emotional intelligence leadership case study

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Learn about our 6 session fully comprehensive webinar-based Emotional Intelligence certification.

Discover the many different ways Emotional Intelligence can be used to improve performance and well-being.

Build an emotionally intelligent organisation with RocheMartin's EQ training solutions.

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Learn about our proprietary Emotional Capital framework, how it relates to EQ and why it's a critical skillset for leaders.

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Browse our library of blogs, videos and case studies covering Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Development.

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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE CASE STUDIES .

Explore how our Emotional Intelligence solutions have developed the EQ of leaders, managers, and employees in many of the world's leading organisations.

Company: Sky Industry: Media RocheMartin solution used: Tailored EQ Leadership Development

Sky was struggling to attract and retain talent and, in the face of an increasingly competitive landscape, it needed its employees to develop an innovative and growth mindset.

The goal was to help leaders to become better at influencing others and making decisions. Sky also wanted to build a culture where people felt the dedication and drive for exceptional performance in a way that was sustainable and created real value for all stakeholders.

Increase in empathy

Improvement in relationship skills

Overall increase in emotional capital

We’re making better business decisions. We’re drawing more from the breadth and depth of the organisation; we’re managing tensions much better today than in the past. But, secondly, it’s had a big effect on the internal dynamic of the business. It’s a better place to work. And, when you put those things together it starts to sustain and repeat.

Jeremy Darroch, Group CEO, Sky

Company: Optus Industry: Telecommunications RocheMartin solution used: Tailored EQ Leadership Development

Optus, a leading telecommunications organisation, required greater levels of leadership across the organisation to establish cultural change and innovation.

As part of its succession and leadership development efforts, Optus wanted to identify people that were likely to move into key leadership roles and those that needed to advance their leadership skills.

Increase in leadership

Increase in engagement

Increase in customer focus

We started making fundamental changes in the way that the organisation behaves and what the organisation values in a culture...And looking six months later, the organisation worked better together and people were finding it easier to work together because they saw that we trusted each other. It pervaded the organisation. We moved the organisation forward this way and it was hugely successful.

Karim Nejaim, Engineering Director, Optus

Company: Boeing Industry: Aerospace RocheMartin solution used: Tailored EQ Leadership programme

Boeing was experiencing significant levels of executive burnout and high turnover rates. The cost of this turnover to the business was substantial, impacting the organisation's capabilities and its culture.

Exit interviews indicated that the number one reason for staff departures was poor relationships with managers and supervisors. With competition intensifying for highly skilled people, the organisation could not afford to continue with the status quo.

Increased levels of openness, adaptability and empathy.
Increased flexibility which encouraged greater creativity and empowerment.
Reduced stress.

Improving leaders’ emotional intelligence can make a big difference to the atmosphere at work but change will not happen overnight. Engineers and technical folk respond well to objective data, not general statements. [The programme] took what is an academic concept and broke it down into manageable chunks of information . . . It took a technical approach in that the skills were broken down into components and explained in a way that made sense to them.

Sandra James, Senior Manager, Boeing Defence Australia

Company: Oracle Industry: Software RocheMartin solution used: Tailored Sales EQ Development

Oracle, an international software company, recognised the need to improve the soft skills and relationship-building capabilities of its salesforce.

They believed that people buy from people they like, know and trust, and so they wanted their sales teams to better understand customer behaviours and emotional drivers. To support this, Oracle also wanted their salesforce to better understand their own emotional skills and to build stronger business relationships.

Increase in positivity

Increase in confidence

The RocheMartin Emotional Intelligence platform has completely transformed our business development culture. Our sales team are more confident in their approach and this has led to exceptional commercial results.

Daniel Van den Broeck, Senior Vice President, Applications Northern Europe

Company: People Resources Industry: Consultancy RocheMartin solution used: The ECR

People Resources founder Deirdre Murray was first introduced to Emotional Intelligence more than 20 years ago. As her career developed and she specialised in organisational behaviour, she recognised the impact EQ could have on corporate leaders.

Initially certified with another EQ framework, she found that it was not specific to leadership and the daily challenges senior leaders face. She was searching for a user-friendly, well organised, and easy-to-follow EQ framework that offered instant credibility with both senior leaders and the HR teams of multinational organisations. RocheMartin’s Emotional Capital framework , and its suite of ECR tools, fit the bill perfectly.

Our framework provided the credibility and impact needed to secure the future of People Resources.
Using the ECR has helped them to expand at a rapid rate.
They have secured long-term client engagements.

Emotional Intelligence training is key imperative for business leaders. EQ encourages leaders to develop self-awareness of their own emotional intelligence and develop their teams in a much more responsive way. Leadership development programmes that don’t have EQ as a key component are missing out on something essential.” Working with RocheMartin over the last 20 years and its solutions has been excellent. Dr Martyn Newman is inspirational. He’s developed all the products and made them very user-friendly .

Deirdre Murray, Founder, People Resources

Company: Diadem Performance Industry: Coaching RocheMartin solution used: The ECR

Diadem Performance specialises in training and coaching middle and senior management from small to large organisations to develop their commercial soft skills. They have identified several core competencies that are crucial to success when you are developing skills in negotiation , sales , management and leadership .

However, Diadem needed a way to codify those skills and provide a measurable framework against which its clients could track their progress.

Certification unlocked new sales opportunities and strengthened their market positioning.
They are able to offer effective coaching and guidance to professionals at all stages of their careers.
They joined a coaching network to share best practices and peer-to-peer advice.

One of the best features of the ECR lies in its accessibility. So many reports tend to overcomplicate things, whereas the ECR makes it easy for the user to gain real insight and understanding. Rather than focusing on the theory, the ECR gives them the information they need to move forward in their learning, either independently or with the support of a coach.

Nicole Soames, Founder, Diadem Performance

Company: People Dimensions International Consultants Industry: Consultancy RocheMartin solution used: The ECR

PDI needed a new tool to facilitate leadership growth and transform performance across its leadership journey modules. But its diverse client base meant that finding an appropriate tool was not straightforward. PDI had strict criteria to satisfy. First, its chosen tool had to enjoy scientific validity and global recognition. This was essential in building credibility with its clients. The chosen tool also had to be able to cascade culturally across an entire organisation and still maintain relevance in different regions in the world. PDI turned to the ECR – and hasn’t looked back.

Thye secured the backing of C-suite figures and company-wide engagements.
PDI coachees developed a confident, optimistic, and positive attitude towards learning.
The ECR helped them to grow their business over time.

“The experience of working with RocheMartin has been seamless. The team there is highly collaborative, very engaged, and it’s very easy to work with them. On top of that, the ECR speaks for itself. It’s user-friendly, the validations are strong, it gives really good quality information and data, and the different content you get from the ECR 360 gives you great material to develop rich coaching conversations. It’s definitely our tool of choice.”

Tony O’Connor, Founder, People Dimensions International

Get in touch today

Talk to our team today and learn how we can help individuals across all levels of business improve performance with our Emotional Intelligence solutions.

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What’s the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership?

The 4 behaviors that emotionally intelligent leaders show

Our research has identified 12 emotional and social intelligence competencies that distinguish outstanding performance in a variety of jobs and organizations. These are the behaviors that allow people to withstand the pressures of challenging roles, deal effectively with change and negotiate increasing career demands.

Our Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI) is a 360-degree survey that measures these emotional intelligence competencies. The ESCI groups the competencies into four interrelated behavioral areas: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and relationship management.

1. Emotional self-awareness

Self-awareness describes your ability to recognize and understand your emotions, drivers, strengths and weaknesses. It enables you to sustain your positive efforts over time, despite setbacks. A singular competency encapsulates these abilities: emotional self-awareness.

2. Self-management

Self-management describes how you manage your emotions and behavior with focus and restraint. It consists of four competencies.

Your emotional self-control refers to how well you manage disruptive emotions and impulses and maintain your effectiveness in stressful or hostile conditions.
Your achievement orientation measures how well you strive to meet or exceed a standard of excellence. People with a strong achievement orientation always look for ways to do things better, set challenging goals and take calculated risks.
A positive outlook means you’re able to see the best in people, situations and events and pursue goals despite obstacles and setbacks.
Adaptability is how flexibly you handle change, juggle multiple demands and adapt your ideas or approaches to shifting conditions.

3. Social awareness

The two competencies that make up social awareness help you recognize and understand others’ emotions.

Empathy is your ability to sense others’ feelings and perspectives, take an active interest in their concerns and pick up cues as to what they’re feeling and thinking.
Organizational awareness is your ability to read a group’s emotional currents and power relationships, identifying influencers, networks and dynamics.

4. Relationship management

The five relationship management competencies affect how we motivate others to perform. They reveal how we apply our emotional understanding in our dealings with others.

Influencing is how well you positively influence others and gain their support by persuading or convincing them.
Coaching and mentoring is how well you give feedback and support that fosters others’ long-term learning or development.
Conflict management is your ability to help others through emotional or tense situations, airing disagreements tactfully and finding solutions that appease everyone.
Inspirational leadership is your ability to inspire and guide individuals and groups to get the job done and to bring out the best in others.
Teamwork is your ability to work with others toward a shared goal. It requires you to participate actively, share responsibility and rewards and contribute to the team’s overall capability.

Leaders with high degrees of emotional intelligence often improve their organization’s performance, profitability and talent recruitment. And the more ESCI competencies that leaders develop, the greater their flexibility in switching between leadership styles.

How emotional intelligence affects leadership

The right work climate and culture drive employee performance. The work climates that best foster performance have six characteristics in common:

Employees know what their managers expect of them and how they contribute to overall goals.
Employees have challenging but attainable goals.
The company embraces new ideas.
The company empowers people to do their work and holds them accountable.
Leaders recognize good performance and show their people how to improve.
People are proud to belong to the team and work together toward a common purpose.

As you can tell from these characteristics, leaders have a profound effect on their employees’ environment and thus on employees’ motivation. The leaders who are most effective at creating this climate are adept at using many of the six leadership styles:

Visionary: Providing long-term direction and context
Participative: Building commitment and generating new ideas
Coaching: Supporting long-term development
Affiliative: Creating trust and harmony
Pacesetting: Accomplishing tasks to high standards
Directive: Gaining immediate compliance

Of these, the Visionary, Participative, and Coaching styles are best for working toward long-term goals. They focus on building employee engagement and developing their team members to deliver results. The Affiliative style forms a solid basis for long-term working relationships. On the other hand, the Directive and Pacesetting styles serve leaders best when they need to address short-term problems, such as employees who aren’t doing their work or meeting expectations. Long-term use of these short-term styles can damage the team climate.

Many of the competencies in the ESCI database correlate with these six emotional intelligence and leadership styles and the climates that drive team performance. The great news is that current and future leaders can take five steps to develop their emotional intelligence competencies and maximize their effectiveness.

1. The more EI competencies you develop, the more flexibly you can move between leadership styles

Our research showed that the more emotional intelligence competencies leaders demonstrate consistently, the more leadership styles that they can deploy.

Leaders with one or two ESCI strengths typically use only one or two leadership styles. Often, these are Directive and Pacesetting, the two short-term styles that may lead to a negative climate. Leaders with between three and nine ESCI strengths tend to use the longer-term leadership styles, Visionary, Participative, Coaching and Affiliative, more often. Finally, leaders with 10 or more ESCI strengths most often use the long-term styles and use the short-term styles only when a situation requires them.

