an expository essay on the problem with nigeria

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The issue of insecurity in Nigeria

A man set a bonfire on the Kaduna-Abuja highway in Gauruka, near Abuja, Nigeria, on May 24, 2021 during a protest against incessant kidnapping and killing after gunmen kidnapped 16 residents and killed three others in Niger State. (Photo by Kola Sulaimon / AFP)

A trouble is a private matter and occurs when values cherished by an individual are felt by him to be threatened, while issues have to do with matters that transcend the local environments of the individual. So when values cherished by the public are felt to be threatened, then there is an issue because that is a communal matter.

If only one man is unemployed in a city of 100,000, that is his personal trouble, and for a solution, we investigate the character of the person, his skills and his immediate opportunities, but when in a nation of 50 Million people we have 15 Million that are unemployed, that is an issue and we may not hope to find its solution within the range of opportunities open to any individual, this signifies that the very structure of opportunities has collapsed.

In the above scenario, both the correct statement of the problem and the range of possible solutions, require us to consider economic and political institutions of the society and not merely the personal situation and character of individuals.

In the early 20th century sociologists typically associated social problems such as unemployment, crime, poverty with deviant individuals. As a result when they sought to solve social problems, they focus on changing individual behaviour, although this approach is still alive today, sociologist had by and large arrived at a different understanding.

By the mid-century, sociologist turned away from an emphasis on individuals to a consideration of the social structures of nation’s organisations and institutions such as corporations, governments and the media for an understanding of the possible factors influencing social inequalities.

Sociologists has come to define social problems as problems that concern large numbers of people, have social structural causes, and require social-structural solutions. This approach remains fundamental to the sociological perspective. It was a step forward from the individualistic approach. Because by finally demonstrating that social problems have structural causes, sociologist helped to steer the people away from unproductive scape-goating of individuals to an awareness of the need for social change.

When a problem affects a large number of people, we must look beyond individuals to social structures-the larger economic, political, and social patterns of a society, we cannot solve the problems of a society that is structurally flawed by changing individuals one at a time.

We live in a world where people are increasingly interconnected and so are their problems, people in USA lose their jobs when factories are moved to nations where wages are lower. In Brazil people lose their homelands when the rain forests are cut down to make furniture for the world market, these are pointers to the need for one to look beyond what is being seen as a problem to determine its influencing factors.

For over a decade, Nigeria has been fraught with insecurity challenges, from Boko Haram and their ISWAP counterparts to Bandits and unknown gun men, in the midst of all this, the statistics of unemployed youths and graduates in the nation has been rising to an alarming rate, the basic development infrastructures like electricity to enhance the industrialization of the nation in order to create employment opportunities has been lacking, thereby crippling other efforts to drive the economic resurgence of the 7th most populous nation in the world.

It’s a fact that the issue of insecurity in the nation has invincible social sponsors like poverty and unemployment; these contributes to frustration and anger that can result to one taking to armed robbery, kidnapping or pitching tent with agitators calling for dissolution of the nation under the guise of revolutionaries thereby creating more panic in the society.

Leading nations of the world are undergoing a process of modernization, encompassing changes such as industrialization, urbanization, and growing social complexity in the modernization perspective. Insecurity in Nigeria and Imo are social problems inherent in Nigeria, and as a social problem, can be seen as failures in modernization. For example, in today’s world societies that fail to industrialize will be poor and conflict ridden. On an optimistic note, this perspective suggests that these problems can be solved through government intervention to lead society on the road to modernization.

So many of today’s social problems are global in nature, we cannot hope to solve them by focusing on individual nations, ISWAP that are recently credited with killing of Shekau the Boko Haram leader, is an offshoot of a globally recognised terrorist network.

On this premise, Senator Hope Uzodinma and other Governors facing insecurity challenges are also victims of the same circumstance with the people they govern, because the challenge cannot be resolved successfully by an individual, but with modernistic social approaches strong enough to trigger a paradigm shift among the populace, that can feed them with hope and dreams that are far better than for them resorting to violence.

The Nigerian government has to understand that insecurity in the nation requires a proactive economic plan, accompanied by a wealth of opportunities to help engage its people in productive activities that can help them to dream of a better tomorrow.

Prisons and Electric Chairs in nations like USA have not stopped the crimes associated with drugs and gun violence, so equipping Nigerian Military and Police Force with exotic weapons will not end insurgency faster than creating an enabling environment that will help the people to dream would.

The Insecurity in Imo and its concomitant hazards that has been successfully arrested as a situation was inherited from Nigeria by Senator Hope Uzodinma, the Unknown Gun-men issue is related to other inherent negative social factors in other parts of Nigeria as well as other nations outside of Nigeria.

The best he can do for Imo and his people is to create a wealth of opportunities like he is doing, recently he empowered 15,000 Imo youths with a seed of 250,000 Naira each, after completing their entrepreneurial skills. That is a good step in the right direction but will not end the issue until the entire political leadership of Nigeria accelerate the steps towards industrialization, and create not just opportunities but an enabling environment to help their people dream differently.

Insecurity in Nigeria is not a national problem as most people think but rather trans-national, Nigeria need to look beyond its borders for insurgents, as well as overhauling its economic plan to totally eliminate this visible and invisible enemy.

Senator Hope Uzodinma as Governor of Imo State is innocent just like every one of us that has not chosen violence, guns and grenades as means of conversing with our fellow Nigerians. Leadership sometimes comes with tough and unpleasant decisions and the Governor has not retreated from them having consistently chosen the ones that serve the interest and safety of Imo people first.

Before we start apportioning blames and looking for whom to fault for the uncertainties that has ravaged our communities in this short time, we need to remember that we are citizens in a global world that we do not control. Insecurity in Nigeria and Imo, are social problems that unemployment, poverty of opportunities and lack of basic amenities to enhance the survival of an individual will remain its unseen sponsors.

In this article

• Hope Uzodinma
• Insecurity in Nigeria

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United States Institute of Peace

Home ▶ Publications

The Current Situation in Nigeria

A USIP Fact Sheet

Wednesday, August 11, 2021

Publication Type: Fact Sheet

As Africa’s most populous country, largest economy and most notable democracy, Nigeria is a bellwether for the continent. A weakening economy, rising insecurity and violent conflicts threaten progress made in its democratic development. Amid deepening distrust in government and institutions, Nigeria has significant work to do in improving national, state and local security and governance ahead of national and state elections in 2023.

Nigeria’s federal system gives governors great responsibilities in addressing the issues driving the country’s multiple conflicts, including farmer-herder violence, deepening regional divides, armed banditry and the Boko Haram insurgency. USIP brings together state governors, national policymakers and civic leaders to design and implement inclusive policies that mitigate violence and strengthen community-oriented security. The Institute engages a variety of influential figures, empowers citizens and uses its expertise and convening power to inform Nigeria policy in the United States, the region and around the world. Recent work includes:

Nigeria Working Group on Peacebuilding and Governance

Since 2016, this working group has fostered relationships between citizens, policymakers and national and international figures to ensure that a diverse array of voices impact decision-making processes. These relationships allow the working group to turn expert analysis into tangible, actionable policy advice. For instance, recommendations for addressing the country’s current security and political challenges — informed by a 2021 convening with religious and civic leaders from the National Peace Committee and the Inter-Faith Initiative for Peace — were published in leading Nigerian newspapers . In 2021, amid deepening public mistrust, the working group harnessed its collective experience and relationships to advance high-level dialogue between major civic groups working for peace across the country and the Nigerian government. The working group is regularly invited by state and national policymakers to provide recommendations on a range of issues, from inclusive governance and electoral violence to communal conflicts between pastoralists and farming communities. 

Network of Nigerian Facilitators (NNF)

The NNF is a group of professional peace mediators trained by USIP to resolve local conflicts through nonviolent means across several states throughout the country. NNF dialogues focus on strengthening community-security sector relationships and mitigating intercommunal, pastoralist-farmer and election-related violence. Since 2019, the NNF has collaborated with state peacebuilding institutions to address conflicts and support local peace processes. In 2021, the NNF helped conduct USIP research to better understand the drivers and dynamics of communal conflicts across Nigeria.

Working with State Governments and Peacebuilding Institutions

USIP helps governors and state peacebuilding institutions to establish inclusive, cooperative strategies that prevent and resolve violent conflicts; ensure that policies focus on citizens’ needs; stem the potential for all forms of violence; and allow communities to play meaningful roles in the transition process.

Strengthening Local Security

Through USIP’s ongoing Justice and Security Dialogue project, citizens at the local level collectively identify security challenges and organize dialogues that bring together internally displaced communities and police in Northeast Nigeria to develop practical and concrete solutions to address security concerns, build trust and foster accountability.

Informing Policy through Research

USIP conducts research on governance and security to better advise Nigerian policymakers in their response to these challenges. A 2020 public opinion survey found new linkages between COVID-19, instability and conflict . These survey findings informed policy discussions with senior U.S. and Nigerian policymakers, including Nigerian President Buhari and state governors. USIP also published research mapping state peacebuilding institutions ; assessing election-related violence risks ; and outlining pathways to civilian-led governance amid the Boko Haram insurgency in Northeast Nigeria. 

Convening Stakeholders

USIP convenes government officials, partners and civic leaders at its U.S. headquarters and Nigeria country office for candid conversations that foster collaboration and inform policy and program priorities. USIP hosted discussions in 2020 with the Nigerian ministers of foreign affairs and humanitarian affairs and senior U.S. policymakers. Throughout the pandemic, USIP convened a series of virtual roundtables with Nigerian federal and state policymakers and key stakeholders to examine COVID-19’s impact on security and governance. In 2019, USIP hosted eminent U.S. and Nigerian civic leaders and government officials for a roundtable to explore the state of Nigerian governance 20 years into its democratic transition.

Expanding the Institute’s Field Work

In 2020, USIP officially established a country office in Abuja. This accomplishment allows the Institute to continue its impactful operations, broaden its regional scope and sustain its direct action for peace in Nigeria.

