us history essay

153 US History Topics [2024 US History Essay Ideas]

American history is not as long as the European one. However, it’s one of the richest histories in the world. It’s full of controversies, different opinions, and interesting facts. Those who study American history will find how many voices, perspectives, and points of view can coexist.

When writing an essay about America, you should try to stay as objective as possible. Think creatively and consider historical events from a new perspective.

This abundance of information and events can intimidate anyone. That’s why it can be very challenging to select one single US history topic to write about. There are so many!

To decide on it, students should answer several questions:

• What time period interests me the most?
• What specific event sounds the most appealing to me?
• What historical figure impresses me?

It is indeed a daunting task to attempt to put the remarkable story of the US into an essay list. Fortunately, we’re not trying to do so.

Tired of researching historical encyclopedias? This is the perfect article for you – read through this collection of 153 US history essay topics prepared by our team .

🌎Top 10 American History Topics to Write about

• 🏗️ Topics before 1877
• 🌻 Topics: 1878-1899
• 🏙️ US Topics: 1900s

🧊 Cool American History Topics

• 🧐 US Regents Topics
• ✊ Black History Topics

🎉 Fun US History Essay Topics

👌 easy american history essay topics, ❓ us history essay questions, 📋 how to cite an american history essay.

• The 20th Century.
• America’s Role in Normandy Landings.
• Conquest of California.
• The Great Depression.
• USA: Colonial History.
• The Oregon Trail.
• African American Slave Trade.
• Who was Harriet Tubman?
• America in the Modern World.
• Klondike Gold Rush.

☝️ Good US History Topics by Period

This is the IvyPanda list of American history topics that can help students get inspired!

We divided the history into epochs and organized the US history essay topics accordingly. Besides, this US history topics list structured thematically. It, hopefully, will make it easier to navigate and get started.

One of the best ways to look at history is to examine it from a chronological perspective. The topics in this section are structured based on the time period.

Every period is filled with key events and figures. American society is the product of those events—it’s vital to have a closer look at it.

🏗️ History Topics before 1877

• America before Columbus . In this topic, you can talk about the first people in the Americas and what historians know about them. There are a lot of archeological findings and artifacts that survived thousands of years. Write about Christopher Columbus and how “the discovery” was not a discovery. The Americas have been inhabited and had developed civilizations long before Europeans put their foot there.
• The first landing of Christopher Columbus and the New World

• Christopher Columbus: Biography, Discoveries, Contributions . You can talk about Christopher Columbus and his biography. Track how his image has been changing throughout history. Modern historians see him as a person who contributed to the genocide of Native Americans. What is your opinion about him?
• The British Rule in the Americas and the first British Settlements. Explore the first permanent colony in North America and what English wanted the colonies to be. There were a lot of obstacles, which first settlers had faced before Jamestown became a prosperous city. They suffered from a shortage of food, severe climate conditions, and disease. Plus, there were problems with the Indians. Research what “the middle ground” was and why this concept is relevant to this topic.
• What is Puritanism?
• Puritans in Great Britain
• The Puritan Ethic in the United States . Who the Puritans were? Why were they sent to the New World? What were their religious beliefs? Explore the influence puritans had in the past. Is puritanism still relevant in the US today?
• The Effects of the Spanish Rule and The Conquistadors in the Americas. Spanish Colonization of the Americas laid foundations for the Latin American identity. It is also considered the very first mass genocide in the world. It is indeed a matter of perspective. You can talk about how the contact between the Native Americans and the Spaniards affected both parties.
• The Protestant Reformation and its influence on the US History. Religion was one of the main reasons why the first settlers decided to travel to the New World. Write about the connection between the freedom of religion in the US. What influence did it have on the nation as a whole in the future? Why is it crucial? How did it affect the lifestyle of people in the US?
• Native Americans and “the Middle Ground” . Not everyone knows that the famous Disney cartoon Pocahontas is based on the true story. If this story was told by a Native American, it would be different. In this essay, you can comment on the role that Native Americans played in the European Colonization. Elaborate on the disappearance of “the Middle Ground.”
• The beginning of slavery in British America and the Middle Passage. You can analyze the way this institution was established. Write about the factors that influenced it in the 17th century, try to include first-person accounts of slavery. Use the American Slave Narrative , for instance, Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa . This inclusion will demonstrate how inhumane slavery was and will open a good discussion.
• Christianity, slavery, and colonialism in the US
• The witchcraft trials . Elaborate on religious views of the New England public. How such views made it possible for more than 200 people to be accused of witchcraft. Discuss a Puritan code, the structure of the society, and what type of women were prosecuted.

• The Boston Tea Party as the key event of the American Revolution. The Boston Tea Party is a highly celebrated event in the history of the US. Discuss why is that? Why is it so important for the Americans? Talk about the birth of patriotism, resistance and the revolt against colonialism. What did the rebels mean by “taxation without representation?”
• The American Revolutionary War and the Declaration of Independence. This topic is one of the most popular in the history of the United States. First, you could write about a military battle with Great Britain and the reasons for it. Second, talk about political battles within the US at that period. Examine the establishment of the new nation.
• How the Revolutionary war changes American Society
• Why was the Declaration of Independence written?
• Was the American Revolution really revolutionary?
• The meaning of the Constitution. This is one of the most fruitful and fascinating debates in US history. Some people argue that it is written in a very vague way to allow American society to evolve. Others say that its text allows minorities to be deprived of the very things it promises to establish. Elaborate if you find the Constitution to be a liberal, radical, or a conservative document.
• Why the Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution. Talk about the first 10 amendments to the Constitution and explore why these amendments are so important. What did the amendments guarantee? Why was The Bill of Rights added to the Constitution in the first place?

• The Founding Fathers’ influence on the US. The Constitution, the Bill of Rights, and the Declaration of Independence are sacred documents. The Founding Fathers are major figures for the Americans as well. Writing about the influence of the Founding Fathers, select one or two members to focus on. Consider the diversity among the members. How did it help the Founding Fathers in leading the war and framing a sustainable government?
• What is the role of the Founding Fathers in American society and religion?
• European Colonization influence on the Native American population
• Removal of Indian tribes. American History is unjust at times. Explore how unconstitutional the treatment of Indian Americans was and why they find it this way. Look at the way the Founding Fathers addressed this issue. Examining the Indian Removal Act of 1830 will allow you to fully develop this topic. Analyze why the policy was accepted in the first place. Why is it called “ethnic cleansing” by the majority of historians nowadays?
• Native Americans lost their freedom
• The impact of railroads in America. The rapid expansion of America would be impossible without the railroad construction. The railroads triggered the development of the Midwest and the West. Despite that, the construction of the railroads was highly monopolistic and undemocratic. Comment on the richest men in the US – John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, and Cornelius Vanderbilt.
• The role of cotton in the American economy. The American Economy in the 19th century heavily depended on cotton production. There was even a saying “Cotton is King” that was very popular at that time. Besides cotton, it heavily depended on the slaves. This period in American History is called the Antebellum Era. Look at the role of cotton from several perspectives. How profitable was it? How did slaves contribute to the American economy? How financially unviable was the abolition of slavery?

