all night at the last minute. It is unlikely that you will do your best work if

you do not organize yourself and your time.

Spend some time thinking about how and when you work best. Follow this pattern in writing assessed essays.

You might find the following grid useful in identifying your own work style. Ticking the left box means that you

strongly agree with the proposition set out there. Ticking the right box means that you identify most with the

proposition set out there. Use the other three boxes to show shades of opinion in between the two extremes:

Develop ideas quickly

Needs lots of thinking time

Quick to see resources needed

Need time to collect resources

See immediately what to do

Need time to grow into topic

Good at speed reading

Need to read slowly

Can work anywhere

Work best in a particular place(s)

Write best in a single session

Write best in several sessions

Need lots of breaks

Tend not to need breaks

Work best in the morning

Work best in the evening

Filling in this grid will help your awareness of the working methods that best suit you. Think about now much

time you will need for each stage of the essay writing process: research, reading, thinking, writing, and

5

UNDERSTANDING THE QUESTION

TOPIC AREA, FOCUS AND INSTRUCTION

Keeping in mind the notions of topic area, focus and instruction will help you to answer the question set and to

avoid the inclusion of irrelevant material in your response. Attention to topic area, focus and instruction

applies to both the traditional essay question and to problems.

The topic area is the broad area or areas of the syllabus you are being invited to consider. The focus of the

question will indicate how you are being asked to present your knowledge of the topic area or areas. The

instruction will specify what you are to do with your knowledge in applying it to the question set.

This technique of breaking down questions into topic area, focus and instruction can be applied both to essays

and to problems. It can assist you in deciding how much space to allocate to the discussion of the points raised

in the question.

ESSAY QUESTIONS

"Inquisitorial procedures remove the need for representation in tribunals"

Discuss

The topic area is representation in tribunals, while the focus is on inquisitorial procedures. The instruction is

‘Discuss’. This enables you to look at all sides of the argument, since it is a broad instruction. It is not, however,

an invitation to write generally about tribunals, or about inquisitorial procedures.

Two variations on this essay title appear below. Think about how your approach would vary if you were writing

an essay on one of these titles.

Assess the contribution of inquisitorial procedures to reducing the need for representation in tribunals.

Argue the case that inquisitorial procedures remove the need for representation in tribunals.

PROBLEM QUESTIONS

You can apply the technique of topic area, focus and instruction to problems, though problems are likely to

have more than one topic area.

One night, Jeremy's car is found badly damaged when he returns from taking his new girlfriend, Belinda, out

to dinner. It has been rammed by another vehicle while parked. Jeremy tells the police that his former

girlfriend, Penelope, threatened to smash up his car if he ever went out with Belinda.

The police call at Penelope's house and question her; she denies all knowledge of the incident. The police

then arrest Penelope and search her house and garage, where they find a car with damage to the front

bumper. Penelope refuses to say how the damage was caused. She is taken to the police station where the

police tell her that the paint from her car matches flakes of paint found on Jeremy's car. This is untrue.

Penelope then makes a statement admitting that she drove into Jeremy's car, but did not intend to cause

much damage. She is charged with criminal damage.

Advise Penelope

(a) on the determination of her mode of trial, and

(b) on the consequences of any unlawful action taken by the police.

The topic areas are mode of trial, arrest, search powers, and questioning of suspects. The focus is on

determining the mode of trial, and the exercise of police powers. The instruction is to advise Penelope. The

instruction is specific here; it names two areas to consider and you are advising the person charged, not the

6 Gathering material

victim of the offence. Your answer would look very different if you were asked to advise Jeremy on his

remedies.

SELECTING A QUESTION FROM A LIST

You will often have a choice of question to answer. If you look through the choice of essay titles carefully,

bearing in mind instruction, topic area and focus, you will avoid the trap of focusing on the general area at the

expense of what the question is really about and you will be better equipped to select a title you will enjoy

writing on.

The key to selecting a title from a set list is to remember that the titles have been prepared and selected with

great care. The lecturer will have a clear notion of the ideas and content you are to cover in responding to the

title. If the lecturer merely wanted you to write all you know about the topic covered, you would be instructed

to do this. That you are never so instructed indicates that the lecturer is looking for more than the

regurgitation of your notes.

This is not say that there is a predetermined ‘right’ answer to any question, but it does mean that there are

clear limits on the number of responses legitimately available.

In selecting a title from a given list, ask the following questions:

1. What is the general area of content demanded by the question?

2. What are the specific concepts on which the topic is focused?

3. What conclusions are to be drawn? You will almost always be asked to make a judgment on a topic.

4. What aspects of the subject are being covered?

Having regard to your answers to these questions, choose a title which reflects your own interest and the time

and resources at your disposal to complete it.

GATHERING MATERIAL

PLANNING

If you have analyzed the essay title or problem carefully, you will have a clear idea of the relevant topic areas

and be in a position to collect together the material you will need to answer the question effectively. It is good

practice to make a provisional plan before beginning your research, as this provides you with a clear idea of

questions you need to explore and your information requirements.

The sources you will use will include your lecture notes, materials you prepared for tutorials, your text books,

and any additional materials on the Blackboard pages for the module. But these materials alone are unlikely to

be all you will need. Most essays or problems will require you to carry out some research in the library or on

the internet. This might be something simple like reading cases or statutes, or one or two key articles or

research reports, to which reference has been made in class. On the other hand, it might require you to seek

out new materials in a new area. Remember to read carefully any specific guidance which accompanied the

essay titles.

This guide assumes that you have followed the legal skills instruction you were offered in the first semester of

your first year. It does not repeat here material covered there.

Part of the initial task of gathering material for your answer is the identification of ideas and issues raised by

the question. This enables you to begin to appreciate how wide (or narrow) the coverage of the question is.

7

The thinking and planning stage should lead to a clearer focus on the key issues raised by the question, which

will assist you in meeting the word limit while providing an effective answer to the question. It should also

enable you to develop confidence in what to leave out. Many students find it difficult to decide what material

is not relevant to the answer.

You may find it helpful at this stage to review your provisional plan of the contents of your answer. This can

help to prevent your getting side-tracked as you get interested in material you read during the research stage.

RESEARCH

At this point it is time to visit the library, in person and online. Research is not a treasure hunt with the prize

being the perfect answer to your question hidden somewhere in the library. This is particularly true if you plan

to use the internet to collect information. Your work in the library is the gathering of information not available

in the books you own. You are using one of the University's major learning resources. Do not spend excessive

amounts of time seeking to unearth every conceivable piece of written material on the topic areas covered.

Equally do not ignore a principal case, report or article just because it is not on the library shelf when you look

for it.

Remember that you can ask a librarian for help if you get into difficulties or cannot find something you are

looking for.

A key requirement at this stage is to have a system for organizing the material you collect. An absolute

requirement is to ensure that you have full references for everything you read. This will save you hours later

on if you need to reference the material or find it again. If you make photocopies or print material from the

web, make sure you know exactly where they came from. Develop your own system for organizing material

you collect for your essays. After you have finished each period of work in the library, spend a few minutes

organizing your material. Remember that references scribbled on odd bits of paper have an annoying habit of

getting lost.

As you read material you will evaluate its usefulness. The material might be directly in point but ten years old.

If timeliness if key to your research (and it often will be), this will significantly lower the value of this material

for you. The material might be in point and up-to-date, but treated very briefly in one of the weekly law

journals. This too will affect its value for you.

WEB-BASED RESOURCES

Two good starting points are the Law Subject Room on the Library website, and the Blackboard pages for the

module.

Determining the quality of information is a key part of every aspect of research, but is particularly important

when relying on web-based material.

The CARS Checklist is designed for ease of learning and use:

• Credibility

• Accuracy

• Reasonableness

• Support

8 Avoiding plagiarism

The CARS Checklist is summarized as follows on www.virtualsalt.com/evalu8it.htm

Credibility

Accuracy

Reasonableness

Support

trustworthy source, author’s credentials, evidence of quality

control, known or respected authority, organizational support.

Goal: an authoritative source, a source that supplies some good

evidence that allows you to trust it.

up to date, factual, detailed, exact, comprehensive, audience

and purpose reflect intentions of completeness and accuracy.

Goal: a source that is correct today (not yesterday), a source

that gives the whole truth.

fair, balanced, objective, reasoned, no conflict of interest,

absence of fallacies or slanted tone. Goal: a source that engages

the subject thoughtfully and reasonably, concerned with the

truth.

listed sources, contact information, available corroboration,

claims supported, documentation supplied. Goal: a source that

provides convincing evidence for the claims made, a source you

can triangulate (find at least two other sources that support it).

NOTE-TAKING

Note-taking still has a role to play in the age of the photocopier and the internet. Even if you photocopy or

download lots of material and highlight it, you should still be making notes of your thoughts as you read

through the material. Photocopying and downloading should not be thought of as substitutes for reading and

evaluation.

Precision and relevance are the core qualities of good notes. Adopt a system which will enable you to know

whether your note is a précis of the whole piece, a paraphrase of part of it, or a direct quote. If you cannot

identify which when you come to use the material later, you may inadvertently plagiarize the material. This is

particularly true if you take notes directly onto the computer, and cut and paste material from your notes into

your essay. It is good practice to write directly quoted material in red (together with a page reference)—or to

type it in italics, or in some other readily identifiable way, on the computer—so that it can easily be identified

as quoted material at a later stage of your work.

How do you choose between a paraphrase and a quotation when you come across a comment directly in point

which you are pretty sure you will include in your essay? A paraphrase is relevant where it is the content of the

material which is important, while a quotation is appropriate where the mode of expression of the idea

captures it in a particularly effective or characteristic way. In law, the quotation from a reported case also has

a particular role to play as the statement of authority for a legal proposition.

AVOIDING PLAGIARISM

Plagiarism is the presentation of the thoughts or writings of others as your own. It is a form of cheating. Please

read the University's statement on academic dishonesty in the Undergraduate Regulations, and the section on

plagiarism in the Undergraduate Handbook.

