essay about pollution in nepali

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essay on environmental pollution in 250 words-Nepal-2022

                            ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Environment simply refers to ours surrounding. All the natural and man-made things that we see are the elements of the environment. Pollution means decline of the original qualities of the elements of the environment like air, water, land, etc. Our environment determines our health and civilization.  

Environmental pollution is one of the greatest threats of the world today. All living being birds, animals, insects, plants and even human beings are victims of pollution. No part of the world now is unaffected by the problem of pollution these days.

Pollution is of different types. They are air pollution, water pollution and land pollution. Pollution causes various kinds of harms. Polluted air causes lung diseases, pain ad asthma. Similarly, when we drink polluted water become ill with diarrhea, dysentery, jaundice, etc. Loud noise harms our ear. However, the greatest harm is the depletion of the ozone layer. It causes increase in temperature in the earth, acid rain and drought.

The main reason of pollution is industrialization and population increase. These two bring about environmental change. Many factories have been established to produce goods. These factories and vehicles like bus, truck, car, motorcycle emit huge quantities of smoke into the atmosphere. Similarly, over population causes deforestation. So the ecological balance of nature is disturbed.

Environmental problem has been a major problem in the cities of Nepal. The industries are located in the cities like Kathmandu, Pokhara, Biratnagar and Chitwan. Population density is also high there. We do not have good system for the disposal of garbage. We link our drainage to the nearby rivers. So the people in these places suffer from different communicable diseases.

It is the duty of the government and citizens to take the initiative to make the world a better place. Awareness in people is essential. If human beings as well as other organisms are to survive, the environment must be kept neat and clean.    

AIR POLLUTION

For the well-being of living beings, fresh air is the most important element . Air pollution is the undesirable change in the physical or biotic elements of the environment which may cause adverse effects to the biotic community . Pollutants can be divided into two categories on the basis of their production. They are:

         i.             PRIMARY POLLUTANTS:

                                           They can be defined as the pollutants which are directly emitted to the environment from the source. For example: nitrogen derivatives, oxides, halogens, etc.

       ii.             SECONDARY POLLUTANTS:

                                             They can be defined as the pollutants which are not directly emitted but are formed when primary pollutants chemical react in the atmosphere. For example: ozone, formaldehyde, acetyl nitrate, etc.

Dust particles which are emitted from industries and factories, pollutants from burning coal and improper management of waste products, smoke emitted from vehicles, etc. are the major causes of air pollution.

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

A)     natural resources:.

                                       These sources of air pollution are directly related to the activities of the nature. Examples: volcano eruption, forest fire, dust storms, etc.

b)    ARTIFICIAL RESOURCES:

                                       The sources of air pollution which are not naturally made but caused due to human activities are called artificial sources. Examples: CO, CO 2 , NO, NO 2 , SO 2 , Cl 2 , NH 3 , etc. gases produced by burning fuel, industrialization, over population, deforestation, automobile, nuclear explosions, etc.

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution may cause various short and long term effects in the elements of the environment and human health. The effects caused due to air pollution are:

a.     REDUCTION IN VISIBILTY:

                                          When various gases and dust particles mix in the atmosphere, it makes the sky blurry which is often termed as haze. This is the reason why people living in city areas cannot enjoy the clear sky. Due to fog and smog, people cannot see nearby objects clearly which makes it much risky to drive vehicles and fly airplanes due to reduced visibility.

b.     REDUCTION IN SOLAR RADIATION:

                                                      The areas where air pollution is high, solar radiation is absorbed by dust particles and moved to various place. Due to this, the amount of solar radiation required to reach the surface cannot get there and there will be the reduction of solar radiation. On the other hand, the temperature of other areas increases drastically which is harmful to living beings.

c.      GREEN HOUSE EFFECT:

                                      Various greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, ozone, Sulphur dioxide, etc. formed due to air pollution act like a blanket in the atmosphere, which traps the radiation and it does not let the heat escape to outer space. This causes rapid increase in the temperature of the earth. This is known as greenhouse effect.

d.     INHIBITION IN BIOLOGICAL GROWTH OF PLANTS:

                                           Sunlight is very important for plants to prepare food through photosynthesis. But increasing air pollution causes reduction in solar radiation due to which plants do not get enough light for their proper growth and development. This causes inhibition in biological growth of plants.

  e.     ADVERSE EFFECT ON HUMAN HEALTH:

                                                                                     Air pollution has contributed directly to the deteriorating health condition oh humans. Gases like carbon monoxide causes headache, nausea, difficulty in breathing, etc. Nitrogen oxide causes stinging of the eyes, coughing, headache, dry throat, congestion, etc. It may also cause insomnia, laziness, etc.

f.       DEPLETION OF OZONE LAYER:

                                                                       The chemicals causing ozone layer depletion are mainly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide, etc. which are emitted due to air pollution. These compounds decompose in the atmosphere and form nascent hydrogen, chlorine, bromine, etc. which deplete the ozone layer.

g.     ACID RAIN:

                                      The process of deposition of acid gases like Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, etc. from the atmosphere on land in the form of rain is called Acid rain. In the atmosphere these oxides are unable to remain in the gaseous state and hence they react with moisture to form acids which fall into the earth as acid rain. Buildings, mountains, statues, bridges, etc. are corroded by acid rains.

h.     DESTRUCTION OF HISTORICAL MONUMENTS:

                                                                                                 Over a long period of time, air pollution can damage various monuments and buildings of historical importance permanently lowering their esteem. We can take the example of Taj mahal in India which is being damged due to excessive pollution.

i.        CHANGE IN CLIMATE:

                                                       Air pollution causes dust as well as gases to collect in the atmosphere which increases the temperature in some places and decreases the temperature in other places. Due to this, ice melts and it may cause floods in some regions and drought in others.

MEASURES TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION

In order to prevent any further air pollution, the following measures can be implemented:

1.     The emission of air pollutants from industries should be controlled by using electrostatic precipitators of filter.

2.     The industrial areas should be constructed far from human settlements.

3.     Over population should be controlled.

4.     Some cheap fuels with higher Sulphur content should be banned and the use of disuphurized coal should be encouraged.

5.     Roadside plantation of trees should be done along the side of the roads which help to minimize the content of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.

6.     Alternate sources of energy such as solar energy, wind energy, etc. should be used instead of petroleum products.

7.     Various awareness programmes about the effects of air pollution should be conducted.

WATER POLLUTION

 Water in its purest form is colorless and odourless. But due to various human as well as natural activities, many pollutants enter the sources of water and make them polluted. This causes the water to be unsafe for daily usage. Water pollution can be defined as any undesirable changes in physical and biotic element of water. It degrades the quality of water which may cause serious health hazards.

Sources of water pollution.

   Although water pollution is caused by both humans and natural activities, mostly humans are only responsible for this problem. Natural causes may be mixing of dust in sources of water, production of bacteria and harmful germs in water. Thus, the causes of water pollution can be summarized below:

a)           Sewage water:

    The liquid waste discharged from industrial as well as domestic Sources is called sewage. This sewage without any treatment is directly discharged into sources of water like rivers, lakes, etc. This activity has resulted in spread of water borne diseases as well as the depletion of aquatic life.

b)  Contaminated from industries:  

     Along with the production of various useful products from industries, they also produce various chemical, papers and radioactive substances which are directly discharged into the sources of water without any treatment. Thus, the water will neither be capable of holding aquatic life nor will it be fit for human consumption.

c)           Agricultural wastes: 

     Farmers use various poisonous chemicals like DDT, BHC, Aldrin, etc. to kill pests and insects and increase the crop yield. But, sometimes farmers use these fertilizers in excessive amount due to lack of knowledge about their use. During the rainy season or due to human causes, such harmful chemicals mix with sources of water and kill all the aquatic lives in the water. It may also cause harm to humans as well.

d)  Obstruction in flow of water: 

If there is any sort of obstruction in the flow of water, it may cause all the pollutants to get collected in the source of water. This may cause the water to get more polluted which can be a reason for the end of the aquatic life .

e) Oily pollution: 

Oil is an important fuel. But it is one of the major causes of water pollution. Through various means such as leakage in oil tanks, spilling and washing vehicles, etc. oil reaches the water surface and it decreases the oxygenation in water which kills the aquatic life.

f) Radioactive substances:

  Radioactive substances released from mines through various means mix with sources of water. Due to this, it may be Lethal to plants and animals including humans.

Measures to control water pollution

Water pollution can be minimized by the following activities:

1.  Wastes ejected from homes and factories must be recycled by implementing recycling facilities.

2.  Dead bodies of living beings must be properly disposed either by burning or burying.

3.  The surrounding environment of sources of water must be kept clean by planting trees and preserving them.

4.  The use of compost manure should be encouraged during cultivation rather than using pesticides, insecticides and other harmful fertilizers.

5.  Proper drainage system must be built for efficient collection and treatment of wastes.

6. Various legal measures must be implemented for the protection of rivers and   use of safe water .

SOIL POLLUTION

Soil is a vital part for living beings because it provides a habitat to animals, plants, insects, human and basically every living being in the world. Soil provides necessary moisture as well as minerals to support plants life. Plants prevent erosion and many natural disasters. Many insects and microbes live in soil. Therefore, soil is an important element for insects, plants, animals and humans.

The degradation of soil due to the presence of various unwanted chemicals altering the natural state of the soil is called soil pollution . It is harmful to plants as well as any other forms of life. Uneducated farmers use insecticides, pesticides and various fertilizers in excess amount which not only degrades the quality of soil such as soil texture, water holding capacity, porosity, etc. but also minimizes crop yield. This also kills various useful animals living inside the soil. Soil pollution is mostly found in urban and industrialized areas. If land is polluted, to neither plants can develop properly nor is it suitable for animals.

Sources of soil pollution

Land gets polluted because of various reasons. There are various sources of land pollution such as domestic wastes, use of harmful chemicals, industrial wastes, use of fertilizers, acid rain, etc. The wastes emitted from sources are the main pollution of soil. The major reasons for the pollution of land are as follows:

a)     Domestic wastes

Many products, both edible and non- edible, are used in our daily life. Domestic wastes include waste products such as dust, excreta, broken utensils, plastic, contaminated food etc. When these wastes come in contact with land, it may produce many harmful microbes which also supports in the formation of various diseases. If lots of wastes get deposited in a certain place, it may act as a breeding place for various bacteria. Land pollution may also decrease the fertility of soil.

b)      Excessive use of pesticides

Farmer's main job is to cultivate various crops. However, sometimes various insects and pests attack their crops. In order to protect the crops from any damage, many chemical compounds are used. These chemicals protect the crops from harmful insects. But they also pollute the soil. Due to this reason, insecticides, fungicides, weedicides, etc. are considered as  pollutants. The most dangerous substances that cause harm to the soil are DDT, dialdrin, Aldrin, parathion, etc.

                c) Industrial waste

                          Many useful objects are manufactured by industries. However, some other objects which cause pollution are also emitted. The substances which are thrown from factories include chemicals, metals, nonmetals, waste products, living wastes, etc. which cause harm to the natural quality of the soil which pollutes it and degrades the crop yield. It may also adversely harm the living animals in the polluted soil.

        d)         Use of chemical fertilizers

Many fertilizers are used to increase the productivity and fertility of the soil. If it is used in proper amount, it may increase the crop yield. However, excessive use of these fertilizers is the major cause of soil pollution. Fertilizers contain various elements such as Arsenic (As), Barium (Ba), Calcium (Ca), Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Mercury (Hg), Lead (Pb) etc. These elements are responsible for killing various useful living organisms in the soil and also causing imbalance in the nutrients of the soil.

e)                   Municipal Wastes

Municipalities are the major sources of waste products. These waste products most often do not get disposed in the right area due to which the soil gets contaminated. These waters are both organic and inorganic and are responsible for the depletion of fertility of the soil.

f)                    Acid rain

Basically, the presence of any sorts of acid in rain is regarded as acid rain. The major compounds causing acid rain are sulphuric acid (H2S04), nitric acid (HN03), hydrochloric acid (HCI), Carbonic acid (H2C03).