In 2019, the Network of Nigerian Facilitators (NNF) helped Kaduna and Plateau state peacebuilding institutions orchestrate a peace agreement to resolve a long-standing, cross-border violent conflict between Aten, Fulani and Takad communities in both states. The resulting peace agreement, signed in December 2020, signified their commitment to begin a peace process guided by the state peacebuilding institutions with support from the NNF and USIP.

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By: Oluwafemi Gbadebo;  Stanley Makgohlo

USIP’s African Diplomat Seminar offers newly arrived diplomats a chance to connect with the U.S. policymakers, agencies and departments working on advancing U.S.-Africa policy. Stanley Makgohlo, political counselor at the South African Embassy, and Oluwafemi Gbadebo, minister in the Nigerian Embassy, discuss how the seminar has helped their work at the nexus of peace and development and how the growing U.S.-Africa partnership can help address the challenges facing their country.

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Dealing with people who leave violent extremist groups has become one of the most pressing security issues of our time. Drawing on new primary research conducted by the author in Iraq, Syria, and Nigeria, and existing research on disengagement and reintegration, this report underscores the challenges of administering rehabilitation programs in conditions of chronic insecurity—and of doing so at a scale sufficient to make a difference to hundreds or even thousands of people in short order.

Type: Peaceworks

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After Nigeria’s Elections: Nurturing the Seeds of Better Democracy

Thursday, April 13, 2023

By: Chris Kwaja

Nigeria’s latest elections heighten the country’s need for a reset of its democracy. Nigeria’s two dominant parties abandoned an informal pact that has rotated power between north and south, papering over the deeper, wider problem of ensuring real political inclusion among Nigeria’s disparate regions and communities. The recent national and state-level votes failed to deliver anguished Nigerians the promise of wider voter participation and transparent election results. Still, the campaigns and voting contained seeds for critical change that now must be cultivated by Nigeria’s newly elected government; its courageous, pro-democracy civil society; its vast, energized youth population; and its partners.

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Nigeria’s Vote Signals Risks: How Its Partners Can Support Democracy

Thursday, March 9, 2023

By: James Rupert

Nigeria’s disputed election 12 days ago is raising protest at home and concern abroad over its implications for the strength of democracy in that country and across Africa. Yesterday’s new wrinkle was the postponement of this week’s planned election for Nigerian state governors. Nigeria’s electoral commission is working to fix problems in a vote management system that failed to transparently process and report a result on February 25. An erosion of democracy’s credibility in Africa’s most populous nation would be catastrophic.

Democracy & Governance ;  Global Elections & Conflict

Cause of Corruption in Nigeria and Solution of the Problem

Cause of corruption in nigeria: problem statement, essay on the problems of nigeria: discussion, cause of corruption in nigeria: analysis, corruption in nigeria and solution recommendations, essay on the problems of nigeria: conclusion.

Corruption is one of the major causes of underdevelopment in various countries across the world. The lack of integrity and honesty in the use of public offices and resources for individual gain has led to numerous development challenges in various countries (Smith, 2010). Studies have established that most countries, especially in Africa continue to suffer the effects of underdevelopment due to corruption. Even in the contemporary world of increased democracy, corruption always emerges as the number one hindrance to development. One such country that has lagged behind in terms of development because of corruption is the federal republic of Nigeria (Ikita, 2014).

The West African republic, which got its independence from Britain in 1960 and currently the most populous country in the continent, is in a deeply rooted state of progressive putrefaction. Even after more than fifty years of independence, Nigeria still ranks among the most underdeveloped countries in the world (Smith, 2010). Political bribery and economic corruption are the two major ways in which public resources in Nigeria are abused by individuals in influential positions. Statistics show that over the last couple of years, the country had an average score of 25% in terms of addressing the challenge. The life expectancy in the country has also gone down to 51 years due to challenges related to corruption (Ikita, 2014). Experts argue that the problem is likely to deepen if the government and other relevant social institutions fail to make a timely intervention. Many people fear that the country might reach a point where people have to pay bribes in order to be secure.

Over the years, the challenge of corruption in Nigeria has worsened to the extent of various economic experts questioning the seriousness of the government in eradicating the problem (Okofar, 2014). These questions have been asked amid a tough stance taken by President Goodluck Jonathan as a warning to anyone caught for engaging in corrupt dealings. However, most Nigerians believe that the government is doing very little development as corruption has crippled the economy (Smith, 2010). For example, corruption among security agencies that ought to act as the custodians of the law is quite worrying. Police officers have made Nigerians, especially motorists to view corruption as something that was designed to be part of their life (Ikita, 2014). It is normal for them to bribe traffic police officers every time they are made to pull over even if they have no mistake.

Experts describe the corruption situation in Nigeria as a malady that affects everyone at both human and institutional levels. This means that corruption defines social, economic, political, and development structures in the country (Ikita, 2014). The challenge of development in Nigeria is characterized by elements such as poor infrastructure, a vibrant black market, electoral crimes, lack of power supply, and abuse of human rights among others (Smith, 2010).

Studies have established that a number of factors are responsible for corruption in the country. Weak institutions of governance are a major causative factor of bribery in the West African country (Ross, 2014). Experts argue that it is not possible to implement policies in a governance system where the custodians of law are the biggest violators. Most cases of corruption in the country are linked to politicians, police officers, and other powerful individuals in influential positions. Recently, the United States of America blocked more than $400 million in accounts held by Nigerian nationals accused of engaging in corruption. Reports indicate that part of the money belonged to Sani Abacha, who was the president of Nigeria in the 1990’s (Ross, 2014). This is a clear indication of a failed governance system coupled with irresponsible leadership. The leaders who are supposed to be eradicating the vice are the same ones behind its growth. The same thinking applies for the country’s police force, which ranks among the most corrupt public institutions in the country.

Another major cause of corruption in Nigeria is the public acceptance of the vice as part of their culture (Okofar, 2014). Experts argue that the people are responsible for encouraging corruption when they agree to pay for services they should be getting for free. Other notable causative factors of corruption in Nigeria include low wages, lack of legislation to fight corruption, poverty, scramble for resources, ineffective political processes, as well as lack of transparency and accountability in the public sector (Ross, 2014). Very little progress has been witnessed to date in the fight against corruption because the government is not doing anything to stop the problem from spreading further.

Some of the reasons as to why the fight against the vice has not succeeded in the country include insecurity of informants, lack of social movements to pressure the government, and lack of transparency in the government (Ikita, 2014). Other reasons include the lack of an inclusive governance system, nepotism, and irresponsible leadership among others. Studies have established that the beneficiaries of corruption in Nigeria are very few compared those who suffer the effects. The major beneficiaries are politicians, police officers, senior government officials, and influential business personalities. People who suffer from the effects of corruption are the citizens, most of whom are extremely poor (Ross, 2014). I think the persistent nature of this problem is due to the fact that the power of making decisions on matters such as this lies in the hands of few individuals who tend to abuse it.

Studies have established that most Nigerians fear for their future and that of subsequent generations if this vice is not wiped out of the society. The rate of development is quite low because there is no primary capital for investment. Experts argue that even though not everyone in Nigeria is corrupt, it is impossible to argue against the common perception that everyone in the country has to part with something to receive any service (Okoye, 2014). According to experts, waging the war against corruption in Nigeria requires a lot of cooperation and honest, especially from political leaders and other influential people in the society. The first recommendation is creating an independent anti corruption commission, which will have the power to deal with anyone suspected of being corrupt regardless of their position in government or society. Experts argue that the inability of such commissions to have their independence can compromise the ability to eliminate the vice due to political interference (Okoye, 2014). It is important to note that corruption is quite deep rooted in Nigeria. Therefore, the best point of tackling the challenge is by identifying and eliminating all the causative factors.

The second recommendation is the creation of public education programs geared towards educating the public on the challenge of corruption, its effects, and the best eradication methods (Okoye, 2014). Experts argue that the use of strategies such as advertisement in print and electronic media, billboards, as well as hand bills can be very effective in enlightening Nigerians about corruption. In addition, the experts argue that this kind of strategy should have a supporting legislation that should push people into reporting cases of corruption without fear of intimidation (Sherk, 2005). This kind of legislation can be effective if financial institutions get incorporated. If they notice any abnormal transactions, they should have the freedom to alert the relevant authorities in order to have the right actions taken (Sherk, 2005).

Other notable ways in which the government can fight corruption is by increasing levels of accountability and transparency, people’s involvement in governance, improving pay incentives, as well as fighting nepotism (Okoye, 2014). The government has a huge task of ensuring that people change their attitude and belief about corruption because it is their right to receive services in accordance with the country’s constitution. I also believe that equitable distribution of resources can play a crucial role in addressing the challenge of corruption. The reason for this is that people will not be forced to scramble for the few available resources through paying of bribes (Okofar, 2014). When everyone has enough, no one will be in a position to ask for bribes.

Corruption is a deep rooted problem that has compromised the development policy in Nigeria for a long time. The situation in the country is quite worrying, as people seem to have accepted the vice as part of their lives, and at the same time compromising the future of subsequent generations. The political, social, economic, and development structures of Nigeria are currently dependent on corruption. There is an urgent need for the government to develop effective strategies that will identify and eliminate various causative factors of the crime.

Ikita, P. (2014). Corruption in Nigeria, Not Just Boko Haram, Is At The Root of Violence . 

Okofar, U. (2014). The Nigerian Government is a greater Threat to its People than Boko  Haram . 

Okoye, S.E. (2014). How to Tackle Corruption Effectively in Nigeria . 

Ross, W. (2014). Is Nigeria Serious about Tackling Corruption?  

Sherk, D.R. (2005). The Cultural Dimensions of Corruption: Reflections on Nigeria . New York: university press of America. Web.

Smith, D.J. (2010). A Culture of Corruption: Everyday Deception and Popular  Discontent in Nigeria . New York: Princeton University Press. 

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• How to write an expository essay

How to Write an Expository Essay | Structure, Tips & Examples

Published on July 14, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

“Expository” means “intended to explain or describe something.” An expository essay provides a clear, focused explanation of a particular topic, process, or set of ideas. It doesn’t set out to prove a point, just to give a balanced view of its subject matter.