Collaborative work can also lead to plagiarism. While we encourage collaboration in some of your work (for

example, in preparation for tutorials), when we come to assessment, we want to assess your work alone.

Unless you have been expressly assigned a group project, you must not collaborate with others in the

9

preparation of your assessed essays. In addition, you must not use another student’s notes, essay or essay

drafts as the basis for your own work. You must never cut and paste sections of another student’s material as

part of your essay. To do any of these things constitutes plagiarism just as much as if you had copied the

material from a book or some internet resource.

Whenever you draw on the ideas of others, you must say so. The common form of acknowledgement is the

citation of the source in a footnote.

Assessed work which contains plagiarized material will be severely penalized. Serious cases of plagiarism

involve acts of dishonesty. The professional bodies may take the view that a person guilty of plagiarism is not a

suitable person to join the legal profession.

Everyone knows that it is cheating to copy someone else's work whether it has been published or not. So

copying a fellow student's work is just as much plagiarism as copying out of a published book.

Rather more complex is the extent to which you can rely on the work of others. The following guidelines may

help you to develop a proper sense of when you need to acknowledge a source:

1. Part of the task of research is to collect together a range of ideas and to take account of them in

forming your own ideas. You should include all the key books and articles you have used to collect

that range of ideas in your bibliography (if one is required), regardless of whether you have referred

to them expressly in your text.

2. You must include a reference to specific ideas or conclusions of others on which you rely by the use of

an attributed quotation or the reporting of the idea or conclusion in a reference like a footnote.

3. Do not assume that, because a text has not been referred to by your tutors, they are unaware of its

contents. It is generally easy for tutors to spot material which is not your own, either because they are

familiar with the source or because your writing style suddenly changes. Some of your assessed work

will be submitted to a plagiarism detection service.

Plagiarism can take many forms. All forms of plagiarism are taken seriously. The law school has prepared an

online tutorial on how to avoid plagiarism, and all those using this guide are advised in the strongest terms to

complete that tutorial.

The online tutorial can be found at:

connect.le.ac.uk/plagiarismlaw/

If you complete this tutorial, you should probably not have to worry that your writing might contain material

which has been plagiarized, since you will know what plagiarism is and how to avoid it. If you are still uncertain

about what constitutes plagiarism after completing this tutorial, see your personal tutor or your subject tutor.

YOUR IDEAS

You may find that putting in your own ideas and conclusions is difficult. After all you are studying the subject

for the first time and the more you read, the more it seems that all the ideas have been explored. However,

many of your essay titles and problems will have been set in areas where there is more than one view. You are

expected to collect the evidence, use it, and form your own conclusions. Your tutors are not expecting you to

have startling new insights into the subject, but they do want you to be clear for yourselves and for them what

you have understood about the topic area. The emphasis in higher education is on active learning, which

means that you must be deeply involved in your own legal education and not simply be good at getting down a

set of lecture notes.

10 Planning your answer

Your own ideas should be rooted in the literature of the subject. The bizarre irrelevance will be seen as just

that and not as a brilliant insight. Your conclusions must follow from the material you have used and be related

to it.

However, the hallmark of a distinction level essay can sometimes be found in the way in which you have

related the focus of the essay question to other topic areas, sometimes in other areas of law being studied.

Such linkages may well advance the argument in an interesting way and demonstrate a higher level of literacy

in the language of the law.

One way of developing your skills in independent thinking is critical reading and critical writing. An appendix to

this guide reprints the Student Learning Centre’s advice on critical writing, which many students have found

helpful.

PLANNING YOUR ANSWER

You will continue to develop the structure of your ideas as you prepare a draft of your answer. Where you

start will be a matter for you, but you need not start on the first page of the first section. You may prefer to

write a section setting out the background to the problem you are exploring rather than the introduction to

the essay. Do remember the provisional plan you made at an earlier stage. If you find that your writing does

not fit the plan, revise it.

Remember that your purpose is to present reasoned argument based on authority. When you write, you will

discover some difficult areas; you will identify areas that you think will need re-drafting; you will write too

much on some areas and need to prune the material; and you will identify gaps to be filled.

If you have trouble getting started, begin with a section that is more straightforward and you will soon find the

flow of words is there. Do not put off the task of getting words onto the page. It is easier to revise a text than

to start from scratch. But do not fall into the trap of regarding words on the page as unchangeable.

Your essay will be broken into sections. You should plan a system of headings. You will not need more than

two levels of heading for an assessed essay. Be consistent in the use of headings and use them as a guide to

the reader. Headings are signposts which can indicate to the reader how the argument is developing. In

answers to problem questions, they signal very effectively that you are moving from one aspect of the

problem to another.

Sometimes it is helpful to produce an outline, that is, just the list of main headings and sub-headings. Most

word processors will generate an outline automatically for the headings you use if they are defined as a style in

the document template. The outline shows the shape and structure of your paper and can illustrate quite

dramatically whether too much attention is being given to one aspect of the question at the expense of other

aspects.

EXPRESSING YOURSELF CLEARLY

SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES

When seeing students to offer feedback, lecturers are frequently told, ‘I meant to say that’. But your lecturers

can only mark what you have said, and cannot know what you meant to say. Your ability to express yourself

concisely, clearly and accurately is one of the skills we are testing. Always try to write simply and clearly.

Accept that you can always improve the clarity of your writing.

11

If you are not sure about the use of certain standard grammatical forms, refer to a useful set of short

information sheets produced by the Student Learning Centre: www.le.ac.uk/slc/

Keep one idea to each sentence, and make sure your sentences are not too long. The Plain English Campaign

has lots of useful advice on keeping your writing crystal clear: www.plainenglish.co.uk/

It is vital to proof read your essay, and it can be helpful to ask a friend to read through your final draft for

grammar, spelling and punctuation inaccuracies.

There is considerable focus at all levels of education on what are called core transferable skills. These are those

skills which can be learned in one context and readily be transferred to another context. The ability to express

yourself clearly and succinctly in writing is a good example of such a skill. You will already have writing skills,

but they can almost certainly be improved and developed. A frequent regret expressed by lecturers is that

students could improve their performance without needing to know more if only they would express

themselves more clearly. The message is, therefore, to pay attention to the clarity of your writing. This is one

of the skills being measured in this form of assessment.

Here are some writing hints, which you may find obvious, but lecturers frequently complain that they are not

observed:

• Write in complete sentences.

• Do not write very long sentences; the meaning can get obscured. A good guide is not to exceed twenty

words in any sentence.

• Use punctuation effectively; punctuation consists of more than full stops and commas!

• Use paragraphs effectively; a new paragraph signals a new idea or area of discussion.

• Pay due attention to spelling and grammar.

The usual requirement is for assessed essays to be word processed. You are expected to develop these skills if

you do not already have them. Practice essays might, however, be submitted in hand-written form; check your

tutor’s requirements. If you can hand in your essay in hand-written form, make sure that your handwriting is

neat and legible. Lecturers are human and are influenced by the legibility and readability of your work. How

you present your work sends out strong signals about how much you value your own work.

USING GENDER NEUTRAL LANGUAGE

A recognized feature of good modern writing is the use of gender neutral language. This means avoiding the

use of male terms when the person about whom you are writing could just as easily be a woman as a man.

The use of ‘he’ when referring to judges, lawyers, students or any group of people is seen as re-inforcing

gender stereo-typing of certain groups. The old convention that the term ‘he’ also included ‘she’ is no longer

regarded as acceptable in many quarters.

The use of a plural rather than a singular will often enable the gender neutral personal pronoun ‘their’ to be

used. So:

Lawyers are products of their background.

is preferable to

A lawyer is the product of his background.

12 Expressing yourself clearly

But it is increasingly common (and The Oxford Guide to the English Language reports the usage as going back

five centuries!) for the plural pronoun to be used since English has no singular pronoun to denote common

gender. This can produce inelegant sentences. So, some would regard

A lawyer is the product of their background

as odd. In this case using ‘lawyers’ in the plural avoids the inelegant language. A further alternative would be

A lawyer is the product of his or her background.

This usage is unwieldy if repeated too often, but its occasional use can be effective in showing the reader that

the writer is aware that lawyers are just as likely to be women as men.

Obviously, there will be occasions where the use of the singular pronoun is appropriate:

Everyone in the women's movement has had her own experience of sexual discrimination.

When creating examples to illustrate your argument, think whether all your examples from a particular group

are men or women. A good piece of writing will reflect a growing concern with gender equality at all levels of

our lives.

SOME GENERAL PRACTICES IN WRITING

The following guidance picks up one or two areas where there are general writing conventions.

Latin or foreign words or phrases, whether abbreviated or not, should usually appear in italics, unless the

phrase has passed into common English usage:

mens rea

sine qua non

quantum meruit

prima facie

ultra vires

raison d’être

Much helpful guidance on spelling and whether something should appear in italics can be found in The Oxford

Dictionary for Writers and Editors, Clarendon Press, 1981. [REF 808.0203 OXF]

You may also find Fowler's Modern English Usage [REF 428.003 FOW] or Oxford English: A Guide to the

Language [REF 428 DEA] helpful reference material to clear up any confusion you might have about the proper

use or spelling of particular words used in particular contexts. One relevant example is that the word

‘judgment’ is spelled without a middle ‘e’ when used in legal contexts, whereas in other contexts it is spelled

‘judgement’.

Names of foreign courts should appear in roman and not in italics:

Conseil d'Etat

Bundesverfassungsgericht

13

Hoge Raad

Capital letters should only be used where strictly necessary. Capital letters should not be used for court (unless

referring to a particular court) judge (unless used as part of a title) or state (unless referring to a particular

state, for example, the State of Victoria).

Numbers up to 20 should be written in words in the text. The numbers 20 and above should appear as

numbers; so

three

seventeen

24

Percentages should be written in numbers and the words ‘per cent’ should be used rather than the symbol %:

75 per cent.