MEASURES TO CONTROL SOIL POLLUTION

1.     The use of harmful chemical fertilizers must be replaced by compost mature in order to maximize the crop yield.

2.     The use of pesticides and insecticides must be minimized and other methods of controlling pests which do not contaminate the soil must be used.

3.     Proper disposal of domestic wastes should be established.

4.     The irrigation of fields using polluted water must be discouraged.

5.     The radioactive substances emitted from factories and laboratories must be appropriately disposed.

6.     Proper drainage system must be built for the disposal human excreta.

7.     Afforestation must be done in order to prevent the soil erosion from natural disasters such as floods, landslides, etc.

8.     The use of materials that do not decay over a certain period of time must be minimized.

9.     Farmers must be trained and educated through various programmes on proper use of fertilizers.

10.        Awareness programmes must be conducted to aware the people about the harmful effects of soil pollution.

11.        Soil conservation methods should be implemented to preserve the soil.

                                             Chemical Pollution

Environmental deterioration due to unscientific and improper use of chemical substances is called chemical pollution.  Our environment is getting increasingly unhygienic and polluted day by day because of this chemical pollution. In general, chemical pollution is excessive in the areas with high population density.

Some causes of chemical pollution are as follows:

1.     Chemical fertilizers:

 Chemical fertilizers and insecticides used by the farmers constitute the major part of chemical pollution. The chemicals contained in fertilizers get dissolved in water and reach rivers, streams and ponds. This process supports the excessive growth of algae and other immaterial grasses. This obviously results   in over-exploitation of oxygen in the water when they decay after their death. It brings a gradual reduction in the number of organisms in the water as they have to undergo oxygen deficiency.

2.     Insecticides:  

The use of insecticides has a negative impact on useful plants and organisms as well. DDT, BHC, methoxychloride, etc. are commonly used insecticides which kill many useful insects and hamper the growth of some plants. This chemical is stored in plants and animals and harms them causing chronic and infectious diseases. Many animals who feed on dead animals (death is caused by insecticides) are badly affected by insecticides.

Dieldrine, aldrin, cobalt, lead, mercury, etc. directly pollute our environment. The use of lead containing petrol is seriously injurious to our health. Scientists are making efforts to produce lead free petrol. The industries established on the bank of rivers, seas and oceans excrete a great amount of mercury that affects fish and other aquatic animals the sea. Many people were killed because of eating the fish containing profuse level of mercury in 1950 in Japan.

3.     Refuses and waste materials :

 Dirt and waste materials are the main causes of environmental pollution. The rapid degradation of our environment is probably owing to improper disposal of dirt and garbage being increasingly collected day to day. The noxious substances in the dirt spread out in the air and water causing rise in atmospheric pollution.

4.     Plastic:  

Plastic is used to make utensils, bags, pipes and many other things. The things made by plastic are not decomposed; it ultimately creates an alarming problem in the environment. This gives off poisonous gas on being burnt. Hence, it is really essential to develop the recycling process of waste plastic in order to save the environment from being polluted.

3.  Smoke from the means of transport and industries :

Greenhouse effect  is on the rise due to the increasing quantity of      carbon dioxide in the air. it has resulted in global temperature increment and dreadful droughts. high temperature accelerates the melting of snow in the polar regions causing the sea surface to rise higher. the lands along the edge of the sea will then come under water. dust and smoke cause chronic lung diseases in animals. moreover, dense smoke has a negative effect on the environment. it causes lung diseases., 4. colours used in foodstuffs :.

 Many people prefer to use different colours in foodstuffs and drinks like tea, coffee, chocolate, etc. to make them attractive to look. This kind of use of colours in food is ruinous to our health. It increases the possibility of death by causing diseases like cancer.

  5. Synthetic clingers:

  control measures of chemical pollution.

l. Rules and regulations are to be made to establish industries, factories and other thermal plants far from residential areas. 

2. Farmers are suggested for the use of organic fertilizers rather than chemical fertilizers.

3. Trainings should be given to farmers for the wise and proper use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides.

 4. The waste water, dyes and other liquids released from industrial areas must be purified before mixing them into water bodies.

 5. Noxious smokes from industries should not be allowed spread in the air.

 6.People must be conscious of the results of using harmful substances in food.

7.Unnecessary use of fertilizers and insecticides should not be done. 

8. Vehicles and industries should be kept in proper conditions.

Pollution control is basically integral to maintain natural balance. Today it is a bounded duty of all of us to protect our environment from being deteriorated. Scientists have been engaged in finding out easier methods of environmental preservation. 

   Management of bio-degradable and non-biodegradable wastes

Solid waste is considered as any sort of bio-degradable and non-biodegradable garbage such as food wastes, construction debris, plastic, clothes etc . Primarily, the amount of solid waste is increasing day by day in urban areas in an alarming rate. The increase in the amount of domestic as well as industrial wastes due to over population causes environmental imbalance.

The unwanted or unusable wastes from industrial, commercial, agricultural operations and even from community activities are called solid wastes. Some kinds of wastes around us are garbage refuse, plastic, broken metals, glass pieces, clothes, rocks, green wastes, paper, etc. On the basis of the characteristics, solid wastes can be classified into biodegradable and non-biodegradable solid wastes. 

  Biodegradable wastes

The wastes which consist of organic matter and can be decomposed into their simpler components such as carbon dioxide, water, methane and other organic molecules by micro-organisms in a short time period are called biodegradable wastes. Kitchen wastes, dead animals, clothes, paper, human wastes, manures, etc. are the biodegradable wastes.

           Non-biodegradable wastes

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प्रदुषणको बारेमा निबन्ध | Essay on pollution in nepali

प्रदुषणको बारेमा निबन्ध |Essay on pollution in nepali

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Pollution: A challenge to public health

Datta bahadur rawal.

Industries must be encouraged to adopt cleaner technologies and processes that minimise their impact on the environment. This includes advanced filtration systems

KATHMANDU, FEBRUARY 14

Air pollution can be defined simply as the presence of one or multiple contaminants, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or vapour in the atmosphere, which can be injurious to plants, animals and humans in many ways.

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Human activities contribute to the mixing of harmful gaseous and particulate matter in the air, causing air pollution. Some major human activities causing air pollution include industries mainly run by fossil fuels and burning of different substances, dumping of solid and liquid wastes, and smoke from cooking, airplanes and automobiles.

Air pollution in the Kathmandu Valley and some other major cities of Nepal has led to a deterioration of the environment. Add to this the pollution caused by solid waste, waste water and even dirty politics at the historical and cultural cities, and improving the pollution level becomes a major challenge without a scientific and practical plan and its strict implementation.

The latest air pollution updates show that the major cities like Kathmandu, Patan, Bhaktapur, Dhankuta, Tulsipur and Pokhara all have critical air quality.

Without a doubt, pollution has been affecting human lives and their environment in a negative way.

Pollution damages every aspect of humans and the environment, such as health, economy and overall civilization of the people.

So we can't build a civilized nation without first building a clean environment by managing the waste sustainably.

According to the State of Global Air (SoGA) report, around 42,115 people die each year from illnesses related to air pollution in Nepal.

Similarly around 3,500 children die each year due to water-borne diseases in Nepal (Department of Health Services, 2017).

Consequently, huge amounts of resources are being spent on the treatment of those suffering from such illnesses caused by polluted air and water every year.

Reports from different organisations worldwide suggest that one-third of the deaths from lung cancer, heart disease and stroke are due to air pollution.

Air pollution, both indoors or outdoors, has a negative impact on human health. The particles and toxic gases emitted by different industries, vehicles, cooking processes, firewood and many other sources end up in the lungs during respiration and impact human health in a detrimental way. A range of particles of different diameters are emitted from different sources that can affect the lungs, blood, heart, eyes, brain and many parts of the human body. More specifically, particles of less than 10-micron diameter can easily penetrate deep inside the lungs and cause respiratory diseases. Particles of less than 2.5-micron diameter can even enter the blood system through the lungs, which can affect the heart and cause strokes, lung cancer, chronic respiratory diseases, asthma and many more. Also, the particles causing the pollution can stick to the eyes and cause irritation and even permanent damage to the eyes.

The government and its related departments need to develop a practical plan considering the current situation.

People face pollution everywhere in a single day, while drinking water, breathing, walking, sitting in a park, and going to public places community schools, cultural places and even inside the building of the parliament. Major cities stink due to the garbage produced from the home and other sources, which will become a very serious issue in the near future.

A large number of people are aware of the different kinds of pollution, and their prevention measures, but they refuse to comply with the mitigation measures in their daily lives. The government and the related authorities have developed dozens of policies, guidelines and regulations considering these issues, but they have never been implemented properly. As a result, these documents are gathering dust on the office shelves.

The federal and local governments had developed policies regarding construction of new homes, and the house owners were required to maintain some space around their homes for some greenery. But this has not been practised because the local government is unwilling to take action against those who break the rules. Similar policies were also developed for other areas regarding building disaster-resilient infrastructure following the devastating earthquake in 2015 that killed thousands of people and destroyed tens of thousands of homes. Instead, after the earthquake, the buildings have grown only taller and leave no open spaces as required.

The old practice of building homes still continues, with no change in the attitude of both the government and the people at large.

Additionally, individuals can play a vital role in improving the air quality by being mindful of the energy they consume, reducing waste and emissions, and choosing eco-friendly products. Individuals can also take other simple actions, such as using eco-friendly products and reducing the amount of waste they generate in their daily life.

Another important step is to improve energy efficiency and switch to renewable energy sources, such as hydro, wind and solar power. Nepal is well-endowed with hydropower potential, and its location in the Himalayas provides ample water resources for power generation.

Thus, increasing the use of hydropower and other renewable energy sources will not only reduce emissions from energy generation but also help to slow down the effects of climate change, which is a major contributor to air pollution and other environmental problems.