Expository essays are usually short assignments intended to test your composition skills or your understanding of a subject. They tend to involve less research and original arguments than argumentative essays .

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When should you write an expository essay, how to approach an expository essay, introducing your essay, writing the body paragraphs, concluding your essay, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about expository essays.

In school and university, you might have to write expository essays as in-class exercises, exam questions, or coursework assignments.

Sometimes it won’t be directly stated that the assignment is an expository essay, but there are certain keywords that imply expository writing is required. Consider the prompts below.

The word “explain” here is the clue: An essay responding to this prompt should provide an explanation of this historical process—not necessarily an original argument about it.

Sometimes you’ll be asked to define a particular term or concept. This means more than just copying down the dictionary definition; you’ll be expected to explore different ideas surrounding the term, as this prompt emphasizes.

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An expository essay should take an objective approach: It isn’t about your personal opinions or experiences. Instead, your goal is to provide an informative and balanced explanation of your topic. Avoid using the first or second person (“I” or “you”).

The structure of your expository essay will vary according to the scope of your assignment and the demands of your topic. It’s worthwhile to plan out your structure before you start, using an essay outline .

A common structure for a short expository essay consists of five paragraphs: An introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Like all essays, an expository essay begins with an introduction . This serves to hook the reader’s interest, briefly introduce your topic, and provide a thesis statement summarizing what you’re going to say about it.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical introduction works.

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the Middle Ages. The medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the Renaissance, the average person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be literate. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less restricted circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.

The body of your essay is where you cover your topic in depth. It often consists of three paragraphs, but may be more for a longer essay. This is where you present the details of the process, idea or topic you’re explaining.

It’s important to make sure each paragraph covers its own clearly defined topic, introduced with a topic sentence . Different topics (all related to the overall subject matter of the essay) should be presented in a logical order, with clear transitions between paragraphs.

Hover over different parts of the example paragraph below to see how a body paragraph is constructed.

The invention of the printing press in 1440 changed this situation dramatically. Johannes Gutenberg, who had worked as a goldsmith, used his knowledge of metals in the design of the press. He made his type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, whose durability allowed for the reliable production of high-quality books. This new technology allowed texts to be reproduced and disseminated on a much larger scale than was previously possible. The Gutenberg Bible appeared in the 1450s, and a large number of printing presses sprang up across the continent in the following decades. Gutenberg’s invention rapidly transformed cultural production in Europe; among other things, it would lead to the Protestant Reformation.

The conclusion of an expository essay serves to summarize the topic under discussion. It should not present any new information or evidence, but should instead focus on reinforcing the points made so far. Essentially, your conclusion is there to round off the essay in an engaging way.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a conclusion works.

The invention of the printing press was important not only in terms of its immediate cultural and economic effects, but also in terms of its major impact on politics and religion across Europe. In the century following the invention of the printing press, the relatively stationary intellectual atmosphere of the Middle Ages gave way to the social upheavals of the Reformation and the Renaissance. A single technological innovation had contributed to the total reshaping of the continent.

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An expository essay is a broad form that varies in length according to the scope of the assignment.

Expository essays are often assigned as a writing exercise or as part of an exam, in which case a five-paragraph essay of around 800 words may be appropriate.

You’ll usually be given guidelines regarding length; if you’re not sure, ask.

An expository essay is a common assignment in high-school and university composition classes. It might be assigned as coursework, in class, or as part of an exam.

Sometimes you might not be told explicitly to write an expository essay. Look out for prompts containing keywords like “explain” and “define.” An expository essay is usually the right response to these prompts.

An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

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Home — Essay Samples — Geography & Travel — Africa — Nigeria

Essays on Nigeria

Nigeria is a country with a rich and diverse history, culture, and economy. With its large population, diverse ethnic groups, and abundant natural resources, Nigeria offers a wide range of essay topics to explore. Whether you are interested in politics, economics, culture, or history, there are countless fascinating topics to delve into when writing about Nigeria. In this article, we will provide a comprehensive list of Nigeria essay topics, along with some tips on choosing the right topic for your essay.

The Importance of the Topic

Writing about Nigeria is important for several reasons. First, Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and has a significant impact on the continent's politics, economy, and culture. Therefore, understanding Nigeria is crucial for anyone interested in African affairs. Additionally, Nigeria's history and culture are rich and complex, making it an intriguing subject for study and exploration. By writing about Nigeria, you can gain a deeper understanding of the country and its people, as well as contribute to the scholarly discourse on African studies.

Advice on Choosing a Topic

When choosing a topic for your Nigeria essay, it's important to consider your interests, as well as the requirements of the assignment. If you are passionate about politics, you might consider writing about Nigeria's democratic system, the role of political parties, or the impact of corruption on governance. If you are interested in economics, you could explore topics such as Nigeria's oil industry, the impact of globalization on the Nigerian economy, or the challenges of economic development. For those interested in culture and history, there are numerous topics to choose from, including traditional Nigerian music and dance, the history of colonialism in Nigeria, or the impact of globalization on Nigerian traditions. Ultimately, the best topic for your essay is one that aligns with your interests and expertise, while also allowing you to explore new ideas and perspectives.

Nigeria offers a wealth of essay topics to explore, ranging from politics and economics to culture and history. By writing about Nigeria, you can gain a deeper understanding of this diverse and dynamic country, while also contributing to the scholarly discourse on African studies. When choosing a topic for your Nigeria essay, it's important to consider your interests and the requirements of the assignment, in order to select a topic that is both engaging and academically rigorous. Whether you are interested in exploring Nigeria's political landscape, economy, culture, or history, there is no shortage of fascinating topics to delve into when writing about Nigeria.

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Nigeria’s Economic Crisis Research Paper

Introduction, changing nigeria’s economy.

Nigeria has a dual economy and, its population relies on earnings from the energy sector followed by the agricultural sector. In 1960, agriculture became the country’s main source of revenue accounting for nearly half of the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

The emergence of oil and other petroleum products has increased the country’s foreign exchange earnings hence the increased revenues. Nigeria is endowed with large quantities of natural resources, both renewable and non-renewable. For instance, it is endowed with oil and natural gas reserves with crude oil being estimated at around 35 billion barrels. The country, however, cannot meet the needs of its large population and this is an extraordinary macro-economic phenomenon.

The country’s economic growth is unpredictable and it now depends on imported food though it was once a net exporter. This is quite surprising keeping in mind that Nigeria is rich in natural resources especially energy and is the sixth largest producer of crude oil internationally (Ekpo, 2008). This paper will discuss the causes of Nigeria’s economic crisis, its effects and finally, how the phenomenon can be changed.

Causes of Nigeria’s Economic Crisis

Consumers, producers, and efficiency of the market.

The decline in Nigeria’s economic growth can be attributed to market shortages of its petroleum products especially Kerosene and diesel. The weak political demands exerted by the poor kerosene and diesel customers and the limitations on public financing of imports is what has led to the market shortages. The country has five government owned oil refineries, which are capable of producing about 500 barrels of oil every day. The high oil production capacity with no adequate markets has made the country’s government to get involved in importing large volumes of food to remedy the shortages involved.

Supply and Demand

Nigeria’s economic crisis can be attributed to the interaction of demand and supply in the market. The citizens are over reliant on self-generated electrical energy despite the fact that the nation is rich in energy resources. The country’s electricity market, which on the supply side is controlled by National Electric Power Authority (NEPA), is incapable of providing acceptable electricity standards, which are both reliable and accessible. The poor record in electricity supply has led to high losses hence the nation’s economic crisis.

Price fluctuations in the global oil industry and poor macro- economic organization especially the country’s failure to expand its economy are other key contributors to its economic problems.

The diversity of economic and non-economic goals without proper recognition of tradeoffs has also resulted to the crisis. This is seen in its pricing strategies in the global market. Institutional and administrative failures, which have led to production inefficiencies and increased operating costs, have led to the extraordinary macroeconomic phenomena in Nigeria (Oluyemisi, 2010).

Effects of Nigeria’s Economic Crisis

The constant disequilibrium in the country’s market for petroleum products has negatively affected the living standards of the citizens. Poverty levels have increased with majority of people in the country living on not more than $2 in a day.

Nigeria’s economic crisis has greatly deteriorated its industrialization process and this has significantly decreased its effort to achieve a stabilized economy. Competitiveness of the countries local industries in both regional and international markets has been reduced and many citizens are now unemployed (Iyoha & Itsede, 2002).

Mankiw’s 10 principles

Nigeria’s economic theory suggests that energy and oil purchases depend on price of other related products such as natural gas and petrol. The country’s macroeconomic phenomenon can be solved through Mankiw’s ten economic principles. According to Mankiw, countries face tradeoffs and to achieve their goals, then they have to surrender some things. Consequently, for successful decision-making, the country has to trade off one objective against another.

Mankiw’s second principle states that what is surrendered in an attempt to achieve something is its cost. The country while getting out of its problems has to put into consideration the total costs required. The third principle elaborates the idea that wise people reason at the margin and, only take action if the subsidiary benefits exceed the costs. Nigerians living standards have changed due to low benefits and this can be explained using the principle that people react to changes in incentives.

While trying to explain how the economy works together as one, Mankiw says that trade can make the nation to be better placed. Through trade, Nigeria can be able to concentrate on its best activities and other nations can purchase different goods from them. Nigeria can thus solve its economic problems by participating in market economies since through this it can distribute its resources more effectively (Mankiw, 2012).

According to Mankiw, the government can at times enhance market outcomes. For instance, since Nigeria has not been able to use its resources effectively, then its government should participate in solving the issue through public policies such as setting rules against monopolies.

In his eighth principle, Mankiw states that the standard of living in any nation depends on the nation’s capacity to produce goods and services. To get out of its economic problems, Nigeria should ensure that its workforce produce goods and services in large quantities.

This could lead to high living standards since productivity in a country increases with increasing income. Mankiw’s ninth principle talks of the fact that prices of goods in a country increase as the government gets involved in printing excess money. Nigeria should not involve herself in such actions since this could lead to low currency values. Sequentially, prices would increase and this would call for more money used in purchasing goods and services.