• History of American Transcendentalism.
• Why was Transcendentalism important for American Culture? The essay can start with a broad explanation of what transcendentalism is. Explain where it started and how it evolved. Explore what views the group had on women’s rights, slavery, education, government, and religion. You could write about the most prominent transcendentalists – Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry Thoreau.
• Religions in the 19th Century America. Known as the Second Great Awakening or Christian Revivalism, religion in the 19th century America was altered. Look back at the beginning of the American Revolution. Anglicans, Methodists, and Quackers were the fastest-growing religious groups then. Discuss all of them.
• The abolition of slavery and the Civil War . A lot of historians believe that slavery in itself did not cause the conflict. In this essay, you could elaborate on this idea and consider the other point of view. For a long essay, write about Abraham Lincoln’s thoughts on slavery. His ideas about slavery and racial inequality were one of the most discussed aspects of his entire life. Look at his letters and write about the complexity of his views.
• The causes of the Civil War and the aftermath of war. This essay is one of the easiest American history essays to write. Talk about the causes and effects of the Civil War (1861-1865) in the US. Why did it happen? What was achieved?
• The struggle over the goal and the meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment . You can elaborate on the goal of the amendment. Was it able to protect the rights of black citizens? Why was it still possible for the states to deny them their right to vote?
• How did Reconstruction change the United States after the Civil war?
• The Reconstruction governments. What type of reforms did the reconstruction government implement? What positive reforms happened during the Reconstruction Era? You could discuss radical reconstruction and white supremacy that spawned during the Reconstruction period. Elaborate on the idea of manifest destiny. Why was it so popular in the 19th century in the US?
• The Compromise of 1850 . Why was reaching the compromise necessary? You can describe the terms of the compromise. Explain what results were achieved: political, economic, and cultural.

🌻 American History 1878-1899

The United States was going through many changes during this period: from various social changes and changes in foreign and domestic policies to rapid economic and cultural changes. This time saw the country changing for the best in some aspects and for the worst in others.

• Industrialization after the Civil war. Industrialization of the United States was going on for almost half a century. However, the most impressive growth happened in 1880-1900. The expansion of the steel, iron and oil industries drove the American economy. Comment on all the inventions, technological advancements that happened in the US at that time.
• Immigrants and their ideas of the American Dream
• Social reforms during the Progressive Era
• American Foreign Policy in the 1890s

• The importance of the Progressive Era reforms
• Race relations during the Progressive Era reforms
• Japanese Americans Immigration in the 19th century

🏙️ 20th Century US History Topics

The 20th century for the United States and the world, in general, was highly eventful. Economic crises, two World Wars, the Cold War, and the fight over civil rights. Plus, a huge economic and technological upheaval, the space program.

This list of American History topics after 1900 can be great for those looking for inspiration for a paper.

Here you go:

• The door to America— Ellis Island. What are America’s best features? Economic opportunities, political and religious freedom? An abundance of jobs and opportunities? Land and natural resources? All of these made the United States experience the migration flux from all over the world. Elaborate on how Ellis island is a symbol of American immigration and the American dream.

• The rise of capitalism
• Work environments during the Progressive Era
• Women’s suffrage movement in America
• The causes and effects of women’s suffrage movement in the US
• Changes in American Government after WWI
• Is prohibition to blame for the organized crime in The United States?
• The economic impact of the Great Depression. The Great Depression is one of the longest economic downturns in the history of the United States. You can talk about several main causes of the crisis. Another good approach would be to analyze the way American presidents handled this crisis.
• Japanese American discrimination during the Great Depression
• How did Roosevelt plan to end the Great Depression?
• The Great Depression and what is the new deal?
• The Role of the United States during World War 2
• Why did the United States fight and lose the Vietnam War?
• The war in Vietnam and the Civil Rights Movement
• A Comparison of the traditional and the revisionist arguments regarding the Origins of The Cold War
• The Cold War and US diplomacy
• The Cold War and how it influenced American society

History is tough, but some significant historical events take our breath away even centuries later. Here is our list of cool American history topics. Even if you don’t find any topic that works for you, it can inspire you to look for moments in history that appeal to you personally.

• The true Story of Pocahontas: An untold story of a Native American girl. The true story of Pocahontas is covered with myths. Critically examine the story of her life and death. Try to understand it from a standpoint of a 12 years old Native American girl kidnapped by a white colonizer.
• Native American tribes in the US History
• What was discussed at the Constitutional Convention?
• The history of the Statue of Liberty
• Henry Ford and how his inventions changed America
• Moon landing conspiracy
• The war on drugs in US History
• Illegal immigrants in the US
• The American sense of humor
• American pop culture in the 1920s . This time period is called “the roaring twenties.” It was filled with drastic political and cultural changes in the United States. Jazz, flapper culture, prohibition, and economic abundance are important elements of the 1920s.

• The history of gangs in the US
• What did hippies believe in?
• History of Hippie’s Culture
• Presidential assassinations in the United States History. Abraham Lincoln, James Garfield, William McKinley, and JFK were the only US Presidents murdered while in office. You don’t have to retell the stories of their deaths! Instead, explore how these assassinations triggered some vital political reforms.
• The history of the Fifth Amendment

🙌 Most Interesting American History Topics

Use the following list of most interesting US History topics for your next essay. Choose what US history interesting event or a historic figure captures your attention the most.

🧐 US History Regent Topics

• The Relationships Between Federal and State Governments
• Was there a need to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki?
• The Cold War: Origins, Causes, Phases, and the Results
• Why and How the Cold War Was Fought
• The US Army in the Iraq War
• The Iraq War: Background and Issues
• Why did the Iraq War go against the plan?
• Executive Orders and Presidential Power in the United States
• History of the American Constitution
• The Turning points of the American Revolution

✊ Black History Essay Topics

Studying the history of the United States without studying slavery is impossible, mainly because the issue of race is ingrained into the DNA of America.

Black African American history allows students to get a different perspective on the same events. It lets them hear the voices that are so often erased from the history books. These African American history essays can help anyone looking for a good topic to write about.

• Slave Resistance in the Eighteen Century. Continuously throughout history, African American slaves were portrayed as voiceless and victimized. Others presented them as almost indifferent and passive to their own destiny. You can examine a different perspective, an Afrocentric one. The history of slavery was not the history of passivity, it was a history of black resistance.
• African American Music as a Form of Resistance
• African American Religion and Spirituality in the United States
• The 13th Amendment and the End of Slavery
• The Jim Crow Laws in the United States History . Jim Crow Laws were the laws that enforced racial segregation in the country. Dedicate an introduction to discuss where the name “Jim Crow” comes from. Give a historical background to how the laws were used. This topic can make a strong essay because no one can stay indifferent.
• Gender and Jim Crow
• The Role of Martin Luther King, Jr in The Civil Right Movement
• Martin Luther King’s speech “I have a dream”
• Brown vs The Board of Education . The ruling in Brown vs. The Board of Education was one of the most fundamental changes in the US educational system. How did the general public receive the news about the desegregation of public schools? How did the American educational system change after this case?
• The Significance of the Harlem Renaissance
• Barack Obama: The First African American President
• Barack Obama’s healthcare reforms
• Has Obama’s Presidency changed America?

• The Cowboy Culture in the US
• How Did Yellow Journalism Start?
• Why is Superman the most American of all the heroes?
• The History of American Flag
• History of Sports in the United States
• History of Thanksgiving Turkey in the United States
• How Did Highways Change the United States of America?
• American History through Hollywood Film

Sometimes you simply do not have enough time to write a profound essay. These American history topics are relatively easy, and you don’t have to research them a lot. Even if you do, there is a ton of information available.

• British Colonization of the Americas
• Slavery and racism in the United States
• The Puritans Influence on the American Society
• The pilgrims and the puritans
• The Causes of the Vietnam War
• Why Was Martin Luter King Assassinated?
• American Moon Landing
• What Are Major Events in the US History?
• What Started the US History?
• What Is the Most Important Piece of the US History?
• What Is the US History Summary?
• What City Was the First Capital in the US History?
• What Was the First American State in the US History?
• What Are Some Controversies in the US History?
• How Far Was the New Deal a Turning Point in the US History up to 1941?
• How the Airplane Industry Changed US History?
• What Was President Reagan Known For in the US History?
• How Reagan’s Ideology Shaped the US History?
• Why Is the Reagan Revolution in the US History?
• How Richard Nixon Influenced the US History?
• What Vietnam War Showed About US History?
• Did the Concept of Imperialism Exist in the US History?
• Why Did the Wars in the Middle East Go Down in the US History as Unnecessary?
• What Is the Most Popular Ideology in the US History?
• How Does the US History Describe George W. Bush?
• How Did the Use of Nuclear Weapons in Japan Affect the US History?
• What Are Some Horrible and Forgotten Events in the US History?
• Is Donald Trump the Second Worst President in the US History?
• What Was the Biggest Political Miscalculation in the US History?
• Who Is the Most Overrated First Lady in the US History?
• How Well Do US History Teachers Really Know About the US History?
• Who Was the Wimpiest President in the US History?
• Who Are Some of the Great Asian Americans in the US History?
• What Was the Most Corrupt Time in the US History?
• What Was the Bloodiest Single Day Battle in the US History?
• Who Is the Greatest Hero in the US History?
• How Did King Philip’s War Change the US History?