Moreover, industries must be encouraged to adopt cleaner technologies that minimise their impact on the environment. This can include investing in advanced filtration systems, reducing waste and emissions, and improving the efficiency of energy use.

Moreover, planting trees and maintaining greenery are the most important factor in maintaining clean air, which plays a vital role in maintaining the ecosystem.

A version of this article appears in the print on February 15, 2023, of The Himalayan Times.

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वातावरण प्रदूषण मा निबंध नेपाली (Essay on Environment in Nepali Language)

Essay on Environment in Nepali Language : In this article we are providing  वातावरण प्रदूषण मा निबंध नेपाली for Class 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10. Read here  Vatavaran Pradushan in Nepali Essay for Students.

वातावरण प्रदूषण मा निबंध नेपाली

Essay on environment in nepali language.

वातावरण वातावरण दिवस मनाउन सुरु गरिएको हो । वातावरण सन्तुलनका लागि नेपालले पनि विश्व वातावरण दिवसलाई सन् १९७६ देखि नियमित रूपमा मनाउँदै आएको छ । वातावरण स्वच्छ भएन भने मानिस, अन्य जीवजन्तुहरुलाई समेत बाँच्नको लागि अपठ्यारो हुन्छ । मानिस स्वस्थ छ भने यसले जीवनमा धेरै कामहरु गर्न सकिन्छ। मानिसको 'स्वस्थ्य नै जीवन हो" भन्ने कुरा कदापि बिर्सिनुहुँदैन। वातावरण स्वच्छ हुँदा मात्र मानिस स्वस्थ बन्न सक्दछ भन्ने कुरालाई सबैले आत्मसात गर्नुपर्दछ। 

त्यसैले सबै मिलेर वातावरणको संरक्षण गर्न आजको आवश्यकता हो । मानवले बनाएको टेक्नोलोजी विकासले प्रकृतिको सन्तुलन बिग्रिरहेको छ। सम्पूर्ण प्राणीको सृष्टि प्रकृतिबाटै भएकाले यसलाई संरक्षण गर्नु पर्ने हाम्रो दायित्व रहेको देखिन्छ । प्रकृतिले स्वच्छ वातावारण तयार गरिदिएर सम्पूर्ण प्राणीको जीवनलाई स्वस्थ बनाइदिएको हुन्छ। सृष्टिको सुरुवातदेखि नै मानव अन्य प्राणी र वनस्पतिक बीच घनिष्ठ सम्बन्ध रहीआएको पनि छ। संसारका प्राणीहरुमध्येको विवेकशील प्राणी मानिस नै भएकाले वातावारणलाई जोगाउने दायित्व हामीहरुको हातमा रहेकोछ। 

प्राकृतिक सम्पदाहरलाई जोगाई जोगाउने वातावरण संरक्षण गर्न सबैका निम्ति हितकर हुनेछ । मानवलगायत अन्य प्राणीहरुको जीवन वातारवरणमै निर्भर हुनालेभएकोले वातावरणको संरक्षण गर्नु हामी सबैको दायित्व देखिन्छ । स्वस्थ वातावरणले प्रकृतिलाई सन्तुलनमा राख्नका साथसाथै बढ्दै गएको पोषण मागलाई पूरा गर्दै जान्छ अनि पृथ्वीमा रहेको सबै जीवजन्तुलाई बाँच्नको लागि सहजताको विकास गर्ने गरेको छ । वर्तमान समयमा पृथ्वीमा रहेको केही वनस्पति तथा जीवजन्तुहरू लोप भएका छन् भने केही लोप हुने अवस्थामा पुगेका छ, यो बढ्दो वातावरण विनासको कारणले भएको हो। मानिस प्रकृतिके सृष्टि भएकाले कहिल्यै पनि प्रकृतिबाट टाढा बस्न सक्दैन। प्रकृतिले प्रदान गरेको स्वच्छ वातावरणकै भरमा मानिसको जीवन अडेको छ। मानव आफैले वातावरणलाई प्रदुषित बनाइ आफ्नै जीवनलाई छोट्यइरहेको छ। 

प्रकृतिका विरुद्धमा पनि जान सक्दैन भन्ने कुरा थाहा हुदाँहुदै पनि मानिस प्रकृति माथि गलत कार्यहरु गर्न पछि परेको छैन। मानिसले भौतिक उन्नति गर्ने क्रममा प्राकतिक वातावरणको स्वच्छतामा खलल पुर्याइरहेको देखिन्छ। प्राकृतिक सम्पदाहरुलाई नष्ट गर्ने काम मानिसले मात्र गरेको पाइन्छ । अन्य प्राणीहरु प्राकृतिक सुन्दरतामै हाँस्दैखेल्दै रमाएराहेका हुन्छन। मानिसचाहिँ प्राकृतिक वातावरणलाई आफ्ना आनुकुल बनाउने कोसिस गरिरहेका छन । मानिसका अविवेकी क्रियाकलापहरुले गर्दा प्राकतिक नदि, हावा,रुख, हरियाली आदि कुराहरु विकृति अवस्थामा देखा परिरहेका छन्। उद्योग र कलकारखानाबाट निस्कने फोहोर, धुवा धुलो र दुषित पानीबाट हावा र पानी दुषित हुन् गई वातावरण बिग्रिने हामी सबैलाई थाहै भएकै छ। 

हावापानी दुषित भएपछि मानिसले आफू पूर्ण स्वस्थ भएर बच्ने कल्पना गर्ने ब्यर्थ हुन्छ। बोटबिरुवाहरु बाट निस्कने अक्सिजन प्राप्त गरी बच्ने आधार पाएको मान्छे तिनै बोटबिरुवाहरुलाई काटी देशको विकाश गर्न लागि परेको देखिन्छ । प्रकृतिको नियमलाई मिचेर कहिँ कसैबाट हुनुहुँदैन । प्राकृतिक सुन्दरतालाई नष्ट गरिदिने खालका  विस्फोटक पदार्थहरुको प्रयोग नगर्नु नै राम्रो हन्छ। प्रदुषित वातावरण मानवजतिको सर्वनाशको जड भएकाले वातावारणलाई स्वच्छ राख्ने प्रयास गर्नु सम्भव पनि छ। जीवनको स्वास्थ्यका निम्ति स्वच्छ वातावारण रहेकाले यसको संरक्षण व्यक्ति, समाज र विश्वले नै सचेत बन्नुपर्ने आवश्यकता देखा परेको छ । वातावरणको सिर्जना यस पृथ्वीमा रहेको जीवजगृत र प्राकृतिक सम्पदाहरूको संयोगबाट हुने भए पनि यसको संरक्षणमा मानवजातिको महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका हुन्छ । त्यसैले वातावरण स्वच्छ राख्नु हामी सबैको कर्तव्य हो । औद्योगिक तथा वैज्ञानिक प्रगति, रासायनिक पदार्थको उत्पादन र अव्यवस्थित प्रयोग, प्राकृतिक स्रोत साधनहरूको दुरुपयोगले दिन प्रतिदिन वातावरण असन्तुलित बनाइरहेको छ । यसले गर्दा मानिसको जीवन कष्टकर बन्न पुगेको देखिन्छ । 

मानिसले भौतिक उन्नति गर्ने क्रममा प्राकतिक वातावरणको स्वच्छता माथि खलल पुर्याउने काम गरेको देखिन्छ ।वातावरण प्रदुषणका कारणहरू अनियन्त्रित जनसंख्या वृद्धि, प्राकृतिक सम्पदाको अधिक प्रयोग, वनजंगलको तीव्र वृद्धि, जनचेतनाको अभाव, वातावरण संरक्षणको लागि राष्ट्रिय र अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय समन्वयको कमी, आदि हुन्। विश्वबाट निस्कने ३० प्रतिशत फोहोर मैलाको कुनै प्रकारको व्यवस्थापन नभएको देखिन्छ भने विकासोन्मुख देश नेपालको अवस्था झने विकराल रहेको छ । यसरी बढ्दै गएको समस्या र चुनौतीलाई समाधान गर्न वातावरण संरक्षणको महत्व सबैले बुझ्न जरुरी छ । वातावरणीय पक्षहरूलाई संरक्षित गर्दै विकासको गतिलाई एकीकृत तथा समान रूपमा अगाडि बढाउनु नै। वातावरण व्यवस्थापन हो ।वातावरण व्यवस्थापन भित्र प्राकृतिक स्रोत साधनको उपयोग, वातावरण संरक्षण, प्रदुषण र फोहोरमैला व्यवस्थापन, जैविकविविधता संरक्षण, भूमि तथा वनको दिगो प्रयोग लगायत सम्पूर्ण विधि र पक्रिया समेटिएको पाइन्छ । वातावरण व्यवस्थापनको महत्व मानिस र वातावरणबीच अन्योन्याश्रित सम्बन्ध छ । एकातर्फ मानिसलाई अत्यावश्यक आधारभूत आवश्यकताहरू वातावरणबाट उपलब्ध हुन्छन् भने अर्कोतर्फ मानिसको प्रकृतिमाथिको अतिक्रमणले वातावरण विभिन्न समस्याहरू सिर्जना गरिहेको छ ।पृथ्वीमा जीवनको अस्तित्वमा वातावरणले महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निर्वाह गर्दछ । पृथ्वी विभिन्न जीवित प्रजातिको घर हो र हामी सबै खाद्य, हावा, पानी र अन्य आवश्यकताहरूको लागि वातावरणमा निर्भर छौं त्यसैले वातावरणको संरक्षण गर्नु आजको आवश्यकता देखिन्छ ।

वातावरणको अर्थ सबै प्राकृतिक परिवेश जस्तै भूमि, हावा, पानी, बिरुवा, पशु, ठोस सामग्री, अपशिष्ट, सूर्यलाइट, जंगल र अन्य चीजहरू हो । स्वस्थ वातावरणले प्रकृतिको सन्तुलनको साथसाथै साथमा बढ्दै पोषण र पृथ्वीमा रहेका सबै जीवित चीजहरू विकास गर्न मद्दत गर्दछ। तथापि, आज एक दिन, वातावरण बिग्रेको केही मानवले बनाएको  टेक्नोलोजी विकासले धेरै तरिकामा प्रकृतिको सन्तुलन बिग्रेको छ। सम्पूर्ण प्राणीको सृष्टि प्रकृतिबाटै भएकाले वातावारणलाई प्राकृतिक परिवेशले उचित वातावरण प्रदान गरिदिएको हुन्छ। प्रकृतिले स्वच्छ वातावारण तयार गरिदिएर सम्पूर्ण प्राणीको जीवनलाई स्वस्थ बनाइदिएको हुन्छ। सृष्टिको सुरुवातदेखि नै मानव अन्य प्राणी र वनस्पतिक बीच गानिष्ठ सम्बन्ध रहीआएको पनि छ।संसारका प्राणीहरुमध्येको विवेकशील प्राणी मानिस नै भएकाले वातावारणलाई जोगाउने दायित्व उसकै हातमा छ। प्राकृतिक सम्पदाहरलाई जोगाई जोगाउने वातावारण संरक्षण गर्नु सबैका निम्ति हितकर छ। मानवलगायत अन्य प्राणीहरुको जीवन वातारवरणमै भरपर्ने हुनाले वातावारंको संरक्षण गर्नु अत्यावश्यक छ।