Mankiw’s last principle states that a nation faces a short run transaction during times of price increases and unemployment. Though lowering of prices leads to high unemployment levels, Nigeria should try this principle since it leads to an understanding of the short-term effects of fluctuations in taxes, government expenditure, and monetary principles (Mankiw, 2012).

Government Policies

Substantial expansion in the value and quantity of Nigeria’s natural resources is important in sustaining its economic growth, creating employment, reducing poverty, and finally improving the well-being of its population as a whole. Overcoming the country’s economic crisis and ensuring global standards in quantity, value and consistency of the nation’s services is a prerequisite for attaining the government’s desire of being one of the top 20 economic countries by 2020.

To improve its economy, Nigeria should adopt a new policy with new principles that will lay the basis for continuous improvement in other fields such as agriculture. It should create a more favorable macro-environment that encourages the private sector to put more investments in agriculture. The duties of the government together with those of the private sector should be rationalized in a manner that stimulates agricultural development.

The institutional structure should also be reorganized to allow for government intervention in the sector since this would lead to growth of the agricultural sector. The government should further articulate and execute development programs in the rural areas to improve the standards of living of the locals.

The amount of budgetary allocation given to the agricultural sector should be increased to improve agricultural productivity. Finally, best practices should be developed and procured in the country’s oil and energy industries (Ajilima & Kwanashie, 1998).

The government should rectify irregularities in import and export tariffs especially in petroleum and agricultural products. It should also promote the use of machinery in agriculture through imposing constructive tariff policies. This would ensure that the country does not depend on imported food (Mankiw, 2012).

Nigeria’s economy depends on price elasticity of goods and services. However, the phenomenon of price elasticity has been synchronized in Nigeria for quite a long time. Price elasticity in Nigeria is determined by consumer demand irrespective of price increases (Oluyemisi, 2010).

Nigeria is among the richest countries in the world though most of its citizens are strikingly poor. This is because the country relies on its energy sector as the only source of revenue without diversifying in other fields. It is, therefore, clear that for the country to have adequate resources to meet the needs of its population, it should get involved in other income generating activities such as agriculture.

The government should also come up with policies that clearly define the duties and responsibilities of both the central government and the private sector in order to get rid of the country’s economic crisis.

Ajilima, I., & Kwanashie, M. (1998). The Nigerian economy: response of agriculture to adjustment policies . Nairobi: African Economic Research Consortium.

Ekpo, H. (2008). The Nigerian economy: is it at the crossroads. Nigeria: Nigerian Economic Society.

Iyoha, A., & Itsede, O. (2002). Nigerian economy: structure, growth, and development. Benin: Mindex Publishers.

Mankiw, G. (2012). Essentials of Economics . Australia: Southwestern Cengage Learning.

Oluyemisi, D. (2010). The Nigerian economy: growth, productivity and the role of monetary policy . Ibadan: Research Library Development Policy Centre.

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IvyPanda. (2023, December 22). Nigeria’s Economic Crisis. https://ivypanda.com/essays/nigerias-economy/

"Nigeria’s Economic Crisis." IvyPanda , 22 Dec. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/nigerias-economy/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Nigeria’s Economic Crisis'. 22 December.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Nigeria’s Economic Crisis." December 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/nigerias-economy/.

1. IvyPanda . "Nigeria’s Economic Crisis." December 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/nigerias-economy/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Nigeria’s Economic Crisis." December 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/nigerias-economy/.

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INSECURITY IN NIGERIA: GENESIS, CONSEQUENCES AND PANACEA

Insecurity is one of, if not the most glaring and much talked about thing in Nigeria today. Acts of insecurity occur on daily basis throughout the country. Right thinking and sane Nigerians are really concerned about this ugly trend. This paper digs into the root causes of insecurity in Nigeria, its effects on the country and proffers/suggests ways out of this nightmare. The causes amongst so many include fundamentally illiteracy, unemployment/joblessness, poor leadership, porous nature of our boarders, proliferation of arms, non-compliance with the rule of law. The effects are also there – underdevelopment, poverty, hunger, insurgency, militancy, youth restiveness, kidnapping, armed robbery, fear, drug abuse, political thuggery, etc. As part of the way out of this, this paper suggests that ‘career’ (technical) education be emphasized rather than the ‘degree’ (non-technical) education. Civics as a subject should be restored in the primary school curriculum; the country be restructured as demanded by most of the populace, community policing introduced and supported; rule of law and quality leadership firmly established and spirit of nationalism enshrined in the minds of the citizenry.

Article visualizations:

Achebe, C. (1983). The Trouble with Nigeria, Fourth Dimension Publishers, Nigeria.

Achumba, I. C. et al. (2013). Security Challenges in Nigeria and the Implications for Business Activities and Sustainable Development, Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, Vol. 4, No. 2.

Adagba, O. et al. (2012). Activities of Boko Haram and Insecurity Question in Nigeria, Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review, Vol. 1, No. 9.

Adele, J. (1985). Federalism, the Constitutional State and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria. The Journal of Federalism, 15 (1).

Adeola, G. L. & Oluyemi, F. (2012). The Political and Security Implications of Cross Border Migration between Nigeria and Her Francophone Neighbours, Internal Journal of social Science Tomorrow, Vol. 1, No. 3.

Akin Ibidapo-Obe (2008). The Utility of Close-Circuit Television (CCTV) in Intelligence Gathering by Security Operatives in Nigeria. Proceedings of Conference on Intelligent security, Lagos.

Aliyu, A. (1998). Nigeria Economic Breakthrough: The Abacha Strategies. Abuja: The Family Economic Advancement Programme.

Campbell, A. J. (2009). Underdevelopment and Development Challenges in Nigeria. Lagos. Mac Evans Publishers.

Egbefo, D. O. & Salihu, H. A. (2014). Internal Security Crisis in Nigeria: Causes, Types, Effects and Solutions in Internal Journal of Arts and Humanities (IJAH), Vol.3, no. 4.

Eghosa, E. O. (1988). The Complexities of Nigerian Federal Character and the Inadequacies of the Federal Character Principle in Nigeria. Journal Of Ethnic Studies, 16 (5).

Ewetan, O. O. & Ese, U. (2014). Insecurity and Socio-Economic Development in Nigeria, Journal of Sustainable Development Studies. Vol. 5 No. 1.

Hazen, J. M. & Horner, J. (2007). Small Arms, Armed Violence, and Insecurity in Nigeria: The Niger Delta in Perspective, Switzerland: Small Arms Survey.

Igbuzor, O. (2011). Peace and Security Education: A Critical Factor for Sustainable Peace and National Development, International Journal of Peace and Development Studies. Vol. 2 (1).

Kufor, J. (2012). Nigeria: Imbalanced Development Causes Insecurity in Nigeria, This Day Newspaper, Lagos.

Nwagboso, C. I. (2012). Security Challenges and Economy of Nigerian State (2007-2011), American International journal of Contemporary Research, Vol. 2 No. 6.

Nwanegbo, C. J. & Odigbo, J. (2013). Security and National Development in Nigeria: The threat of Boko Haram. Retrieved 5.10.2018 from www.ijhssnet.com/.../vol.../29.pdf.

Nweke, P. O. & Nwachukwu, T. S. (2014). National Security Issues and Challenges in Nigeria: Which Way forward in International Journal of Youth Empowerment and Entrepreneurship Development, Vol. 1, Issue 1.

Oche, O. (2001). Democratization and the Management of African Security. In Akindele, R. and Ate, B. (eds) Nigerian Journal of international affairs, Lagos, 13 (1).

Ojukwu, C. (1989). Because I am Involved, Spectrum Book Ltd, Ibadan- Nigeria.

Omede, J. (2012). Reformatting Nigerian Secondary and Post-Secondary education to meet unemployment and security challenges in Nigeria in the 21st century. Research Journal in Organizational Psychology and Educational studies (RJOPES). Available at http://www.emergingresource.org

Onifade, C. et al. (2013). Addressing the Insecurity Challenge in Nigeria: The Imperative of Moral Values and Virtue Ethics, Global Journal Of Human Social Science Political Science, Vol.13 Issue 2.

Soludo, C. C. (2018). The Political Economy of Restructuring the Nigerian Federation. The Sun Newspaper, 2nd August 2018.

United Nations (1998). https://www.tolerance.org>sites>default>files.tt_poverty_hl.

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Corruption in Nigeria, not just Boko Haram, is at the root of violence

Conflicts between pastoralists and resident local communities are not new in Nigeria . A violent attack on my village by nearby pastoralists in northern Nigeria in June highlights yet again the inability of the military to tackle this aggression .

For the past two years there have been violent clashes in many parts of the north – in Plateau, Benue, Nasarawa, Kaduna, Niger, Taraba, Katsina and Zamfara states – yet it is the Boko Haram insurgency that attracts global media attention. In all cases, the lack of action from the state continues to baffle observers.

Usually, Boko Haram militants emerge in convoys of trucks and motorbikes and take several hours to inflict violence in communities, and retreat to their base without any response from the military. Similarly, pastoralists and cattle rustlers will arrive at rural communities, where they unleash terror for days without any effective response from security agencies. It seems the security establishment is unable to address these constant threats, regardless of who they are coming from.

The failure of the state security agencies – the military, police, secret police – to confront this violence is sometimes attributed to incapacity. But many say deep corruption prevents the military from containing the insurgencies.

The complex dynamic of religion, locality and hierarchy in Nigeria tends to blur the issues and reduce everything to a competition between Christianity and Islam, or north v south. The governments at the federal, state and local level subtly play up these sentiments and exploit them for popular support from a divided citizenry. In addition, the local elite have a tendency to tap in to this rhetoric to maintain their turf and position.

Corruption in the military and other security agencies is rooted in the government's uniquely strange and ambiguous understanding of the concept of security. "Security matters are highly sensitive", is a common cliche in such circles, entrenching the idea that these matters need not be subject to public scrutiny.

This school of thought gained traction under many years of military rule, as demonstrated by the late despot Sani Abacha, who looted about £2.5bn under shady "security" heads from 1993-98.