WRITING AND REVISING A DRAFT

THE FIRST DRAFT IS FOR YOU

We have already touched on a number of aspects of preparing the draft of your essay. The first draft is for you,

not for the assessor. So it need not be perfectly polished or perfectly expressed. But it should be in the form of

the final text. This means that it should include an introduction and conclusion, and include all the points you

expect to make in the order you expect to make them.

THE INTRODUCTION

There should always be some form of introduction. The introduction does not need to be long; a short sharp

introduction can be a most effective start to an essay. The purpose of the introduction is to show the reader

what you understand to be the issues raised by the question and how you propose to tackle them. It is also the

place to define any key terms for the essay, or to state any assumptions you are making in responding to the

question set.

In the introduction, you should avoid repeating the question. Nor is this the place to develop your argument. It

may, however, be appropriate to spell out the implications of the question in a little more detail in order that

you can pursue your argument within a well ordered framework. Whether it is the place to give notice of your

conclusion is much more contentious. Some people argue that the introduction is no place to state your

conclusion. Others say that a statement like:

I shall be arguing in this essay that Professor Lapping’s thesis on privity of contract is fundamentally flawed.

is extremely powerful and makes the reader sit up and take notice. Even if this technique is used, you should

note that the introduction is not the place to say why the thesis is flawed.

THE BODY OF THE ANSWER

The body of your answer contains the development of the argument and all the essential information to

sustain your conclusion.

14 Writing and revising a draft

The body of the answer will be divided into a number of sections. Think about what these sections should be

and begin each section with an indication of its purpose. The skilful use of headings can provide very helpful

signposts to the reader here. Be consistent in the use of headings; you are unlikely to need more than two

levels of heading for an assessed essay. Use examples to illustrate the points you are making and include your

own comment to explain the significance of those points.

Quotations can be useful, but an essay which is merely a collection of quotations will not score highly. The key

is to be selective in the use of quoted material and to weave it carefully into the fabric of your answer. Avoid

writing an essay which is a ‘quotation sandwich’, that is, a few lines of text followed by a quotation

throughout.

You should take care not to jump around among the issues raised by the question. If you find that you are

doing this, take another look at the plan and see whether there is an adjustment to it that can be made to

avoid this.

One of the most important things to remember is that all statements must be supported by evidence or

authority. This is an absolute must in legal writing.

Finally, you should check that the content of the main sections of your answer reflects what you have

indicated you would cover in the introduction. If it does not, one or the other (or possibly both) need to be

revised.

THE CONCLUSION

The conclusion draws together the threads of your argument. It does not repeat those arguments. Nor does it

repeat the introduction. The conclusion should focus on the question set and state how you have answered

the question. There should be no new arguments in the conclusion.

If you have undertaken a problem question, then the conclusion can summarize your conclusions on the range

of issues which has been raised.

REVISING THE FIRST DRAFT

You should allow yourself time to review your draft. Do not leave everything to the last minute. Reviewing

material you have written is best done after a break of a couple of days. If you review the draft immediately,

you will have in mind what you intended to say. If you review it a couple of days later, you will be much more

objective in evaluating whether the text says what you want it to. The assessor does not have the benefit of

being able to ask you what you mean. So the text must be clear and speak for itself.

Once you have completed your first draft, you can engage in self-criticism. Look at what you have written. Is it

clear in its message? At this stage you should be able to produce your main argument in summary form, say, in

100-150 words. Try this. Can you do it? If so, does the essay lead in this direction? Are some sections too

detailed compared with others? Are there gaps in the reasoning?

You will be reviewing both the content and the style and presentation. If a friend is willing to read through the

draft, they can tell you whether the sense is clear. Friends obviously cannot assist you with the substance of

your work, but advice on the clarity of the writing and argument can be an invaluable part of the process of

self-assessment.

The following self-evaluation questions about your text will draw your attention to important aspects of your

15

• Is the argument clear?

• Are the main points sufficiently developed and the examples appropriate?

• Is there appropriate reference to authority to support the essay’s propositions?

• Are the introduction and conclusion effective?

• Do you think it is a good piece of writing?

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

You will often be asked to produce a bibliography at the end of your written work. If so, this will be assessed,

and so treat the preparation of your bibliography seriously. The bibliography lists the resources you have used

to prepare your essay. It appears at the end of the text. It is good practice to list separately (1) primary sources

divided into statutory material and cases, (2) books and chapters in books, and (3) articles from journals.

Material in your bibliography should be listed in alphabetical order, unless otherwise directed.

For most assessed essays, the bibliography will not need to be elaborate. There will be three relatively short

sections. The first should give the proper reference to statutory material and cases on which you have relied.

The second should list all the books, chapters in books of essays, and research and policy reports used. The

third should list all the articles from journals used. All three sets of materials must be cited in accordance with

the system the law school has adopted on which guidance appears below.

USING YOUR TUTOR EFFECTIVELY

For much of the work covered by this guide, you will not have a supervisor, and your tutor is not expected to

spend time helping you with your work. Once you have been given general guidance on the task assigned, you

will be expected to get on with it on your own. Part of what we are testing is your abilities in this regard.

If you are able to seek advice from your subject tutor, use this session wisely. The role of the tutor is not to redraft

your essay for you so that it will achieve a higher mark, or to tell you what the answer to the question is.

The tutor’s role is to sharpen your own ability to assess whether the essay shows strengths and where further

work is needed. The more you are willing to engage in discussion about your ideas, the more helpful you will

find any feedback you receive at this stage.

Even where (as will be common) the essay is to be completed without supervision or guidance, remember that

you can consult your subject tutor if you find that you are in difficulties. If you are having trouble with the

assignment, then the sooner you consult, the sooner you will be able to address the difficulty. Delay at this

stage is not a sensible choice. Try and specify what your precise difficulties are in the form of questions on

which you can focus with your subject tutor.

Remember also that, if your difficulties relate to more general problems you are experiencing, you can consult

your personal tutor for general advice in coping with your studies.

WORD PROCESSING

Assessed essays should be word processed. There are plenty of word processing facilities available for student

use and learning to use them is a valuable skill in itself.

The law school expects you to be a competent word processor. Do take advantage of the training we offer you

if you do not have this skill. The law school has a computer officer, who can help students experiencing

difficulties in using the facilities available on the campus network.

16 Specific requirements for particular essays

Always have a backup in case things go wrong when using the computer. You should also save your current

work on the computer you are using at least every ten minutes, so that you will always be able to go back to a

very recent version if things go wrong with the version you are working on. You can set up most word

processing packages to do this automatically. Keep your USB stick safe if that is where you keep your backup.

Use of computing facilities available to you on campus is the safest means of preparing your essay. If you are

using a machine of your own, or making use of one belonging to a friend, make sure you know what operating

system and word processing software it uses and whether it is compatible with the University system when

you want to make a printout of your essay for submission.

SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS FOR PARTICULAR ESSAYS

Always check the instructions you have been given in the module for which you are writing your essay. Follow

the requirements set out there, even if they conflict with the general guidance given in this guide.

All course work is assessed without our knowing who you are. You will be asked to include only your student

anonymity number on the material which will go to the tutor. Take care to record this accurately, otherwise

we will not know who you are. Some students are too casual in recording this number, which requires

detective work on the part of academic and support staff to identify who you are.

When you hand in course work, you are required to complete a standard form declaration. Your work will not

be accepted by the School Office unless accompanied by such a declaration. You will be given a receipt. Keep it

safe; it is your proof that you have submitted your work. Remember that you may be required to submit both

hard copy and an electronic version of your work.

FEEDBACK ON YOUR WORK

You will get some brief feedback on your essays. Read through your essay and reflect on the feedback. This

way, you will develop your skills and learn from experience.

If you do not understand something indicated in the feedback, do consult your subject tutor or personal tutor.

However, you will get most out of this consultation if you are willing to listen. No one reacts well to a

confrontational meeting in which you demand that your essay be remarked. Most lecturers are happy to help

you understand what you need to do in order to improve. The best feedback reports let you know why you

have achieved the mark awarded, and what you would need to do to obtain a better mark.

If opportunities are offered for feedback meetings, do not expect a member of staff to offer you special

arrangements if you do not avail yourself of such a meeting at the specified time.

SOME RESOURCES

Remember that you can always raise a query with a subject tutor or your personal tutor. Also keep handy for

reference purposes your copy of the Undergraduate Handbook, the Undergraduate Regulations and your copy

of this guide. Note too that we keep virtually all of our guidance available online.

The Student Learning Centre is available to all students. It can be found on the second floor of the David

Wilson Library in the Student Development Zone. The Centre publishes many useful guides on aspects of your

work as an undergraduate. You can also see an adviser on a confidential basis if you are worried about your

skills in undertaking the tasks we set in the law school. Check out their website on www.le.ac.uk/slc/

17

You might also find the following books useful:

Bradney, A and others, How to Study Law, Sweet & Maxwell, (5 th ed, Sweet & Maxwell, London 2005) [340.07

HOW]

Dane, J and Thomas, P, How to use a Law Library. An Introduction to Legal Skills, (4 th ed., Sweet & Maxwell,

London 2001) [340.07 DAN].

Higgins, E and Tatham, L, Legal Writing, (Sweet & Maxwell, London, 2006) [340.0149 HIG].

Knowles J and Thomas, P. Effective Legal Research, (Sweet & Maxwell, London 2006) 340.072 THO].

Peck, J. and Coyle, M, The Student’s Guide to Writing. Grammar, Punctuation and Spelling, (2 nd ed., Palgrave,

Basingstoke 2005). [808.066 PEC]

Peck J and Coyle, M, Write it Right. A Handbook for Students, (Palgrave, Basingstoke 2005) [808.066 PEC]

Do not forget that the University Library has a vast array of resources to help you with your studies. A good

starting point if you want to development your information skills is: www.le.ac.uk/library/learning/index.html

18 The Oxford Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities

CITING AUTHORITIES

THE OXFORD STANDARD FOR THE CITATION OF LEGAL AUTHORITIES

The law school has decided that the required system of citation for all work done by undergraduates and

postgraduates in the law school is The Oxford Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities. This is known as

OSCOLA. All the examples given in this guide follow OSCOLA.