2. You can optimize your leadership style by developing specific emotional and social competencies

Our data showed strong links between specific emotional intelligence competencies and long-term leadership styles.

Leaders who scored high in conflict management and emotional self-awareness tend to primarily use the Coaching, Visionary, Affiliative and Participative styles. Inspirational leadership and empathy also correlate highly with these styles.

Leaders who score highly in empathy, teamwork and emotional self-control rarely use the Directive style. And leaders with a positive outlook moderate their use of the Pacesetting style.

3. Emotionally intelligent leaders create work climates that strengthen employee performance

We study organizations’ Climate Index scores to assess how well leaders create an environment where employees can deliver their best work. We measure this ability by asking their team members to compare their current climate against their ideal climate. We then benchmark the results against other leaders to calculate the Climate Index score.

We’ve found that Climate Index scores correlate positively with the emotional and social competencies that strengthen long-term leadership styles. So, for example, leaders who score high in conflict management are likely to create the most positive climates for their team members, followed by inspirational leadership and empathy. Emotional self-awareness is also key. Only 5% of leaders with low emotional self-awareness had climates that ranked in the top quartile.

4. How team members experience their leaders’ emotional intelligence is critical

Feedback from the ESCI shows how different groups evaluate a leaders’ skills. The ESCI collects ratings from their manager, team members, peers and others.

Typically, the largest gaps in scores occur in three competencies that are linked to positive team climates: conflict management, inspirational leadership and empathy. Interestingly, team members’ perceptions of their work climate and leader’s capabilities were likely more discerning than their leader’s boss. Team members scored their leader’s ESCI competencies more positively or more negatively than their leader’s boss, depending on whether they viewed their climate as positive or negative.

5. Leaders should develop emotional and social competencies to improve their team’s engagement

Our research also found a correlation between ESCI data and the results of the Korn Ferry Employee Effectiveness Survey. The survey provides insights into barriers to performance and into how employees feel about working for their company.

The data showed that leaders have a measurable influence on employee retention. Less than a quarter (22%) of all employees plan to leave an organization within two years. But that period grows longer with leaders who demonstrate ESCI competencies. Forty-two percent of employees of leaders who consistently show three or fewer competencies plan to stay for at least five years. That number jumps to 53% for leaders with four to seven ESCI strengths and to 69% for leaders with eight or more ESCI strengths.

Notably, the key differences between team members who planned to depart in two years rather than seven were scores on competencies that address engagement: coach and mentor, conflict management, inspirational leadership, organizational awareness, achievement orientation, teamwork and empathy.

How to start growing your leaders’ emotional intelligence and leadership flexibility

Leaders with six or more ESCI competencies contribute to a positive team climate, team performance and employee engagement. And our research shows that the emotional intelligence competencies of great leadership can be cultivated through training and practice. With the ESCI data at your fingertips, you can identify areas for improvement and training. In other words, the ESCI is the perfect starting point to develop your current leaders and grow your leadership pipeline.

To learn more about the interplay between emotional intelligence and leadership, and for a deeper dive into the data and case studies, read our white paper, “ The power of EI: The ‘soft’ skills the sharpest leaders use. ” And get in touch to discover how our ESCI assessment will sharpen your leaders’ emotional intelligence and leadership pipeline.

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Why Emotional Intelligence Is Important in Leadership

03 Apr 2019

The technical skills that helped secure your first promotion might not guarantee your next. If you aspire to be in a leadership role, there’s an emotional element you must consider. It’s what helps you successfully coach teams, manage stress, deliver feedback, and collaborate with others.

It’s called emotional intelligence and is one of the most sought-after interpersonal skills in the workplace. In fact, 71 percent of employers value emotional intelligence more than technical skills when evaluating candidates.

Access your free e-book today.

What Is Emotional Intelligence?

Emotional intelligence is defined as the ability to understand and manage your emotions, as well as recognize and influence the emotions of those around you. The term was first coined in 1990 by researchers John Mayer and Peter Salovey, but was later popularized by psychologist Daniel Goleman.

More than a decade ago, Goleman highlighted the importance of emotional intelligence in leadership, telling the Harvard Business Review , “The most effective leaders are all alike in one crucial way: They all have a high degree of what has come to be known as emotional intelligence. It’s not that IQ and technical skills are irrelevant. They do matter, but...they are the entry-level requirements for executive positions.”

Check out our video on emotional intelligence below, and subscribe to our YouTube channel for more explainer content!

Over the years, emotional intelligence—also known as EQ—has evolved into a must-have skill. Research by EQ provider TalentSmart shows that emotional intelligence is the strongest predictor of performance. Employees with high emotional intelligence are more likely to stay calm under pressure, resolve conflict effectively, and respond to co-workers with empathy.

How to Identify a Lack of Emotional Intelligence

Lacking critical emotional skills can lead to workplace conflict, such as misunderstandings due to an inability to recognize or understand emotions.

One of the most common indicators of low emotional intelligence is difficulty managing and expressing emotions. You might struggle with acknowledging colleagues' concerns appropriately or wrestle with active listening. Consider the relationships you have with your co-workers. Are your conversations strained? Do you repeatedly blame others when projects don’t go as planned? Are you prone to outbursts? These are all signs of a lack of emotional intelligence.

It's important to cultivate social skills by understanding and practicing empathy and the core components of emotional intelligence.

The Four Components of Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence is typically broken down into four core competencies:

Self-awareness
Self-management
Social awareness
Relationship management

To develop your emotional intelligence , it’s important to understand what each element entails. Here's a deeper dive into the four categories.

4 Core Competencies of Emotional Intelligence

1. Self-Awareness

Self-awareness is at the core of everything. It describes your ability to not only understand your strengths and weaknesses, but to recognize your emotions and their effect on you and your team’s performance.

According to research by organizational psychologist Tasha Eurich , 95 percent of people think they’re self-aware, but only 10 to 15 percent actually are, and that can pose problems for your employees. Working with colleagues who aren’t self-aware can cut a team’s success in half and, according to Eurich’s research, lead to increased stress and decreased motivation.

To bring out the best in others, you first need to bring out the best in yourself, which is where self-awareness comes into play. One easy way to assess your self-awareness is by completing 360-degree feedback, in which you evaluate your performance and then match it up against the opinions of your boss, peers, and direct reports. Through this process, you’ll gain insights into your own behavior and discover how you’re perceived in the organization.

2. Self-Management

Self-management refers to the ability to manage your emotions, particularly in stressful situations, and maintain a positive outlook despite setbacks. Leaders who lack self-management tend to react and have a harder time keeping their impulses in check.

A reaction tends to be automatic. The more in tune you are with your emotional intelligence, however, the easier you can make the transition from reaction to response. It's important to pause, breathe, collect yourself, and do whatever it takes to manage your emotions—whether that means taking a walk or calling a friend—so that you can more appropriately and intentionally respond to stress and adversity.

Related : 4 Tips for Growing Your Professional Network

3. Social Awareness

While it’s important to understand and manage your own emotions, you also need to know how to read a room. Social awareness describes your ability to recognize others’ emotions and the dynamics in play within your organization.

Leaders who excel in social awareness practice empathy. They strive to understand their colleagues’ feelings and perspectives, which enables them to communicate and collaborate more effectively with their peers.

Global leadership development firm DDI ranks empathy as the number one leadership skill , reporting that leaders who master empathy perform more than 40 percent higher in coaching, engaging others, and decision-making. In a separate study by the Center for Creative Leadership , researchers found that managers who show more empathy toward their direct reports are viewed as better performers by their bosses.

By communicating with empathy, you can better support your team, all while improving your individual performance.

4. Relationship Management

Relationship management refers to your ability to influence, coach, and mentor others, and resolve conflict effectively.

Some prefer to avoid conflict, but it’s important to properly address issues as they arise. Research shows that every unaddressed conflict can waste about eight hours of company time in gossip and other unproductive activities, putting a drain on resources and morale.

If you want to keep your team happy, you need to have those tough conversations: In a recent survey by the Society for Human Resource Management , 72 percent of employees ranked “respectful treatment of all employees at all levels” as the top factor in job satisfaction.

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How Emotional Intelligence Can Make Leaders More Effective

Leaders set the tone of their organization. If they lack emotional intelligence, it could have more far-reaching consequences, resulting in lower employee engagement and a higher turnover rate.

While you might excel at your job technically, if you can’t effectively communicate with your team or collaborate with others, those technical skills will get overlooked. By mastering emotional intelligence, you can continue to advance your career and organization .

Do you want to enhance your leadership skills ? Download our free leadership e-book and explore our online course Leadership Principles to discover how you can become a more effective leader and unleash the potential in yourself and others.

This post was updated on August 10, 2023. It was originally published on April 3, 2019.

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How Emotional Intelligence Promotes Leadership and Management Practices

Published: 01 September 2021
Volume 22 , pages 935–948, ( 2022 )

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This study sought to determine the relationship between leadership and managerial practices from over 615,395 respondents at 83 U.S. Federal agencies. The theoretical framework was informed by Goleman’s theory, the Bar-On model theory, and identified a research gap that could be addressed through emotional intelligence (EI) by calculating the standard deviation of positive responses between 2015 and 2019. The research established the mean for the respondent’s views on leadership and managerial practices was 51.53. The standard deviation for the respondents was 11.78. Thus, revealing an increase in positive responses among employees and identified that EI improves leadership and managerial practices.

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International Journal of Manpower

ISSN : 0143-7720

Article publication date: 3 January 2023

Issue publication date: 31 May 2023

Emotional intelligence (EI) is a critical component of leadership that reflects the ability of leaders to understand how their emotions and actions affect the people around them in the organization. This paper aims to deliver state-of-the-art insights on EI and leadership.

Design/methodology/approach

This paper leverages on bibliometric analysis to unpack 25 years of EI and leadership research.

This paper reveals the bibliometric profile (e.g. trends in publication activity and top articles, authors, countries and journals) and intellectual structure (e.g. themes and topics) of EI and leadership research, shedding light on EI manifestation in leadership, EI and leadership congruence, EI role in leadership and EI and leadership for human resource management.

Research limitations/implications

This paper offers several noteworthy implications. First, EI is a leadership competency that can be cultivated and leveraged to improve leadership effectiveness. Second, the need for EI and leadership congruence indicates that leadership effectiveness is vital to human resource management (HRM). Taken collectively, these theoretical implications, and by extension, practical implications, suggest that increased investment in EI and leadership effectiveness is critical for organizations and their HRM.

Originality/value

This paper sheds light on current trends and ways forward for leading by feeling, showcasing the role and manifestation of EI in leadership, its value for HRM and the importance of its congruence for effective leadership in shaping the future of work.

Emotional intelligence
Bibliometric analysis

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to pay tribute to Bharat Chillakuri, a dedicated co-author and a thought leader on Generation Z research. Bharat passed away peacefully in mid-thirties in March 2022.

Saha, S. , Das, R. , Lim, W.M. , Kumar, S. , Malik, A. and Chillakuri, B. (2023), "Emotional intelligence and leadership: insights for leading by feeling in the future of work", International Journal of Manpower , Vol. 44 No. 4, pp. 671-701. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-12-2021-0690

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Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence case study: magic johnson quits, unpacking this shocking news with the ei competencies behind the tough decision..

Posted April 28, 2019

What can we learn about his tough decision and the emotional intelligence competencies, values, and courage to escape what felt like handcuffs for him?