मानिस प्रकृतिकै  सृष्टि भएकाले उ कहिल्यै पनि प्रकृतिबाट लता रहेर बस्न सक्दैन। प्रकृतिले प्रदान गरेको स्वच्छ वातावरणकै  भरमा मानिसको जीवन अडेको छ; तर उ आफैले वातावरणलाई प्रदुषित तुल्याई आफ्नै जीवनलाई छोट्यइरहेको छ।प्रकृतिका विरुद्धमा कोही पनि जान सक्दैन भन्ने कुरा थाहा हुदाँहुदैँ पनि मानिस प्रकृतिमाथि विजय प्राप्त गर्ने नाममा गलत कार्यहरु गर्न पछि परेको छैन्। मानिसले भौतिक उन्नति गर्ने क्रममा प्राकृतिक वातावरणको स्वच्छतामा खलल पुर्याइरहेको देखिन्छ। प्राकृतिक सम्पदाहरुलाई नष्ट गर्ने काम मानिसले मात्र गरेको पाइन्छ।अन्य प्राणीहरु त् प्राकृतिक सुन्दरतामै हाँस्दै-खेल्दै रमाएराहेका हन्छन।मानिसचाहिँ प्राकृतिक वातावरणलाई आफ्ना आनुकुल बनाउने कोसिस गर्दछ अनि आफ्नो कोसिस असफल हुँदा क्रोधत् बन्दै प्रकृतिकै विनाश गर्न अग्रसर हुन्छ। मानिसका अविवेकी क्रियाकलापहरुले गर्दा प्राकृतिक नदि, हावा, रुख, हरियाली आदि कुराहरु विकृति अवस्थामा देखा परिरहेका छन्। उद्योग र कलकारखानाबाट निस्कने फोहोर धुवा र दुषित पानीबाट हावा र पानी दुषित हुन् गई वातावरण बिग्रिने कुरा हामीलाई थाहै छ। हावापानी दुषित भएपछि मानिसले आफू पूर्ण स्वस्थ बनेर बच्ने कल्पना गर्ने ब्यर्थ हुन्छ।बोटबिरुवाहरुलाई अक्सिजन प्राप्त गरी बच्ने आधार पाएको मान्छे तिनै बोटबिरुवाहरुलाई काट्न कोसिन्छ।

वातावरण स्वच्छ नभएमा मानिस आपंग नै बन्न पुग्दछ। आपंगा भएर बच्नु ज्यादै गार्हो हुन्छ।मानिस स्वस्थ छ भने यसले जीवनमा धेरै कामहरु गर्न सक्दछ। मानिस 'स्वस्थ्य नै जीवन हो'' भन्ने कुरा कदापि बिर्सिनुहुँदैन। वातावरण स्वच्छ हुदा मात्र मानिस स्वस्थ बन्न सक्दछ भन्ने कुरालाई सबैले आत्मसात गर्नुपर्दछ/ त्यसैले सबै मिलेर वातावरणको संरक्षण गर्न आजको आवश्यकता नै हो। यसको संरक्षणक लागि कारवा गर्न कसैले पनि कन्जुस्याइँ गर्नुहुदैन. जुन कम गर्दा वातावरणमा नराम्रो असर पर्छ, त्यस्ता कामहरु बिर्सेर पनि गर्नुहुँदैन।

प्रकृतिको नियमलाई मिच्ने काम कहिँबाट र कसैबाट हुनुहुँदैन। एकै पलमा प्राकृतिक सुन्दरताले नष्ट गरिदिने खालका  विस्फोटक पदार्थहरुको  प्रयोग नगर्नु नै राम्रो  हो। प्रदुषित वातावरण मानवजतिको सर्वनाशको जड भएकाले वातावारणलाई स्वच्छ राख्ने प्रयास गर्नु सम्भव पनि छ। जीवनको स्वस्थताक निम्ति स्वच्छ वातावारण रहेकाले यसको संरक्षण व्यक्ति, समाज र विश्वले नै सचेत बन्नुपर्ने आवश्यकता टड्कारो देखा पर्छ।

Author: Admin

Etiam at libero iaculis, mollis justo non, blandit augue. Vestibulum sit amet sodales est, a lacinia ex. Suspendisse vel enim sagittis, volutpat sem eget, condimentum sem.

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Towards clean air in Nepal

Faris Hadad-Zervos  & Dina Umali-Deininger

Kathmandu was ranked the most polluted city in the world for several days in April 2023. On eight separate days of the month, daily average pollution levels of PM2.5—a particularly hazardous form of air pollution—exceeded 100 µg/m3—more than 6.5 times the World Health Organization’s 24-hour average guideline recommendation. Smoke from forest fires across the country, which rose by 76.5 percent as compared to the previous year—combined with transboundary smog and local emissions (from motor vehicles, cook stoves, industries, and waste burning)—choked Kathmandu and several parts of the country including the Terai region.

Air pollution is a public health crisis across Kathmandu Valley and the Tarai region, reducing the average life expectancy in Nepal by more than five years and causing significant cardiovascular and lung diseases. Such health effects are also reducing people’s productivity and degrading their quality of life with tangible economic consequences. The estimated negative welfare effects of air pollution in Nepal amount to more than six percent of the national GDP.

In 2021, Nepal adopted the Green, Resilient, and Inclusive Development (GRID) approach. As a next step, the country is currently developing the GRID Strategic Action Plan, and air pollution is a top priority here. The Government of Nepal’s ambitious climate commitments at COP26—to achieve net zero emissions by 2045 and increase the share of clean energy in the country's energy demand to 15 percent—are imperative and an excellent opportunity to beat air pollution in Nepal.

The key to effectively addressing air pollution is tackling the various sources and origins, including in other countries.

Finding synergies

While addressing the primary sources of air pollution, Nepal can find solutions that effectively tackle multiple sources, such as forest fires and brick kilns. To create a market for woody residues, which are the main input for the fledgling wood pellet industry in the country, one not only reduces the likelihood of forest fires (by removing the forest underbrush for use in pellets) but also creates a market and replacement for burning coal in brick kilns. Adopting a minimum coal price would be an important incentive for switching to pellet burning. Such a policy and minimum non-coal fuel requirements for brick kilns are currently being worked out in Nepal; the World Bank is supporting technical assessments to examine practical options for implementing such a policy.

Adopting cleaner technologies and practices can tackle the other key sources of air pollution, like using wood, dung and agricultural waste as fuel for residential cooking and urban mobility. The World Bank is supporting the adoption of cleaner technologies such as electric vehicles and electric cookstoves as part of the first GRID Development Policy Credit operation.

Working beyond borders

Clean air is a classic regional public goods case, owing to transboundary airflows, requiring collective action by the countries, cities and municipalities sharing the same airshed. The World Bank has a unique comparative advantage and role in addressing regional and global public goods challenges, as was emphasised recently in the Evolution Roadmap . Nepal is not alone in suffering from air pollution. Some of the air pollution that plagues Kathmandu originates from nearby countries, just as Nepal’s emissions contribute to air pollution further downwind. Both regional and subnational cooperation is critical to curbing air pollution.

As the recent World Bank report Striving for Clean Air—Air Pollution and Public Health in South Asia suggests, the solutions to air pollution challenges in the region require prioritising measures to achieve air quality benefits across the entire airshed. Recent efforts by Nepal and neighbouring countries bode well for regional coordination on effective policies. For example, the recently signed Kathmandu Roadmap demonstrates a clear demand for a regional platform to assess policies, paving the way for coordinated air quality planning and sharing implementation experiences .

However, successful responses require more than coordination and information sharing. The governments in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and Himalayan Foothills, including Nepal, must focus on the four areas to curb air pollution. First, incentives should be prioritised. Businesses will tend toward least-cost solutions, but if negative environmental impacts are not priced into that cost, wrong signals and perverse incentives can result in poor outcomes. Price signals can be set to incentivise clean technologies (for example, paying farmers and foresters to collect biomass for making pellets instead of burning it) while discouraging polluting ones (e.g., pricing coal to reflect its carbon content). Second, collecting and publicly disseminating data on pollution levels and building greater awareness of its impact on public health, the economy, and the environment is imperative. Better information enables conditions for evidence-based public policies that ensure regulations are fit for purpose.

Institutions play a primary role as air quality management planning is a complex, multi-sectoral process. It requires long-term, sustained efforts by ministries and agencies to collect and analyse data and work with stakeholders to identify and implement collective solutions that address concerns and achieve results. Along with clarifying roles and responsibilities, capacity building within the government and stronger partnerships with the private sector is necessary. Ultimately, investment in adopting innovative, clean technology is critical. Private sector finance is essential to get to scale. Concessional financing, in turn, is crucial in de-risking private sector investments in innovative clean technologies.

Nepal is working hard with its neighbours to achieve solutions that align with these four principles, helping in livelihood improvement, enhancement of the quality of life and public health preservation. The World Bank is committed to supporting Nepal and countries in the South Asia region to ensure the conditions for success are met. 

Faris Hadad-Zervos Hadad-Zervos is World Bank Country Director for Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka.

Dina Umali-Deininger Umali-Deininger is the World Bank Regional Director for Sustainable Development for South Asia.

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Mitigating the impacts of air pollutants in Nepal and climate co-benefits: a scenario-based approach

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• Published: 27 January 2020
• Volume 13 , pages 361–370, ( 2020 )

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• Amrit M. Nakarmi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6916-6058 1 , 2 ,
• Bikash Sharma 3 ,
• Utsav S. Rajbhandari 1 ,
• Anita Prajapati 1 ,
• Christopher S. Malley 4 ,
• Johan C. I. Kuylenstierna 4 ,
• Harry W. Vallack 4 ,
• Daven K. Henze 5 &
• Arnico Panday 3  

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Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) including black carbon (BC), methane (CH 4 ), and tropospheric ozone (O 3 ) are major climate forcers after carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). These SLCPs also have detrimental impacts on human health and agriculture. Studies show that the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, which includes Nepal, has been experiencing the impacts of these pollutants in addition to greenhouse gases. In this study, we derive a national-level emission inventory for SLCPs, CO 2 , and air pollutants for Nepal and project their impacts under reference (REF) and mitigation policy (POL) scenarios. The impacts on human health, agriculture, and climate were then estimated by applying the following: (1) adjoint coefficients from the Goddard Earth Observing System (GEOS)-chemical transport model that quantify the sensitivity of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) and surface O 3 concentrations in Nepal, and radiative forcing in four latitudinal bands, to emissions in 2 × 2.5° grids, and (2) concentration–response functions to estimate health and crop loss impacts in Nepal. With the mitigating measures undertaken, emission reductions of about 78% each of BC and CH 4 and 87% of PM 2.5 could be achieved in 2050 compared with the REF scenario. This would lead to an estimated avoidance of 29,000 lives lost and 1.7 million tonnes of crop loss while bringing an economic benefit in present value of 2.7 times more than the total cost incurred in its implementation during the whole period 2010–2050. The results provide useful policy insights and pathways for evidence-based decision-making in the design and effective implementation of SLCP mitigation measures in Nepal.