See denning.law.ox.ac.uk/published/oscola.shtml for the latest version.

You will be expected to develop familiarity with the requirements of OSCOLA as you progress through your

degree programme. This section of the guide only gives some very basic initial guidance, and is no substitute

for consulting OSCOLA.

Learning the proper citation and referencing conventions is part of the development of legal writing skills. You

will gain marks by using the recommended form of citation. Get used to using the OSCOLA system and you will

soon find that referencing your work is not a chore.

Whether or not footnotes are required in your assessed essay, there is always a requirement that you refer to

the authorities on which you have relied both generally in the preparation of your essay and specifically in

support of propositions appearing in your essay. The former is achieved by adding a bibliography to your work,

while the latter is achieved by footnotes or some other form of specific reference to the authority.

This guide proceeds on the basis that footnotes are the form in which you will cite specific authority and that a

bibliography is required as part of your essay. Do check specific guidance for each piece of work and follow that

guidance in preference to this general guidance if there is any conflict.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES

Legal sources are usually divided into primary sources and secondary sources. Primary sources are, as the

name suggests, original materials. Statutes, law reports and official publications are usually referred to as

primary source materials, though empirical studies may also be primary materials. Books, articles, comments

and notes are referred to as secondary materials: they comment on primary materials.

A common complaint from lecturers is that students tend to rely too heavily on secondary sources in preparing

essays without ever consulting the primary sources. This can lead to inattention to detail and a lack of

precision in your final work.

USING FOOTNOTES

INTRODUCTION

Footnoting involves the insertion of superscript numbers in the main body of the text which are expanded into

full references in notes appearing at the foot of each page.

Footnotes should be kept brief and to a minimum. Their main purpose is to point the reader to the authority

for propositions contained in the text. Sometimes footnotes are used to contain a comment which is not

central to the main discussion in the text, but which is nevertheless helpful in developing the argument to the

full. On occasion it is useful to relegate some points of detail to footnotes, but this should not be overdone.

19

Footnotes should be numbered consecutively throughout your essay using Arabic numerals, and appear single

spaced at the foot of each page. You will find that standard word processing packages perform this task for

you. Good, clear and accurate footnotes undoubtedly create a favourable impression in any research work.

FREQUENTLY CITED MATERIAL

If you are going to cite a work frequently in your paper, it is permissible to abbreviate the citation by choosing

an abbreviation and indicating this in the first full citation of the work, as for example:

4

Clare Ovey and Robin White, The European Convention on Human Rights, (4 th ed. Oxford University

Press, Oxford 2006) (cited hereafter as “Ovey and White”)

Subsequent references to the work either in the text or footnotes can then simply use the abbreviation. In

footnotes it is helpful to refer back to the footnote where the full reference is given, unless the abbreviation is

included in a table of abbreviations:

23

Ovey and White, n 4 above 248.

Note that use of the abbreviation ‘n’ for ‘footnote’.

In longer works (a dissertation as distinct from an assessed essay), a table of abbreviations is sometimes used

to list commonly used abbreviations.

LOCATION REFERENCES

There are a number of useful abbreviations, which explain where an authority can be found, or is cited in full.

The most frequently met are defined below.

ibid.

This is the Latin for ‘ibidem’, meaning ‘the same’; it does not appear in italics. Use only when a

citation is to the same authority as the immediately preceding citation in the same footnote, or

a previous footnote, and only where the previous footnote contains only one authority. In all

other cases use ‘above’:

Fiona Cownie, Anthony Bradney, and Mandy Burton English Legal System in Context, (4 th ed.

Oxford University Press, Oxford 2007 (cited in this paper as ‘Cownie, Bradney and Burton’).

ibid. 250.

above

This term indicates that the authority is cited fully at an earlier point, to which reference should

be made:

Cownie, Bradney and Burton, n 4 above 248.

below

Do not use ‘above’ for citations to cases or statutory material. If a case is cited frequently, it

may not be necessary to repeat the citation in a footnote every time it is mentioned. There is

no standard rule here. It might be helpful in some cases to include an abbreviated reference to

the case in a table of abbreviations. Use your common sense and ask yourself whether it would

help or annoy the reader to be referred to a footnote merely repeating the citation to the

source. Specific quotations from judgments should always be footnoted.

This signal is used if a point is discussed later in your paper. You may wish to provide more

guidance on where the material appears.

20 Some key rules in citing legal materials

op.cit.

loc.cit.

passim

This abbreviation is commonly used and is not italicized. Avoid the use of this locator. It stands

for opere citato and means ‘in the work cited’. It is used to refer to a work whose full citation

has been given earlier. It is often used as an alternative to ‘above’. The use of ‘above’ is to be

preferred because it always refers back to the location of the earlier citation making for ease of

reference.

This stands for loco citato which means ‘at the place quoted’. It is used similarly to ‘op. cit.’ and

its use should likewise be avoided.

This means ‘here and there’. The term is used if no particular section of the cited authority is

precisely in point, but there are useful comments here and there throughout the cited

authority. It indicates to a reader that not every part of the authority need be read, only those

parts relevant to the matter under discussion. The term is never used alone, only in conjunction

with a full reference to the particular source.

SIGNALS USED IN FOOTNOTES

As noted above, the main purpose of footnotes is to direct the reader to the authority for particular

propositions. There are a number of signals used by convention in footnotes to indicate the reason for the

citation of particular authority. These signals are only used in footnotes.

[no signal]

eg

see

contra

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Subject Guides

Academic writing: a practical guide

Academic writing
The writing process
Academic writing style
Structure & cohesion
Criticality in academic writing
Working with evidence
Referencing
Assessment & feedback
Dissertations
Reflective writing
Examination writing
Academic posters
Feedback on Structure and Organisation
Feedback on Argument, Analysis, and Critical Thinking
Feedback on Writing Style and Clarity
Feedback on Referencing and Research
Feedback on Presentation and Proofreading

Showing your understanding of a topic and the critical arguments that relate to it.

What are essays?

Most degree programmes include essays. They are the most common form of written assignment and so for most students, being good at essays is essential to gaining good marks, which lead to good grades, which lead to the degree classification desired. Essays are both a particular method of writing and a collection of sub-skills that students need to master during degree studies.

Find out more:

Essays: a Conceptual and Practical Guide [interactive tutorial] | Essays: a Conceptual and Practical Guide [Google Doc]

General essay writing

You have an essay to write... what next .

Read the assessment brief carefully to find out what the essay is about, what you are required to do specifically. What instructions are you given (discuss, explain, explore)? What choices do you need to make?
Work through the practical guide to essays above. This will help you to think about what an essay is and what is required of you.
Look at the assignment writing process . How will you produce your essay?
Make a plan for when, where, and how you will research, think, draft, and write your essay.
Execute your plan .
Finish early. Leave a couple of spare days at the end to edit and proofread .
Hand it in and move on to the next challenge!

Features of essay writing

Essays vary lots between disciplines and specific tasks, but they share several features that are important to bear in mind.

They are an argument towards a conclusion. The conclusion can be for or against a position, or just a narrative conclusion. All your writing and argumentation should lead to this conclusion.
They have a reader. It is essential that you show the logic of your argument and the information it is based on to your reader.
They are based on evidence . You must show this using both your referencing and also through interacting with the ideas and thinking found within the sources you use.
They have a structure. You need to ensure your structure is logical and that it matches the expectations of your department. You should also ensure that the structure enables the reader to follow your argument easily.
They have a word limit. 1000 words means 'be concise and make decisions about exactly what is important to include' whereas 3500 words means 'write in more depth, and show the reader a more complex and broad range of critical understanding'.
They are part of a discipline/subject area, each of which has conventions . For example, Chemistry requires third person impersonal writing, whereas Women's Studies requires the voice (meaning experiential viewpoint) of the author in the writing.

Types of essay

Each essay task is different and consequently the information below is not designed to be a substitute for checking the information for your specific essay task. It is essential that you check the assessment brief, module handbook and programme handbook, as well as attend any lectures, seminars and webinars devoted to the essay you are working on.

Essays in each subject area belong to a faculty (science, social sciences, arts and Humanities). Essays within the same faculty tend to share some features of style, structure, language choice, and scholarly practices. Please click through to the section relevant to your faculty area and if you want to be curious, the other ones too!

Arts & Humanities essays

Arts and Humanities is a faculty that includes a huge range of subject areas, from Music to Philosophy. Study in the arts and humanities typically focuses on products of the human mind, like music, artistic endeavour, philosophical ideas, and literary productions. This means that essays in the arts and humanities are typically exploring ideas, or interpreting the products of thinking (such as music, art, literature).

There are a range of essay writing styles in arts and humanities, and each subject area has its own conventions and expectations, which are explained and built into modules within each degree programme. Typically, each essay explores an idea, using critical engagement with source material, to produce an argument.

There is typically more reliance on the interpretation of ideas and evidence by the student than in the sciences and social sciences. For the student, the challenge is to understand and control the ideas in each essay, producing a coherent and logical argument that fulfils the essay brief. As with all essays, careful structure, word choices, and language use are essential to succeeding.

Department-specific advice for essays in Arts and Humanities

Some departments provide web-based advice:

English and Related Literature essay writing advice pages
Philosophy essay writing advice pages
Music Department 'House Style' guidance for essay writing
Language and Linguistic Science style guide

If your department does not appear above, do ask your supervisor or other academic staff what specific guidance is available.