What are you clinging to that you no longer want to tolerate?
What would you like to move on from or just quit?

Three Emotional Intelligence actions for more freedom are below.

In a surprise move Earvin “Magic” Johnson resigned from his position as President of Basketball Operations for the Los Angeles Lakers after two years. He felt handcuffed by the job’s restrictions and limiting his ability to help others and truly be himself.

As a basketball fan this was shocking as I thought he would be enjoying the position, power, influence and contributions to creating the best Laker team, which he so loves. They just finished a frustrating losing season even with the addition of Lebron James to their team. There certainly is information that went on behind the scenes that the public is not privy to that played a role.

It must have taken all of his Emotional Intelligence (EI) competencies to make this hard decision, which obviously let down millions of fans and the Laker ownership, especially Jeanie Buss. What can we learn from his experience to help us break free from our shackles.

What are you not happy enough with?
What are you just tolerating?
What is your intuition craving for?
What do you need to take the brakes off for?

Here are the top 3 Emotional Intelligent learnings we can take away from Magic’s decision.

1. Values: Are you living your values?

Magic said he was happier in his life before this job and wanted to return to his previous life. What values conflict was he experiencing daily? Here are some that seem apparent.

Mentoring, giving back and autonomy: The obvious values of being able to help others as a mentor, giving back to others along with the value of being autonomous or unconstrained.

Magic had just received a request from Serena Williams, the tennis star, to mentor her, which he didn’t have the time to do. Then Ben Simmons from the Philadelphia 76ers also asked Magic for mentoring. The National Basketball Association (NBA) has rules from doing anything that might entice a player away from another team they're under contract with. Mentoring another basketball player can be construed as tampering.

Even complementing other players is forbidden as tampering. Magic had received a $50,000 fine for praising Milwaukee Bucks player Giannis Antetokounmpo. Another NBA restriction was not tweeting, where Magic has 4,722,000 followers. Once he quit, he was free to be an enthusiastic basketball fan watching the playoffs.

Harmony: This must be another key value as he stated he didn’t like having to fire people and changing their lives. When I think of him I picture him with that big smile slapped on his face and connecting with others.

Dealing with conflict was uncomfortable for him with the whispering and backstabbing he felt in his leadership position.

Actions: In our consulting and coaching we ask people to identify their top five idea values, what do you want to move toward? Write them down. Then identify what are your realistic values the ones which you actually do every day. For example, ideal values maybe leadership, excellence and connection, while each day you may instead be living in management, mediocrity and superficiality. Notice are your five the same or is there a gap?

If this gap is continually draining for you, this is information you may want to take action on to lessen the gap. You can speak with your significant other, boss or a coach to design actions.

2. Emotional Self-Awareness: Are you aware of your emotions?

Magic had to evaluate daily how he was feeling and could he make it better in the position or by leaving the position. This often is a coaching strategy with executives and leaders who are not as happy as they want with their position. What can they change first within their position, second to explore options outside of the position? This process can feel more empowering than feeling stuck or being handcuffed.

Being aware of what is going on with you emotionally is the start and not always easy. We operate on autopilot about 95% of the time. Plus, we don’t like to think deep or long on things. It is too easy to avoid uncomfortable situations, “grin and bear it” or just take short cuts.

In the Emotional Intelligence research, Emotional Self- Awareness not only is the best place to start raising your EI, but Emotional Self-Awareness influences and improves the other competencies.

In a study of 4322 participants from 283 global clients, the Hay Group reported that, "participants with high Emotional Awareness display more of all the Emotional Social Competency Inventory (ESCI) competencies at a strength or top 10% level. These findings led to the assertion that "Self-Awareness lies at the heart of Emotional Intelligence." (Korn Ferry Hay Group, 2013)

Actions: The first step is to notice and name what is going for you. What feeling is most common for you? Which ones would you like to experience more? Can you name it? How fluent are you in the variety of emotions we have? The Yale University Mood Meter app helps you name and differentiate the nuances and intensity of the emotion , on energy level and pleasantness. https://moodmeterapp.com/

3. Courage: Are you in your comfort zone?

In Magic’s press conference he talked about how he was frightened to face Jeanie Buss, the owner, as she was a sister to him. His decision though was for himself and his family, in spite of disappointing many. Even though harmony is a key value for him, this decision took precedence. Think of his courage to pull the bandage off now rather than continue with deal with the daily cuts to his energy and happiness .

He stated. “"What am I doing? I've got a beautiful life," said Johnson, laughing . "So, I'm gonna go back to that beautiful life."

In Brene Brown’s new book Dare to Lead, she states to get to courage you have to walk through vulnerability. She defines vulnerability as dealing with Uncertainty, Risk and Emotional Exposure. Magic’s decision certainly embodied all three emotions. It took courage to be seen, heard and be for himself.

Vulnerability takes many of the EI competencies such as emotional self-awareness, accurate self-assessment, self-actualization, emotional expression, confidence or courage, self-compassion, assertiveness and initiative to get what you want. Are you choosing comfort or courage as Brown speaks about?

Actions: Think about these questions and subsequent actions below:

What are tolerating that you know deep in your heart could be better?
Who or what are your top Brain Gains – you get energy from them?
Who or what are top Brain Drains that zap your energy?
How can you increase time with gains and decrease time with drains?
In one year from now how might you look back on this time? What would you have wanted to change?

In summary, use Magic’s story as motivation for you to take your shackles off and move toward your goals and more happiness regardless how challenging it may seem. For more information on Magic’s EI, I profile him in my Leading with Emotional Intelligence book.

References:

Zes, D. and Landis, D (2013) A better return on self-awareness, KornFerry Institute

Brown, B. (2018) Dare to Lead. New York: Random House

Nadler, R (2011) Leading with Emotionally Intelligence. New York: McGraw- Hill

Relly Nadler, M.C.C., is a licensed psychologist, author and Master Certified Coach (MCC) for executives and executive teams.

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50 Practical Examples of High Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence (EI) or Emotional Quotient (EQ) is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to manage and monitor one’s own as well as other’s emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions (Salvoy & Mayer, 1990).

Daniel Goleman’s work in emotional intelligence has outlined five main areas of this intelligence.

They are self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills.

These areas can be consciously cultivated to create spaces where more people can be productive, as their emotions will not rule over their reactions and interaction with the world around them. The higher the emotional intelligence, the more cooperation can be fostered. Emotional Intelligence is the new “smart.”

Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will not only enhance your ability to understand and work with your emotions but will also give you the tools to foster the emotional intelligence of your clients, students or employees.

This Article Contains

Examples of emotional intelligence in the workplace, examples of high emotional intelligence in leadership, real-life examples of using ei in education, 5 emotional intelligence examples from movies, general examples of low eq, an interesting case study, a take-home message.

As personalities differ from person to person, the creation of emotional intelligence in the workplace takes effort. Anyone who has ever worked in a toxic work environment can attest to the importance of increasing empathy in this space. People with high emotional intelligence can lead the charge to multiply examples of EI in the workplace.

Here are some examples of what emotional intelligence in the workplace looks like:

People express themselves openly and respectfully without fear of offending coworkers.
Resilience is evident when new initiatives are introduced.
Flexibility is present.
Employees spend time together outside of work.
Freedom of creativity is celebrated and consistent.
Active listening in meetings is the norm.
Employees will find a compassionate ear when needed, as we all have bad days.

An archaic perception of leadership would be that a leader must squash their emotions. In today’s workplace, an effective leader can monitor and utilize emotions in such a way to regulate and motivate not only themselves but those around them (Madrid, Niven, & Vasquez, 2019). Healthy workplace environments don’t happen by accident; they are intentional because leaders are intentional.

America’s old and ingrained belief that a good CEO or Executive level leader is ruthless has been replaced with the rise of humanity conscious leaders. New leaders in various industries have embraced a human-centered approach to leading their companies (Kennedy, Campis, & Leclerc, 2020; Pirson & Von Kimakowitz, 2010).

When employees are more deeply connected to a vision for their company, and they are cared for in a broad sense rather than just their production value, better working environments are created.

A leader could be the most intelligent person in the room, but without a high EI score, this leader may fail to motivate employees. The presence of positive mood in leaders at work creates more effective and broader thought processes in certain types of decision-making abilities (George, 2000). Conversely, negative moods foster improved systematic information processing.

A leader with high-level emotional intelligence can navigate not just motivating and empowering employees, but also navigating complex and challenging decision making with the mastery of emotional response (Rausch, Hess, & Bacigalupo, 2011).

In other words, a leader must have the ability to process emotion to make sound decisions. It doesn’t mean that the leader will always be in a positive mood. It means that when a complicated issue erupts, that leader may have an adverse reaction that can aid them in making a good decision despite that negative reaction.

An example of where a leader may have a negative reaction would be to the presence of sexual harassment in their workplace. Having an angry response to the knowledge of its existence gives the leader the ability to focus and affect change.

With such a complex and high-risk decision-making need, a leader must effectively process that anger to make the best decision possible for the office as a whole.

Leaders are generally responsible for the following:

development of a collective sense of goals, and a strategic plan for achieving them
instilling in others knowledge and appreciation of the importance of work activities and behaviors
generating and maintaining enthusiasm, confidence, and optimism as well as fostering cooperation and trust
encouraging flexibility in decision making and embracing change
establishing and maintaining a more profound, meaningful identity for the organization

Different emotions and moods serve different types of leadership situations. Developing a vision for an organization is a creative process. Positive affect enables the initiation of higher abilities for the utilization of creativity. Being able to communicate that vision to employees effectively is another use for emotional intelligence in leadership .

Here are four practical steps to creating vision in leadership:

Be crystal clear about the desired destination, and identify values.
Make the dream large. A good example is Disney; their vision is To Make People Happy.
Communicate a strong purpose on multiple levels. Not all employees will feel the same about purpose. Offering various perspectives increases chances of organizational cultural connection.
Set a strategic path for goal achievement.

When instilling the appreciation for work behaviors in employees, several levels are at play. A leader must be effective at communicating the problems being faced, in addition to relaying the confidence placed in those employees to solve problems within the bigger vision of the organization.

There are subtle emotional differences needed when interacting and communicating these with employees. A negative affect may allow for deeper reasoning when complex problems arise.

Here are four practical steps to help employees see the appreciation for their work behaviors:

Create a focus on employee development. Employees will feel more purpose after skill mastery.
Reinforce and reward learning behavior.
Leaders show their own areas of development to lead the way.
Encourage autonomy. Trust can develop when employees are allowed to make their own decisions in their work activities.

Generating enthusiasm in a workplace can be a difficult task as not all people are motivated and enthusiastic in the same way or on the same level. A leader with high emotional intelligence can read their employees’ accurate reactions well.

There’s no faking it where this generation is concerned. If people aren’t genuinely engaged in working for the vision, ambivalence and apathy can erupt.

Here are four practical steps to effectively build enthusiasm in an organization:

Leaders share their optimism and belief in the “why” or vision with absolute passion.
Create an environment where people want to give their very best effort.
Allow space for employees to talk about their needs and desires concerning the company’s growth.
Attitude will determine direction.

Leaders who have high levels of emotional intelligence will understand the derivation of emotion and will, therefore, flex when a different perspective is warranted. Having the ability to know that an activity that warrants different emotional states gives a leader the ability to show up with what is needed, when it is needed (Griffith, Connelly, Thiel, & Johnson, 2015).