Your citation will depend on the type of requirements your instructor will provide you with. You can ask your teacher which style of citation is preferable before the essay writing. The school itself may have specific guidelines for every typeof academic writing.

For history essays, there are two key methods of referencing both primary and secondary sources:

• In-text citation. In this method, you mention the author and the year in the body of the essay. The list of references is placed at the end of the essay.
• Footnote Referencing. In this method, you put a number in the body. It corresponds with the reference at the bottom of each page. At the end of the essay, a list of works read rather than cited should be included.

All the citation entries should be listed in alphabetical order. If you mention the same author multiple times with different works, use chronological order.

Keeping track of all the sources, both read and cited, is time-consuming. For that, students can try to use different online software systems. These systems can help arrange the list alphabetically and correctly organize all the citations.

These digital tools are worth checking out:

Thank you for reading so far! Now you’re ready to start an amazing paper on US history. Share this article with those who may find it helpful, and leave a comment below.

🔗 References

• U.S. History and Historical Documents: USAGov, the Official Guide to Government Information and Services.
• All Topics: National Museum of American History.
• TIMELINE, United States History: World Digital Library.
• How Do I Cite Sources: Plagiarism.org.
• Citing Primary Sources, Chicago: Teacher Resources, Library of Congress.
• Black History, Topical: National Archives.
• Black History Month: National Geographic Society.
• College Writing: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
• Writing Historical Essays, A Guide for Undergraduates: Department of History, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey.
• Writing an Essay Introduction: Research & Learning Online.
• Research and Citation Resources: Purdue Writing Lab, College of Liberal Art.
• Citing Your Sources, Citing Basics: Research Guides at Williams College Libraries.
• Citing Electronic Sources: Academic Integrity at MIT, a Handbok for Students.
• Generate Topic Ideas Quickly and Easily: Online Research Library Questia.
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, March 12). 153 US History Topics [2024 US History Essay Ideas]. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/us-history-essay-topics/

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Browse Course Material

Course info.

• Prof. Caley Horan

Departments

As taught in.

• American History
• Modern History

Learning Resource Types

American history since 1865.

For our first paper assignment, you will be asked to write a short essay that responds to the following prompt:

The historian Eric Foner argues that Reconstruction should be understood as an “unfinished revolution.” 1 In what ways, if any, were the American Civil War and the Reconstruction period that followed revolutionary, and for whom? What was left “unfinished” by Reconstruction?

Essays should present an original argument that responds to the above prompt. This argument should be unique (of your own making) and should reflect careful and serious engagement with course materials. It should also be clearly expressed and organized, so a reader would have no problem understanding both the overall argument and its progression through your essay. In crafting your argument, you should draw on lecture, discussion, and secondary source readings (materials assigned for Lecture 2). Evidence in support of this argument should be drawn from at least three primary sources (materials assigned for Lecture 3).

Essays should be approximately 1250 words in length (please include a word count at the end of your essay), double-spaced, and written in a 12 point font. They should include page numbers, properly formatted footnotes with accurate citations, and a title that reflects the paper’s argument. All sources should be cited using the Chicago Manual of Style (see the Chicago-Style Citation Quick Guide ). For an example of what citations in Chicago format look like, see the footnote at the bottom of this page.

Essays will be evaluated according to:

• The quality of the analysis and argument presented
• The strength of the evidence marshaled in support of that argument
• The clarity and quality of written expression (this includes style, grammar, and proper citation)

Essay #1 is due during Lecture 5.  

1 Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Harper Collins,1988).

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How to write an introduction for a history essay

Every essay needs to begin with an introductory paragraph. It needs to be the first paragraph the marker reads.

While your introduction paragraph might be the first of the paragraphs you write, this is not the only way to do it.

You can choose to write your introduction after you have written the rest of your essay.

This way, you will know what you have argued, and this might make writing the introduction easier.

Either approach is fine. If you do write your introduction first, ensure that you go back and refine it once you have completed your essay. 

What is an ‘introduction paragraph’?

An introductory paragraph is a single paragraph at the start of your essay that prepares your reader for the argument you are going to make in your body paragraphs .

It should provide all of the necessary historical information about your topic and clearly state your argument so that by the end of the paragraph, the marker knows how you are going to structure the rest of your essay.

In general, you should never use quotes from sources in your introduction.

Introduction paragraph structure

While your introduction paragraph does not have to be as long as your body paragraphs , it does have a specific purpose, which you must fulfil.

A well-written introduction paragraph has the following four-part structure (summarised by the acronym BHES).

B – Background sentences

H – Hypothesis

E – Elaboration sentences

S - Signpost sentence

Each of these elements are explained in further detail, with examples, below:

1. Background sentences

The first two or three sentences of your introduction should provide a general introduction to the historical topic which your essay is about. This is done so that when you state your hypothesis , your reader understands the specific point you are arguing about.

Background sentences explain the important historical period, dates, people, places, events and concepts that will be mentioned later in your essay. This information should be drawn from your background research . 

Example background sentences:

Middle Ages (Year 8 Level)

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15 th and 16 th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges.

WWI (Year 9 Level)

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe.

Civil Rights (Year 10 Level)

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success.

Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)  

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times.

2. Hypothesis

Once you have provided historical context for your essay in your background sentences, you need to state your hypothesis .

A hypothesis is a single sentence that clearly states the argument that your essay will be proving in your body paragraphs .

A good hypothesis contains both the argument and the reasons in support of your argument. 

Example hypotheses:

Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery.

Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare.

The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders.

Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1 st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state.

3. Elaboration sentences

Once you have stated your argument in your hypothesis , you need to provide particular information about how you’re going to prove your argument.

Your elaboration sentences should be one or two sentences that provide specific details about how you’re going to cover the argument in your three body paragraphs.

You might also briefly summarise two or three of your main points.

Finally, explain any important key words, phrases or concepts that you’ve used in your hypothesis, you’ll need to do this in your elaboration sentences.

Example elaboration sentences:

By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period.

Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined.

The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results.

While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period.

4. Signpost sentence

The final sentence of your introduction should prepare the reader for the topic of your first body paragraph. The main purpose of this sentence is to provide cohesion between your introductory paragraph and you first body paragraph .

Therefore, a signpost sentence indicates where you will begin proving the argument that you set out in your hypothesis and usually states the importance of the first point that you’re about to make. 

Example signpost sentences:

The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20 th century.

The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

Putting it all together

Once you have written all four parts of the BHES structure, you should have a completed introduction paragraph. In the examples above, we have shown each part separately. Below you will see the completed paragraphs so that you can appreciate what an introduction should look like.

Example introduction paragraphs: 

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15th and 16th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges. Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies, but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery. By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period. The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe. Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare. Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined. The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success. The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results. The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20th century.

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times. Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state. While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period. The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

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General Education

Taking US History in preparation for the Regents test? The next US History Regents exam dates are Wednesday, January 22nd and Thursday, June 18th, both at 9:15am. Will you be prepared?

You may have heard the test is undergoing some significant changes. In this guide, we explain everything you need to know about the newly-revised US History Regents exam, from what the format will look like to which topics it'll cover. We also include official sample questions of every question type you'll see on this test and break down exactly what your answers to each of them should include.

What Is the Format of the US History Regents Exam?