Key Features of Arts and Humanities essays

They are based on evidence . It is important that ideas used in essays are derived from credible and usable sources to root your essay in the scholarly materials of the subject that you are writing about.
There is usually a thesis statement. This appears towards the end of your introductory paragraph, concisely outlining the purpose and the main argument of the essay. It is short (once sentence), concise, and precise. Though the essay may have multiple sub-arguments, all must tie into the thesis statement. This means it is important to know, state and stick to the primary focus set out in your thesis statement.
They require you to interpret evidence. It is unlikely that you will find a source that directly answers the essay question set. You will typically be required to interpret primary and secondary evidence. Primary evidence includes the manuscript of a novel, or a letter describing an historical event. Secondary evidence includes academic books and peer reviewed articles.
They require you to apply ideas. Many essays will ask you to apply an abstract idea to a scenario, or interpretation of something. For example, you could be asked to apply a Marxist ideology upon Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights or Post-Colonialist theories upon Shakespeare's The Tempest.
Essays vary greatly in terms of length, required depth of thinking and purpose. You must carefully read the assessment brief and any supporting materials provided to you. It is also important to complete formative tasks that prepare you for an essay, as these will help you to become use to the requirements of the summative essay.
They must show criticality. When interpreting evidence, or applying ideas in your essay you must be aware that there is more than one possible understanding. Through exploring multiple sources and showing the limits and interconnectedness of ideas you show criticality. More information on criticality can be found on the Criticality page of this guide .

Example extract of an arts and humanities essay

Essay Title: Liturgical expression and national identity during the reign of Æthelred the Unready

This essay is from English studies and shows typical features of an arts and humanities essay. It is examining two ideas, namely 'national identity' and 'liturgical expression' and applying them both to a period of history. The essay does this by analysing linguistic choices, using interpretation from the literature base to create an argument that addresses the essay title.

It also has the feature of the student using sources of evidence to offer an interpretation that may disagree with some published sources. This use of evidence to create an argument that is novel to the student and requires interpretation of ideas is typical of arts and humanities writing. '"engla God", these liturgical verses themselves both signify and enact a ritualised unity with God.' is an example from the essay extract that shows the careful language choices used to create a concise and precise argument that clearly conveys complex thought to the reader from the author.

One way of thinking about a good arts and humanities essay is that it is like you are producing a garment from threads. The overall piece has a shape that people can recognise and understand, and each word, like each stitch, builds the whole piece slowly, whilst some key threads, like core ideas in your argument, run through the whole to hold it all together. It is the threading together of the strands of argument that determines the quality of the final essay, just as the threading of strands in a garment determine the quality of the final piece.

Good arts and humanities essay writing is...

Based on evidence sources,
built on the interpretation and application of ideas, evidence and theories,
a clearly expressed, logical argument that addresses the essay question,
carefully constructed to guide the reader in a logical path from the introduction to the conclusion,
filled with carefully chosen language to precisely and accurately convey ideas and interpretations to the reader,
built on rigorous, careful and close analysis of ideas,
constructed using careful evaluation of the significance of each idea and concept used,
readable, meaning it is clear and logical, using clearly understandable English,
rewarded with high marks.

Common mistakes in arts and humanities essay writing

Not answering the question posed. It is very easy to answer the question you wished had been asked, or drift away from the question during your writing. Keep checking back to the question to ensure you are still focussed and make a clear plan before writing.
Moving beyond the evidence. You are required to interpret ideas and evidence that exist, this requires some application and novelty, but should not be making up new ideas/knowledge to make your argument work; your writing must be rooted in evidence.
Using complex and long words where simpler word choices would convey meaning more clearly. Think of the reader.
Leaving the reader to draw their own conclusion s, or requiring the reader to make assumptions. They must be able to see your thinking clearly on the page.
Using lots of direct quotes . There are times when using quotes is important to detail lines from a novel for example, but you need to use them carefully and judiciously, so that most of your writing is based on your use of sources, for which you gain credit.

Social Science essays

Social Sciences, as the name suggests, can be thought of as an attempt to use a 'scientific method' to investigate social phenomena. There is a recognition that applying the strict rules of the level of proof required in science subjects is not appropriate when studying complex social phenomena. But, there is an expectation of as much rigour as is possible to achieve in each investigation.

Consequently, there is a huge variation in the types of essays that can be found within the social sciences. An essay based on the carbon dating of human remains within Archaeology is clearly very different from an essay based on the application of an ethical framework in Human Resources Management. The former is likely to be much more like a science essay, whilst the latter may edge towards a Philosophy essay, which is part of arts and humanities.

Key features of social science essays

They are evidence-based. It is crucial to use the evidence in a way that shows you understand how significant the evidence used is.
They require interpretation of evidence . By its nature, evidence in social sciences may be less definite than in sciences, and so interpretation is required. When you interpret evidence, this too must be based on evidence, rather than personal opinion or personal observation.
They often require the application of abstract theories to real-world scenarios . The theories are 'clean and clear' and the real world is 'messy and unclear'; the skill of the student is to make plausible judgements. For example,
The level of detail and breadth of knowledge that must be displayed varies greatly, depending on the length of the essay. 1000 word essays need concise wording and for the student to limit the breadth of knowledge displayed in order to achieve the depth needed for a high mark. Conversely, 5000 word essays require both breadth and depth of knowledge.
They should show criticality. This means you need to show uncertainty in the theories and ideas used, and how ideas and theories interact with others. You should present counter-facts and counter-arguments and use the information in the literature base to reach supported conclusions and judgements.

Example extract of a social science essay

Essay Title: Who Gets What in Education and is that Fair?

Education in the western world has historically favoured men in the regard that women were essentially denied access to it for no other reason than their gender (Trueman,2016) and even though it would seem there is certainly “equality on paper” (Penny, 2010,p1.) when looking at statistics for achievement and gender, the reality is that the struggles facing anyone who does not identify as male require a little more effort to recognise. An excellent example of this can be found in the 2014 OECD report. In the UK women significantly outnumbered men in their application for university places- 376,860 women to 282,170 men (ICEF,2014)- but when observed closer men are applying for places at higher ranking universities and often studying in fields that will eventually allow them to earn better salaries. The same report praised women for the ability to combine their studies with family life and having higher aspirations than boys and therefore likely as being more determined to obtain degrees (ICEF, 2014), yet in reality women have very little choice about coping with the stressful burdens placed on them. The concepts of double burden and triple shift where women are expected to deal with housework and earning an income, or housework, raising children and earning an income (Einhorn, 1993) could in this case relate to the pressure for women to work hard at school to allow them to be able to provide for their families in future. Even women who do not necessarily have their own families or children to care for must face the double burden and triple shift phenomenon in the workplace, as women who work in the higher education sector almost always have the duty of a more pastoral and caring role of their students than male counterparts (Morley,1994).

Education is a social science subject. Some studies within it follow a scientific method of quantitative data collection, whilst others are more qualitative, and others still are more theoretical. In the case of this extract it is about gendered effects in university applications. This is an inevitably complex area to write about, intersecting as it does with social class, economic status, social norms, cultural history, political policy... To name but a few.

The essay is clearly based on evidence, which in places in numerical and in places is derived from previously written papers, such as 'triple shift where women are expected to deal with housework and earning an income, or housework, raising children and earning an income (Einhorn, 1993)', where the concept of triple shift is derived from the named paper. It is this interleaving of numerical and concrete facts with theoretical ideas that have been created and/or observed that is a typical feature in social sciences. In this case, the author has clearly shown the reader where the information is from and has 'controlled' the ideas to form a narrative that is plausible and evidence-based.

When compared to science writing, it can appear to be more wordy and this is largely due to the greater degree of interpretation that is required to use and synthesise complex ideas and concepts that have meanings that are more fluid and necessarily less precise than many scientific concepts.

Good social science essay writing is...

filled with clearly articulated thinking from the mind of the author,
well structured to guide the reader through the argument or narrative being created,
focussed on answering the question or addressing the task presented,
filled with carefully chosen evaluative language to tell the reader what is more and less significant,
readable - sounds simple, but is difficult to achieve whilst remaining precise,

Common mistakes in social science essay writing

Speculating beyond the limits of the evidence presented . It is important to limit your interpretation to that which is supported by existing evidence. This can be frustrating, but is essential.
Using complex words where simpler ones will do. It is tempting to try to appear 'clever' by using 'big words', but in most cases, the simplest form of writing something is clearer. Your aim is to clearly communicate with the reader.
Giving your personal opinion - this is rarely asked for or required.
Not answering the question or fulfilling the task . This is possibly the most common error and largely comes from letting one's own ideas infect the essay writing process.
Not being critical. You need to show the limits of the ideas used, how they interact, counter-arguments and include evaluation and analysis of the ideas involved. If you find yourself being descriptive, ask why.
Using lots of direct quotes, particularly in first year writing . Quotes should be rare and used carefully because they are basically photocopying. Use your words to show you have understood the concepts involved.

Science essays

Science essays are precise, logical and strictly evidence-based pieces of writing. They employ cautious language to accurately convey the level of certainty within the scientific understanding that is being discussed and are strictly objective. This means that the author has to make the effort to really understand the meaning and significance of the science being discussed.

In a science essay, your aim is to summarise and critically evaluate existing knowledge in the field. If you're doing your own research and data collection, that will be written up in a report instead.

The skill of the student is to thread together the ideas and facts they have read in a logical order that addresses the task set. When judgements are made they must be justified against the strength and significance of the theories, findings, and ideas being used. Generally, the student should not be undertaking their own interpretation of the results and facts, but instead be using those of others to create a justifiable narrative.

Example extract of a science essay

Essay title: To what extent has Ungerleider and Mishkin’s notion of separate ‘what’ and ‘where’ pathways been vindicated by neuropsychological research?

Van Polanen & Davare (2015) showed that the dorsal stream and ventral streams are not strictly independent, but do interact with each other. Interactions between dorsal and ventral streams are important for controlling complex object-oriented hand movements, especially skilled grasp. Anatomical studies have reported the existence of direct connections between dorsal and ventral stream areas. These physiological interconnections appear to gradually more active as the precision demands of the grasp become higher.

However, cognition is a dynamic process, and a flexible interactive system is required to coordinate and modulate activity across cortical networks to enable the adaptation of processing to meet variable task demands. The clear division of the dorsal and ventral processing streams is artificial, resulting from experimental situations, which do not reflect processing within the natural environment (Weiller et al., 2011). Most successful execution of visual behaviours require the complex collaboration and seamless integration of processing between the two systems.