The organization won’t benefit when a leader shows up to a creative meeting in a negative state. It will also not help when a leader shows up to excite the room, and the employees’ feelings and emotions are not being accurately assessed.

Here are four practical ways to build flexible thinking:

Cultivate new experiences (daydreaming, etc.).
Active listening and gathering opposing opinions.
Be a participant in the cultivation, not just a spectator. Team effort counts.
Engaging with employees and practicing flexible scenarios.

Culture is key for organizations. Volkswagen’s recent ad campaign for the Women’s World Cup is a great example. Their donation of ad space for meaningful causes shows the powerful connection the company has with purpose and that culture motivates employees to show up to create something emotionally charged.

Without culture, an organization will feel like work. With rich, deep, emotionally accurate culture, motivation is shared, and jobs aren’t so much work, as they are a purpose.

Here are four practical ways to improve culture:

Utilize the performance/ values matrix with all employees (Edmonds, 2017).
Demonstrate trust and respect for team members.
Make values as important as results. For instance, integrity, kindness, and citizenship should be a part of the daily reality of the organization.
Create an organizational constitution with a “servant” mentality in mind.

Download 3 Free Emotional Intelligence Exercises (PDF)

These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients understand and use emotions advantageously.

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By filling out your name and email address below.

There are many practical examples of how EI can be used in schools. We list a few ideas below.

Self-Awareness and Emotion Management

Creating a “take a break” or “feelings” corner of a classroom can enable young students to step away to identify and explore their emotions. This allows kids to step away before an outburst or a situation where the child can no longer be kind occurs. Students can develop the self-awareness needed to create a safe and productive classroom.

For Middle and High School students creating opportunities for metacognition is very beneficial not only for their education but also their wellbeing. A great example of this is having students create autobiographies. Cultivating opportunities for the connection of adolescent life to educational materials is powerful.

Create an atmosphere where empathy is celebrated. Provide opportunities for real-life practice of empathy, for example: sitting with someone new at lunch, interviewing classmates, or a classroom charity project.

Random Acts of Kindness groups are becoming more and more popular in schools. With an adult supervising and ensuring mindfulness and thoughtfulness, it can be a fantastic way for kids to act on empathy. Both the group and its recipients benefit from the acts of kindness.

Communication Skills

Teaching effective ways for students to communicate in the classroom is a great way to foster emotional intelligence. When kids have appropriate assertive abilities, their values are communicated, and their needs are met.

Cooperation

A fantastic example of fostering a culture of collaboration in education is a character checklist. For the classroom, create a chart of desired cooperative behavior. When a student behaves in one of these desired ways, a check would be placed in the chart.

Setting weekly cooperation goals for the entire classroom by increasing these behaviors class-wide is something to celebrate!

Here are some examples of desired cooperative behavior.

Listen for understanding
Sharing with others
Taking turns
Compromise during conflict
Volunteering to do your part
Being an encourager
Showing people they’re needed
Being an includer

Conflict Resolution

Calling on emotional intelligence when in conflict is a difficult task for many students. Improving communication skills aids in improving conflict resolution, but having a construct for what resolutions look like will help kids know what is expected.

A proven example of conflict resolution is allowing kids to write out the conflict, instead of verbalizing their sides. It allows kids to cool down and more accurately communicate their complaint and their needs.

This example also allows kids to be heard, as there will be no instances of interrupting when they are communicating in writing.

Recommended read: Conflict Resolution Training: 18 Best Courses and Master’s Degrees

There are plentiful examples of emotional intelligence in the movies. Here are some specific examples and the areas of emotional intelligence represented in several genres. It’s so powerful when a movie can evoke emotion, but also make you think about what it’s like to manage that emotion in real life.

1. Inside Out

This Pixar masterpiece is an incredible display of emotional intelligence. The colorful characters all represent the core emotions of a young girl handling a difficult time in her life.

The richness of the emotional content in this film could be a perfect lesson in teaching emotional intelligence .

Emotions matter, and it’s ok not to be ok sometimes. Kids knowing that emotions are there for a reason is an excellent introduction to learning how to self manage.

2. In the Pursuit of Happyness

This movie is based on a true story and displays some brilliant examples of emotional intelligence. The characters show self-management, commitment, empathy, social skills, and relationship building throughout the entire film. The main character’s ability to overcome circumstances that were so dire shows incredible perseverance.

There were also examples of low emotional intelligence in the film. The lack of empathy from his wife when she left them to take care of herself is a prime example. Several outbursts were understandable, yet good examples of when emotions overtake someone in crisis.

This American classic shows empathy, relationship management, social skills, communication, and cooperation throughout its brilliant coverage of interaction with a lovable alien.

Young Elliott navigates the post-divorce realm of a kid trying to find his way through Middle School. The wealthy family interaction and the friendly cooperation that ensues throughout an unexpected and stressful interaction with the Government villains is emotional intelligence leadership in action.

This haunting film portrays resilience, empathy, and self-management. The main character creates a safe environment for her offspring by self-managing her emotional reactions to the horrifying situation in which they both find themselves. The mother was self-aware and able to protect her son while managing to persevere through impossible circumstances.

Throughout this film, self-awareness is a consistent example. The main character exhibits very low levels of self-awareness throughout his journey to reclaim his former glory. Personal growth arises from the bedrock of self-awareness, and without it, cultivating emotional intelligence is impossible.

When someone exhibits low measures of EQ, there are many ways it can be behaviorally visible. Here are a few examples of what it looks like when someone is operating with low levels of EQ.

A person with low EQ will likely have emotional outbursts, typically out of proportion to the situation at hand.
People with low EQ also have difficulty listening to others.
Becoming argumentative is another example of behavior that is elicited from someone with low EQ.
Another sign of low EQ is blaming others.
Another example is believing that others are overly sensitive because the person with EQ cannot understand how others feel.
Difficulty maintaining friendships and other relationships with others is another sign.
Stonewalling, or refusing to see other’s points of view, is another example.

Are you able to cultivate an awareness of your emotions?

After noticing and understanding your emotions, think about how to deal with or regulate your emotions. A good place to start is to ask yourself the questions in our emotional regulation checklist.

The more you challenge yourself to answer these important questions, the better you’ll be able to attend to emotions effectively.

This idea has been termed “learned resourcefulness”.

People who have learned to be resourceful in this way have a more diverse range of emotional-regulation strategies in their toolkit to manage a difficult situation and select an appropriate strategy.

These strategies are equally relevant when regulating positive emotions, such as happiness, excitement, and optimism. One may engage in techniques to prolong positive emotions to feel better for longer, or even inspire motivation and other adaptive behaviors.

A case study (Dearborn, 2002) done to validate the work of Daniel Goleman in emotional intelligence. The research supports the need to increase Return On Investment (ROI) for individualized training in the concepts of emotional intelligence for improved leadership capabilities.

The need for self-directed learning of emotional intelligence abilities is highlighted. A traditional training setting was found to be less effective than an approach that is individually focused. The development of emotional intelligence is subjective and also depends on the organizational culture.

The research of Rutgers professor Goleman has created a framework for the development of emotional intelligence usage in organizations. Developing leaders and understanding what information they put into action in their organization is vital to initiative success. What was found was that most leaders would attend training, get energized, and then return to their organization without changing much of their approach.

With individualized assessment and prospective development, a better ROI can be achieved. When the people and interconnective effort of an organization starts to matter more than the bottom line, something organic occurs. When a vision is caught by more than just the leaders, and the employees adopt the vision as a mission, the organizational design is more likely to produce the desired outcome.

17 Exercises To Develop Emotional Intelligence

These 17 Emotional Intelligence Exercises [PDF] will help others strengthen their relationships, lower stress, and enhance their wellbeing through improved EQ.

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Increasing emotional intelligence in any setting will deepen levels of human understanding and functionality. Improvements in empathy, social skills, self-awareness, motivation, and self-regulation will serve everyone. Being intelligent is great, but knowing how to use that intelligence is something even more impactful.

The fact that these abilities can be cultivated and nurtured is an exciting concept. A culture with more individuals who score high in emotional intelligence would see less violence and dysfunction. This culture would instead see higher levels of cooperation and human connection. A high EI culture would be able to resolve conflicts and have functional communication between human beings.

An effort to increase these abilities should be a foundational part of every organization and family. Feelings should not be ignored, but rather taught as signals to cue appropriate response and behavior. Imagine the possibilities if a culture embraced emotions not as indulgent, but rather as information to make better decisions.

Thanks for reading.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free .

Dearborn, K. (2002). Studies in emotional intelligence redefine our approach to leadership development. Public Personnel Management , 31 (4), 523-530.
Edmonds, S. C. (2017). Building a purposeful, positive, productive culture. Leader to Leader, 2017 (84), 42-47.
George, J. M. (2000). Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence. Human Relations , 53 (8), 1027-1055.
Griffith, J., Connelly, S., Thiel, C., & Johnson, G. (2015). How outstanding leaders lead with affect: An examination of charismatic, ideological, and pragmatic leaders. The Leadership Quarterly , 26 (4), 502-517.
Kennedy, K., Campis, S., & Leclerc, L. (2020). Human-centered leadership: Creating change from the inside out. Nurse Leader , 18 (3), 227-231.
Madrid, H. P., Niven, K., & Vasquez, C. A. (2019). Leader interpersonal emotion regulation and innovation in teams. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 92 (4), 787-805.
Pirson, M., & Von Kimakowitz, E. (2010). Towards a human centered theory and practice of the firm. Fordham University Schools of Business Research Paper (2010-006).
Rausch, E., Hess, J. D., & Bacigalupo, A. C. (2011). Enhancing decisions and decision‐making processes through the application of emotional intelligence skills. Management Decision, 49 (5), 710-721.
Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality , 9 (3), 185-211.

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According to. me Most important part of the para is ‘ being intelligent is great but, knowing how to use that intelligence is even more impactful’ Just loved it

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Really enjoyed reading. Very much informative and real which is thought by lot of us who have read it but could not bring it to terms or could not explain it to anyone else in the way it is presented in the above context

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Emotional Intelligence Measures: A Systematic Review

Lluna maría bru-luna.

1 Department of Basic Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Speech Therapy, Universitat de València, 46010 Valencia, Spain; [email protected]

Manuel Martí-Vilar

César merino-soto.

2 Psychology Research Institute, Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Lima 15102, Peru

José L. Cervera-Santiago

3 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal, San Miguel 15088, Peru; ep.ude.vfnu@arevrecj

Associated Data

Not applicable.

Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, express, understand, and manage emotions. Current research indicates that it may protect against the emotional burden experienced in certain professions. This article aims to provide an updated systematic review of existing instruments to assess EI in professionals, focusing on the description of their characteristics as well as their psychometric properties (reliability and validity). A literature search was conducted in Web of Science (WoS). A total of 2761 items met the eligibility criteria, from which a total of 40 different instruments were extracted and analysed. Most were based on three main models (i.e., skill-based, trait-based, and mixed), which differ in the way they conceptualize and measure EI. All have been shown to have advantages and disadvantages inherent to the type of tool. The instruments reported in the largest number of studies are Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), Schutte Self Report-Inventory (SSRI), Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test 2.0 (MSCEIT 2.0), Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS), Wong and Law’s Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS), and Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue). The main measure of the estimated reliability has been internal consistency, and the construction of EI measures was predominantly based on linear modelling or classical test theory. The study has limitations: we only searched a single database, the impossibility of estimating inter-rater reliability, and non-compliance with some items required by PRISMA.