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Introduction

Air quality management and climate change mitigation are two inexorably linked environmental challenges of the twenty-first century. Addressing them in a coordinated manner can simultaneously slow down the rate of climate change and protect human health and ecosystems, including agriculture. Yet, air pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHGs) and their impacts are often considered independently in both scientific and policy spheres. CO 2 is widely recognized as the primary driver of global warming and climate change. However, studies have shown that short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs)—including methane (CH 4 ), black carbon (BC), and tropospheric ozone (O 3 )—contribute to near-term climate change, as well as adverse impacts on human health and agriculture (IPCC 2014 ; Ramanathan and Carmichael 2008 ; UNEP/WMO 2011 ). Growing evidence suggests that to reduce global warming and remain under a target of 2 °C rise, it is essential to take a coordinated action, without any delay, for reductions in both CO 2 and SLCPs concurrently (Bowerman et al. 2013 ; Hu et al. 2013 ; Rogelja et al. 2014 ; Shoemaker et al. 2013 ; UNEP/WMO 2011 ). To help address this, several governmental and non-governmental organizations (including the US Environmental Protection Agency, the World Bank, and the Arctic Council) are taking action on SLCP mitigation (Pierrehumbert 2014 ). In addition, a separate United Nations entity, the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC), was formed in 2012 as the only global voluntary organization dedicated to promoting and implementing early mitigation of SLCPs by supporting their integration into existing national planning (CCAC 2016b ). Clearly, an integrated approach to addressing air quality and climate change as part of the policy process will offer a great opportunity to contribute to meeting sustainable development goals (SDGs), although they are not explicitly stated as such (Haines et al. 2017 ).

Several studies have identified Asia as the single largest source of global BC emissions from contained combustion, accounting for more than half of all such emissions (Ramanathan and Carmichael 2008 ; UNEP 2011 ; USAID 2010 ). The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region in South Asia is especially vulnerable to the impacts of SLCPs, in particular to BC. This region is the source of ten large Asian river systems which provide water, ecosystem services, and the basis of livelihoods to more than 210 million people in the mountains and 1.3 billion people downstream (Beniston, cited in Rasul 2014 ). Studies have shown that glaciers in the HKH region have been retreating and will continue to melt at higher rates if the increase in emissions continues (Ramanathan et al. 2008 ; Rose 2012 ; Yongjian et al. 2015 ). While some of the atmospheric changes in the HKH region are driven by the global increase in atmospheric GHG concentrations, approximately 50% of the warming on the Himalayan–Tibetan plateau has also been attributed to BC (Menon et al. 2010 ; Ramanathan et al. 2007 ; UNEP/WMO 2011 ). This glacial melting in the HKH region is due not only to a temperature increase in CO 2 but also to the aerosols that arise mainly from burning biomass and fossil fuel combustion (Gustafsson et al. 2009 ; Ramanathan et al. 2007 ; Rose 2012 ; Sadavarte et al. 2016 ).

Nepal, located between two of the world’s biggest BC emitters, China and India (Ramanathan and Carmichael 2008 ), is particularly vulnerable to the impacts. Thus, domestic action will be insufficient and regional cooperation will be needed to reduce the impacts of SLCPs. However, there is still a data gap on SLCP emissions in Nepal based on their activity levels, emission share, temporal and spatial variation, and quantification of their impacts. Existing policies and plans are largely designed to indirectly support or generate co-benefits for air pollution mitigation without an explicit SLCP-focused policy and planned interventions (Gyawali 2016 ). Past studies of SLCPs in Nepal are usually either concerned with transboundary atmospheric brown clouds (Lüthi et al. 2015 ; Rose 2012 ), or focused at city level and reflect localized data as in the following papers: Rupakheti et al. ( 2016 ); Kim et al. ( 2015 ); Putero et al. ( 2015 ); World Bank ( 2014 ); Shrestha et al. ( 2013b ); ICIMOD ( 2012 ); Dhimal et al. ( 2009 ); CEN/ENPHO ( 2003 ). The World Bank reported that the mean annual ambient PM 2.5 concentration in Nepal was 46.09 μg/m 3 in 2013, and the PM 2.5 concentration in Kathmandu in 2013 was 49 μg/m 3 (WB/IHME 2016 ; WHO 2016 ). A more recent study shows that the daily mean PM 2.5 and BC concentrations in Kathmandu valley, due to the transport sector, can reach 124.76 μg/m 3 and 16.74 μg/m 3 , respectively, during spring (Shakya et al. 2016 ). Other studies suggest that the urban centers are most vulnerable to impacts of air pollution with pollution levels substantially above WHO guidelines (CANN 2014 ; CES 2016 ; DoE 2016 ; Gautam 2010 ; ICIMOD 2012 ; WHO 2016 ; World Bank 2014 ). All these studies call for the control of air pollution to reduce its adverse impacts. For this to happen, a proper understanding of the impacts of SLCPs mitigation measures is paramount for evidence-based policy decision-making. In this context, it is very important for Nepal to undertake an assessment of the potential measures that could be taken to mitigate the impacts of SLCPs.

The objective of this study is to provide a guideline or benchmark for the formulation of a national action plan to be undertaken by each of the respective stakeholders and practitioners. Application of the scenario-based approach using the Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning System–Integrated Benefits Calculator (LEAP-IBC) analytical tool for evaluation of the mitigation of SLCPs in this study also provides an example for devising mitigation strategies in other countries in the HKH region.

The paper is organized as follows: the “ Methodology and modeling framework ” section briefly discusses the methodological framework dealing with mitigation scenario, impact assessment method, and data sources. The “ Results and discussion ” section presents scenario results and discussion, followed by our conclusion in the “ Conclusions and policy implications ” section. The detailed methodological framework is provided in the Supplementary Materials for this paper.

Methodology and modeling framework

This study has been carried out in close compliance with the national SLCP planning process as given by CCAC in the SLCP National Planning Guidance Document (CCAC 2016a ). The initial phase comprised a rigorous literature review and consultations with various governmental as well as non-governmental stakeholders and experts on air pollution. This phase contributed to assessing the current situation regarding emissions and inventory development. It also provided insights on current activities, policies, plans, and institutional frameworks related to SLCP mitigation. Second, emission estimates were derived for the Reference (REF) scenario, beginning in 2010 and extending to 2050 using a bottom-up approach. Third, an analysis of mitigation options suitable in the context of Nepal was carried out from various documents, with priority given to those identified by a UNEP/WMO assessment report and reports on sectoral mitigation options for SLCPs in the HKH region (MOPE 2014 ; Sharma 2014 ; UNEP/WMO 2011 ; USAID 2010 ; USEPA 2012 ). A baseline inventory of emissions was developed. Then, the scenarios were analyzed using the LEAP-IBC modeling framework, with economic and demographic parameters taken as drivers of anthropogenic activities and emissions. Finally, the results were ratified by governmental and non-governmental stakeholders and experts in a validation workshop.

Emission mitigation scenarios

Based on the economic and demographic situations as primary driving factors, SLCP emission projections and their impacts were examined under Reference (REF) and Policy (POL) scenarios. The year 2015 was taken as the base year for results analysis. Agricultural, commercial, and industrial activities were assumed to be dependent on respective gross value added (GVA) in each emitting sector, while the residential sector and waste outputs were assumed to be dependent on population. The transport sector, on the other hand, is dependent on both economic and demographic parameters for freight and passenger transportation, respectively. The economic and demographic data were retrieved from CBS ( 2012 , 2014 ), NPC ( 2017 ), and World Bank ( 2013 ). The assumption of the REF scenario is that the future trend will follow the same path as the current one with no change in current policies. The POL scenario encompasses possible interventions with mitigation measures that are already available and are in practice. The mitigation measures and targets came from the Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) initiative, SDGs of the United Nations, the Water and Energy Vision 2050 (WECS 2013 ), and low carbon economic development strategies (MOPE 2014 ). The major mitigation options identified are clean cooking technology, modern energy access, efficiency improvement in industrial processes, efficiency improvement in lighting, efficient mass transportation, renewable energy electricity generation, control on open biomass burning, intermittent aeration of rice field, animal waste management, waste management, and recovery of methane. The major emission factors for various activities were retrieved from Bond et al. ( 2004 , 2013 ), EMEP/EEA ( 2013 ), IPCC ( 1996 , 2006 ), Shrestha et al. ( 2013a ), and Venkataraman et al. ( 2010 ). Details are tabulated in the Supplementary Materials .

Impact assessment method

Air pollution impacts human health, agriculture, and the environment at local, regional, and global scales. As such, it is necessary to quantify the effect of all emissions from all sources on the ambient pollutant concentrations, and associated impacts on human health, crop loss, and climate. In this work, “adjoint” coefficients, that quantify the sensitivity of a variable (e.g., an air pollution concentration impact metric) to emissions in 2 × 2.5° grids globally (see Henze et al. ( 2007 )), from the GEOS-Chem atmospheric chemistry transport model (Bey et al. 2001 ) were combined with emissions to estimate the following: (1) population-weighted annual average fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) and the maximum 6-month average daily maximum 1 h ozone (O 3 ) concentrations, relevant for the impacts of these pollutants on human health; (2) 3-month average O 3 concentrations across representative growing seasons for four staple crops (rice, wheat, maize, and soy); and (3) radiative forcing in four latitudinal bands (covering the Arctic, northern mid-latitudes, tropics, and southern hemisphere extra-tropics) due to emissions of each pollutant. Concentration–response relationships were then applied to estimate the air pollution-attributable premature deaths and air pollution-associated crop loss and to convert changes in radiative forcing to changes in temperature in each year following emission.

The combination of emissions and adjoint coefficients from the GEOS-Chem model were also used to assess the transboundary effects due to the transport of pollutant emissions from other countries. Outside Nepal, default emissions were used from the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) ECLIPSE dataset ( http://www.iiasa.ac.at/web/home/research/researchPrograms/air/ECLIPSEv5a.html , Stohl et al. ( 2015 )) for all pollutants. In this study for Nepal, a grid of 2 × 2.5° resolution was used to analyze the emissions and their impact at a national scale. An overview of the models and methodology used for impact assessment in this paper is given in the supplementary materials and on the webpage of LEAP-IBC (Heaps 2017 ).