Cloutman (2013) had stated that dorsal and ventral streams can be functionally connected in three regards: (1) the independent processing account – where they remain separate but terminate on the same brain area, (2) the feedback account – where feedback loops from locations downstream on one pathway is constantly providing input to the other and (3) the continuous cross-talk account – where information is transferred to and from the system constantly when processing.

Indeed, the authors found that there were numerous anatomical cross-connections between the two pathways, most notably between inferior parietal and inferior temporal areas. For example, ventral regions TE and TEO have been found to have extensive connectivity with dorsal stream areas, demonstrating direct projections with areas including V3A, MT, MST, FST and LIP (Baizer et al., 1991; Disler et al., 1993).

The first obvious comment is that it is not going to win a prize for literary entertainment! The writing is what one might call 'dry'. This is because it is good scientific writing. It is clearly evidence-based, and is explaining complex interrelationships in a way that is clear, leaves little for the reader to assume and that uses carefully graded language to show the significance of each fact.

The language choices are carefully aligned with the strength of the evidence that is used. For example, 'have been found to have extensive interconnectivity' is graded to convey that many connections have been detailed in the evidence presented. Similarly, 'Most successful execution of visual behaviours require the complex collaboration' is graded carefully to convey meaning to the reader, derived from the evidence used. The sample displays many examples of controlled word choices that leave the reader in no doubt regarding the meaning they are to take from reading the piece. This concise, controlled, evidence-based and carefully considered writing is typical of that found in the science essays.

Good science essay writing is...

evidence-based,
cohesive due to language choices,
well-structured to help the reader follow the ideas,
carefully planned,
filled with carefully chosen evaluative and analytical language,
rewarded with high grades.

Common mistakes in science essay writing

The most common mistake is a lack of accuracy in the language used to convey meaning. This can be due to inadequate reading or a lack of understanding of the subject matter, or alternatively, due to not giving sufficient care to word choice. 'Increased greatly' is different to 'increased', which is different again to 'increased significantly'; it is very important that you understand what you are writing about in enough detail that you can accurately convey an understanding of it accurately to the reader.
Trying to put 'you' into the essay. It is highly unlikely that you will be required to refer to your own viewpoints, opinions or lived experience within scientific essay writing. Science is impersonal, it deals in fact, and so you are a third person, impersonal author who is interpreting and curating facts and knowledge into an essay that makes sense to the reader.
Going beyond the facts. It is rare that you will be asked to speculate in a science essay. When you are, you will be asked to extrapolate from known understanding in the relevant literature. Stick to the facts and to their meaning and significance.
Not placing understanding in context . Each scientific idea sits within a bigger discipline and interacts with other ideas. When you write about ideas, you need to acknowledge this, unless you are specifically told to only focus on one idea. An example would be genomics of viral pathogens, which is currently a much discussed area of activity. This sits within public health, virology, and genomics disciplines, to name a few. Depending on how it is to be written about, you may need to acknowledge one or more of these larger areas.

Using evidence in essays

Sources of evidence are at the heart of essay writing. You need sources that are both usable and credible, in the specific context of your essay.

A good starting point is often the materials used in the module your essay is attached to. You can then work outwards into the wider field of study as you develop your thinking, and seek to show critical analysis, critical evaluation and critical thought in your essay.

Discover more about using evidence in your assignments:

Structuring an essay

Clear structure is a key element of an effective essay. This requires careful thought and you to make choices about the order the reader needs the information to be in.

These resources contain advice and guides to help you structure your work:

You can use these templates to help develop the structure of your essay.

Go to File > Make a copy... to create your own version of the template that you can edit.

Structuring essay introductions

Play this tutorial in full screen

Explain the different functions that can be fulfilled by an introduction.
Provide examples of introductions from the Faculties of Social Sciences, Sciences, and Arts and Humanities.
Evaluating your own introductions.
Matching elements of an introduction to a description of their purpose.
Highlighting where evidence is used to support elements of the introduction.
Highlighting how introductions can make clear links to the essay question.

In this section, you will learn about the functions and key components of an essay introduction.

An introduction can fulfill the functions below. These often move from a broad overview of the topic in context to a narrow focus on the scope of the discussion, key terms and organisational structure.

Click on each function to reveal more.

It can establish the overall topic and explain the relevance and significance of the essay question to that topic
What is the topic?
Why is the essay question worth exploring? Why is the essay worth reading?
How is it relevant to wider / important / current debates in the field?
It can briefly explain the background and context and define the scope of the discussion
Is it helpful to mention some background, historical or broader factors to give the reader some context?
Is the discussion set in a particular context (geographical; political; economic; social; historical; legal)?
Does the essay question set a particular scope or are you going to narrow the scope of the discussion?
It can highlight key concepts or ideas
Are the key concepts or ideas contentious or open to interpretation?
Will the key concepts need to be defined and explained?
It can signpost the broad organisational structure of the essay
Indicate what you will cover and a brief overview of the structure of your essay
points made should be supported by evidence
clear links should be made to the question

Note: Introductions may not cover all of these elements, and they may not be covered in this order.

Useful Link: See the University of Manchester’s Academic Phrasebank for useful key phrases to introduce work.

In this activity, you will review and evaluate introductions you have written, identifying areas for improvement.

Find some examples of introductions you have written for essays.

Which of the features do they use?
Are any elements missing?
How might you improve them?

For the following tasks, you will be using an example introduction from one of the following three faculties. Select a faculty to use an introduction from a corresponding subject.

In this activity, you will look at examples of introductions, identifying key features and their purpose.

Here is an example question:

Sociology: Examine some of the factors that influence procrastination in individuals, exploring and evaluating their impact. Identify an area(s) for future research, justifying your choice.

And here is a sample introduction written for this question:

Procrastination is a complex concept which manifests itself in different types of behaviour yet is experienced by individuals universally. A useful definition of procrastination is ‘the voluntary delay of important, necessary, and intended action despite knowing there will be negative consequences for this delay’ (Ferrari and Tice, 2000, Sirois and Pychyl, 2013 cited in Sirois and Giguère, 2018). The influences on procrastination are multi-faceted, which makes their study incredibly challenging. Researchers are now producing a body of work dedicated to procrastination; including meta-analyses such as those by Varvaricheva (2010) and Smith (2015). Influences on procrastination can be considered in two categories, factors with external, environmental, sources and factors with internal sources due to individual differences. However, these external and environmental categories are not completely independent of one another and this essay will seek to explore the complexities of this interdependence. This essay will discuss how different factors influence individual procrastination, by first examining how gender, age and personality affect the procrastination trait under internal factors, before discussing the external factors; how task aversiveness, deadlines and the internet affect procrastination behavioural outcomes. This will be followed by a brief exploration of how the two interact. Finally there a number of gaps in the literature, which suggest avenues for future research.

Click on the Next arrow to match each section of this introduction with a description of its purpose.

Procrastination is a complex concept which manifests itself in different types of behaviour yet is experienced by individuals universally.

Signposts the broad organisational structure of the essay

Narrows the topic and explains its relevance or significance to current debates

Defines the scope of the discussion

Establishes the topic and explains its broad significance

Defines key concepts

That's not the right answer

Have another go.

Yes, that's the right answer!

A useful definition of procrastination is ‘the voluntary delay of important, necessary, and intended action despite knowing there will be negative consequences for this delay’ (Ferrari and Tice, 2000, Sirois and Pychyl, 2013 cited in Sirois and Giguère, 2018).

The influences on procrastination are multi-faceted, which makes their study incredibly challenging. Researchers are now producing a body of work dedicated to procrastination; including meta-analyses such as those by Varvaricheva (2010) and Smith (2015).

Influences on procrastination can be considered in two categories, factors with external, environmental, sources and factors with internal sources due to individual differences. However, these external and environmental categories are not completely independent of one another and this essay will seek to explore the complexities of this interdependence.

This essay will discuss how different factors influence individual procrastination, by first examining how gender, age and personality affect the procrastination trait under internal factors, before discussing the external factors; how task aversiveness, deadlines and the internet affect procrastination behavioural outcomes. This will be followed by a brief exploration of how the two interact. Finally there a number of gaps in the literature, which suggest avenues for future research.

In this activity, you will identify how introductions make links to the question.

Here is the question again:

Click to highlight the places where the introduction below links closely to the question.

Have another go. You can remove the highlighting on sections by clicking on them again.

Those are the parts of the introduction that link closely to the question.

In this activity, you will consider how introductions make use of supporting evidence.

Define key concepts
Establish the topic and explain its relevance or significance

Click to highlight the places where the introduction below supports points with evidence .

Those are the parts of the introduction that use evidence to support points.

Congratulations! You've made it through the introduction!

Click on the icon at the bottom to restart the tutorial.

Nursing: Drawing on your own experiences and understanding gained from the module readings, discuss and evaluate the values, attributes and behaviours of a good nurse.

The Nursing and Midwifery Council’s (NMC) (2015) Code states that a nurse must always put the care of patients first, be open and honest, and be empathic towards patients and their families. Student nurses are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the need for these key skills even at the interview stage and then gain the experiences to develop certain fundamental attributes, values and behaviours in order to advance through the stages of nursing. This assignment will highlight a variety of values, attributes and behaviours a good nurse should have, focusing on courage in particular. Views of courage from political, professional, and social perspectives will be considered, alongside a comparison between the attribute courage and a student nurse’s abilities. This will be demonstrated using observations from practice, appropriate theorists such as Sellman (2011), Lachman (2010) and philosophers including Aristotle and Ross (2011).

The Nursing and Midwifery Council’s (NMC) (2015) Code states that a nurse must always put the care of patients first, be open and honest, and be empathic towards patients and their families.

Explains the context to the discussion, with reference to the workplace

Defines the scope of the discussion by narrowing it

Defines relevant key concepts or ideas

Student nurses are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the need for these key skills even at the interview stage and then gain the experiences to develop certain fundamental attributes, values and behaviours in order to advance through the stages of nursing.

This assignment will highlight a variety of values, attributes and behaviours a good nurse should have, focusing on courage in particular.