1. Introduction

1.1. emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence (EI) was first described and conceptualized by Salovey and Mayer [ 1 ] as an ability-based construct analogous to general intelligence. They argued that individuals with a high level of EI had certain skills related to the evaluation and regulation of emotions and that consequently they were able to regulate emotions in themselves and in others in order to achieve a variety of adaptive outcomes. This construct has received increasing attention from both the scientific community and the general public due to its theoretical and practical implications for daily life. The same authors defined EI as “the ability to carry out accurate reasoning about emotions and the ability to use emotions and emotional knowledge to enhance thought” [ 2 ] (p. 511). This definition suggests that EI is far from being conceptualized as a one-dimensional attribute and that a multidimensional operationalization would be theoretically coherent.

1.2. Conceptualizations of Emotional Intelligence

However, over the past three decades, different ways of conceptualizing EI have emerged, which are mainly summarized in three models: ability, trait, and mixed. These models have influenced the construction of measuring instruments. In the ability model, developed by Mayer and Salovey, EI is seen as a form of innate intelligence made up of several capacities that influence how people understand and manage their own emotions and those of others. These emotion processing skills are: (1) perception, evaluation and expression of emotions, (2) emotional facilitation of thought, (3) understanding and analysis of emotions, and (4) reflective regulation of emotions [ 3 , 4 ]. Consistent with this conceptualization, the measures were designed as performance tests. Subsequently, the model proposed by Petrides and Furnham [ 5 ], the trait model, was developed. This model defines EI as a trait; that is, as a persistent behaviour pattern over time (as opposed to skill, which increases with time and training), and it is associated with dispositional tendencies, personality traits or self-efficacy beliefs. It is composed of fifteen personality dimensions, grouped under four factors: well-being, self-control, emotionality and sociability [ 6 ]. The last of the three main models of conceptualization of EI is the mixed one. It is made up of two large branches that consider this construct a mixture of traits, competencies and abilities. According to the first one, developed by Bar-On [ 7 ], EI is a set of non-cognitive abilities and competences that influence the ability to be successful in coping with environmental demands and pressures, and it is composed of five key components: intrapersonal skills, interpersonal skills, adaptation skills, stress management skills and general mood. The second one, proposed by Goleman [ 8 ], also conceptualizes EI as a mixed model that shares certain aspects with the Bar-On model. It is made up of the following elements: recognition of one’s own emotions, management of emotions, self-motivation, recognition of emotions in others, and management of relationships. These emotional and social competencies would contribute to managerial performance and leadership.

1.3. Importance of Emotional Intelligence

To date, the importance that academics attach to the study of EI has been recognized by the literature in many areas, such as the workplace. For example, in professions where working with people is needed, burnout syndrome is common. It is a syndrome that is expressed by an increase in emotional exhaustion and indifference, as well as by a decrease in professional effectiveness [ 9 ]. To date, numerous studies have shown that EI can help change employee attitudes and behaviours in jobs involving emotional demands by increasing job satisfaction and reducing job stress [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Likewise, on the one hand, it has been found that certain psychological variables, including EI and social competence, are related to less psychological distress. On the other hand, the acquisition of emotional and social skills can serve to develop resilience, which is a protective variable against psychological distress [ 14 ].

1.4. Types of Measures

With the challenge of choosing the conceptual model of EI also appears the challenge of choosing the appropriate measures to estimate it. For this reason, part of the work developed in the field of EI has focused on the creation of objective instruments to evaluate aspects associated with this construct. Most of them have been created around the main conceptualization models described in the previous paragraphs. Ability-based tools indicate people’s ability to understand emotions and how they work. These types of tests require participants to solve problems that are related to emotions and that contain answers deemed correct or incorrect (e.g., participants see several faces and respond by indicating the degree to which a specific emotion is present in the face). These instruments are maximal capacity tests and, unlike trait tests, they are not designed to predict typical behaviour. Ability EI instruments are usually employed in situations where a good theoretical understanding of emotions is required [ 15 ].

Trait-based instruments are generally composed of self-reported measures and are often developed as scales where there are no correct or incorrect answers, but the individual responds by choosing the item which relates more or less to their behaviour (e.g., “Understanding the needs and desires of others is not a problem for me”). They tend to measure typical behaviour, so they tend to provide a good prediction of actual behaviours in various situations [ 5 ]. Trait EI is a good predictor of effective coping styles when facing everyday stressors, both in adults and children, so these instruments are often used in situations characterized by stressors such as educational and employment contexts [ 15 ].

Questionnaires based on the EI mixed conceptualization often measure a combination of traits, social skills, competencies, and personality measures through self-reported modality (e.g., “When I am angry with others, I can tell them”). Some measures typically take 360-degree forms of assessment too (i.e., a self-report along with reports from supervisors, colleagues and subordinates). They are generally used in work environments, since they are often designed to predict and improve workplace performance and are often focused on emotional competencies that correlate with professional success. Despite the different ways of conceptualizing EI, there are some conceptual similarities between most instruments: they are hierarchical (i.e., they produce a total EI score along with scores on the different dimensions) and they have several conceptual overlaps that often include emotional perception, emotional regulation, and adaptive use of emotions [ 15 ].

1.5. Relevance of the Study

The proliferation of EI measures has received a lot of attention. However, this has not been the case in studies that synthesize their psychometric qualities, as well as those that describe their strengths and limitations. Therefore, there is a lack of studies that collect, with a wide review coverage, the instruments developed in recent years. The few reviews that can be found [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ] are limited to describing both the most popular measures (e.g., Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test [MSCEIT], Emotional Quotient Inventory [EQ-i], Trait Meta-Mood Scale [TMMS], Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire [TEIQue], or Schutte Self-Report Inventory [SSRI]) and those validated only in English, producing an apparent “Tower of Babel” effect (i.e., the over-representation of studies in one language and the under-representation in others) [ 20 ]. This is a problem that is not only more common than is believed, but it is also persistent [ 21 ]. This effect produces a barrier for the complete knowledge of current EI measures, the breadth of their uses in different contexts, and their incorporation into substantive studies relevant to multicultural understanding. In summary, it reduces the commonality of efforts made in different contexts to identify common and communicable objectives [ 22 ], specifically around the study of EI.

Therefore, a systematic review allows us to establish a knowledge base that contributes by (a) guiding and developing research efforts, (b) assisting in professional practice when choosing the most appropriate model in possible practical scenarios, and (c) facilitating the design of subsequent systematic evaluative reviews and meta-analysis of relevant psychometric parameters (e.g., factorial loads, reliability coefficients, correlations, etc.). For this reason, the aim of this article is to provide an updated systematic review of the existing instruments that allow the evaluation of EI in professionals, focusing on the description of its characteristics, as well as on its psychometric properties (reliability and validity). This systematic review is characterized by having a wide coverage (i.e., studies published in languages other than English) and having as a framework a consensus of description and taxonomy of valid evidence (i.e., “Standards”) [ 23 ].

2. Materials and Methods

This work contains a systematic review of the scientific literature published to date that includes measurements of EI. For its preparation, the guidelines proposed in the PRISMA statement [ 24 ] ( Table A1 ) carrying out systematic reviews have been followed. Regarding the evaluation of the quality of the articles, since our study does not analyse the studies that employ the EI instruments but the instruments themselves, the assessment of the internal or external validity of the studies is not applicable to this research. However, an internationally proposed guide to the study of the validity of instruments, called “Standards”, has also been used [ 23 ]. It presents guidelines for the study of the composition, use, and interpretation of what a test aims to measure and proposes five sources of validity of evidence: content, response processes, internal structure, relationship with other variables and the consequences of testing. Likewise, a recently proposed registration protocol [ 25 ] for carrying out systematic reviews has also been followed based on the five validity sources of the “Standards”.

2.1. Information Sources

The bibliographic search was carried out in three phases: an initial search to obtain an overview of the current situation, a system that applies inclusion–exclusion criteria, and a manual search to evaluate the results obtained. The search was conducted in February 2021 in the Web of Science (WoS) database, including all articles published from 1900 to 2020 (inclusive). This database was selected to perform the search because (a) it is among the databases that allows for a more efficient and adequate search coverage [ 26 ]; (b) it provides a better quality of indexing and of bibliographic records in terms of accuracy, control and granularity of information compared to other databases [ 27 ]; (c) the results are highly correlated with those of other search engines (e.g., Embase, MEDLINE and Google Scholar) [ 26 ]; (d) it is controlled by a human team specialising in the selection of its content (i.e., it is not fully automated) [ 28 ]; and (e) it has experienced a constant increase in scientific publications [ 29 ].

2.2. Eligibility Criteria

Although no protocol was written or registered prior to the research, the inclusion and exclusion criteria for articles and instruments were previously defined. The search was conducted according to these criteria.

2.2.1. Inclusion Criteria

The inclusion criteria for the studies are made up of the following points: (a) published in peer-reviewed journals, (b) presented as full articles or short communications, (c) containing empirical and quantifiable results on psychometric properties (i.e., not only narrative descriptions), (d) containing cross-sectional or longitudinal designs, (e) written in any language (in order to collect as many instruments as possible, as well as to reduce the “Tower of Babel” effect) [ 20 ], and (f) published from 1900 to 2020 (to maximize the identification of EI measures).

As for the inclusion criteria of the instruments, they are made up of the following points: (a) instruments that measure EI, (b) articles that are the first creation study of the instrument, (c) instruments aimed at people over 18 years, (d) instruments that can be applied in the workplace.

2.2.2. Exclusion Criteria

On the other hand, research that presented at least one of the following exclusion criteria was discarded: (a) contains synthesis studies (i.e., systematic reviews or meta-analyses), instrument manuals or narrative articles of instrument characteristics, (b) contains only qualitative research designs, (c) published after 2020.

Instruments that presented at least one of the following exclusion criteria were discarded: (a) instruments that were validations of the original one, (b) instruments aimed at people under 18, (c) instruments to be used in areas specifically different from the workplace.

2.3. Search Strategy

All available methods to obtain empirical answers have been included so as to maximize the coverage of the results. The following terms were included: test, measure, questionnaire, scale and instrument. The combinations of terms used were: “emotional intelligence AND test”, “emotional intelligence AND measure”, “emotional intelligence AND questionnaire”, “emotional intelligence AND scale”, and “emotional intelligence AND instrument”. Only those article-type studies were selected.

In the selection process, the title, abstract and keywords of the studies identified in the search were reviewed with the aforementioned criteria. This was carried out by only one of the authors.

2.4. Data Collection

The data to be extracted from each of the instruments were also defined in advance, ensuring that the information was extracted in a uniform manner. The selected documents were then recorded in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet to check for duplicate records.

Thus, the name of the instrument and its acronym, the language and country in which it was created, and its structural characteristics (i.e., type of measurement, number of items, dimensions and items of which they were composed, and theoretical model) were extracted together with relevant psychometric information (i.e., reliability and validity). This procedure was also carried out by the same author. Articles that used different versions of the original EI instrument were accepted, but the analysis was made only on their originals. Instruments whose original manuscript were inaccessible were discarded ( n = 10), but they are presented at the end of the results. All those articles that were duplicated or that had used measures aimed at people under 18 or for contexts specifically different from the professional area (e.g., school contexts, sports contexts, etc.) were eliminated. The search process and the number of selected and excluded results can be seen in Figure 1 . Regarding the ethical standards, no ethical approval or participant consent is required for this type of research (i.e., systematic review).