Beginning in 2020, the US History Regents exam will have a new format. Previously, the test consisted of 50 multiple-choice questions with long essays, but now it will have a mix of multiple choice, short answer, short essay, and long essay questions (schools can choose to use the old version of the exam through June 2021). Here's the format of the new test, along with how it's scored:

In Part 2, there will be two sets of paired documents (always primary sources). For each pair of documents, students will answer with a short essay (about two to three paragraphs, no introduction or conclusion).

For the first pair of documents, students will need to describe the historical context of the documents and explain how the two documents relate to each other. For the second pair, students will again describe the historical context of the documents then explain how audience, bias, purpose, or point of view affect the reliability of each document.

Part A: Students will be given a set of documents focused on a civil or constitutional issue, and they'll need to respond to a set of six short-answer questions about them.

Part B: Using the same set of documents as Part A, students will write a full-length essay (the Civic Literacy essay) that answers the following prompt:

• Describe the historical circumstances surrounding a constitutional or civic issue.
• Explain efforts by individuals, groups, and/or governments to address this constitutional or civic issue.
• Discuss the extent to which these efforts were successful OR discuss the impact of the efforts on the United States and/or American society.

What Topics Does the US History Regents Exam Cover?

Even though the format of the US History Regents test is changing, the topics the exam focuses on are pretty much staying the same. New Visions for Public Schools recommends teachers base their US History class around the following ten units:

As you can see, the US History Regents exam can cover pretty much any major topic/era/conflict in US History from the colonial period to present day, so make sure you have a good grasp of each topic during your US History Regents review.

What Will Questions Look Like on the US History Regents Exam?

Because the US History Regents exam is being revamped for 2020, all the old released exams (with answer explanations) are out-of-date. They can still be useful study tools, but you'll need to remember that they won't be the same as the test you'll be taking.

Fortunately, the New York State Education Department has released a partial sample exam so you can see what the new version of the US History Regents exam will be like. In this section, we go over a sample question for each of the four question types you'll see on the test and explain how to answer it.

Multiple-Choice Sample Question

Base your answers to questions 1 through 3 on the letter below and on your knowledge of social studies.

• Upton Sinclair wrote this letter to President Theodore Roosevelt to inform the president about

1. excessive federal regulation of meatpacking plants 2. unhealthy practices in the meatpacking plants 3. raising wages for meatpacking workers 4. state laws regulating the meatpacking industry

There will be 28 multiple-choice questions on the exam, and they'll all reference "stimuli" such as this example's excerpt of a letter from Upton Sinclair to Theodore Roosevelt. This means you'll never need to pull an answer out of thin air (you'll always have information from the stimulus to refer to), but you will still need a solid knowledge of US history to do well.

To answer these questions, first read the stimulus carefully but still efficiently. In this example, Sinclair is describing a place called "Packingtown," and it seems to be pretty gross. He mentions rotting meat, dead rats, infected animals, etc.

Once you have a solid idea of what the stimulus is about, read the answer choices (some students may prefer to read through the answer choices before reading the stimulus; try both to see which you prefer).

Option 1 doesn't seem correct because there definitely doesn't seem to be much regulation occurring in the meatpacking plant. Option 2 seems possible because things do seem very unhealthy there. Option 3 is incorrect because Sinclair mentions nothing about wages, and similarly for option 4, there is nothing about state laws in the letter.

Option 2 is the correct answer. Because of the stimulus (the letter), you don't need to know everything about the history of industrialization in the US and how its rampant growth had the tendency to cause serious health/social/moral etc. problems, but having an overview of it at least can help you answer questions like these faster and with more confidence.

Short Essay

This Short Essay Question is based on the accompanying documents and is designed to test your ability to work with historical documents. Each Short Essay Question set will consist of two documents. Some of these documents have been edited for the purposes of this question. Keep in mind that the language and images used in a document may reflect the historical context of the time in which it was created.

Task: Read and analyze the following documents, applying your social studies knowledge and skills to write a short essay of two or three paragraphs in which you:

In developing your short essay answer of two or three paragraphs, be sure to keep these explanations in mind:

Describe means "to illustrate something in words or tell about it"

Historical Context refers to "the relevant historical circumstances surrounding or connecting the events, ideas, or developments in these documents"

Identify means "to put a name to or to name"

Explain means "to make plain or understandable; to give reasons for or causes of; to show the logical development or relationship of"

Types of Relationships :

Cause refers to "something that contributes to the occurrence of an event, the rise of an idea, or the bringing about of a development"

Effect refers to "what happens as a consequence (result, impact, outcome) of an event, an idea, or a development"

Similarity tells how "something is alike or the same as something else"

Difference tells how "something is not alike or not the same as something else"

Turning Point is "a major event, idea, or historical development that brings about significant change. It can be local, regional, national, or global"

It's important to read the instructions accompanying the documents so you know exactly how to answer the short essays. This example is from the first short essay question, so along with explaining the historical context of the documents, you'll also need to explain the relationship between the documents (for the second short essay question, you'll need to explain biases). Your options for the types of relationships are:

• cause and effect,
• similarity/difference
• turning point

You'll only choose one of these relationships. Key words are explained in the instructions, which we recommend you read through carefully now so you don't waste time doing it on test day. The instructions above are the exact instructions you'll see on your own exam.

Next, read through the two documents, jotting down some brief notes if you like. Document 1 is an excerpt from a press conference where President Eisenhower discusses the importance of Indochina, namely the goods it produces, the danger of a dictatorship to the free world, and the potential of Indochina causing other countries in the region to become communist as well.

Document 2 is an excerpt from the Tonkin Gulf Resolution. It mentions an attack on the US Navy by the communist regime in Vietnam, and it states that while the US desires that there be peace in the region and is reluctant to get involved, Congress approves the President of the United States to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression."

Your response should be no more than three paragraphs. For the first paragraph, we recommend discussing the historical context of the two documents. This is where your history knowledge comes in. If you have a strong grasp of the history of this time period, you can discuss how France's colonial reign in Indochina (present-day Vietnam) ended in 1954, which led to a communist regime in the north and a pro-Western democracy in the south. Eisenhower didn't want to get directly involved in Vietnam, but he subscribed to the "domino theory" (Document 1) and believed that if Vietnam became fully communist, other countries in Southeast Asia would as well. Therefore, he supplied the south with money and weapons, which helped cause the outbreak of the Vietnam War.

After Eisenhower, the US had limited involvement in the Vietnam War, but the Gulf of Tonkin incident, where US and North Vietnam ships confronted each other and exchanged fire, led to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (Document 2) and gave President Lyndon B. Johnson powers to send US military forces to Vietnam without an official declaration of war. This led to a large escalation of the US's involvement in Vietnam.

You don't need to know every detail mentioned above, but having a solid knowledge of key US events (like its involvement in the Vietnam War) will help you place documents in their correct historical context.

For the next one to two paragraphs of your response, discuss the relationship of the documents. It's not really a cause and effect relationship, since it wasn't Eisenhower's domino theory that led directly to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, but you could discuss the similarities and differences between the two documents (they're similar because they both show a fear of the entire region becoming communist and a US desire for peace in the area, but they're different because the first is a much more hands-off approach while the second shows significant involvement). You could also argue it's a turning point relationship because the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was the turning point in the US's involvement in the Vietnam War. Up to that point, the US was primarily hands-off (as shown in Document 1). Typically, the relationship you choose is less important than your ability to support your argument with facts and analysis.

Short Answers and Civic Literacy Essay

This Civic Literacy essay is based on the accompanying documents. The question is designed to test your ability to work with historical documents. Some of these documents have been edited for the purpose of this question. As you analyze the documents, take into account the source of each document and any point of view that may be presented in the document. Keep in mind that the language and images used in a document may reflect the historical context of the time in which it was created.

Historical Context: African American Civil Rights

Throughout United States history, many constitutional and civic issues have been debated by Americans. These debates have resulted in efforts by individuals, groups, and governments to address these issues. These efforts have achieved varying degrees of success. One of these constitutional and civic issues is African American civil rights.