Economic evaluation

Economic evaluation of the impacts estimated for reference and policy scenarios in this study includes direct costs and benefits such as investment, cost of operation and maintenance, cost of resources, cost savings on fuel, carbon trade costs, and the economic value of lives and crop loss. It does not include indirect costs such as the cost of health services, income from tourism, employment generation, and ancillary productions. The costs are represented at 2005 constant price with social discount rate of 6%. The economic value of life was based on the value of a statistical life (VSL). Limitations of data mean that this has been derived by adjusting the ratio of Nepal’s GDP per capita to the EU average GDP per capita. It has been projected that Nepal’s best VSL estimate is about 83,000 USD with an uncertainty range of 41,000–124,000 USD (OECD 2012 ; World Bank 2015 ). The economic value of crops was estimated from a Food and Agriculture Organization estimate of producer price of each crop (FAOSTAT 2016 ).

Data sources for emission inventory

The steps followed in this study include the inventory development for emissions of particulates as well as gaseous emissions. A bottom-up approach was applied to develop the inventory at each activity level. In the REF scenario, the economic sectors were driven by GVA, which were retrieved from economic reports (MoF 2016 ; NPC 2014 ; NPC 2017 ). Another major driver of emissive activities is demography, which includes not only national population growth but also urbanization. These data were taken from CBS ( 2012 , 2014 ). The current status of SLCP emissions in Nepal was derived within the LEAP-IBC modeling framework. The base year in the LEAP-IBC model is 2010. But, as we have passed the year 2016, the year 2015 has been taken as the base year to develop the emission inventory of SLCPs in Nepal. The major sources of energy and non-energy activities and technologies were retrieved from DOF ( 2016 ), FAOSTAT ( 2016 ), IRENA ( 2012 ), Manandhar and Dangol ( 2013 ), MOAD ( 2014 ), NEEP/GIZ ( 2012 ), Pradhan ( 2004 ), Shrestha et al. ( 2012 ), USEPA ( 2012 ), WECS ( 2010 , 2014 ), and World Bank ( 2012 ). The sectors included in the study in addition to activity level data and emission parameters are given in the Supplementary Materials . The 2015 SLCP inventory is given in the “ Emissions ” section.

Uncertainty analysis

Uncertainties can arise from various factors such as inaccuracy in emission monitoring, lack of knowledge involving the emission factor, and activity data estimates. The uncertainty analyses for GHG emissions have also been recommended from the guidance by IPCC, and the method most commonly used in practice for uncertainty analysis is Monte Carlo simulation (IPCC 2000 ). In this study, the uncertainties are calculated at 95% confidence interval for energy and non-energy sectors using Monte Carlo simulation with 10,000 iterations. Sensitivity analysis has also been performed to examine the extent of variations in the results for BC, CH 4 , PM 2.5 , and GHG emissions due to input parameters.

Results and discussion

The results and figures presented in this chapter have been derived from LEAP (Heaps 2016 ).

The emission inventory for 2015 was developed as the first step in results analysis. Table 1 shows the emission of different SLCPs and air pollutants from different sectors in 2015 from fuel and non-fuel combustion, as well as the selected chemical process.

The results of both the REF and the POL scenarios, obtained from the LEAP-IBC modeling framework, are shown in Table 2 . The table indicates that, with the policy intervention of different strategic measures (see Supplementary Materials ), emissions of BC and PM 2.5 can be greatly reduced in 2050 from their values in 2010. Similarly, emissions of CH 4 and GHGs in 2050 can be reduced to near their values in 2010.

From the perspective of sources, residential and commercial sectors are the prime sources of air pollutants. Thus, any strategy must place a strong emphasis on this sector. Meanwhile, in other sectors such as transport and industries, stringent pollution control regulations can help reduce pollution. The remaining sources either require low-emissive technological transformation or awareness to reduce emissive activities, such as reducing the open burning of wastes and biomass and waste reuse and recycle.

Impact analysis of scenarios for mitigation of SLCPs

The “ Emissions ” section described the overall emissions of various pollutants and climate forcers. However, the real measure that concerns everybody is their environmental impacts. This analysis does not include analysis of uncertainties on impact due to variations in BC, CH 4 , PM 2.5 , and GHG emissions. However, the uncertainty analysis for emission level for each pollutant is covered in the “ Uncertainties in emissions and sensitivity analysis ” section.

PM 2.5 concentration

The national population-weighted annual average PM 2.5 concentration was 47 μg/m 3 in 2015, substantially above the WHO standard of 10 μg/m 3 (WHO 2006 ). This value includes not only contributions from national emissions but also the influence of natural sources and transboundary emissions. The latter is estimated to make the larger contribution to national population-weighted PM 2.5 concentrations, contributing almost 50% (Fig.  1 ). The reduction in PM 2.5 concentrations has significant benefits, and these are discussed in the “ Premature deaths avoided ,” “ Loss of crop yield mitigated ,” “ Impact on global temperature ,” and “ Economic evaluation of policy intervention ” sections.

PM 2.5 concentrations in Nepal in various years in reference and policy scenarios. REF, reference; POL, policy

Premature deaths avoided

The most visible and significant impact of air pollution is on human health. Figure 2 indicates that reducing PM 2.5 and O 3 can help reduce large-scale health risks. Emissions from all sources in 2010 and 2015 resulted in an estimated annual air pollution health burden of 23,000 and 30,000 premature deaths, respectively; this accounts for around 1 per 1000 people. Given these figures, the REF scenario suggests that, if no mitigation strategies are implemented, the estimated air pollution-associated health burden increases to 50,000 premature deaths in 2030 and 109,000 premature deaths in 2050, with nearly 88% premature deaths due to PM 2.5 . In addition to increasing PM 2.5 and O 3 concentrations, these figures also reflect increases in, and aging of, Nepal’s population.

Premature deaths in Nepal in reference and policy scenarios. REF, reference; POL, policy

With mitigation measures taken, the estimated total premature deaths from anthropogenic sources in Nepal in the POL scenario are reduced by 11,000 and 29,000 in 2030 and 2050, respectively. However, nearly 57% of premature deaths in the REF scenario are estimated to result from emissions outside Nepal. In the POL scenario, 77% of estimated premature deaths in 2050 are the result of transboundary air pollution because of a reduction in premature deaths due to national emissions. Thus, it is essential to take regional-level mitigation action to reduce transboundary emissions.

Loss of crop yield mitigated

The impact of ozone on four major crops (rice, wheat, maize, and soy) was assessed and was again mainly due to transboundary emissions. Thus, it is crucial that this issue of transboundary emission is addressed in the context of food security. The results indicate that crop losses can be greatly reduced in the POL scenario compared with the REF scenario (Fig.  3 ).

Crop yield loss in Nepal in reference and policy scenarios

Impact on global temperature

One of the greatest concerns is the global warming due to pollutant release. The temperature increment is found to grow in future years, with SLCPs being the dominant factor. Thus, mitigation strategies for control of SLCPs are as important as those for GHGs to reduce Nepal’s contribution to global temperature increases. Figure 4 shows the temperature increment with reference to the temperature level in 2010. It can be seen that the temperature increment in the POL scenario before 2055 is higher than in the REF scenario. This is due to the dominant effect of cooling caused by aerosols. However, beyond this date, the reductions in CH 4 , CO 2 , and O 3 precursors will ultimately reduce Nepal’s contribution to global temperature increases in the POL scenario. As major SLCPs decrease and GHG emissions are controlled, the temperature increment will be much slower than in the REF scenario, remaining below 2 mK in 2100.

Global average equilibrium temperature changes due to emissions in Nepal

Economic evaluation of policy intervention

The cost of mitigation options is high in the energy sector, primarily because of the hydropower development. However, economic benefits due to a reduction in fuel imports, premature mortality, and crop losses are even larger. The costs of mitigation in the non-energy sector are higher than returns. But, owing to its huge contribution to emissions, and its impact, mitigation steps must be undertaken. At net present value, the overall investment and operating cost of implementing mitigation measures throughout the policy scenario sum to 21 billion USD, while the net benefit of 57 billion USD can be achieved. If the energy and non-energy mitigation strategies are implemented together, the benefits from the energy sector pay-off for the cost in the non-energy sector—and the overall benefit—are still positive. The net return is positive, with a benefit-to-cost ratio of 2.7. Thus, overall, the results indicate that the POL scenario is not only technically viable but also economically feasible.

The above economic analysis gives an important insight: mitigation options and activities not only are dependent on each other but also make the implementation process economically more viable if applied altogether. Thus, there must be inter-sectoral cooperation for implementation of the targets set to reduce SLCPs as well as GHG emissions. The economic analysis does not address the uncertainty ranges of SLCPs and the subsequent effects on other climate change benefits.

Uncertainties in emissions and sensitivity analysis

The variance propagation at 95% confidence interval of BC, CH 4 , PM 2.5 , and GHG emissions showed that the variance range reduces over time. The variance range in the POL scenarios narrows compared with the REF scenario fall for all four pollutants. In the POL scenario, the uncertainty range of BC reduces from 26–45 kt in 2015 to 5–9 kt in 2050. Similarly, that for CH 4 narrows down from 0.8–1.3 Mt in 2015 to 0.7–1.1 Mt in 2050 and that for PM 2.5 reduces from 200–280 kt in 2015 to 44–64 kt in 2050. The GHG uncertainty narrows down by little, from 29–43 Mt in 2015 to 38–49 Mt in 2050. These reductions in uncertainty range are due to switching to cleaner fuels with lower emission potential in the POL scenario. The sensitivity analysis for BC shows that the residential fuelwood emission factor and consumption make the major contribution to the variance in BC emission. The sensitivity analysis for CH 4 shows that the emission is most sensitive to emission factors of livestock farming, residential fuelwood, waste, and rice cultivation. Similarly, the sensitivity analysis shows that the variance in the emission of PM 2.5 is highly sensitive to the residential sector. Forest fires and emission factors of industrial coal and diesel consumption in transport are also major contributors to emission variance. Sensitivity analysis shows that in the REF scenario, the emission factor of livestock farming—including fermentation and manure management—makes the greatest contribution to variance in GHG emissions, followed by emission factors for CH 4 and N 2 O of residential fuelwood.

Conclusions and policy implications

This study shows that the emissions and impacts of SLCPs in Nepal are significant with the major sources of BC and PM 2.5 being biomass burning in the residential sector and fuel combustion in transport. The major source of CH 4 emissions is agricultural activities followed by the residential sector and waste management. As anthropogenic activities increase, emission levels rise, contributing to adverse climate and air pollution impacts. If mitigation measures are taken in the POL scenario, 78% of BC, 78% of CH 4 , and 87% of PM 2.5 emissions can be avoided in 2050 compared with the REF scenario. The national, population-weighted PM 2.5 concentration of 47 μg/m 3 in 2015 can be limited to 52 μg/m 3 in 2050 compared with 80 μg/m 3 in the REF scenario. Similarly, 29,000 premature deaths and 1.7 million tonnes of crop loss can be avoided annually by 2050 in the POL scenario compared with the REF scenario. The benefit-cost analysis indicates that there is a net economic saving of 36 billion USD (2005 constant price) if the strategic measures are undertaken in a timely manner. The impact on global climate due to emissions in Nepal could also be reduced by limiting temperature increment within 2 mK in 2100 in the POL scenario from near to 4 mK in the REF scenario. An estimated reduction of 58% can be achieved in 2100 if all the mitigation strategies are implemented.