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Object name is healthcare-09-01696-g001.jpg

Flowchart according to PRISMA.

A total of 40 instruments were found ( Table 1 shows a synthesis of all of them). Below, a brief description of each one is presented, following which a division according to the theoretical model they use (i.e., ability-based model, trait-based model, mixed approach model, and others that do not correspond to any of them), and the psychometric properties of each one are explained.

Main characteristics of the included instruments.

TMMS: Trait Meta-Mood Scale, LOT: Life Orientation Test, CES-D: Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; SSRI: Schutte Self-Report Inventory, BFP: Big Five Personality, TAS: Toronto Alexithymia Scale, ZDS: Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale, BIS: Barratt Impulsiveness Scale; MEIS: Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale; MSCEIT: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, MSCEIT 2.0: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Revised Version, MSCEIT-YV: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Youth Version, MSCEIT-TC: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Chinese Version; PIEMO: Profile of Emotional Intelligence; WLEIS: Wong and Law’s Emotional Intelligence Scale, EQ-i: Emotional Quotient Inventory; WEIP-3: Workgroup Emotional Intelligence Profile-3, WEIP-S: Workgroup Emotional Intelligence Profile-Short Version, IRI: Interpersonal Reactivity Index, JABRI: Job Associate-Bisociate Review Index; MEIA: Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment, JPI-R: Jackson Personality Inventory-Revised, MEIA-W: Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment-Workplace, MEIA-W-R: Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment-Workplace-Revised; EmIn: Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire; IIESS-R: Sojo and Steinkopf Emotional Intelligence Inventory-Revised Version; SREIS: Self-Rated Emotional Intelligence Scale; EISDI: Emotional Intelligence Self-Description Inventory; GEIS: Greek Emotional Intelligence Scale, SSI: Social Skills Inventory, EES: Emotion Empathy Scale, SWLS: Satisfaction with Life Scale, PANAS: Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, ASSET: An Organisational Stress Screening Tool; STEM: Situational Test of Emotion Management; OCEANIC-20: Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Index Condensed 20-item version, STEM-B: Situational Test of Emotion Management-Brief Version; STEU: Situational Test of Emotional Understanding, STEU-B: Situational Test of Emotional Understanding-Brief Version; ESCQ: Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire; AVEI: Audiovisual Test of Emotional Intelligence; GERT: Geneva Emotion Recognition Test, GERT-S: Geneva Emotion Recognition Test-Short Version, GECo: Geneva Emotional Competence Test; TIE: Test of Emotional Intelligence, SIE-T: Emotional Intelligence Scale-Faces, NEO-FFI: NEO Five-Factor Inventory; EIQ-SP: Self-Perception of Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire; TEIFA: Three-Branch Emotional Intelligence Forced-Choice Assessment; TEIRA: Three-Brach Emotional Intelligence Rating Scale Assessment; NEAT: North Dakota Emotional Abilities Test, DANVA 2-AF: Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy-Adult Faces; IIEP: Perceived Emotional Intelligence Inventory; MEIT: Mobile Emotional Intelligence Test; RAVEN: Raven’s Progressive Matrices; EIT: Emotional Intelligence Test; EQ-i: S: Emotional Quotient Inventory Short Version, EQ-i: 2.0: Emotional Quotient Inventory Revised Version, EQ-i: 360°: Emotional Quotient Inventory-360-degree version; EQ-i: YV: Emotional Quotient Inventory-Youth Version, EQ-i: YVS: Emotional Quotient Inventory Youth Short Version; ECI 2.0: Emotional Competence Inventory 2.0, ECI-U: Emotional Competence Inventory University Version; EIQ: Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire; 16PF: Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, OPQ: Occupational Personality Questionnaire, BTR: Belbin Team Roles; EIA: Emotional Intelligence Appraisal; EIS: Emotional Intelligence Scale; USMEQ-I: USM Emotional Quotient Inventory; TEIQue: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire, TEIQue-SF: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Short Form, TEIQue-360°: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-360-degree version, TEIQue-AF: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Adolescent Form, TEIQue-CF: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Child Form; REIS: Rotterdam Emotional Intelligence Scale, PEC: Profile of Emotional Competence.

3.1. Ability-Based Measures

The first category includes those instruments based on the ability-based model, mainly on that of Mayer and Salovey [ 4 ]. The first instrument created under this conceptualization is the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS) [ 30 ], a self-report scale designed to assess people’s beliefs about their own emotional abilities. It measures three key aspects of perceived EI: attention to feelings, emotional clarity and repair of emotions. It presents a very good reliability [ 80 ] and convergent validity with various instruments, although the authors recommend the use of a later version of 30 items. It also presents a widely used 24-item version [ 31 ] that has been validated in many countries.

Three years later, the Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence (SSRI) test was developed [ 33 ]. This questionnaire is answered through a five-point Likert scale and is composed of one factor that is divided into three categories: appraisal and expression of emotion in the self and others, regulation of emotion in the self and others and utilization of emotions in solving problems. It shows excellent internal consistency. It presents negative correlations with instruments that measure alexithymia, depression and impulsivity among others, which confirms its convergent validity. There is a modified version [ 34 ] and an abbreviated version [ 35 ], and it has been translated into many languages.

The Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) [ 37 ] is another tool developed by the authors that originally defined and conceptualized EI. The MEIS is a scale made up of 12 different tasks that contains 402 items and it has been translated into several languages. However, it has strong limitations such as its length and the low internal consistency offered by some of the tasks (e.g., “blends” and “progressions”; α = 0.49 and 0.51, respectively). These authors developed, years later, the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) [ 38 ]. The items developed for the MEIS served as the starting point for the MSCEIT. This measure is composed of a five-point Likert scale and multiple response items with correct and incorrect options, which comprise eight tasks. Each of the four dimensions is assessed through two tasks. It presents an adequate internal consistency. It currently has a revised version by the same authors, and another validated in a young population. In addition, it has been translated into many languages. This instrument has detractors. Its convergent validity has been questioned since no correlation has been found between the emotional perception scale of MSCEIT and other emotional perception tests [ 81 ]. As can be seen in Table 1 , the MSCEIT has two different approaches to construct the score (consensus score and expert score). In the case of EI, it is difficult to classify an answer as correct or incorrect, so if a person responds in a different way to the experts or the average, it might mean that they have low emotional capacity or present a different way of thinking [ 81 ].

In the same year, three more instruments based on this conceptualization were developed in different countries. The first one, the Profile of Emotional Intelligence (PIEMO) [ 40 ] is an inventory developed in Mexico. Their items consist of a statement that represents a paradigmatic behaviour trait of EI with true and false answers. It is composed of eight independent dimensions that together constitute a profile. Its internal consistency is excellent and its validity has been tested by a confirmatory factor analysis and expert consultations on the items.

The second instrument is Wong and Law’s Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS) [ 41 ]. It was developed in China to measure EI in a brief way in leadership and management studies. It has an adequate internal consistency and has positive correlations with the TMMS and the EQ-i. Subsequent studies have shown its predictive validity in relation to life satisfaction, happiness or psychological well-being, and its criteria’s validity with respect to personal well-being. Measurement equivalence of scores in different ethnic and gender groups has also been tested [ 82 ]. It has been translated into a multitude of languages and it is currently one of the most widely used instruments.

The third instrument is the Workgroup Emotional Intelligence Profile-3 (WEIP-3) [ 43 ]. It is a scale designed in Australia as a self-report to measure the EI of people in work teams. It has very good internal consistency and presents correlations with several instruments that prove its convergent validity. The authors made a particularly interesting finding in their study. Teams that scored lower in the WEIP-3 performed at lower levels in their work than those with high EI. This instrument has a short version and has been translated into different languages.

The Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment (MEIA) [ 45 ] was developed in the USA. The authors state that the test takes only 20 min. It has very good internal consistency. Its validity has been tested in different ways. Content validity was tested by independent experts who considered each element as representative of its target scale. Convergent validity was tested by significant correlations between the scores and personality tests. Finally, the lack of correlation between the MEIA and theoretically unrelated personality tests proved the divergent validity. It has a version for the work context.

The Sojo and Steinkopf Emotional Intelligence Inventory—Revised version (IIESS-R) [ 47 ] was developed in Venezuela to measure the three dimensions that compose it. It presents 34 phrases that describe the reactions of people with high EI, as well as contrary behaviours. It has excellent internal consistency and its content has been validated through expert judgment. It shows correlations with some scales of similar instruments and its internal structure has been tested by exploratory analysis and PCA.

In the original article of the Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EmIn), created for the Russian population [ 46 ], its author proposes his own model of ability-based EI that differs in some aspects from that proposed by Mayer and Salovey. Accordingly, he designed a questionnaire to measure the participants’ beliefs about their emotional abilities under this model. It is composed of two dimensions answered using a 4-point Likert scale. Their scales have a good internal consistency, but their validity has not been tested beyond the factor analysis of its internal structure. Years later, this same author developed the Videotest of Emotion Recognition [ 59 ], an instrument that uses videos as stimuli. It was also designed in Russia to obtain precision indexes in the recognition of the types of emotions, as well as the sensitivity and intensity of the observed emotions. It has 15 scales that measure through a single item each of the emotions recorded by the instrument. Its internal consistency is good. It is correlated with MSCEIT and EmIn, which proves its convergent validity.

Another instrument based on the Mayer and Salovey model is the Self-Rated Emotional Intelligence Scale (SREIS) [ 49 ]. It was developed throughout three studies that used the MSCEIT as a comparison. The first one did not show a very high correlation between the scores of both tools. In the second one, only men’s MSCEIT scores correlated with perceived social competence after personality measures remained constant. Finally, in the third only MSCEIT predicted social competence, but only for males again. Internal consistency was also not consistent throughout the three studies, as the α yielded values were 0.84, 0.77, and 0.66, respectively. Its internal structure was tested by a confirmatory factor analysis and the content of each item was validated by the judgment of students familiar with the Mayer and Salovey model. It has been translated into several languages.

The Emotional Intelligence Self-Description Inventory (EISDI) [ 49 ] is also a short instrument, consisting of four dimensions designed to assess EI in the workplace. It has an excellent internal consistency. It presents correlations with instruments such as the WLEIS and the SREIS and a discriminant validity with the Big Five Personality. The same year, the Greek Emotional Intelligence Scale (GEIS) [ 51 ] was developed in Greek to assess four basic dimensions of EI. Its internal consistency is very good, as well as its test–retest value. Its internal structure was verified by a PCA, and its convergent and divergent validity were tested by a series of studies with 12 different instruments.

MacCann and Roberts [ 51 ] developed two instruments to assess EI according to the ability-based model: the Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM) and the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU). Both are made up of three dimensions and a similar number of items. The first one measures the management of emotions such as anger, sadness and fear, and it can be administered in two formats: multiple choice response and rate-the-extent (i.e., test takers rate the appropriateness, strength, or extent of each alternative, rather than selecting the correct alternative). The STEU presents a series of situations about context-reduced, personal-life context, and workplace-context, which provoke a main emotion that is the correct answer to be chosen by the participant among other incorrect ones. Both instruments have similar internal consistency for the multiple response format, while for the rate-the-extent format it is much higher. Both present criteria and convergent validity and have an abbreviated version.

The Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire (ESCQ) [ 53 ] is an instrument developed in Croatia that measures EI through three basic dimensions using a five-point Likert scale. The subscales have a reliability that varies between good an excellent, and they correlate with other EI and personality instruments. The ESCQ has been translated into several languages.

The Audiovisual Test of Emotional Intelligence (AVEI) [ 55 ] is an Israeli instrument aimed at educational settings related to care-centred professions. Their items are developed from primary and secondary emotions, both positive and negative. Each one consists of short videos generated by researchers with training in psychology and visual arts. People should choose the correct answer among 10 alternatives and it takes between 12 and 18 min to be completed. It requires computers equipped with audio. The internal consistency was calculated using ICC coefficients. It has content validations through expert consultations on the items and criteria since it correlates with measures traditionally related to EI.

The Geneva Emotion Recognition Test (GERT) [ 57 ] is a German test composed of 14 scales. The stimuli are, as in the AVEI, short image and audio videos recorded by five men and five women of different ages. Thus, people must choose which of the 14 emotions is being expressed by the actors, with the responses labelled as correct or incorrect. The reliability of the test is considered excellent, and the ecological and construct validity of the instrument has been tested.

The Test of Emotional Intelligence (TIE) [ 58 ] is developed in Poland. It consists of the same four dimensions as the MSCEIT. After providing participants with different emotional problems, they should indicate which emotion is most likely to occur or choose the most appropriate action. The score is based on expert judgment. It has a very good internal consistency. It has convergent validity since it correlates with the SSEIT and has construct since women scored higher than men.

The Self-Perception of Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIQ-SP) [ 60 ] is an instrument designed in Portugal and composed of the four dimensions belonging to the Mayer and Salovey’s ability-based model. Their scales have good internal consistency and are correlated with each other.

The Three-Branch Emotional Intelligence Rating Scale Assessment (TEIRA) [ 61 ] and the Three-Branch Emotional Intelligence Forced-Choice Assessment (TEIFA) [ 61 ] were developed in 2015. The first is made up of three scales and is answered by a six-point Likert scale. It presents internal consistency between good and excellent and convergent validity with STEU-B and STEM-B. On the other hand, TEIFA presents a format of forced choice in order to avoid the problem of social desirability in the rating scales. In this format, participants must choose among several positive statements and therefore they cannot simply rate themselves highly on everything (e.g., “Which one is more like you: I know why my emotions change or I manage my emotions well”). It consists of the same items and dimensions as the TEIRA. The study does not report the reliability of TEIFA, as the reliability of the forced-choice tests is artificially high. It presents convergent validity with the SSRI.

A year later, the North Dakota Emotional Abilities Test (NEAT) [ 62 ] was developed in the USA to assess the ability to perceive, understand and control emotions in the workplace. It contains items that describe scenarios of work environments, in which the person must rate the extent of certain emotions that the protagonist would experience in a certain situation. The internal consistency of its scales varies between good and excellent and its internal structure has been tested by a confirmatory factor analysis. In addition, the predictive validity of the instrument has also been tested.

The Inventory of Perceived Emotional Intelligence (IIEP) [ 63 ] was developed in Argentina. It measures different components of intrapersonal and interpersonal EI. This inventory is answered using a five-point Likert scale and it has reliable dimensions. Its content validity has been tested through consultations with judges to evaluate the items.

The last of the instruments in this category is the Emotional Intelligence Test (EIT) [ 65 ]. It was developed in Russia and has four dimensions that assess EI in the workplace. It has excellent internal consistency and convergent validity tested by correlations with the MSCEIT 2.0. No information regarding the items that compose it has been found.

3.2. Measures Based on the Mixed Model

The second category includes those instruments based on the mixed EI model, mainly the Bar-On model [ 7 ] and the Goleman model [ 8 ]. The first instrument of this model is the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) [ 7 ]. Its author was the first to define EI as a mixed concept between ability and personality trait. It is a self-report measure of behaviour that provides an estimate of EI and social intelligence. Their items are composed of short sentences that are answered using a five-point Likert scale. It takes about 30 min to complete, so other shorter versions have been developed, as well as a 360-degree version and a version for young people. It has been translated into more than 30 languages. It has an internal consistency between good and very good and its construct validity has been tested by correlations with other variables.

Emotional Competence Inventory 2.0 (ECI 2.0) [ 67 ], also called ESCI, is a widely used instrument. It was developed in the USA by another of the authors who conceptualized the mixed model of EI. It was designed in a 360-degree version to assess the emotional competencies of individuals and organizations. The internal consistency of others’ ratings is good, while that of oneself is questionable, and it shows positive correlations with constructs related to the work environment. It has a version for university students and has been translated into several languages.

The Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIQ) [ 68 ] is another tool designed to measure EI in the workplace. It has face, content, construct, and predictive validity, although the internal consistency of its scales varies between good and not very acceptable. Years later, the Emotional Intelligence Inventory [ 69 ] was developed in India. It was also designed to measure EI using a mixed concept in the workplace. It is made up of 10 dimensions, which have an internal consistency between acceptable and excellent. It has correlations with several related scales and with the number of promotions achieved and success in employment, which is proof of its predictive validity.

The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal (EIA) [ 70 ] is a set of surveys that measures EI in the workplace using the four main components of the Goleman model. Their items have been evaluated by experts. It has an internal consistency between very good and excellent. It has three versions: an online self-report, an online multi-rater report (which is combined with responses from co-workers), and another one that has anonymous ratings from several people to get an EI score for the whole team. The Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) [ 71 ] is another tool based on the Goleman model. It is composed of three dimensions and it has excellent internal consistency. The content of the items has been validated by expert evaluations.

The USM Emotional Quotient Inventory (USMEQ-i) [ 72 ] is a tool developed in Malaysia. It consists of a total of seven dimensions composed of 46 items. Seven of these items make up the “faking index items”, that measure the tendency of respondents to manifest social desirability and have a very good internal consistency ( α = 0.83). The reliability of the total instrument yields excellent values.

The Indigenous Scale of Emotional Intelligence [ 73 ] is a Pakistani instrument developed in the Urdu language. The final items were selected from an initial set after passing through the judgment of four experts based on the fidelity to the construct: clarity, redundancy, reliability, and compression. It has excellent internal consistency. Additionally, it presents construct validity (as women obtain higher scores than men) and correlations with the EQ-i.

Years later, the Mobile Emotional Intelligence Test (MEIT) was developed [ 64 ]. It is a Spanish instrument used to measure EI online in work contexts. It is made up of seven tasks (perceptive tasks and identification tasks) to assess the emotional perception of both others and oneself, respectively, face task, in which the most appropriate photograph related to the demanded emotion must be chosen, three comprehension tasks (composition, deduction and retrospective), and story task, in which participants must choose the best action to manage feelings in a given story. It presents excellent internal consistency and convergent validity.

3.3. Trait-Based Measures

This category is composed of trait-based instruments. The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) [ 6 ] is the main instrument of this model. It is a tool widely used in many countries. It has excellent internal consistency and it shows significant correlations with the Big Five Personality. It has a short version, a 360-degree version, a version for children and another one for teenagers. It has been translated into many languages.

Years later, the Rotterdam Emotional Intelligence Scale (REIS) [ 75 ] was developed, the other instrument belonging to this category. It is a self-report instrument designed in Dutch. It has a very good internal consistency and it presents correlations with WEIS, TEIQue and PEC and its validity criterion has also been tested.

3.4. Measures Based on Other Models

Some instruments cannot be included within these categories since they have been conceptualized under different models. The first one is the Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory [ 76 ], previously known as SUEIT. It is based on an original model. It was specifically designed for use in the workplace, but it does not measure EI per se, but rather the frequency with which people display a variety of emotionally intelligent behaviours in the workplace. It presents very good reliability and convergent and predictive validity. In addition, it has two reduced versions.

The Profile of Emotional Competence (PEC) [ 77 ] is based on the model of Mikolajczak [ 83 ], which replicates the four dimensions proposed by Mayer and Salovey but separates the identification from the expression of the emotions and distinguishes the intrapersonal aspect from the interpersonal aspect of each dimension. It contains two main scales, and has excellent internal consistency and convergent, divergent and criterion validity. The original one was developed in French, but it has been translated into several languages.

The last of the instruments identified is the Group-level Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire [ 79 ]. It was designed in the USA to assess EI in work groups under Ghuman’s theoretical model [ 79 ]. This model conceives EI as a two-component construct: group relationship capability (GRC) and group emotional capability (GEC). All of them have very good internal consistency.

Regarding the framework of the Standards, differences were found among them, resulting in an unequal distribution throughout the articles. The percentages of each type of validity can be seen in Table 2 .

Number of studies and percentages for each validity test.

The instruments whose original sources could not be retrieved are cited in Table 3 . The main reasons were that they were articles from books to which the authors did not have access, unpublished documents or documents with restricted access.

Information of the non-accessible instruments.

4. Discussion

The main aim of this study is to offer an updated systematic review of EI instruments in order to provide researchers and professionals with a list of tools that can be applied in the professional field with their characteristics, psychometric properties and versions, as well as a brief description of the instrument. For this purpose, a systematic review of the scientific literature on EI has been carried out using the WoS database through a search of all articles published between 1900 and the present.

The number of instruments developed has been increasing in recent years. In the 1990s barely any instruments were developed and their production was limited to approximately one per year and to practically one country (i.e., the USA). This may be due to the recent conceptualisation of EI, as well as to the difficulty that researchers found in constructing emotion-centred questions with objective criteria [ 15 ]. However, over the years, the production of instruments to measure EI has been increasing and, in addition, it has been extended to other geographical areas. This may be due to the importance that EI has reached over the years in multiple areas (e.g., health, organizational, educational, etc.). With the passage of time, and the introduction of new technologies, multimedia platforms have begun to be used to present stimuli to participants. Recent research in EI has determined that emotions are expressed and perceived through visual and auditory signals (i.e., the tone of voice and the dynamic movements of the face and body) [ 94 ]. Thus, a meta-analysis revealed that video-based tests tend to have a higher criterion-related validity than text-based stimuli [ 95 ].

Regarding the results, a total of 40 instruments produced from 1995 to 2020 have been located. The instruments registered in a greater number of studies, and that have been most used over the years are EQ-i, SSRI, MSCEIT 2.0, TMMS, WLEIS, and TEIQue. These tools have the largest number of versions (e.g., reduced or for different ages or contexts) and are the ones that have been validated in more languages. The most recent instruments hardly have translations apart from their original version, and they have been tested on very few occasions. Most of the articles have not been developed for a specific context.

On the other hand, as can be seen in the results, most of the instruments are grouped under the three main conceptual models described in the introduction (ability, trait and mixed). These models are vertebrated around the construct of EI. However, they present differences in the way of conceptualizing it and, therefore, also of measuring it. For example, the ability-based concept of EI is measured by maximum performance tests while trait-based EI is measured by self-report questionnaires. This may, in itself, lead to different outcomes, even if the underlying model used is the same [ 96 , 97 ].

The ability model, introduced by Mayer and Salovey, is composed of other hierarchically ordered abilities, in which the understanding and management dimensions involve higher-order cognitive processes (strategic), and are based on perception and facilitation, which involve instantaneous processing of emotional information (experiential) [ 4 ]. This model has received wide recognition and has served as a basis for the development of other models. However, it has been questioned through factor analysis that does not support a hierarchical model with an underlying global EI factor. Furthermore, emotional thought facilitation (second dimension) did not arise as a separate factor and was found to be empirically redundant with the other branches [ 96 ].