In 2010, the government awarded a $470m (£274m) contract for security across the capital . However, few of the hundreds of cameras installed function, yet the work was paid for and signed off. Since this increased security effort, there have been seven bombings in Abuja, and yet despite the investment, the security agencies cannot track from where the bombs originate. In spite of this blatant failure to properly address insecurity in the capital, attempting to understand what happened is barred. A media inquest was made harder with a "secret clause" that prevents parties to the contract from disclosure.

In the huge military operation in the north east, where Boko Haram operates, which has been in place since a state of emergency was imposed in 2013, there are complaints by army members. These soldiers have often claimed that their budgeted allowance for dangerous field duties are shaved off by commanders, leaving them with less than 50% in some cases.

After protests by some aggrieved soldiers in Maiduguri , the army spokesman attributed their complaints to the absence of a commander who was away on training. The soldiers were dismissed as mutinous, and handed to a military court. Yet, the reality is that troops endure horrific conditions – they often lack tents or sleeping bags, many must scavenge for firewood to cook and they live a destitute life – hardly the motivation or replenishment required to fight a violent and constant aggressor.

Despite glaring corruption, politicians brush aside these issues and continue to bicker over the pending national elections. Many citizens believe there is complicity by the highest levels of the Nigerian state and ruling elite to allow these killings for political reasons, particularly in the runup to the 2015 polls.

The recent deployment of thousands of troops and equipment to protect ballot boxes during the Ekiti state gubernatorial elections is testament to the idea of complicity. Forces blocked opposition party members from campaigning before the election, yet did not apply similar support elsewhere, within more fragile parts of the country.

Regardless of who is attacking whom, there is no doubt that state security in Nigeria is a contentious issue that undermines trust in the government. It is a matter that is excluded from Nigeria's freedom of information law and entwined with ongoing corruption. With this deeply entrenched culture, the likelihood of ending Nigeria's insurgencies seems like a distant prospect.

Philip Ikita, a Rotary peace scholar at the University of Bradford, is a visiting fellow at the Institute of Development Studies

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Expository Essay On Drug Abuse In Nigeria (450 Words)

• July 16, 2023

Introduction

The issue of drug abuse among Nigerian youths has reached alarming levels, posing a significant threat to public health and security. The prevalence of hard drug usage, including substances like Syrup, tramadol, Diazepam, cocaine, and Shisha mix, among others, has risen to over 11% of the youth population in Nigeria. This essay will examine the concerning state of drug abuse in Nigeria, the potential consequences, and the measures that can be taken to address this growing problem.

Current Scenario and Statistics

According to the 2021 World Drug Report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes (UNODC), an estimated 275 million people worldwide used drugs in the previous year. Among them, over 36 million people suffered from drug use disorders . In Nigeria, the 2018 National Drug Use Survey revealed that approximately 14.3 million individuals were drug users, with nearly three million of them experiencing drug use disorders.

The Impact of Cannabis Use

The World Drug Report highlights the worrying trend of increasing cannabis potency by up to four times in some regions over the past 24 years. Paradoxically, the perception of cannabis as harmful has declined among adolescents by as much as 40%. This is concerning as cannabis use has been linked to various health and social issues, particularly among regular, long-term users. In Nigeria alone, there are approximately 11 million cannabis users, with a significant proportion requiring drug counseling due to regular usage.

Projected Future Challenges

The global drug use scenario is projected to worsen in the coming years. Between 2010 and 2019, the number of people using drugs increased by 22%, largely due to population growth. Demographic changes alone suggest an estimated 11% increase in global drug users by 2030. Africa, including Nigeria, is expected to experience a significant surge of 40% in drug users due to its rapidly growing and young population. These projections indicate that Nigeria could potentially have around 20 million drug users by 2030, exacerbating public health and security challenges.

Addressing the Issue

While the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA), under the leadership of General Muhammad Buba Marwa (rtd), has made commendable efforts in tackling drug abuse , more actions are needed to combat the supply of hard drugs into the country. Authorities must intensify their efforts to identify and apprehend those responsible for trafficking these substances.

Prevention and Awareness

Preventing drug abuse requires a comprehensive approach involving all stakeholders. Parents play a crucial role in monitoring their children’s activities and ensuring they associate them with positive influences. Nigerian youths must be educated about the dangers of drug abuse, emphasizing the life-threatening consequences and the risk of diseases like lung cancer and hepatitis C associated with smoking.

The escalating rates of drug abuse among Nigerian youths present a disheartening and worrisome situation. Urgent action is required to address this public health and security crisis. Efforts must be made to enhance law enforcement measures, intensify drug supply interception, and increase public awareness programs to educate young individuals about the risks and consequences of drug abuse . By working together, the government, communities, and families can strive to create a healthier and safer environment for Nigerian youths.

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Expository Essay On Drug Abuse In Nigeria 450 Words

In the vibrant tapestry of Nigeria, a troubling thread weaves its way through the lives of countless individuals, casting a shadow over families, communities, and the nation itself. This thread is the menace of drug abuse, a complex issue that affects people of diverse backgrounds and ages. In this expository essay, we shall delve into the layers of this problem, exploring its causes, effects, and the measures that can be taken to combat it.

Table of Contents

Essay:  Unmasking the Shadows – Understanding Drug Abuse in Nigeria

Drug abuse, a deeply rooted concern in Nigeria, has ensnared the minds of many, including students who should be shaping the future. From the allure of cocaine to the grip of heroin and the haze of hash, the usage of these substances is far from uncommon[1]. The ripples of this problem extend far beyond the individual user, impacting families, communities, and the broader fabric of society.

The intertwining of drug abuse with criminal activities casts a dark cloud over Nigeria. Often, addiction and drug usage become entangled with a web of criminal behavior, including prostitution and sexual exploitation, resulting in vulnerable individuals being preyed upon[2]. The vicious cycle leads to tragic outcomes, with users often falling victim to violence, abuse, and exploitation.

The toll of drug abuse on health is a stark reality. The human body bears the brunt of the choices made, as substance abuse paves the path to heart ailments, kidney malfunction, and irreversible damage to the brain[4]. The very essence of self-control is under siege due to altered brain functioning, perpetuating the cycle of addiction and further physical deterioration.

The devastation caused by drug abuse stretches beyond the individual to disrupt the harmony of families and communities, undermining the foundations of society itself. Relationships are strained, families fractured, and social fabric torn asunder. The burden placed on healthcare systems and law enforcement compounds the issue, diverting resources from pressing matters.

Nurturing a solution to the epidemic of drug abuse requires a multifaceted strategy. First and foremost, awareness campaigns are pivotal in illuminating the path towards a drug-free society. Through education, individuals can be enlightened about the dangers that lie within the grasp of addiction. Accessible and well-funded rehabilitation centers must be established to provide a lifeline to those ensnared by substance dependency. The gears of law enforcement should turn towards dismantling drug trafficking networks and curbing the influx of illicit substances.

In conclusion, the specter of drug abuse in Nigeria is a formidable adversary, impacting individuals, families, and the entire nation. As we stand at the crossroads of a healthier future, it is imperative to address this issue head-on through comprehensive education, robust rehabilitation, and vigilant law enforcement. By doing so, we unravel the shadows that drug abuse casts, nurturing a society that thrives on resilience, unity, and wellbeing.

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The HIV/AIDS epidemic in Nigeria: progress, problems and prospects

Affiliation.

• 1 Vanderbilt University Institute for Global Health, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
• PMID: 21416794

Nigeria is Africa's most populous country, and is home to the third largest number of persons living with HIV/ AIDS in the world. Poverty, stigma, discrimination, and a poorly coordinated health system constitute major barriers to HIV treatment and prevention efforts. The purpose of this paper is to review the current status of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Nigeria, analyze the challenges facing provision of HIV/AIDS services, examine the prospects of attaining universal access to HIV prevention, treatment, care and support, and advance recommendations for developing quality, sustainable and efficient HIV/AIDS services in Nigeria. HIV programs in Nigeria must emphasize sustainability of current foreign-donor driven treatment and prevention initiatives by engaging all segments of the society and enhancing community leadership and ownership of the programs.

Publication types

• Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome / epidemiology*
• Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome / prevention & control
• Capacity Building
• Delivery of Health Care / organization & administration
• Delivery of Health Care / trends
• Financing, Organized
• HIV Infections / epidemiology*
• HIV Infections / prevention & control
• Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice*
• Health Promotion / organization & administration*
• Health Services Accessibility / organization & administration*
• Health Services Accessibility / trends
• Nigeria / epidemiology
• Nigeria / ethnology

• Open access
• Published: 21 December 2022

Thirty-five years (1986–2021) of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria: bibliometric and scoping analysis

• Henshaw Uchechi Okoroiwu 1 ,
• Ekementeabasi Aniebo Umoh 2 ,
• Edet Effiong Asanga 3 ,
• Uwem Okon Edet 4 ,
• Michael Raymond Atim-Ebim 5 ,
• Edum Abang Tangban 6 ,
• Elizabeth Nkagafel Mbim 7 , 8 ,
• Cynthia Amarachi Odoemena 9 ,
• Victor Kanu Uno 5 ,
• Joseph Okon Asuquo 2 ,
• Otu Otu Effiom-Ekaha 5 ,
• Ogechukwu C. Dozie-Nwakile 10 ,
• Ikenna K. Uchendu 10 ,
• Chidiebere Peter Echieh 11 ,
• Kingsley John Emmanuel 1 ,
• Regina Idu Ejemot-Nwadiaro 12 ,
• Glory Mbe Egom Nja 12 ,
• Adaeze Oreh 13 ,
• Mercy Ogechi Uchenwa 8 ,
• Emmanuel Chukwuma Ufornwa 14 ,
• Ndidi Patience Nwaiwu 15 ,
• Christopher Ogar Ogar 16 ,
• Ani Nkang 4 ,
• Obinna Justice Kabiri 17 &
• F. Javier Povedano-Montero 18 , 19 , 20  

AIDS Research and Therapy volume  19 , Article number:  64 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is an acquired defect of the cellular immunity associated with the infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The disease has reached pandemic proportion and has been considered a public health concern. This study is aimed at analyzing the trend of HIV/AIDS research in Nigeria.