Task: Read and analyze the documents. Using information from the documents and your knowledge of United States history, write an essay in which you

Discuss means "to make observations about something using facts, reasoning, and argument; to present in some detail"

Document 1a

Document 1b

• Based on these documents, state one way the end of Reconstruction affected African Americans.
• According to this document, what is one way Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois disagreed about how African Americans should achieve equality?
• According to this document, what is one reason Thurgood Marshall argued that the "separate but equal" ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson should be overturned?

Document 4a

Document 4b

• Based on these documents, state one result of the sit-in at the Greensboro Woolworth.
• According to Henry Louis Gates Jr., what was one result of the 1960s civil rights protests?
• Based on this document, state one impact of the civil rights movement of the 1960s.

Start by reading the instructions, then the documents themselves. There are eight of them, all focused on African American civil rights. The short answers and the civic literacy essay use the same documents. We recommend answering the short answer questions first, then completing your essay.

A short answer question follows each document or set of documents. These are straightforward questions than can be answered in 1-2 sentences. Question 1 asks, "Based on these documents, state one way the end of Reconstruction affected African Americans."

Reading through documents 1a and 1b, there are many potential answers. Choose one (don't try to choose more than one to get more points; it won't help and you'll just lose time you could be spending on other questions) for your response. Using information from document 1a, a potential answer could be, "After Reconstruction, African Americans were able to hold many elected positions. This made it possible for them to influence politics and public life more than they had ever been able to before."

Your Civic Literacy essay will be a standard five-paragraph essay, with an introduction, thesis statement, and a conclusion. You'll need to use many of the documents to answer the three bullet points laid out in the instructions. We recommend one paragraph per bullet point. For each paragraph, you'll need to use your knowledge of US history AND information directly from the documents to make your case.

As with the short essay, we recommended devoting a paragraph to each of the bullet points. In the first paragraph, you should discuss how the documents fit into the larger narrative of African American civil rights. You could discuss the effects of Reconstruction, how the industrialization of the North affected blacks, segregation and its impacts, key events in the Civil Rights movement such as the bus boycott in Montgomery and the March on Washington, etc. The key is to use your own knowledge of US history while also discussing the documents and how they tie in.

For the second paragraph, you'll discuss efforts to address African American civil rights. Here you can talk about groups, such as the NAACP (Document 3), specific people such as W.E.B. Du Bois (Document 2), and/or major events, such as the passing of the Civil Rights Act (Document 5).

In the third paragraph, you'll discuss how successful the effort to increase African American civil rights was. Again, use both the documents and your own knowledge to discuss setbacks faced and victories achieved. Your overall opinion will reflect your thesis statement you included at the end of your introductory paragraph. As with the other essays, it matters less what you conclude than how well you are able to support your argument.

3 Tips for Your US History Regents Review

In order to earn a Regents Diploma, you'll need to pass at least one of the social science regents. Here are some tips for passing the US Regents exam.

#1: Focus on Broad Themes, Not Tiny Details

With the revamp of the US History exam, there is much less focus on memorization and basic fact recall. Every question on the exam, including multiple choice, will have a document or excerpt referred to in the questions, so you'll never need to pull an answer out of thin air.

Because you'll never see a question like, "What year did Alabama become a state?" don't waste your time trying to memorize a lot of dates. It's good to have a general idea of when key events occurred, like WWII or the Gilded Age, but i t's much more important that you understand, say, the causes and consequences of WWII rather than the dates of specific battles. The exam tests your knowledge of major themes and changes in US history, so focus on that during your US History Regents review over rote memorization.

#2: Don't Write More Than You Need To

You only need to write one full-length essay for the US History Regents exam, and it's for the final question of the test (the Civic Literacy essay). All other questions (besides multiple choice) only require a few sentences or a few paragraphs.

Don't be tempted to go beyond these guidelines in an attempt to get more points. If a question asks for one example, only give one example; giving more won't get you any additional points, and it'll cause you to lose valuable time. For the two short essay questions, only write three paragraphs each, maximum. The short response questions only require a sentence or two. The questions are carefully designed so that they can be fully answered by responses of this length, so don't feel pressured to write more in an attempt to get a higher score. Quality is much more important than quantity here.

#3: Search the Documents for Clues

As mentioned above, all questions on this test are document-based, and those documents will hold lots of key information in them. Even ones that at first glance don't seem to show a lot, like a poster or photograph, can contain many key details if you have a general idea of what was going on at that point in history. The caption or explanation beneath each document is also often critical to fully understanding it. In your essays and short answers, remember to always refer back to the information you get from these documents to help support your answers.

What's Next?

Taking other Regents exams ? We have guides to the Chemistry , Earth Science , and Living Environment Regents , as well as the Algebra 1 , Algebra 2 , and Geometry Regents .

Need more information on Colonial America? Become an expert by reading our guide to the 13 colonies.

The Platt Amendment was written during another key time in American history. Learn all about this important document, and how it is still influencing Guantanamo Bay, by reading our complete guide to the Platt Amendment.

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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Black Tuesday was the start of the depression. Also, Herbert Hoover did not want to give the people federal money. He thought they had to get themselves out of the problem. This made many people go homeless and plus the Dust Bowl which also destroyed people's homes. The Great Depression was defined as a dark age in the 1930's. Although, there are causes that made the Great Depression happen, like the farm industry failing, low income families, and lastly World […]

Declaration of Independence Enlightened Thought Essay

The Declaration of Independence is a document declaring the colonies' freedom from Britain; however, it was not an original work, many of the thoughts were just being used from the English philosopher John Locke. Some of the theories that John Locke created,  Thomas Jefferson used, in the Declaration of Independence, such as the ideas of natural rights, how to run the government, and identifying the basis of government. In many ways the Declaration of Independence seems as if it is […]

What was the Great Depression and why did it Start in the USA

There are many significant events that have shaped America’s history. Some were infamous, some scandalous and some we choose to overlook..According to the PBS film “The Great Depression”, The Great Depression was one of the most traumatic and gut wrenching event throughout history. This film outline the events leading up to the great depression and highlights some of the significant events during this time period. The Great Depression was an economic downturn that began in 1929 while president Herbert Hoover […]

Great Depression: what Happened, Causes, how it Ended

During the 1930s. America went through one of the worst economic declines in world history, The Great Depression. Many believe it was sole because of the stock market crash, however other factors played a huge role in causing the Great Depression to occur. Bank failures, the Smoot-Hawley Tariff in the 1930s, and weather conditions from the Dust Bowl all played a critical factor in influencing this economic depression within America. Throughout America's history, much examination has been placed in the […]

Great Depression: Causes and Definition

The Great Depression was the worst economic problem in the history of the world, from 1929 to 1939. It caused many problem and difficulty like, Overproduction, Big crash, weak banking systems, and buying on margins. The Great Depression made everyone forget about the wealth, growth and prosperity of last period of ten years and face new economically unfair conditions of business and living in a bad situation. The government should’ve involve more in the Great Depression to help people and […]

September 11th 2001 Attack

The attack of September 11th 2001 was one that really shock America. It left many people dead and other wounded. The total number of people who died in the attack was 2,996 while those got serious injuries were more than 6000. People who died in the incidence included those who were in the building, outside, firefighters and also some terrorists. It was a shock to many people how so many people could die within a very short period of time. […]

Great Depression in the United States

The Great depression was a time when America could not see the future and felt doubtful about the future to come. This was the worst economic downfall in the history of the United States. The Depression started in 1929 and happened to end in the end of 1930. More than a third of the nation's banks had failed and this caused the major stock market to come crashing down. The Great Depression was horrifying for many Americans because of its […]

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How To Write An Essay On American History

Introduction to american history as an essay topic.

Writing an essay on American history involves delving into the rich and complex narrative of the United States' past. It's a journey through significant events, influential figures, and transformative periods that have shaped the nation. In your introduction, specify the particular aspect or period of American history you will focus on, such as the Revolutionary War, the Civil Rights Movement, or a specific presidency. Establish the importance of this topic in understanding the current social, political, and cultural landscape of the United States. This introduction should provide a brief overview of the historical context and set the stage for a deeper analysis.