Air pollution is not limited to a local area but has regional as well as global impacts. This paper suggests that emissions from the HKH region and beyond have a major influence on pollution levels and their impacts in Nepal, owing to the transboundary transport of pollutants. More than 50% of the PM 2.5 concentration in Nepal was estimated to result from emissions outside the country. The situation in the rest of the HKH region is no different, as suggested by other studies as well (Kurokawa et al. 2013 ). This raises the need for regional cooperation among countries in the HKH region to act jointly in effective mitigation of SLCPs and reducing their impacts in the region. It is also essential that voices are raised in international organizations like UNEP and CCAC, requesting the necessary assistance in mitigating SLCPs, as the transboundary effects are at a much larger scale than the national-level effects.

These scenarios and results suggest that mitigation practices should be implemented as soon as possible, not only in Nepal but in other countries of the HKH region as well. The mitigation technologies are readily available, and supporting policies need to be devised and implemented. The inclusion and prioritization for mitigation of SLCPs in national policy are of utmost importance as their climate impacts are higher and short term in nature. Overall, coordinating this with similar and relevant strategies in the regional context can benefit the whole HKH region as well.

Several policy pathways could be followed for effective implementation of SLCP mitigation measures in Nepal that are so crucial for achieving several SDGs: from their role in reducing poverty to combating climate change, and engaging in adaption and mitigation. Developing an integrated approach to both air pollution abatement and climate change during the policy process is perhaps the most desirable pathway to maximize synergy, thereby making the public policy process more effective and efficient. Another pathway would be to build SLCP abatement policies on existing national development policies and initiatives. Integration of the economic costs of pollution into product pricing would incentivize consumers to make more informed choices, while at the same time creating pressure on producers to reduce their pollution footprint and adopt better practices. However, this calls for creating and supporting enabling conditions to confront a broad range of existing barriers to the design and implementation of national SLCP mitigation strategies. These include the need for a strong science–policy interface to raise awareness; data on pollution and its impacts; a dedicated regulatory institution with resources and capacity for effective implementation, monitoring, and enforcement; and changing the entrenched social norm and behavior of citizens.

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Acknowledgments

The authors are immensely grateful to the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) for making available and conducting training on the LEAP-IBC software module. We are thankful to Mr. Krishna Gyawali for sharing his knowledge on policy gap analysis of Nepal, and to Maheswor Rupakheti, IASS Potsdam, for insightful recommendations regarding SLCPs. We would also like to show our gratitude to Eklabya Sharma, Mats Eriksson, Bhupesh Adhikari, Prakash Bhave, and Karuna Bajracharya for their valuable opinions and suggestions during the study. We would also like to acknowledge Elaine Monaghan for her conscientious editing of the manuscript. This research was conducted under the Atmosphere Initiative at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD).

The research was partially supported by core funds from ICIMOD contributed by the governments of Afghanistan, Austria, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Switzerland, and the UK.

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Nakarmi, A.M., Sharma, B., Rajbhandari, U.S. et al. Mitigating the impacts of air pollutants in Nepal and climate co-benefits: a scenario-based approach. Air Qual Atmos Health 13 , 361–370 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-020-00799-6

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Environmental Issues and pollution in Nepal – A Tale of Two Halves

The capital city of Kathmandu is bustling and densely populated with intriguing culture, peaceful people and exotic religions at every turn. Despite the ubiquitous abject poverty and pollution in Nepal, the people are happy and friendly. The city is a reminder of the resilience of humanity and how lucky most people in Western societies are in comparison.

It’s a fascinating city but the inescapable air pollution and litter are major problems. The EPI recently found Nepal to have the worst air pollution in the world . It was interesting to note that despite the manic traffic and lack of infrastructure many city roads were dirt tracks, with no traffic lights evident. The traffic on the most part seemed to move along without any fuss. 

Taking action to tackle the pollution in Nepal

As a Tallaght Litter Mug , I was interested to see how the city managed its waste and unsurprisingly there was a lot of litter but the sheer scale of the issue was unexpected. There are continual waste management issues in the city but to experience how young and old sifted through it looking for scraps of food and recyclable materials was a shock. People processed the waste in filthy conditions on the side of the street, without any gloves and often in flips flops.

I couldn’t resist the opportunity to carry out a clean-up myself, with the main aim of raising awareness back in Ireland. If you would like to get involved in regular litter clean-ups in Sean Walsh Park, Tallaght, please register your interest at the Litter Mug website or facebook page .  If you would like to take part in clean-ups nationally, check out the National Spring Clean and Clean Coasts websites.

Everest Base Camp pollution

The expected filthy Everest trek never materialised, which was a huge relief, especially having just come from Kathmandu. In its place was a stunningly beautiful trek, with jaw-dropping scenery that never got old. Recent reports have suggested that over-congestion and climate change have made ice-falls in the region much riskier for mountaineers attempting to summit the world’s highest peak. This is substantiated by the knowledgeable Sherpas who guided our expedition.

The always smiling Vempa Sherpa said that he noticed that the glaciers were melting quicker than before. He noticed raising humidity levels, the lakes increasing in size, and less flora and fauna. All of these are factors in   rising levels of flooding as well as increased avalanche and mud-slide risk. 

These are a real worry for tourism and those dependent on business from passing hikers. In a later conversation, our leader Darwla Sherpa said: “the warm season is warmer and the winter has especially become warmer, this affects water supplies to the rivers”. These rivers are a lifeline to the region’s agriculture, with lakes of meltwater increasing flooding risks .

Kunga Sherpa agreed, saying “It’s definitely hotter than before, with glaciers melting easier. Spring now has much bigger meltwater river-flows, with summer providing much less water”. Even the location of Everest basecamp itself has moved, in part due to receding glaciers caused by climate change and the pollution in Nepal.

Local schools in Nepal

Several days after the amazing trek to Everest basecamp and the challenging ascent of the stunning Kala Patthar, 5,550M (which gave unbridled sunrise views of mountains Everest, Nuptse, Changtse  and Lhotse ), Vempa Sherpa kindly brought me to his former primary school in Lukla. We met the school principal, to whom I gave some school stationary to and we exchanged email addresses. We are hoping to set up cultural exchanges and share stories of environmental efforts between Green School & Climate Ambassador School Scoil Mhuire, Buncrana and Nepal.

Although the school in Lukla was a comparatively well-resourced school, it was a basic school by Western standards and relied heavily on altruistic contributions. These are in part being used to expand and rebuild the school after the devastating earthquake in 2015.

Afterwards, as we sipped black tea in a local café and discussed local politics and the Sherpa’s hopes and dreams. I was struck by the indomitable spirit that is part and parcel of their make-up. Their pride in providing a quality service as mountain guides is apparent. This feeds into their ambition to make their community better than it was before the earthquake struck.

Trek basecamp for yourself

This was a trip of a lifetime and I would urge anyone interested in seeing the area to do so as soon as they can, as the ice is receding and most local glaciers are expected to disappear by the end of the century. Your badly needed money will also help this poor country rebuild and sustain itself. You might consider offsetting any carbon emissions from your trek by choosing a scheme such as the UN’s carbon offsetting programme .

I chose Earth’s Edge to go to Base Camp with because they’re a  sustainable and ethical company.  They ticked every box for me, making sure I had a very enjoyable trip while making sure we had a minimal impact on the environment while also ensuring the Sherpas and Yaks were well looked after. It was a challenging but ultimately inspiring and life-affirming trip, and I am so fortunate and grateful to have had the opportunity to experience it first-hand while meeting like-minded people.

If you would like to learn more about climate change and how you can make a difference, please go to the Climate Ambassador website. You can also sign up to our newsletter, with applications to become a Climate Ambassador for 2019 will be released very soon. You can be part of the fight against pollution in Nepal and all over the world.

Gary Tyrrell is a Climate Action Officer for An Taisce’s Environmental Education Unit.

How to experience Base Camp for yourself

For all the reasons highlighted by Gary, it’s important to remember our responsibility to protect this area. Here at Earth’s Edge, we are committed to responsible travel  and urge you to check our commitment to protecting the world we love to explore. If you are interested in coming to Base Camp to see our efforts for yourself  CLICK HERE

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The Threat of Ambient Air Pollution in Kathmandu, Nepal

Bhuvan saud.

Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Janamaitri Foundation Institute of Health Sciences (JFIHS), GPO Box 8322, Hattiban, Lalitpur, Nepal

Govinda Paudel

Air pollution has been a major problem of 21st century for both developed and developing world. It has a negative impact on various environmental aspects which directly or indirectly affect the quality of human health. Nepal, especially Kathmandu, in the current situation, is observing rapid urbanization and various infrastructure development projects. As a result, these sorts of human activities have been responsible for increasing air pollution in an enormous rate inside Kathmandu Valley. Chronic exposure of deteriorated air increases the chance of Noncommunicable Disease (NCD) like lung disease, heart disease, and cancers. Short term exposures also invite respiratory diseases and allergy. This review is an attempt to summarize the updated knowledge on the threat of air pollution on public health and discuss the sources of air pollutants in Kathmandu. We reviewed the literatures that were published in PMC, MEDLINE, life science journals, and organization official websites and finally came up with the findings and their interpretation that reveal the current scenario in the context of Kathmandu's air quality status and its impact on human health. The knowledge about the invisible killer's role in causing acute and chronic diseases may help in finding out the answer of the question regarding its effect and prevention.

1. Introduction

Kathmandu Valley, well known as city of temples, has now transformed itself into city of pollution. The city of temples is now clad in dust and smoke. The pristine blue hills and the crisp blue sky that covered the valley just about two decades ago now appear gray and hazy due to the stagnant smog that hovers over them. Kathmandu has a population density of 13,225 per km 2 [ 1 ] as of data recorded by Central Bureau of Statistics in 2011, with population growth rate of 4.78% [ 2 ]. Such a high population in the valley is due to its being the capital city and people from all over the country throng to the city in pursuit of better life and opportunities. The valley is surrounded by high mountains ranging from 2000 to 2800 metres from sea level [ 3 ]. Due to this, the valley has a unique bowl-shaped topographic structure which restricts the movement of wind thereby retaining the pollutants in the air [ 4 – 6 ]. This makes the valley particularly vulnerable to air pollution.