We used the PUBMED database to a conduct bibliometric analysis of HIV/AIDS-related research in Nigeria from 1986 to 2021 employing “HIV”, “AIDS”, “acquired immunodeficiency syndrome”, “Human immunodeficiency virus”, and “Nigeria” as search description. The most common bibliometric indicators were applied for the selected publications.

The number of scientific research articles retrieved for HIV/AIDS-related research in Nigeria was 2796. Original research was the predominant article type. Articles authored by 4 authors consisted majority of the papers. The University of Ibadan was found to be the most productive institution. Institutions in the United States dominated external production with the University of Maryland at the top. The most utilized journal was PLoS ONE. While Iliyasu Z. was the most productive principal author, Crowel TA. was the overall most productive author with the highest collaborative strength. The keyword analysis using overlay visualization showed a gradual shift from disease characteristics to diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Trend in HIV/AIDS research in Nigeria is increasing yet evolving. Four articles were retracted while two had an expression of concern.

The growth of scientific literature in HIV/AIDS-related research in Nigeria was found to be high and increasing. However, the hotspot analysis still shows more unexplored grey areas in future.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is an acquired defect of the cellular immunity associated with infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a CD4 positive lymphocyte count of less than 200 cells/micrometer and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infection [ 1 ].

The first cases of AIDS were reported in May 1981 in the United States of America by Dr. Michael Gottlieb of the Medical School of Los Angeles, United States, and was followed by an official report by the Centre for Disease Control (CDC) on June 5, 1981. The first victims were five homosexual men who were suffering from unusual pneumonia called Pneumocystis Carinii pneumonia and Kaposi’s sarcoma. The causative organisms were first isolated and named Human T-Lymphotropic Virus type III (HTLV-III) in the US and Lymphadenopathy Associated Virus (LAV) in France [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Specifically, Luc Montagnier and colleagues in Pasteur Institute France in 1983 first isolated the causative organism [ 5 ]. The following year (1984) Robert Gallo of the National Institute of Health isolated the causative organism (HTLV-III) [ 6 , 7 ]. At the same time, Jay Levy and colleagues at UCSF also independently isolated the virus [ 8 , 9 ]. However, Robert Gallo was the first to lay a causative link between the virus and AIDS. In May 1986, the international community on taxonomy of viruses chaired by Harold Varmus harmonized and recommended the renaming of the virus with different names to human immunodeficiency virus, following the evidence that they (HTLV-III and LAV) were genetically indistinguishable [ 10 ].

On the African Continent, HIV/AIDS was first reported in Uganda, East Africa in 1982 [ 11 ].

The first case of HIV and AIDS in Nigeria was identified in 1985 and reported at an international conference in 1986. The first two cases as reported by the Federal Ministry of Health were; a sexually active 13 year-old girl and a female commercial sex worker from a neighboring West African country [ 2 , 4 ].

Nigeria is the most populous African country and the seventh most populous in the world with an estimated population of approximately 206,139.589 people [ 12 , 13 ]. It is located within the eastern strip of West Africa with an area of 923,768 Km 2 [ 14 ]. Nigeria is a multi-ethnic and culturally diverse federation of 36 autonomous states and the Federal Capital Territory [ 15 ]. The first HIV/AIDS sentinel survey was conducted in 1991 with a prevalence of 1.8% which since then increased to 3.8% in 1993, 4.5% in 1996, 5.4% in 1999, and peaked at 5.8% in 2001. Post 2001, decline trend was observed in 2003 (5.0%), 2005 (4.4%), 2008 (4.6%), 2010 (4.1%), 2013 (3.4%) [ 16 , 17 ] (Fig.  1 ). Despite the declining prevalence/low prevalence, HIV/AIDS in Nigeria remains a public health concern. Nigeria ranks 4 th in global HIV burden with approximately 1.8 million (estimated) persons living with HIV as of 2019 [ 18 , 19 , 20 ]. The current national prevalence of HIV in Nigeria is 1.4% and stratification based on states showed the highest prevalence in Akwa Ibom (5.6%), Benue (4.9%), Rivers (3.8%), Taraba (2.7%) and Anambra (2.7%) and the least prevalence in Jigawa (0.3%) and Katsina (0.3%) [ 21 ] (Fig.  2 ).

Trend of HIV prevalence over the years

HIV prevalence in Nigeria by states

Bibliometric studies are relevant tools in the social and scientific evaluation of a given discipline within a specified time frame. They serve as proxy markers for the activities in a given field of research. They evaluate progress/growth and identify gaps in research [ 22 , 23 ]. The performance analysis of a selected study discipline is often done via bibliometrics and social network analysis (SNA). While the bibliometric data computes the basic outputs, the social network analysis interprets the influence of social links and interactions [ 24 ].

This study was aimed at identifying the trend as well as the contribution of Nigeria to HIV/AIDS research. The findings of this study is expected to evaluate progress and identify gaps in HIV research in Nigeria as well as give direction to areas of research and research funding.

Data source

The PUBMED database was used for the bibliometric analysis. PUBMED comprises more than 34 million citations for biomedical literature from MEDLINE, life science journals and online books [ 25 ]. Ancillary data were retrieved from Google scholar. Retraction watch database was searched to complement PUBMED on retracted articles and those with an expressions of concern [ 26 ].

Data collection

We analyzed the bibliometric data on HIV/AIDS study in the PUBMED published from January 1, 1986 to December 31, 2021. The study period was chosen on the assumption that all research on HIV/AIDS in Nigeria were published from 1986 when the disease was first reported in Nigeria. The search was performed on May 15, 2022. We made use of advanced search in PUBMED using “MESH” terms “HIV” and “AIDS” and applied the following keywords: “HIV” [Title/Abstract] OR “AIDS” [Title/Abstract] OR “Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome” [Title/Abstract] OR “Human Immunodeficiency Virus” [Title/Abstract] AND “Nigeria” [Title/Abstract]. We retrieved all data under the above predefined search query without restriction on article type. The retrieved data were used to compute bibliometric indicators. Since PUBMED does not store citation records, we retrieved the citation information about authors and articles via Google scholar. We also re-searched PUBMED using the above search descriptors in addition to “Retraction” and Expression of concern”. We also searched the Retraction database setting the location to Nigeria. Extra detail on search query is presented in the Additional file 1 : Table S1.

Screening protocol and criteria

Only articles with focus on HIV/AIDS in Nigeria were included. Articles that were not focused on HIV/AIDS but mentioned same on passing were excluded as well as those not in Nigeria. There was no restriction on the type of article. Duplicate articles were also removed. Two review groups among the authors independently performed the article selection. Differences in opinion were settled via consensus of both grouping. The full detail of exclusion diagram is presented in the Additional file 2 : Fig. S2.

Visualization of social network analysis

We used the VOSviewer (Center for Science and Technology Studies, Leiden University, The Netherlands) version 1.6.18 to map HIV/AIDS terms and collaboration in the retrieved data from PUBMED.

Bibliometric indicators

Impact factor.

The impact factor (IF) is utilized as a measure of the journal’s influence and was originally developed by the Institute for Science Information (Philadelphia PA, USA) as a bibliometric indicator. It is updated annually in the Journal Citation Report (JCR) of Clarivate Analytics and the value is often a marker of prestige. We used JCR data of 2021.

Author/institution participation index

WE evaluated the overall 1986–2021 scientific publication in the discipline of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria. It is the number of documents on the topic in question (in this case HIV/AIDS in Nigeria) by an author/institution with respect to the total publications in that domain.

Keyword analysis

WE used keyword analysis to ratify the trend of discussion and research in view of the disease characteristics, pathology and treatment.

Co-authorship analysis

CO-authorship refers to the interaction of authors contributing to the particular field of study. The co-authorship of papers between authors shows collaboration [ 24 , 27 ]. The co-authorship network map as generated by VOSviewer show collaborative social network of research fields.

Bibliometric mapping

Bibliometric mapping was divided into two parts: co-authorship mapping and co-occurrence mapping. Co-authorship refers to the interactions of authors in institutions contributing to the field of study, while co-occurrence refers to relationship among keywords.

The following keys of interpretation are utilized in the visualization of co-authorship network analysis: The size of the nodes or bubbles (circles) within the network corresponds to the frequency or number of documents from an author or institution. Secondly, the lines or arcs between nodes correlate/reflect the existence and intensity of the co-authorship link. Finally, the last legend is the color of the node: VOSviewer clustering algorithm assigns the colors to the nodes based on the estimation of a measure of similarity between them. Consequently, it is safe to conclude that nodes of same color are related. Also, the shorter the distance between two (2) nodes, the closer the relationship between them [ 24 ].

Results of publication output

We retrieved 2838 publications and only included 2796 publications after removing 9 duplicate publications and 33 publications that were either not related to Nigeria (as in, mentioned Nigeria in passing) or not related to HIV/AIDS (Only mentioned in abstract background) (total of 42). Of these, 92.13% (n = 2576) were original articles, 2.79% (n = 78) were narrative reviews, while 1.14% (n = 32) were systematic reviews. Other forms of publications recorded were Case reports/Case series (0.96%), Perspectives (0.86%), Correspondence/Letters to Editor/Comments on articles (0.71%), Gazettes/Law reviews and other official publications (0.39%), Commentary (0.29%), Erratum/Corrections (0.25%), Conference /Workshop papers (0.18%), Editorials (0.14%), Books/Book chapters (0.11%) and Expressions of concern (0.03%) (Table 1 ).

The first publications (2 in number) were published in 1986. There was a slow pace of publication of HIV/AIDS related literature from then till the year 2004 when publications shot up more than 20-fold. The tempo of research since then has been sustained and has remained ≥ 150 publications per year after 2011 (Fig.  3 ).

Trend line of publication of HIV/AIDS related literature in Nigeria from 1986 to 2021

Analysis of proportion of articles by number of authors

Our result showed a large span of number of authors per document ranging from single author documents to > 10 authors per document. Furthermore, the result showed that more than half (59.66%; n = 1668) of the published articles were by collaboration of < 6 authors (Table 2 ). The document with the most authors had 324 author signatures and the most frequent number of signatures was 4.