Researching and Presenting Historical Facts

When exploring a topic in American history, thorough research is crucial to understand the events, their causes, and their effects. Use credible sources like academic journals, history books, and primary documents to gather information. In presenting these facts, maintain a clear and organized structure, guiding the reader through the chronological order or thematic development of your topic. For instance, if writing about the Civil Rights Movement, discuss key events like the Montgomery Bus Boycott, the March on Washington, and landmark legislation. Accurate representation of historical facts forms the backbone of your essay, providing the reader with a well-informed perspective.

Analyzing and Interpreting Historical Events

Beyond presenting historical facts, your essay should analyze and interpret these events. Discuss the broader implications of these events on American society, politics, and culture. For example, analyze how the Industrial Revolution changed economic structures and social dynamics in America, or how the outcomes of the Civil War shaped the nation's future. This analysis should offer insight into the complexities of historical events, revealing the interconnectedness of various factors and the long-term impacts on the United States.

Concluding with Reflections on American History

Conclude your essay by summarizing the main points of your discussion and offering reflections on the significance of your historical topic. Consider how understanding this aspect of American history provides insights into contemporary issues facing the nation. Reflect on the lessons that can be learned from the past and how they can inform present and future decisions. A well-crafted conclusion will not only encapsulate your analysis but also emphasize the relevance of studying American history, inspiring readers to appreciate its impact on today's society and their own lives.

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A Brief History of Abortion in the U.S.

Abortion wasn’t always a moral, political, and legal tinderbox. What changed?

A bortion laws have never been more contentious in the U.S. Yet for the first century of the country’s existence—and most of human history before that—abortion was a relatively uncontroversial fact of life.

“Abortion has existed for pretty much as long as human beings have existed,” says Joanne Rosen, JD, MA , a senior lecturer in Health Policy and Management who studies the impact of law and policy on access to abortion.

Until the mid-19th century, the U.S. attitude toward abortion was much the same as it had often been elsewhere throughout history: It was a quiet reality, legal until “quickening” (when fetal motion could be felt by the mother). In the eyes of the law, the fetus wasn’t a “separate distinct entity until then,” but rather an extension of the mother, Rosen explains.

What changed?

America’s first anti-abortion movement wasn’t driven primarily by moral or religious concerns like it is today. Instead, abortion’s first major foe in the U.S. was physicians on a mission to regulate medicine.

Until this point, abortion services had been “women’s work.” Most providers were midwives, many of whom made a good living selling abortifacient plants. They relied on methods passed down through generations, from herbal abortifacients and pessaries—a tampon-like device soaked in a solution to induce abortion—to catheter abortions that irritate the womb and force a miscarriage, to a minor surgical procedure called dilation and curettage (D&C), which remains one of the most common methods of terminating an early pregnancy.

The cottage abortion industry caught the attention of the fledgling American Medical Association, which was established in 1847 and, at the time, excluded women and Black people from membership. The AMA was keen to be taken seriously as a gatekeeper of the medical profession, and abortion services made midwives and other irregular practitioners—so-called quacks—an easy target. Their rhetoric was strategic, says Mary Fissell, PhD , the J. Mario Molina professor in the Department of the History of Medicine at Johns Hopkins University. “You have to link those midwives to providing abortion as a way of kind of getting them out of business,” Fissell says. “So organized medicine very much takes the anti-abortion position and stays with that for some time.”

Early 19th century and before

Abortion is legal in the U.S. until “quickening”

AMA campaigns to end abortion

At least 40 anti-abortion statutes are enacted in the U.S.

Comstock Act makes it illegal to sell or mail contraceptives or abortifacients

Late 19th century

OB-GYN emerges as a specialty

Griswold v. Connecticut decision finds that the Constitution guarantees a right to privacy, specifically in prescribing contraceptives, paving the way for Roe v. Wade

Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade enshrines abortion as a constitutional right

Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey protects a woman's right to have an abortion prior to  fetal viability

Four states pass trigger laws making it a felony to perform, procure, or prescribe an abortion if Roe is ever overturned

Roe v. Wade and Planned Parenthood v. Casey overturned; 13 states ban abortion by October 2022

In 1857, the AMA took aim at unregulated abortion providers with a letter-writing campaign pushing state lawmakers to ban the practice. To make their case, they asserted that there was a medical consensus that life begins at conception, rather than at quickening.

The campaign succeeded. At least 40 anti-abortion laws went on the books between 1860 and 1880.

And yet some doctors continued to perform abortions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By then, abortion was illegal in almost all states and territories, but during the Depression era, “doctors could see why women wouldn’t want a child,” and many would perform them anyway, Fissell says. In the 1920s and through the 1930s, many cities had physicians who specialized in abortions, and other doctors would refer patients to them “off book.”

That leniency faded with the end of World War II. “All across America, it’s very much about gender roles, and women are supposed to be in the home, having babies,” Fissell says. This shift in the 1940s and ’50s meant that more doctors were prosecuted for performing abortions, which drove the practice underground and into less skilled hands. In the 1950s and 1960s, up to 1.2 million illegal abortions were performed each year in the U.S., according to the Guttmacher Institute . In 1965, 17% of reported deaths attributed to pregnancy and childbirth were associated with illegal abortion.

A rubella outbreak from 1963–1965 moved the dial again, back toward more liberal abortion laws. Catching rubella during pregnancy could cause severe birth defects, leading medical authorities to endorse therapeutic abortions . But these safe, legal abortions remained largely the preserve of the privileged. “Women who are well-to-do have always managed to get abortions, almost always without a penalty,” says Fissell. “But God help her if she was a single, Black, working-class woman.”

Women who could afford it brought their cases to court to fight for access to hospital abortions. Other women gained approval for abortions with proof from a physician that carrying the pregnancy would endanger her life or her physical or mental health. These cases set off a wave of abortion reform bills in state legislatures that helped set the stage for Roe v. Wade . By the time Roe was decided in 1973, legal abortions were already available in 17 states—and not just to save a woman’s life.

But raising the issue to the level of the Supreme Court and enshrining abortion rights for all Americans also galvanized opposition to it and mobilized anti-abortion groups. “ Roe was under attack virtually from the moment it was decided,” says Rosen.  

In 1992 another Supreme Court case, Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey posed the most significant existential threat to Roe . Rosen calls it “the case that launched a thousand abortion regulations,” upholding Roe but giving states far greater scope to regulate abortion prior to fetal viability. However, defining that nebulous milestone a became a flashpoint for debate as medical advancements saw babies survive earlier and earlier outside the womb. Sonograms became routine around the same time, making fetal life easier to grasp and “putting wind in the sails of the ‘pro-life’ movement,” Rosen says. Then in June, the Supreme Court overturned both Roe and Casey .

For many Americans, that meant the return to the conundrum that led Norma McCorvey—a.k.a. Jane Roe—to the Supreme Court in 1971: being poor and pregnant, and seeking an abortion in a state that had banned them in all but the narrowest of circumstances.

The history of abortion in the U.S. suggests the tides will turn again. “We often see periods of toleration followed by periods of repression,” says Fissell. The current moment is unequivocally marked by the latter. What remains to be seen is how long it will last.

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From Chad Michael Murray to Jesse Lee Soffer: Sophia Bush’s Dating History

Sophia Bush isn’t afraid to admit her past romances weren’t all perfect.

“My first experience with love was incredibly pure. The boy I loved had been one of my best friends from the time we were 9 years old,” the actress wrote in a personal essay published on Cosmopolitan in 2017. “In my 20s, when I was starting out my career as an actor, I wasn’t looking for a relationship, but one found me and became serious, even though I hadn’t planned to settle down until my 30s. But when the person you’re with asks you to marry him, you think: This must be happening because it’s supposed to.”

Bush married her One Tree Hill costar Chad Michael Murray in April 2005. After their split the following year, the John Tucker Must Die actress went on to date fellow OTH castmates James Lafferty and Austin Nichols before kicking off a romance with former Chicago P.D. costar Jesse Lee Soffer .