Views of courage from political, professional, and social perspectives will be considered, alongside a comparison between the attribute courage and a student nurse’s abilities. This will be demonstrated using observations from practice, appropriate theorists such as Sellman (2011), Lachman (2010) and philosophers including Aristotle and Ross (2011).

Define relevant key concepts or ideas
Signpost the broad organisational structure of the essay, making a clear link to the question

Archaeology: Explain some of the ways in which Star Carr has been re-interpreted since the initial discovery in the 1940s. Briefly evaluate how the results of recent excavations further dramatically affect our understanding of this site.

Star Carr has become the ‘best known’ Mesolithic site in Britain (Conneller, 2007, 3), in part because of its high levels of artefact preservation due to waterlogging, as the site was once on the Eastern edge of the ancient Lake Flixton, close to a small peninsula (Taylor, 2007). First excavated by Grahame Clark in 1949-51, there was a further invasive investigation in 1985 and 1989, again in 2006-8, and 2010. An impressive haul of artefacts have been excavated over the years, including bone and antler tools, barbed points, flint tools and microliths, and enigmatic red deer frontlets (Milner et al., 2016). Since Clark’s first published report in 1954 there have been numerous re-examinations of the subject, including by Clark himself in 1974. Resulting interpretations of the site have been much debated; it has been classified as ‘in situ settlement, a refuse dump, and the result of culturally prescribed acts of deposition’ (Taylor et al., 2017). This discussion will explore the ways in which the site has been variously re-interpreted during this time period, and consider how more recent study of the site has prompted new perspectives.

Explains the background to the discussion and its significance

Establishes the topic

Explains the scope of the topic and highlights key interpretations

First excavated by Grahame Clark in 1949-51, there was a further invasive investigation in 1985 and 1989, again in 2006-8, and 2010. An impressive haul of artefacts have been excavated over the years, including bone and antler tools, barbed points, flint tools and microliths, and enigmatic red deer frontlets (Milner et al., 2016).

Since Clark’s first published report in 1954 there have been numerous re-examinations of the subject, including by Clark himself in 1974. Resulting interpretations of the site have been much debated; it has been classified as ‘in situ settlement, a refuse dump, and the result of culturally prescribed acts of deposition’ (Taylor et al., 2017).

This discussion will explore the ways in which the site has been variously re-interpreted during this time period, and consider how more recent study of the site has prompted new perspectives.

Establish the topic, explains the background and significance
Explains the significance of the topic
Highlights key interpretations

Structuring essay conclusions

In this section you will consider the different functions a conclusion can fulfil, look at examples of conclusions, and identify key features and their purpose.

A conclusion can fulfil the functions below. These often move from a narrow focus on the outcomes of the discussion to a broad view of the topic's relevance to the wider context.

Summary of the main points in relation to the question

This might involve restating the scope of the discussion and clarifying if there any limitations of your discussion or of the evidence provided
This may include synthesising the key arguments and weighing up the evidence

Arrive at a judgement or conclusion

Having weighed up the evidence, come to a judgement about the strength of the arguments

Restate the relevance or significance of the topic to the wider context

Make it clear why your conclusions - which are based on your discussion through the essay - are important or significant in relation to wider/current debates in the field

Make recommendations or indicate the direction for further study, if applicable

Recommendations may be for further research or for practice/policy
What further research/investigation would be necessary to overcome the limitations above?
What are the implications of your findings for policy/practice?

Note: Conclusions may not cover all of these elements, and they may not be covered in this order.

Clear links should be made to the question
Do not make new points in the conclusion

Useful Link: See the University of Manchester’s Academic Phrasebank for useful key phrases to conclude work.

In this activity, you will look at an example conclusion, identifying key features and their purpose.

In this task, you will be using an example conclusion from one of the following three faculties. Select a faculty to use a conclusion from a corresponding subject.

And here is a sample conclusion written for the question:

In conclusion procrastination is a complex psychological phenomenon that is influenced by a number of factors, both internal and external. However it has a hugely multifaceted nature and the factors that influence it are not truly independent of one another. Character traits and the environmental impact on behaviour are interrelated; for example similar procrastination outcomes may arise from a highly conscientious individual in a distracting environment and an individual low in conscientiousness in a non-distracting setting. This means that future studies need to be very considered in their approach to separating, or controlling for, these factors. These further studies are important and urgently needed as the impact of procrastination on society is far-reaching. For instance: individuals delay contributing to a pension, meaning that old age may bring poverty for many; couples put off entering into formal contracts with each other, potentially increasing disputes over child custody and inheritance; and indeed women delay starting a family and increasing age leads to decreased fertility, thus leading to higher societal costs of providing assisted fertilisation. Furthermore one could expand the scope to include the effects on children of being born to older parents (such as risks of inherited genetic defects). These are themselves wide fields of study and are mentioned merely to illustrate the importance of further research. Until the nature of influences on procrastination is fully understood, our development of approaches to reduce procrastination is likely to be hindered.

Click on the Next arrow to match each section of the conclusion with a description of its purpose.

In conclusion procrastination is a complex psychological phenomenon that is influenced by a number of factors, both internal and external.

Synthesises the key arguments and weighs up the evidence

Indicates limitations

Restates the scope of the discussion

Indicates the direction and significance for further study

Summary of the main point in relation to the question

However it has a hugely multifaceted nature and the factors that influence it are not truly independent of one another.

Character traits and the environmental impact on behaviour are interrelated; for example similar procrastination outcomes may arise from a highly conscientious individual in a distracting environment and an individual low in conscientiousness in a non-distracting setting.

This means that future studies need to be very considered in their approach to separating, or controlling for, these factors. These further studies are important and urgently needed as the impact of procrastination on society is far-reaching. For instance: individuals delay contributing to a pension, meaning that old age may bring poverty for many; couples put off entering into formal contracts with each other, potentially increasing disputes over child custody and inheritance; and indeed women delay starting a family and increasing age leads to decreased fertility, thus leading to higher societal costs of providing assisted fertilisation. Furthermore one could expand the scope to include the effects on children of being born to older parents (such as risks of inherited genetic defects). These are themselves wide fields of study and are mentioned merely to illustrate the importance of further research.

Until the nature of influences on procrastination is fully understood, our development of approaches to reduce procrastination is likely to be hindered.

Opportunities for nurses to display courage occur every day, although it is at the nurse’s discretion whether they act courageously or not. As discussed in this assignment, courage is likewise an important attribute for a good nurse to possess and could be the difference between good and bad practice. It is significantly important that nurses speak up about bad practice to minimize potential harm to patients. However nurses do not need to raise concerns in order to be courageous, as nurses must act courageously every day. Professional bodies such as the RCN and NMC recognise that courage is important by highlighting this attribute in the RCN principles. The guidelines for raising concerns unite the attribute courage with the RCN’s principles of nursing practice by improving nurses’ awareness of how to raise concerns. Lachman’s (2010) CODE is an accessible model that modern nurses could use as a strategy to help them when raising concerns. Although students find it difficult to challenge more senior nursing professionals, they could also benefit from learning the acronym to help them as they progress through their career. For nursing students, courage could be seen as a learning development of the ability to confront their fear of personal emotional consequences from participating in what they believe to be the right action. On the whole a range of values, attributes and behaviours are needed in order to be a good nurse, including being caring, honest, compassionate, reliable and professional. These qualities are all important, but courage is an attribute that is widely overlooked for nurses to possess but vitally fundamental.

Arrives at an overall judgement or conclusion

Make recommendations for practice

Professional bodies such as the RCN and NMC recognise that courage is important by highlighting this attribute in the RCN principles. The guidelines for raising concerns unite the attribute courage with the RCN’s principles of nursing practice by improving nurses’ awareness of how to raise concerns. Lachman’s (2010) CODE is an accessible model that modern nurses could use as a strategy to help them when raising concerns.

Although students find it difficult to challenge more senior nursing professionals, they could also benefit from learning the acronym to help them as they progress through their career. For nursing students, courage could be seen as a learning development of the ability to confront their fear of personal emotional consequences from participating in what they believe to be the right action.

On the whole a range of values, attributes and behaviours are needed in order to be a good nurse, including being caring, honest, compassionate, reliable and professional. These qualities are all important, but courage is an attribute that is widely overlooked for nurses to possess but vitally fundamental.

Star Carr is one of the most fascinating and informative Mesolithic sites in the world. What was once considered to be the occasional winter settlement of a group of hunter-gatherer families, now appears to be a site of year-round settlement occupied over centuries. Since its initial discovery and excavation in the late 1940s and early 1950s, a great deal of further data has been collected, altering interpretations made by the primary excavators who pioneered analysis of the site. What once was considered a typical textbook Mesolithic hunting encampment is now theorized to be a site of ritual importance. The site has produced unique findings such as a multitude of barbed points, twenty one antlered headdresses and the earliest known example of a permanent living structure in Britain. These factors will combine to immortalise the site, even when its potential for further research is thoroughly decayed, which tragically could be very soon (Taylor et al. 2010).

Star Carr is one of the most fascinating and informative Mesolithic sites in the world.

Synthesise the main points

Limitations and implications for future research

Restate the significance of the topic to the wider context

What was once considered to be the occasional winter settlement of a group of hunter-gatherer families, now appears to be a site of year-round settlement occupied over centuries. Since its initial discovery and excavation in the late 1940s and early 1950s, a great deal of further data has been collected, altering interpretations made by the primary excavators who pioneered analysis of the site. What once was considered a typical textbook Mesolithic hunting encampment is now theorized to be a site of ritual importance. The site has produced unique findings such as a multitude of barbed points, twenty one antlered headdresses and the earliest known example of a permanent living structure in Britain.

These factors will combine to immortalise the site, even when its potential for further research is thoroughly decayed, which tragically could be very soon (Taylor et al. 2010).

Congratulations! You've made it through the conclusion!

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Other support for essay writing

Online resources.

The general writing pages of this site offer guidance that can be applied to all types of writing, including essays. Also check your department guidance and VLE sites for tailored resources.