Analysis of most productive institutions

The top most productive institutions in HIV/AIDS research in Nigeria were represented in Table 3 . University of Ibadan, Nigeria was the most productive institution (n = 176), followed by the University of Lagos (n = 112), University of Nigeria Enugu (n = 97), Obafemi Awolowo University (n = 76) and others. Only the first top 8 institutions accounted for more than 25% (25.64%) of the total produced literature. Worthy of note is that University of Ibadan and its affiliated teaching hospital (University College Hospital) made the top list of the most productive institutions. Similarly, University of Nigeria Enugu and its affiliated institution (University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Enugu) also made it to the top list. University of Maryland School of Medicine was the only foreign institution that made the top 20 list (n = 47; 1.68%). Out of the top 20 institutions, 10 are federal public universities, 6 are federal tertiary health institutions, 2 federal research institutes, 1 State university resident in Nigeria and a USA-based public land—Grant University (Table 3 ).

On account of external participating countries, institutions in the USA produced 12.84% (n = 359) of the total published literature. This was followed by South Africa, United Kingdom, Canada and Netherlands (Table 3 ). Individual analysis of the USA-based institutions showed that the University of Maryland produced 1.6% (n = 45) of the literature followed by US Centre for Disease Control (0.7%; n = 20), Harvard School of Public Health (0.50%; n = 14), Emory University (0.50%; n = 14), Vanderbilt Institute for Global Health (0.46%; n = 13) and Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health (0.39%; n = 11). Among the South African based institutions, the top productive was from University of Kwazulu—Natal (0.46%; n = 13) and University of Western Cape Town (0.23%; n = 7). The top participating institution from UK was London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (0.14%; n = 4), while that of Canada and Netherlands were University of Ottawa (0.18%; n = 5) and Maastrich University, respectively (Additional file 3 : Table S3).

Analysis of co-authorship of participating institutions

Figure  4 shows the collaborative network among institutions publishing HIV/AIDS related research in Nigeria. The threshold for the mapping was set at minimum of 2 collaborations. Of the 645 qualifying institutions, only 367 (56.90%) were connected (had collaboration). The most collaborating institutions with the total link strengths are: US Military HIV Research Program (109 link strength), HJF Medical Research International Abuja (91 LS), Henry M. Jackson Foundation for advancement of Military Medicine USA (85 LS), Institute of Human Virology Abuja (58 LS) and Makerere University Walter Reeds Project Uganda (56 LS).

collaborative network among institutions publishing HIV/AIDS related research in Nigeria

Among the strongest links of the US Military Research Program Include: Institute of Human Virology University of Maryland, HJF Medical Research International Abuja, Medicine University, Population Council of Nigeria Abuja, National Hospital Abuja, US Army Medical Research, Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the advancement of Military Medicine and Institute of Human Virology Abuja.

However, the overall strongest collaboration (9 link strength) was found between the US Military HIV Research Program and Institute of Human Virology University of Maryland.

Analysis of sources with highest publication

Table 4 shows the sources with the highest number of HIV/AIDS related research in Nigeria. PLoS ONE, Pan African Medical Journal, African Journal of Reproductive Health, AIDS Care, Nigeria Journal of Medicine, Journal of Acquire Immune Deficiency Syndrome, African Journal of Medicine and Medical Science, Nigeria Journal of Medical Practice, West African Journal of Medicine and African Health Science, consisted the top most productive sources. Among these, 5 of the sources had impact factor (JCR 2021). Two among them (PLoS ONE and Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) had impact factor greater than 3. Five of the journals are affiliated to Nigeria. All the journals were multidisciplinary medical journals except African Journal of Reproductive health dedicated to reproductive health and AIDS Care and Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome both dedicated to HIV/AIDS research.

Analysis of most cited articles

Table 5 shows the top 10 most cited articles on HIV/AIDS related research in Nigeria. The most cited article was an article on the discriminating attitude and practice of health care workers towards patients published in PLoS Medicine while the second most cited was a randomized control trial on the use of a vaginal gel for the prevention of HIV infection published in PLoS ONE. The rest were research articles on the effectiveness of intervention methods, knowledge and attitude towards HIV infection, quality of life among HIV-infected persons and provision of outreach services. Two among the most cited articles were published in PLoS Medicine, while another 2 were published in PLoS ONE. All the articles were original research. Despite being the 9th and 8th most cited articles, the articles by Abdullahi et al . in PLOS Medicine and Swartz et al. in Lancet HIV had the highest number of citation per year; 152 citations per year and 26.5 citations per year, respectively. Next were the 2nd and 1st most cited publications in PLoS ONE and PLoS Medicine with 24 citations per year and 22 citations per year, respectively.

Analysis of most productive authors by principal author analysis

Table 6 shows the most productive authors in HIVS/AIDS-related publication in Nigeria by principal author analysis. Iliyasu Z, Folayan MO, Ogoina D, Uneke CJ, Olowookere SA, Aliyu MH, Ogunbayo A, Olakunle BO, Daniel OJ, Aliyu G and Agaba PA were the top productive first authors. Thirteen of the 15 authors are affiliated to Nigeria while the other 2 are affiliated to USA.

Overall co-authorship analysis of authors

Figure  5 shows the network of co-authors made up of authors who have published at least five (5) HIV/AIDS-related research in Nigeria. The network contained 316 nodes, 2522 co-authorship links, 7258 total link strength and 16 clusters.

Co-authorship network among authors publishing HIV/AIDS related articles in Nigeria

The node symbol represents an author while the node size represents activity/publications of the author, while links between the authors represent relationship between them. Exactly 78 (19.80%) of the 394 authors who met the minimum selection criteria (at least 5 publications) had no connection (collaboration).

Based on total link strength, Crowel TA (361; turquoise cluster), Okonkwo P (284; red cluster), Ndembi N (245; turquoise cluster), Nowak R (241; turquoise cluster), Baral SD (219; turquoise cluster), Dakum P (203; orange cluster), Kanki P (190; red cluster), Charurat MP (179; orange cluster), Aliyu MH (171; golden lemon cluster), Adebajo S (170; lavender cluster) and Ezeanolue E (165; green cluster) were the most influential authors in HIV/AIDS research in Nigeria network. Considering the total number of co-authored articles (both as principal author and as co-authors), Crowell TA (n = 45), Okonkwo P (n = 43), Aliyu MH (n = 40), Ndembi N (n = 38), Dakum P (n = 37), Kanki PJ (n = 34), Ezeanolue E (n = 32), Nowak R (n = 31), Baral SD (n = 30) Adebajo S (n = 29) and Ake JA (n = 24) are in this order the most productive authors. Crowell TA, Okonkwo P and Ndembi N retained the position of the most co-authorship as well as the top total link strength. The three are affiliated to Uniformed Service University USA, Bingham University Nigeria and Africa CDC, respectively (Table 7 ).

Notably, Aliyu MH (of Vanderbilt University USA) retained the 6th most productive author position by principal author analysis (n = 19) as well as the 3rd most co-authored author (n = 40) while having the 10th highest total link strength. Similarly, Ezeanolue E made it on both list as the 12th most published principal author as well as the 7th most co-authored author and the 12th highest total link strength (Tables 6 and 7 ).

Keywords/hotspot analysis

Figure  6 shows hotspot analysis of author keywords used in HIV/AIDS related studies in Nigeria. Keywords appearing more than 10 times were included in the map. Exactly 120 keywords qualified for this. The network visualization stratified the keywords into 5 clusters. Cluster 1 (red) represented treatment, diagnosis, mortality, epidemiology and co-mobility. Tuberculosis (56) and prevalence (41) were the most occurring keywords in cluster 1. However, mortality had higher link strength (70) with other keywords, despite lower occurrence (21). Cluster 2 (green) focused on treatment, epidemiology and co-mobility. Diseases (104) and viral diseases were the most prominent keywords in cluster 2. Cluster 3 (blue) represented keywords associated with the modes of HIV prevention. Education (34), family planning (33), condoms (20) and barrier methods (16) were the most prominent keywords in cluster 3. Cluster 4 (yellow) represented keywords on disease characteristics and demographics. Behavior (55), and demographic factors were the most prominent keywords in cluster 4. However, behavior had the highest link strength (with other keywords) in cluster 4. Cluster 5 (purple) represented keywords associated with risk factors/mode of transmission of HIV. Sex behavior (19) and risk factors (13) were the most occurring keywords in cluster 5. Overall, keywords relating to co-mobility with tuberculosis and HIV prevalence were the most occurring keywords (Fig.  6 a).

Hotspot analysis of author keywords used in HIV/AIDS related studies in Nigeria

On the ground of different average appearing year of keywords, VOSviewer under overlay visualization marked keywords included in the map with different colors (Fig.  6 b). Keywords in blue appeared earlier than those in green and yellow. Keywords in cluster 1 and a few in cluster 5 appeared in more recent years, revealing epidemiology, antiretroviral therapy and prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) as current topics of discussion in HIV/AIDS research in Nigeria (2018.36-2019.60) (Fig.  6 b).

Keywords such as antiretroviral therapy and PMTCT showed no links are therefore research areas still open for new researches.

Analysis of retracted articles and those with expression of concerns

Overall, our analysis found 4 retracted articles and 2 articles with expression of concern in HIV/AIDS related publications in Nigeria. Two of the retracted articles were systematic reviews published in Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews published by Wiley Publishing Company. The other 2 were a conference paper published in Sexually Transmitted Infections (published by BMJ Publishing) and an original article published in African Journal of AIDS Research (published by Taylor & Francis). The 2 articles with expressions of concern were published in Kidney International (published by Elsevier). Most of the reasons for retractions/expressions of concerns were raised by the authors (Table 8 ).

This study provides a quantitative description of HIV/AIDS related research in Nigeria from 1986 to 2021 in PUBMED. The most utilized document type by the authors was original article implying that the subject matter was mostly experimental or clinical.