It seemed Bush found her forever person when meeting Grant Hughes . The two started dating in 2020 and got married in June 2022 after two years together. Bush and Hughes celebrated their one-year anniversary in June 2023, but she filed for divorce that August.

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By October 2023, Bush sparked romance rumors with soccer star Ashlyn Harris . The duo made multiple public appearances together before the actress confirmed their relationship in April 2024 after coming out as queer in a Glamour cover story.

Scroll through for the actress’ complete dating history:

Credit: Michael Buckner/Getty Images for VH1; Gregg DeGuire/WireImage; M. Tran/FilmMagic; Alberto E. Rodriguez/Getty Images for Entertainment Weekly

Sophia Bush isn’t afraid to admit her past romances weren’t all perfect. “My first experience with love was incredibly pure. The boy I loved had been one of my best friends from the time we were 9 years old,” the actress wrote in a personal essay published on Cosmopolitan in 2017. “In my 20s, when I was starting out my career as an actor, I wasn’t looking for a relationship, but one found me and became serious, even though I hadn’t planned to settle down until my 30s. But when the person you’re with asks you to marry him, you think: This must be happening because it’s supposed to.” Bush married her One Tree Hill costar Chad Michael Murray in April 2005. After their split the following year, the John Tucker Must Die actress went on to date fellow OTH castmates James Lafferty and Austin Nichols before kicking off a romance with former Chicago P.D. costar Jesse Lee Soffer . It seemed Bush found her forever person when meeting Grant Hughes . The two started dating in 2020 and got married in June 2022 after two years together. Bush and Hughes celebrated their one-year anniversary in June 2023, but she filed for divorce that August. By October 2023, Bush sparked romance rumors with soccer star Ashlyn Harris . The duo made multiple public appearances together before the actress confirmed their relationship in April 2024 after coming out as queer in a Glamour cover story. Scroll through for the actress’ complete dating history:  

Credit: Gregg DeGuire/WireImage

Chad Michael Murray

Murray popped the question in May 2004 after the pair met on the set of One Tree Hill . A year later, the duo tied the knot in Santa Monica, California, on April 16, 2005. After five months of marriage, Bush and Murray announced their separation amid reports that he was unfaithful. While the actress filed for an annulment, citing fraud, her petition was denied and the twosome’s divorce was finalized in December 2006.

The exes continued to work together on OTH until Murray exited the series in 2009. Bush opened up about their breakup on Watch What Happens Live With Andy Cohen in January 2014. "We were two stupid kids who had no business being in a relationship in the first place," she explained. "To all the other costars who've worked it out, more power to you."

In June 2018, the former spouses made headlines after Bush called her marriage to Murray “not a thing [she] actually really wanted to do.” The actor later called Bush’s comments “ludicrous” in a statement to Us Weekly . “Chad conducts himself in a completely professional manner and would never marry for any reason but love,” the actor’s rep said in a statement to Us in June 2018. “Thirteen years since his divorce from Sophia, he has a very happy family life with his wife and children. He has completely moved on and doesn’t feel the need to engage in this type of behavior.”

Credit: M. Tran/FilmMagic

Bush was linked to her Stay Alive costar from 2006 to 2007. She told Us  in June 2008 that the twosome broke up “a year ago,” but remained “really good friends.” “You can love somebody, and not be in love with them, and I think that was a really valuable lesson,” she told Us at the time. “We weren’t ready to get married, but it definitely doesn’t mean we don’t care about each other.”

Credit: Peter Kramer/Getty Images

James Lafferty

The Hitcher actress dated her OTH costar in 2008. Murray spoke about his ex-wife’s relationship with their coworker during an interview with a local CW news affiliate at the time. "It's one of those things where you grow up a lot faster. You're put in a situation where you're gonna deal with things right in your face. But I think [Sophia and I] are both professional and mature enough to get through it,” he said. “And now it's just easy. We're just friends. And she's got James, and James and I are friends. It's just a little tight group in Wilmington."

Credit: Michael Buckner/WireImage

Austin Nichols

Bush rekindled her on-off relationship with Nichols after he joined the cast of One Tree Hill to get their romance back on track. “We've been dating off and on for the past four years. We had so many years of history prior to him coming to work on the show," Bush told E! News in 2010. “And I think someone taking a job and moving their life across the country to show you how much they care is pretty much the most romantic gesture that a person could make."

After wrapping OTH , the pair split in February 2012.

Credit: Michael Buckner/Getty Images for VH1

Dan Fredinburg

Us confirmed in April 2013 that the actress started dating the Google program manager. The duo called it quits after 10 months of dating in 2014. A year later, Fredinburg died during an avalanche on Mt. Everest that was caused by the devastating Nepal earthquake. 

Bush paid tribute to her late ex on what would have been his 34th birthday in September 2015 via Instagram. ”I still don't know what the words are. Magic. Friendship. Memories. Consciousness. Dimensions. Infinite. Break. Dance. Live. Believe. Do," she wrote at the time. "So many. None are the one. They're puzzle pieces but not the whole picture. What I do know is that you are missed. That you are still here. That you changed us, inspired us, pushed us, and guided us. What I do know is that I saw you this weekend, deep in the desert, many times."

Credit: Alberto E. Rodriguez/Getty Images for Entertainment Weekly

Jesse Lee Soffer

Bush and her Chicago P.D. costar were linked in 2014 after they met on the set of the cop drama. While the twosome split in June 2015 after nearly a year of dating, they were spotted holding hands that September. Three years later, Us broke the news that Soffer was dating Bush’s former OTH costar Torrey DeVitto. 

Credit: RF/Coleman-Rayner

Grant Hughes

In May 2020, the Incredibles 2 actress was spotted holding hands with a mystery man during a romantic afternoon stroll in Malibu amid the coronavirus pandemic. Us later identified Bush's new man as the local entrepreneur with a passion for creating positive change in his community. After just over one year of dating, Hughes popped the question while the pair were on vacation in Italy. 

Bush and Hughes got married at Philbrook Art Museum in Tulsa County, Oklahoma, on June 11, 2022. In August 2023, the pair split after just 13 months of marriage. 

Credit: Taylor Hill/FilmMagic; Frazer Harrison/Getty Images

Ashlyn Harris

Bush and Harris’ romance was a slow burn as they were friends before things turned romantic. The actress wrote in her Glamour cover story that she “asked Ashlyn to have a non-friend-group hang” and things “happened slowly.”

Romance rumors started swirling in October 2023, and Bush was spotted out with Harris on multiple occasions in the months that followed. In April 2024, Bush confirmed her relationship with the former soccer star while simultaneously coming out as queer.

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This Whole King Trump Thing Is Getting Awfully Literal

By Jamelle Bouie

Opinion Columnist

Donald Trump’s claim that he has absolute immunity for criminal acts taken in office as president is an insult to reason, an assault on common sense and a perversion of the fundamental maxim of American democracy: that no man is above the law.

More astonishing than the former president’s claim to immunity, however, is the fact that the Supreme Court took the case in the first place . It’s not just that there’s an obvious response — no, the president is not immune to criminal prosecution for illegal actions committed with the imprimatur of executive power, whether private or “official” (a distinction that does not exist in the Constitution) — but that the court has delayed, perhaps indefinitely, the former president’s reckoning with the criminal legal system of the United States.

In delaying the trial, the Supreme Court may well have denied the public its right to know whether a former president, now vying to be the next president, is guilty of trying to subvert the sacred process of presidential succession: the peaceful transfer of power from one faction to another that is the essence of representative democracy. It is a process so vital, and so precious, that its first occurrence — with the defeat of John Adams and the Federalists at the hands of Thomas Jefferson’s Republicans in the 1800 presidential election — was a second sort of American Revolution.