Other useful resources for essay writing:

Appointments and workshops

There is lots of support and advice for essay writing. This is likely to be in your department, and particularly from your academic supervisor and module tutors, but there is also central support, which you can access using the links below.

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Last Updated: Apr 3, 2024 4:02 PM
URL: https://subjectguides.york.ac.uk/academic-writing

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Essay and dissertation writing skills

Planning your essay

Writing your introduction

Structuring your essay

Writing essays in science subjects
Brief video guides to support essay planning and writing
Writing extended essays and dissertations
Planning your dissertation writing time

Structuring your dissertation

Top tips for writing longer pieces of work

Advice on planning and writing essays and dissertations

University essays differ from school essays in that they are less concerned with what you know and more concerned with how you construct an argument to answer the question. This means that the starting point for writing a strong essay is to first unpick the question and to then use this to plan your essay before you start putting pen to paper (or finger to keyboard).

A really good starting point for you are these short, downloadable Tips for Successful Essay Writing and Answering the Question resources. Both resources will help you to plan your essay, as well as giving you guidance on how to distinguish between different sorts of essay questions.

You may find it helpful to watch this seven-minute video on six tips for essay writing which outlines how to interpret essay questions, as well as giving advice on planning and structuring your writing:

Different disciplines will have different expectations for essay structure and you should always refer to your Faculty or Department student handbook or course Canvas site for more specific guidance.

However, broadly speaking, all essays share the following features:

Essays need an introduction to establish and focus the parameters of the discussion that will follow. You may find it helpful to divide the introduction into areas to demonstrate your breadth and engagement with the essay question. You might define specific terms in the introduction to show your engagement with the essay question; for example, ‘This is a large topic which has been variously discussed by many scientists and commentators. The principle tension is between the views of X and Y who define the main issues as…’ Breadth might be demonstrated by showing the range of viewpoints from which the essay question could be considered; for example, ‘A variety of factors including economic, social and political, influence A and B. This essay will focus on the social and economic aspects, with particular emphasis on…..’

Watch this two-minute video to learn more about how to plan and structure an introduction:

The main body of the essay should elaborate on the issues raised in the introduction and develop an argument(s) that answers the question. It should consist of a number of self-contained paragraphs each of which makes a specific point and provides some form of evidence to support the argument being made. Remember that a clear argument requires that each paragraph explicitly relates back to the essay question or the developing argument.

Conclusion: An essay should end with a conclusion that reiterates the argument in light of the evidence you have provided; you shouldn’t use the conclusion to introduce new information.
References: You need to include references to the materials you’ve used to write your essay. These might be in the form of footnotes, in-text citations, or a bibliography at the end. Different systems exist for citing references and different disciplines will use various approaches to citation. Ask your tutor which method(s) you should be using for your essay and also consult your Department or Faculty webpages for specific guidance in your discipline.

Essay writing in science subjects

If you are writing an essay for a science subject you may need to consider additional areas, such as how to present data or diagrams. This five-minute video gives you some advice on how to approach your reading list, planning which information to include in your answer and how to write for your scientific audience – the video is available here:

A PDF providing further guidance on writing science essays for tutorials is available to download.

Short videos to support your essay writing skills

There are many other resources at Oxford that can help support your essay writing skills and if you are short on time, the Oxford Study Skills Centre has produced a number of short (2-minute) videos covering different aspects of essay writing, including:

Approaching different types of essay questions
Structuring your essay
Writing an introduction
Making use of evidence in your essay writing
Writing your conclusion

Extended essays and dissertations

Longer pieces of writing like extended essays and dissertations may seem like quite a challenge from your regular essay writing. The important point is to start with a plan and to focus on what the question is asking. A PDF providing further guidance on planning Humanities and Social Science dissertations is available to download.

Planning your time effectively

Try not to leave the writing until close to your deadline, instead start as soon as you have some ideas to put down onto paper. Your early drafts may never end up in the final work, but the work of committing your ideas to paper helps to formulate not only your ideas, but the method of structuring your writing to read well and conclude firmly.

Although many students and tutors will say that the introduction is often written last, it is a good idea to begin to think about what will go into it early on. For example, the first draft of your introduction should set out your argument, the information you have, and your methods, and it should give a structure to the chapters and sections you will write. Your introduction will probably change as time goes on but it will stand as a guide to your entire extended essay or dissertation and it will help you to keep focused.

The structure of extended essays or dissertations will vary depending on the question and discipline, but may include some or all of the following:

The background information to - and context for - your research. This often takes the form of a literature review.
Explanation of the focus of your work.
Explanation of the value of this work to scholarship on the topic.
List of the aims and objectives of the work and also the issues which will not be covered because they are outside its scope.

The main body of your extended essay or dissertation will probably include your methodology, the results of research, and your argument(s) based on your findings.

The conclusion is to summarise the value your research has added to the topic, and any further lines of research you would undertake given more time or resources.

Tips on writing longer pieces of work

Approaching each chapter of a dissertation as a shorter essay can make the task of writing a dissertation seem less overwhelming. Each chapter will have an introduction, a main body where the argument is developed and substantiated with evidence, and a conclusion to tie things together. Unlike in a regular essay, chapter conclusions may also introduce the chapter that will follow, indicating how the chapters are connected to one another and how the argument will develop through your dissertation.

For further guidance, watch this two-minute video on writing longer pieces of work .

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Centre for Academic Achievement
The Centre for Academic Achievement is based on the ground floor of the David Wilson Library and is a place where you can develop your academic and mathematical skills. Our aim is to help with your studies and your academic goals through the following services. one-to-one consultations. self-study online resources. a workshop programme.
What support is available for essay writing?
Essay writing, and academic writing more broadly, is an essential part of most degree programmes. It will involve developing a new set of skills, which you will continue to hone through practice, feedback and guidance. ... University of Leicester Library, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH ...
Academic skills
What support is available for essay writing? Last Updated: Feb 19, 2024 | Topics: Academic Skills Support | Views: 479. What is critical reflection? Last Updated: Oct 26, 2023 | Topics: Academic Skills Support | Views: 433. ... University of Leicester Library, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH ...
Academic Writing
Module aims. Use conventions of academic writing in written work. Analyse the role of a range of rhetorical devices in academic writing (e.g., emphasis, persuasion) Compare features of discourse in genres of academic writing (e.g., context and purpose of writing) Receive individual feedback on performance in these areas.
Essay terms explained
Example of effective critical writing The text below is an example of good critical writing, and is based on essay material supplied by University of Leicester‟s School of Psychology. The author refers to the available evidence, but also evaluates the validity of that evidence, and assesses what contribution it can realistically make to the ...
Writing Guide 1: Writing an Assessed Essay
Writing Guide 1: Writing an Assessed Essay - University of Leicester. EN. English Deutsch Français Español Português Italiano Român Nederlands Latina Dansk Svenska Norsk Magyar Bahasa Indonesia Türkçe Suomi Latvian Lithuanian česk ... Writing an Assessed Essay - University of Leicester . Writing Guide 1: Writing an Assessed Essay ...
Writing a successful essay
Writing a successful essay: Journal of Geography in Higher Education: Vol 43 , No 4 - Get Access. Journal of Geography in Higher Education Volume 43, 2019 - Issue 4. 2,549. Views.
Creative Writing, M.A.
About. This Masters in Creative Writing offered at the University of Leicester is geared towards studying and experimenting across genres and forms, and will challenge you both intellectually and imaginatively. Visit the Visit programme website for more information. University of Leicester. Leicester , England , United Kingdom. Top 2% worldwide.
English with Creative Writing, B.A.
Overview. Our English with Creative Writing course at the University of Leicester offers you the chance to study English literature from its earliest forms through to the present day, and gives you the opportunity to hone your own creative writing skills.. Leicester has a rich literary history and our library contains the personal archives of local authors Joe Orton and Sue Townsend.
PDF Writing skills
The writing process (adapted from Plymouth University, 2011) Producing an effective piece of academic writing usual takes a number of steps. 1. Start by making sure you understand what you need to do. Analyse the task you have been set - one method is the TAP model (Fig. 1). • First, identify the Topic - what the main theme is;
Creative Writing MA
The MA in Creative Writing is a challenging course, both intellectually and imaginatively. You will be able to develop your writing skills in a supportive and stimulating environment, taught by experienced and professional writers. The course offers you the opportunity to become involved in a uniquely vibrant literary scene in Leicester, with ...
Law School Writing Guide 2022-23
The OSCOLA referencing style is available as a free download from the University of Oxford. We recommend downloading or printing a copy of OSCOLA, so that it is to hand when you write your essays. There is also an OSCOLA guide from the University of Leicester, and an OSCOLA training tutorial from the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies.
Essays
These resources contain advice and guides to help you structure your work: Tips for structuring an essay. A checklist of essay-writing tips. Structure in academic writing. General advice for creating clear, well-structured writing that guides the reader through your argument. You can use these templates to help develop the structure of your essay.
Essay and dissertation writing skills
A PDF providing further guidance on writing science essays for tutorials is available to download.. Short videos to support your essay writing skills. There are many other resources at Oxford that can help support your essay writing skills and if you are short on time, the Oxford Study Skills Centre has produced a number of short (2-minute) videos covering different aspects of essay writing ...
Writing essays
How to write an essay academic skills centre writing essays study guide this study guide addresses the topic of essay writing. the essay is form of assessment. Skip to document. University; High School. Books; ... University of Leicester. 321 Documents. Go to course. 32. Revision - Tort - Tort Law . 100% (11) 115. Tort Law - Notes for the year ...
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The Centre for New Writing is involved in publishing new writing. Find out more about the poetry pamphlets, blogs and annual publications the Centre is engaged with. ... from novels to poetry collections, short stories to theatre, and essays on the craft and theory of writing and literature. Learn more about our publications: Everybody's ...
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Identify aspects of the role or course that are most important to you. The length of a cover letter should be about one side of A4, using a font of no smaller than 11. Using a matching font and style to your CV gives your application a coherent and professional look. If the employer is asking for a lot of information and you can't fit it onto ...