Intelligence and personality researchers have questioned the very existence of ability EI, and they suggest that it is nothing more than intelligence. This fact is supported by the high correlations found between ability-based EI and the intellectual quotient [ 15 , 96 ]. On the other hand, there is the possibility of falsifying the results by responding strategically for the purpose of social desirability. However, one of the advantages of the ability model is that, through the maximum performance tests, it is not possible to adulterate them. This is because participants must choose the answer they think is correct to get the highest possible score. Another advantage is that these types of instruments tend to be more attractive because they are made up of tests in which it is required to resolve problems, solve puzzles, perform comprehension tasks or choose images [ 15 ].

The Petrides and Furnham model [ 5 ] emerged as an alternative to the ability-based model and is related to dispositional tendencies, personality traits, or self-efficacy beliefs that are measured by self-report tests. The tools based on this model are not exempt from criticism. These instruments present a number of disadvantages, the most frequently cited are being vulnerability to counterfeiting and social desirability [ 96 ]. The participant can obtain a high EI profile by responding in a strategically and socially desirable way, especially when they are examined in work contexts by supervisors or in job interviews. People are not always good judges of their emotional abilities [ 98 ], and may tend to unintentionally underestimate or overestimate their EI. Another criticism of self-report tools is their ecological validity (i.e., external validity that analyses the test environment and determines how much it influences the results) [ 96 ].

On the contrary, the fact that such tools do not present correct or incorrect answers can be advantageous in certain cases. High EI trait scores are not necessarily adaptive or low maladaptive. That is, self-report tools give rise to emotional profiles that simply fit better and are more advantageous in some contexts than in others [ 97 ]. On the other hand, trait-based tools have demonstrated good incremental validity over cognitive intelligence and personality compared to ability-based EI tests [ 99 ]. Furthermore, they tend to have very good psychometric properties, have no questionable theoretical basis, and are moderately and significantly correlate with a large set of outcome variables [ 15 ].

One aspect observed in this systematic review is that the main measure of the estimated reliability in the analysed studies has been internal consistency. However, this estimate is not interchangeable with other measurement error estimates. This coefficient gives a photographic picture of the measurement error and does not include variability over time. There are other reliability indicators (e.g., stability or test–retest) that are more relevant for social intervention purposes [ 100 ], and that according to the estimation design, can differentiate into trait variability or state variability, that is, respectively stability and dependability [ 101 ]. It has been found that the use of stability measures as a reliability parameter is not frequent. In methodological and substantive contexts, reproducibility is essential for the advancement of knowledge. For this reason, it is necessary to identify measures that can be used as parameters to compare the results of different studies [ 102 ]. On the other hand, the standard coefficient of internal consistency has been coefficient α [ 103 ]. This measure has been questioned in relation to its apparent misinformed use of its restrictions [ 104 , 105 , 106 ], of which Cronbach himself highlighted its limited applications [ 104 ]. Other reliability measures have been recommended (e.g., ω) [ 107 ], and the reliability estimation practice in the creation of EI measurements needs to be updated. Usually, ω estimation is integrated into the modelling-based estimation, where SEM or IRT methodology is required to corroborate the internal structure of the score [ 108 , 109 , 110 ] and extract the parameters used to calculate reliability (i.e., factorial loads).

Another methodological aspect to highlight is that predominantly, the construction of EI measures was based on linear modelling or classical test theory. In contrast, the least used approach was item response theory (IRT), which provides other descriptive and evaluative parameters of the quality of the score measurement, such as the information function or the characteristic curves of the options, among others.

On the other hand, it is striking that some of the articles found prove the construct validity of their instruments by obtaining higher EI scores by women than men [ 56 , 58 , 73 ]. This has also been seen in the scientific literature and in research such as that of Fischer et al. [ 111 ], in which it was found that women tend to score higher in EI tests or empathy tests than men, especially, but not only, if it is measured through self-report. Additionally, striking is the study by Molero et al. [ 112 ], in which significant differences were observed among the various EI components between men and women. However, this is not the case in all the articles analysed in this study, nor in all the most current scientific literature. This fact has led to the development of different hypotheses about how far, why, and under what circumstances women could outperform men. There are several theories that have emerged around it. There is one that claims that these differences could be related to different modes of emotional processing in the brain [ 113 , 114 ]. Another theory points to possible differences in emotional perception that suggest that women are more accurate than men in this process when facial manifestations of emotion are subtle, but not when stimuli are highly expressive [ 115 ]. Additionally, another one points out that the expression of emotions is consistent with sex, which may be influenced by contextual factors, including the immediate social context and broader cultural contexts [ 116 ]. However, other variables such as age or years of experience in the position should also be taken into account. For example, the study by Miguel-Torres et al. [ 117 ] showed a better ability to feel, express, and understand emotional states in younger nurses, while the ability to regulate emotions was greater in those who had worked for more years. For this reason, nowadays firm conclusions cannot be drawn and it must be taken into account that the differences found are generally small. Thus, more research is needed on the differences that may exist between men and women in the processes of perception, expression and emotional management before establishing possible social implications of these findings.

4.1. Limitations

This study is not without limitations. Some are inherent in this type of studies, such as publication bias (i.e., the non-publication of studies with results that do not show significant differences) that could have resulted in a loss of articles that have not been published and that used instruments other than those found. In addition, instruments that could not be accessed from their original manuscript could not be included in the systematic review. On the other hand, despite the advantages of WoS, the fact that the search was conducted in a single database may lead to some loss of literature. Furthermore, the systematic review was restricted to peer-reviewed publications and thus different studies may be presented in other information sources, such as books or grey literature. Articles that were in the press and those that may have been published in the course of the compilation of this study have not been collected either. Additionally, the entire process of searching for references was carried out by only one investigator, so an estimate of inter-judge reliability cannot be made, as well as data extraction. There are many aspects of the PRISMA statement that, due to the purpose of our research, our study does not include (visible as NA in Table A1 ). However, it is necessary to develop a protocol for recording the inclusion and exclusion criteria of the primary studies to prevent bias (e.g., bias in the selection process). There are also some methodological aspects to be improved, such as the lack of methods used to assess the risk of bias in the included studies, the preparation or synthesis of the data, or the certainty in the body of evidence of a result. In future research it is necessary to take into account and develop these aspects in order to improve the replicability and methodological validity of the study, and to facilitate the transparency of the research process. In contrast to the above, one of the strengths of this study was to minimize the presence of biases that could alter the results. To minimize language bias, articles submitted in any language were searched for and accepted to avoid over-presentation of studies in one language, and under-presentation in others [ 20 ]. In addition, this study takes into account and exposes five sources of evidence of validity of the instruments through the Standards: content, response processes, internal structure, relationship with other variables and the consequences of testing. Other aspects to be improved in the future include performing the same search in other databases such as EBSCO and Scopus to obtain possible articles not covered in WoS. A manual search for additional articles would also be useful, for example, in the references of other articles or in the grey literature.

4.2. Practical Implication

The relationship between EI and personal development has been of great interest in psychological research over time [ 8 ]. A good study of the instruments that measure constructs such as EI can be of great help both in the field of prevention and psychological intervention in social settings. The revision of EI instruments is intended to contribute to facilitating work in the general population in a way that the development of EI is promoted and antisocial behaviours are reduced. In addition, since it correlates with variables that serve as protectors against psychological distress, this work also contributes to improving, in some cases, the general level of health.

Through this systematic review, we can see the great effort that has been made by researchers not only to improve existing EI measurement instruments, but also in the construction of new instruments that help professionals in the educational, business and health fields, as well as the general population. However, given the rapid changes that society is experiencing, partly due to the effects of modernization and technology, there is a demand to go beyond measurement. For example, from educational and business institutions and from family and community organizations it is necessary to promote activities, support and commitment towards actions oriented to EI under the consideration that this construct can be improved at any age and that it increases with experience.

5. Conclusions

From the results obtained in this study, numerous instruments have been found that can be used to measure EI in professionals. Over the years, the production of instruments to measure EI has been increasing and, moreover, has spread to other geographical areas. The most recent instruments have hardly been translated beyond their original version and have been tested very rarely. In order for future research to benefit from these new instruments, a greater number of uses in larger samples and in other contexts would be desirable.

In addition, most of the instruments are grouped under the three main conceptual models described in the introduction (ability, trait and mixed). Each model has a number of advantages and disadvantages. In the ability model it is not possible to adulterate the results by strategic responses and they tend to be more attractive tests; however, factor analyses do not support a hierarchical model with an underlying global EI factor. The trait-based model, on the other hand, employs measures that have no right or wrong answers, so they result in emotional profiles that are more advantageous in some contexts than others, and they tend to have very good psychometric properties. However, they are susceptible to falsification and social desirability.

On the other hand, it is necessary to identify measures that can be used as parameters to compare the results of different studies. In addition, the standard coefficient of internal consistency has been the α coefficient, which has been questioned in relation to its apparent misinformed use of its restrictions. It would be advisable to use other reliability measures and to update the reliability estimation practice in the creation of EI measures.

Finally, some of the articles found test the construct validity of their instruments by obtaining higher EI scores from women than from men. Different hypotheses have been developed about to what extent, why and under what circumstances women would outperform men; differences may be related to different modes of emotional processing in the brain or possible differences in emotional perception or to the influence of contextual factors. However, it would be interesting to further investigate the differences that may exist between men and women or to take into account other factors such as age or number of years of experience before establishing possible practical implications.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the casual helpers for their aid with information processing and searching.

PRISMA 2020 checklist.

NA = Not applicable.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.M.B.-L. and M.M.-V.; methodology, L.M.B.-L.; validation, L.M.B.-L.; formal analysis, L.M.B.-L.; investigation, L.M.B.-L.; data curation, L.M.B.-L.; writing—original draft preparation, L.M.B.-L.; writing—review and editing, L.M.B.-L., M.M.-V., C.M.-S. and J.L.C.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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50 Practical Examples of High Emotional Intelligence
A case study (Dearborn, 2002) done to validate the work of Daniel Goleman in emotional intelligence. The research supports the need to increase Return On Investment (ROI) for individualized training in the concepts of emotional intelligence for improved leadership capabilities. The need for self-directed learning of emotional intelligence ...
Emotional Intelligence Impacts on Work Performance: The Case in
Charbonneau, D. and Nicol, A. [2002] Emotional intelligence and leadership in adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 33: 1101-1113. Crossref, Google Scholar; Cherniss, C. [2000] Emotional intelligence: What it is and why it matters. Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations, 15: 1-14. Google Scholar
Emotional Intelligence Measures: A Systematic Review
1.1. Emotional Intelligence. Emotional intelligence (EI) was first described and conceptualized by Salovey and Mayer [] as an ability-based construct analogous to general intelligence.They argued that individuals with a high level of EI had certain skills related to the evaluation and regulation of emotions and that consequently they were able to regulate emotions in themselves and in others ...
PDF The Influence of Emotional Intelligence in Leadership. Case Study
based on the best possible definition of emotional intelligence and leadership, proving that leadership cannot be done effectively without emotional intelligence. The case study was based on Barack Obama's analysis in terms of emotional intelligence, as a methodology using articles from the American press with screenshots, interviews with