Whether motivated by sincere belief or partisanship or a myopic desire to weigh in on a case involving the former president, the Supreme Court has directly intervened in the 2024 presidential election in a way that deprives the electorate of critical information or gives it less time to grapple with what might happen in a federal courtroom. And if the trial occurs after an election in which Trump wins a second term and he is convicted, then the court will have teed the nation up for an acute constitutional crisis. A president, for the first time in the nation’s history, might try to pardon himself for his own criminal behavior.

In other words, however the Supreme Court rules, it has egregiously abused its power.

It is difficult to overstate the radical contempt for republican government embodied in the former president’s notion that he can break the law without consequence or sanction on the grounds that he must have that right as chief executive. As Trump sees it, the president is sovereign, not the people. In his grotesque vision of executive power, the president is a king, unbound by law, chained only to the limits of his will.

This is nonsense. In a detailed amicus brief submitted in support of the government in Trump v. United States, 15 leading historians of the early American republic show the extent to which the framers and ratifiers of the Constitution rejected the idea of presidential immunity for crimes committed in office.

“Although the framers debated a variety of designs for the executive branch — ranging from a comparatively strong, unitary president to a comparatively weaker executive council — they all approached the issues with a deep-seated, anti-monarchical sentiment,” the brief states. “There is no evidence in the extensive historical record that any of the framers believed a former president should be immune from criminal prosecution. Such a concept would be inimical to the basic intentions, understandings, and experiences of the founding generation.”

The historians gather a bushel of quotes and examples from a who’s who of the revolutionary generation to prove the point. “In America the law is king,” Thomas Paine wrote in his landmark pamphlet, “Common Sense.” “For as in absolute governments the King is law, so in free countries the law ought to be King; and there ought to be no other.”

James Madison thought it “indispensable that some provision should be made for defending the Community against the incapacity, negligence or perfidy of the chief Magistrate.” The presidency was designed with accountability in mind.

Years later, speaking on the Senate floor, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina — a delegate to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia — said outright that he and his colleagues did not intend for the president to have any privileges or immunities: “No privilege of this kind was intended for your Executive, nor any except that which I have mentioned for your Legislature.”

What’s more, as the brief explains, ratification of the Constitution rested on the “express” promise that “the new president would be subject to criminal conviction.”

“His person is not so much protected as that of a member of the House of Representatives,” Tench Coxe wrote in one of the first published essays urging ratification of the Constitution, “for he may be proceeded against like any other man in the ordinary course of law.”

James Iredell, one of the first justices of the Supreme Court, told the North Carolina ratifying convention that if the president “commits any misdemeanor in office, he is impeachable, removable from office, and incapacitated to hold any office of honor, trust or profit.” And if he commits any crime, “he is punishable by the laws of his country, and in capital cases may be deprived of his life.”

Yes, you read that correctly. In his argument for the Constitution, one of the earliest appointees to the Supreme Court specified that in a capital case, the president could be tried, convicted and put to death.

If there were ever a subject on which to defer to the founding generation, it is on this question regarding the nature of the presidency. Is the president above the law? The answer is no. Is the president immune from criminal prosecution? Again, the answer is no. Any other conclusion represents a fundamental challenge to constitutional government.

I wish I had faith that the Supreme Court would rule unanimously against Trump. But having heard the arguments — having listened to Justice Brett Kavanaugh worry that prosecution could hamper the president and having heard Justice Samuel Alito suggest that we would face a destabilizing future of politically motivated prosecutions if Trump were to find himself on the receiving end of the full force of the law — my sense is that the Republican-appointed majority will try to make some distinction between official and unofficial acts and remand the case back to the trial court for further review, delaying a trial even further.

Rather than grapple with the situation at hand — a defeated president worked with his allies to try to overturn the results of an election he lost, eventually summoning a mob to try to subvert the peaceful transfer of power — the Republican-appointed majority worried about hypothetical prosecutions against hypothetical presidents who might try to stay in office against the will of the people if they aren’t placed above the law.

It was a farce befitting the absurdity of the situation. Trump has asked the Supreme Court if he is, in effect, a king. And at least four members of the court, among them the so-called originalists, have said, in essence, that they’ll have to think about it.

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Jamelle Bouie became a New York Times Opinion columnist in 2019. Before that he was the chief political correspondent for Slate magazine. He is based in Charlottesville, Va., and Washington. @ jbouie

Opinion Dogs are our greatest creation. And we might be theirs.

Tommy Tomlinson is the author of “ Dogland .” He lives in Charlotte with his wife, her mother and a cat named Jack Reacher.

The dog is humankind’s greatest invention. The wheel, the lightbulb, concrete — all amazing. Top of the line. But nothing in human creation has been as essential and adaptable as the countless descendants of the ancient gray wolf.

How did we do it? I spent three years following the traveling carnival of American dog shows — like a Grateful Dead tour with Milk-Bones — in search of the answer. My journey culminated in the dog world’s most prestigious event: the Westminster Dog Show. Show dogs are bred from the purest stock, culled from litters at just a few weeks old, trained with the dedication of Olympic gymnasts — and groomed like supermodels. They’d be unrecognizable to their ancient kin — and to ours.

The American Kennel Club, arbiter of bloodlines, now recognizes about 200 breeds, while tracking crossbreeds like goldendoodles, and even mutts. From the most massive mastiff to the tiniest teacup chihuahua, all dogs trace back to the same common ancestors.

Scientists think this weird and powerful companionship of humans and dogs might have started somewhere between 15,000 and 30,000 years ago. Humans of that era were mainly hunters traveling in camps. They ate meat by the fire. The cooking meat attracted wolves who were drawn to the aroma but stayed safely out of range of the flames. Every so often, a human would fling a bone into the darkness. The wolves gnawed on the bones. They trailed the humans to the next campsite, still keeping their distance. There was an unspoken arrangement. The wolves alerted the humans to intruders, and the humans fed the wolves well.

Over time the wolves crept closer. One fateful night a curious wolf came all the way into the firelight. The humans didn’t chase it off.

Slowly, the humans mingled with the wolves. After days or months or generations or centuries, a wolf curled up at a human’s feet. Maybe got its belly rubbed. That was the first dog.

As far as we can tell, dogs are the first animals that humans ever tamed. The wolves that hung out with humans found themselves changing inside and out. They developed shorter muzzles and smaller teeth. Their instinct to run became a desire to stay close. With time, dogs were manufactured through breeding to meet different human needs. We made huskies to pull sleds and Newfoundlands to pull fish nets and dachshunds to catch badgers.

Dogs taught humans the early science of designer genes. In the mid-19th century, as we moved off the farm and into the factory, we created dogs we could bring indoors at the end of a workday. And we created dogs we could bring to work: French bulldogs (now the most popular breed in America ) started out as literal lap dogs for lace-makers in France. We molded dogs to be friends, companions, playmates and unofficial therapists.

So dogs are not just humanity’s greatest invention but also its longest-running experiment.

That’s one way to look at it.

Now switch out the frame. Swap the subject and the object. Change the verbs.

Here’s another view:

Around the time early humans evolved, Neanderthals also walked the planet. At some point — roughly 40,000 years ago — humans started to thrive while Neanderthals died off. And this is about the time when those first curious wolves began to evolve into dogs. Some scientists believe the timing is not a coincidence. Maybe the dog was the key advantage in the triumph of humankind.

Dogs enabled humans to settle down and stop their endless wandering. Dogs protected humans at this vulnerable transition from nomadic to settled life. Dogs did work that humans did not have the strength or stamina to do: guarding, herding, hunting, pulling sleds. They created time for humans to build and think and create without having to focus every moment on the next meal or the next threat.

We domesticated dogs, and they domesticated us.

Today, dogs provide not just companionship but also an uncomplicated kind of love in an ever more complicated world. And for those restless souls wandering from town to town, chasing job after job — nomads again — a dog can be an anchor, something to hold on to on a lonely night.

From the gray wolf by the ancient fire to a coifed Pomeranian prancing around the show ring, dogs have been with us nearly as long as we have been human.

They might be our greatest creation. And we might be theirs.

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