The trend of research output on HIV/AIDS in Nigeria showed a progressive increase and reassuring trend. However, we found that there was a sluggish growth of HIV/AIDS related literature in Nigeria until 2004 when dramatic growth was observed with an inflection point at about 2008. The earlier lag in scientific productivity could be related to the initial response to the epidemic. Balogun and colleagues [ 2 ] identified three major phases in the development of HIV/AIDS epidemic in Nigeria. First, there was an era of absolute official and personal denial of the presence of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria (1981–1986) [ 2 ]. A publication in 1987 [ 28 ] reported that government officials insisted that AIDS was non-existent in Nigeria even after 18 other African countries had reported the disease. Secondly, there was an era of skepticism and indifference (1986–1997) which was overwhelmed with misconceptions. People described AIDS literally as “American Idea to Destroy Sex” and some even bragged that Africans were immune to it. Finally, the last phase was the era of reality (1997 till date).

The core journals that served as sources for HIV/AIDS related publication in Nigeria were PLoS ONE, Pan African Medical Journal, African Journal of Reproductive Health, AIDS Care, Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, African Journal of Medicine and Medical Science. These journals could possibly be avenues for future breakthroughs in HIV/AIDS research in Nigeria. More so, the patronage of PLoS ONE with a high impact factor may not be unconnected to the editorial policy of the journal. PLoS ONE emphasizes scientific rigor of a research work over novelty unlike other journals within that category [ 29 ].

The article “Discriminating attitude and practice by health workers towards patients with HIV/AIDS in Nigeria” published in PLoS Medicine was the most cited article. The article was dedicated to assessing the attitude of health care workers toward HIV infected persons in Nigeria; refusal to attend to HIV/AIDS patients, suitability to attend to HIV/AIDS patients in general ward and the need to disclose HIV status to all health workers. The second most cited article was on phases 3 double-blind randomized clinical trial of a vaginal gel intended for prevention of HIV infection. The article with the most citations per year was an article published in Lancet HIV that dwelt on effect of same sex marriage. All the top 10 most cited articles were published in journals with impact factor > 3. The feat of the article published in Lancet is not surprising considering the high impact factor (16.070) and wider coverage of the journal. However, there have been counter argument on the translation of journal impact factor to individual article citation [ 30 ].

University of Ibadan, University of Lagos and University of Nigeria, Enugu and Obafemi Awolowo University were the most outstanding in terms of productivity in HIV/AIDS related research in Nigeria. The above institutions have been consistently documented to occupy the top five (5) positions in researches in biotechnology research [ 31 ], Lassa fever research [ 32 ] and overall research [ 33 ]. They are among the early Federal Universities in Nigeria. The University of Ibadan is the first university in Nigeria founded as University College Ibadan (part of University of London) in 1948 and was later converted to indigenous university in 1962 [ 34 ]. It has been ranked 1st in Nigeria and 1172nd in the world (2022–2023 World University Ranking) [ 35 ]. University of Lagos is a public federal university founded in 1962, and is ranked 3rd in Nigeria and 1924th globally [ 36 ]. University of Nigeria, Enugu was formally opened in 1960 as the first indigenous university, and is ranked 2nd in Nigeria and 1775th globally [ 37 ]. The top 6 institutions are all institutions located in southern Nigeria.

Institutions in the United States dominated external publications in HIV/AIDS research in Nigeria and accounted for 12.84% of all publications. Prominent among these institutions were University of Maryland USA and Centre for Disease Control. The United States has been in the forefront of HIV/AIDS research/treatment and funding in Nigeria. This has been via national and corporate funding. For instance, the US President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) has shown the highest commitment in HIV/AIDS research, diagnosis and antiretroviral therapies [ 38 , 39 ]. The AIDS Prevention Initiative (APIN) funded by Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has offered substantial funds in the form of grants for HIV research and treatment [ 40 ]. The dominance of USA in various fields of study is well documented [ 22 , 23 ]. The United States has been reported to have committed 3.45% of her GDP to research and development (R & D) [ 41 ].

Crowel TA, Okonkwo P, Aliyu MH, Ndembi N, DakumP,Kanki P, Ezeanolue E, Nowak RG, Baral SD, Adebajo S, Charurat ME and Ake JA were the all-round most productive authors in HIV/AIDS related research in Nigeria. Collaborative link analysis presented Crowel TA, Okonkwo P, Ndenbi N, Nowak RG, Baral BD, Ake JA, Dakum P, Kanki PJ, and others as the most influential in terms of diversity of links. Prominent to note is Crowel TA who is the most productive author as well as the one with the highest collaborative strength. On the other hand, analysis of authors’ contribution based on principal author (first author) analysis showed Iliyasu Z, Folayan MO, Ogoina D, Uneke CJ, Olowookere SA, Aliyu MH, Ogunbayo A, Olakunde BO, Olley BO, Sam-Agudu MA, Lawson L, Ezeanolue EE, Daniel OJ, Aliyu G and Agaba PA to be the most productive authors. The above authors in the two categories are core to HIV research in Nigeria and are likely to have tremendous impact in HIV/AIDS research in future.

Analysis of the co-authorship collaboration network showed that Aliyu MH and Ezeanolue were the only authors in the top list of principal authors who had high link strength of collaboration. Also, most of the top authors with high collaborative strength were affiliated to institutions in the United States and some Nigerian government agencies with external funding. Only Okonkwo P of Bingham University (Private University) and Ezeanolue E (University of Nigeria) were the only top list authors from Universities in Nigeria in terms of collaboration. This observation is further corroborated by the institutional collaboration network analysis. The major collaborating institutions were USA-based institutions and externally funded federal agencies. Most of the federal universities only had inter-university collaboration and were in periphery of the network, hence, their exclusion in the network link map. There is poor funding of research in Nigeria, especially with regards to Nigerian Universities. Nigeria spends only 0.13% of her GDP on research and development (R&D) [ 41 ]. This is far below the recommended average of 2.3% by Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The only major source of academic funding in Nigerian public universities is TETFUND (Tertiary Education Trust Fund) which is limited and often rationed funds based on grant applications with limited scope (and don’t even cover private universities). The bulk of research in tertiary institutions in Nigeria are self-funded by academic staff, graduate students, staff-in-training and are driven by the demand for publication towards career development [ 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 ].

The keyword analysis using overlay visualization showed a gradual shift from disease characteristics to diagnosis, treatment and prevention. The current discussions are on mapping current epidemiology, administration of antiretroviral therapy and the prevention of mother-to-child-transmission of HIV. For instance, there have been varying current discussions on trends, predictors, spatial patterns, knowledge and the reduction of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Nigeria [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 ]. Often, the first response to an epidemic is to characterize the disease followed by diagnosis and possible means of amelioration/cure. With no absolute curative means to HIV and poor access to ameliorative means, preventive measures have becomes the ultimate means to combat the disease especially in resource limited setting such as Nigeria.

The analysis of articles that had post-publication remarks showed 4 articles withdrawn (retracted) and 2 with an expression of concern. We observed that some of the articles continued to accumulate citations even after they were retracted. For example, the article “Higher risk sexual behavior among HIV patients receiving antiretroviral treatment in Ibadan Nigeria” had 18 citations in total, 7 of which occurred after retraction on May 16, 2014. This observation supports the argument and submission of some researchers [ 51 ] that most authors do not read most of the articles they cite. Rather, they copy from an already cited page. Simkin and Roychowdhury [ 52 ] have even put a number to it by concluding in their research article “Read before you cite” that only approximately 20% of citers read the original article.

The present study may contain some limitations which are inherent in bibliometric studies. First, the criteria mapped out by the PUBMED database themselves determine the subsequent product of the studied materials. Secondly, local journals that were not indexed in PUBMED within the study period would have been missed. We might have excluded HIV/AIDS research articles in Nigeria if the authors did not include our specific search descriptors. Lastly, we were limited to use PUBMED a free to use database, we may have missed some articles indexed only elsewhere. However, we believe the output is a true representation of research trend in the study domain.

Irrespective of the inherent limitations, we believe that this study has made available a significant representation of the trends in HIV/AIDS research in Nigeria. We have shown that research on HIV/AIDS in Nigeria had a slow start, possibly due to delay in accepting the reality of the disease, but has grown significantly over time. As current treatment approaches are yet to be curative, it highlights the fact that there remains enormous research potential for the future. The major collaborations were found to be from oversea institutions majorly the United States of America.

Availability of data and materials

Datasets generated and analyzed in this study are within the article. The primary source of data, PUBMED is publicly available.

Abbreviations

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

• Human immunodeficiency virus

Center for Disease Control

Human T-Lymphotropic virus Type III

Lymphadenopathy associated virus

Social Network Analysis

Journal Citation Report

President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS relief

AIDS Prevention in Nigeria

Research and development

Tertiary Education Trust Fund

Organization of Economic Co-operation and development

National Library of Medicine. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/68000163 . Accessed 22 May 2022.

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Gallo RC and Luc Montagnier. AIDS: The scourge of the new age. The Guardian, Wednesday, November 30, 1998. P. 10. The authors of this article, which was curled from Scientific American of October 1988, were the doctors who isolated the AIDS virus in France and the United States later named HIV in 1986.

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Conceptualization: HUO; Study design: HUO, EAU and MRA; Data curation and analysis: HUO, EAU, EEA, MRA, EAT, ENB, CAO, VKU, JOA, OOE, Data interpretation: HUO, OCD, IKU, CPE, KJE, RIE, GMEN, AO, MOU, ECU, NPN, COO, AN, OJK and FJP. Data validation: RIE, AN, GMEN, AO and FJP. Figure and software analysis: HUO, NPN. Initial manuscript draft: HUO. All authors read edited and approved the final manuscript.

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Supplementary Information

Additional file 1: table s1.

. Search Strategy For The Study In Pubmed.

Additional file 2: Fig. S2.

. Screening protocol of retrieved data

Additional file 3:

Table S3 . Countries with the most published articles.

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Okoroiwu, H.U., Umoh, E.A., Asanga, E.E. et al. Thirty-five years (1986–2021) of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria: bibliometric and scoping analysis. AIDS Res Ther 19 , 64 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12981-022-00489-6

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Received : 26 July 2022

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Published : 21 December 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12981-022-00489-6

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