World Health Organization (WHO) defines air pollution as contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical, or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere. Common sources of air pollution are household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities, and forest fires [ 7 ]. Air pollution is a complex mixture of thousands of components, majority of which include airborne Particulate Matter (PM) and gaseous pollutants like ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), volatile organic compounds (like benzene), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), etc. [ 8 , 9 ]. A variety of respiratory and other diseases, which can also be fatal, are caused by outdoor and indoor air pollution [ 7 ]. Particulate Matter (PM 10) is that suspended particle that is about 10 µ m in diameter and mainly arises from the poor quality roads, construction sites, and farms and is responsible for causing irritation in eyes, nose, and acute respiratory infections [ 10 ]. High rate of PM10 associated mortality and respiratory illness are found in children and adults [ 11 ]. On the other hand PM2.5 (particles less than 2.5 µ m in diameter) penetrate deep into the lung, irritate and corrode the alveolar wall, consequently impair lung function [ 12 ], and even penetrate the blood [ 7 ]. It has been shown that PM2.5 is a public health concern whose exposure leads to decreased life expectancy [ 13 – 16 ]. The high concentration of CO forms carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) and exacerbates heart attack and also affects nervous system, NO2 causes bronchitis and bronchopneumonia, and SO2 causes eye irritation, shortness of breath, chronic bronchitis, asthma, various heart diseases, lung disease, cancer [ 11 ], and conjunctivitis [ 17 ]. O3 is associated with stimulation of transcription factors and increased expression of cytokine and adhesion molecules which lead to the development of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases [ 18 – 20 ]. Air pollution's association with autoimmune diseases has been published [ 21 , 22 ]. Air pollution has been emerging as a major threat to the whole ecosystem.

Geographically, Nepal is a small landlocked country sandwiched between two giant countries India and China. Though these two countries have been emerging as supreme economic powers, they still struggle in managing their environmental air quality. Studies have shown that major cities of India like Delhi, Raipur, Gwalior, and Lucknow are listed among the world's top 10 polluted cities and altogether 37 Indian cities feature in a list of 100 most polluted cities globally, with highest PM10 [ 25 ]. Delhi the capital of India is classed as the world's most polluted capital city with air pollution parameters 30 times higher than WHO's recommended upper limit [ 26 ]. China a rapidly developing country equally suffers from air pollution. Rapid industrialization and high energy consumption have been the major reasons of air pollution in China. Cities such as Jingjinji, Beijing, Tianjin, and Chongjin and northwest part are the places that are highly polluted [ 27 ]. PM2.5 is considered the main pollutant of atmospheric pollution in China [ 28 ]. It was found that average PM2.5 concentration among 210 cities in China is approximately more than 8 times higher than WHO recommended level [ 29 ]. In Nepal, along with the rapid and uncontrolled urbanization and haphazard developmental projects, people are being victimized with serious airborne diseases. Though few studies and publications have been done regarding air pollution in Kathmandu, the city has now been regarded as severely polluted place [ 30 ]. This article hence emphasizes highlighting the effects, sources, status, and threats of air pollution in Kathmandu Valley.

A variety of factors are responsible for deteriorating the quality of air. Nepal is a rapidly urbanizing country. A data of 2014 shows 4.6 million of Nepalese live in urban areas [ 31 ]. This trend is increasing rapidly and it is estimated that urban population will reach 60 million by 2040 [ 32 ]. Subsequent increase in number of vehicles is one of the main culprits of air pollution [ 33 , 34 ]. Kathmandu Valley has seen a rapid increase in vehicle numbers in the last 15 years. Data have shown that in 2000/1, number of registered vehicles was 24,003 and by 2015/16 it has increased to 7, 79,822. This shows an increment by more than 32 times in the last one and a half decade. The graph shown in Figure 1 illustrates the vehicles registered on different categories among which private vehicles like motorcycles and cars top the list, respectively. The trend of purchasing new vehicle is also seen to be increasing as the year 2015/16 sees the largest number of registered vehicles [ 23 ]. Private vehicles are increasing in comparison to public transport vehicle. Due to lack of an efficient public transport system, many residents have chosen to buy private vehicle. Emissions from vehicles are particularly toxic as diesel powered vehicles, which are considered deadly pollutant and carcinogen, are more numerous than the petrol powered ones. This fact agrees with the report of WHO where it has stated that low and middle income countries suffer superfluously from transport generated pollution due to old and inefficient diesel powered vehicles [ 35 ]. Besides vehicles, haphazard digging of road for currently ongoing Melamchi water project, brick kilns, unplanned expansion of roads, ill-managed dumping of building materials on the busy road sides, and the old engine vehicles that race incessantly on the pothole laden roads are adding insult to injury.

Registration of vehicles in Bagmati Zone 2001 to 2016 [ 23 ].

In 2016, Environmental Performance Index (EPI) of Nepal's air quality ranked 177th out of 180 countries [ 36 ] and, in Asia, Kathmandu is ranked one of the most polluted cities [ 4 ]. According to a report of World Health Organization (WHO), the maximum status of fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) in urban areas of Nepal was noted to be 140 µ g/m 3 [ 37 ] which is 10 times higher than the desirable value. Ministry of Science and Technology, in 2012, had published a guideline on “National Ambient Air Quality.” The values set on these parameters were still higher than those set by WHO [ 38 ]. The targeted PM10 and PM2.5 values were 120 µ g/m 3 and 40 µ g/m 3 , respectively, which were approximately two times higher than the WHO targeted value. The Department of Environment is planning to establish air quality monitoring stations throughout the country. As of today, it is limited in nine places, 3 stations inside Kathmandu Valley and 6 stations outside the valley [ 39 ]. According to Department of Environment, in 2017, 24-hour average of Total Suspended Particles (TSP) in a site in Kathmandu was 4,749 µ g/m 3 , average PM10 was 2,928 µ g/m 3 , and PM 2.5 was 226 µ g/m 3 [ 40 ].To find out seasonal variation of air pollution, a study conducted in Kathmandu Valley measured NO2, CO, and PM 2.5 concentration on daily basis in all the four seasons of a year. The maximum level of each of these parameters was seen during winter and spring seasons as shown in Figure 2 [ 24 ].

Outdoor air pollution in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, 2015 [ 24 ].

4. Impact on Human Health

Till date, majority of studies on impacts of air pollution on human health have been done in North America and Europe. Only few studies on this regard have been done in region like Nepal. It has been found that, with high level of air pollution exposure, Nepal, especially Kathmandu, is suffering from a potentially serious human health burden from air pollution [ 30 ]. Air pollution has long been regarded as a silent killer responsible for causing a variety of chronic and infectious diseases. Globally, unhealthy environment causes a total of 12.6 million deaths [ 41 ] and air pollution is solely responsible for 7 million deaths annually [ 42 ]. Every year air pollution is linked with around 6.5 million premature deaths globally, of which household air pollution causes 3.5 million and ambient air pollution causes 3 million deaths and the future scenario by the 2040 is assumed to increase up to 7.5 million premature deaths per year [ 43 ]. PM2·5 caused an estimated 7·6% of total global mortality in 2015 and was the fifth-ranking global mortality risk factor. Although global rates of mortality due to PM2·5 exposure decreased from 1990 to 2015 as a result of improved air quality in high-income countries [ 44 ], in Nepal's case the impact on human health is equally severe. By 2030 annual premature deaths in Nepal, due to outdoor air pollution, are expected to be 24,000 [ 45 ].

In Nepal, the commonest diseases like respiratory illness, allergy, and eye infection and chronic diseases like lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), Ischaemic Heart Disease (IHD), and stroke are present in an alarming rate. Noncommunicable Diseases (NCDs) have been the major cause of human death accounting for 60% of deaths. Of NCDs cardiovascular diseases have caused a maximum death of 22% followed by chronic respiratory diseases 13%, cancer 8%, and other NCDs 14%. Premature (between ages of 30 and 70 years) mortality due to NCDs is 22% [ 31 ]. Data of Global Health Observatory (GHO) for mortality from ambient air pollution in Nepal in 2012 shows a threatening rate of 9,944 deaths of which Ischaemic Heart Disease (IHD) caused the highest death rate of 33.4% followed by stroke 32%, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) 17.8%, lung cancer 9.3%, and Acute Lower Respiratory Tract Infection (ALRTI) 7.4%. The number of female deaths was higher than that of male deaths in each disease [ 37 ]. Data of Department of Health (DoH) services in Nepal shows that, in 2013-2014, COPD was the most common cause of mortality among inpatients and respiratory tract diseases were the most common reason for outpatients' consultations with both upper and lower respiratory tract infections being within the top four [ 46 ].

In a hospital based study, NCD prevalence was 31% out of which COPD was 43%, cardiovascular disease was 40%, and cancer was 5% [ 47 ]. A study done in hospitalized patients of various hospitals of Kathmandu Valley shows a high prevalence of respiratory diseases. Among the diseases, COPD was the most prevalent one with a significant proportion of other diseases too as shown in Figure 3 . Gender-wise distribution showed that of total inpatients 51.3% were male and 48.7% were female. District-wise distribution showed that highest number of patients came from Kathmandu 44.4% followed by Lalitpur 10.3% and Bhaktpur 10.2%. Overall morbidity was 44.4% and the highest morbidity rate was seen in COPD cases as shown in Figure 3 [ 24 ]. A hospital based study outside Kathmandu Valley in Chitwan showed that 48.4% of COPD patients had a history of the disease since more than 5 years [ 48 ]. A study in 2017 has shown that 2.7–3.4 million preterm births might be associated with PM2.5 exposure in 2010 globally [ 49 ]. Nepal also has a significant number of preterm births of 14% [ 50 ]. No clear cut reasons have been found for this high preterm birth, but air pollution can arguably have an important impact on this. Air pollution is rising as an occupational hazard in Nepal, both in Kathmandu and in other cities like Pokhara, especially in traffic police who are being continuously exposed to dusty roads [ 51 , 52 ]. Due to this pulmonary functions have been significantly worsened in the traffic police working in Kathmandu [ 53 ]. Airborne occupational hazards are equally present in brick kiln workers and grocery workers in Kathmandu, whose health has been seriously hampered and needs quick action for protection [ 54 , 55 ]. According to World Bank, air pollution stands as fourth major factor for causing death worldwide leaving metabolic risks, dietary risks, and tobacco smoking behind. Globally, 1 in 10 deaths is understood to be caused by air pollution [ 56 ]. Hazards due to air pollution have been a great economic burden too. A data on impact of air pollution on human health shows a global loss of $225 billion annually of which South Asia has been the most severely affected region suffering a loss of more than $66 billion alone annually, which is approximately 1% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) [ 57 ].

Disease-wise distribution of hospitalized patient in Kathmandu Valley [ 24 ].

5. Legislatives and Future Action Plans

Despite the current scenario, it is unjust to mention that Nepal government has not given a thought on this issue; the outcomes though are quite futile. It is found that Nepal government has included environment quality in its plan and strategy and formulated national policies and legislations on this regard beginning from the middle of the 1990s. The important national plans and legislations of Nepal government on environmental issue can be listed as follows [ 40 ]:

• Environmental policy and legislative framework: Environmental Act 1996 and Regulation 1997, National Climate Change Policy 2011, National Low Carbon Economic Development Strategy (still in draft), and National Pollution Control Strategy and Action Plan (still in draft)
• Transport Sector Policies and Legislations: National Transport Policy 2001, Transport Management Act 2049 (Nepalese calendar year), Vehicles and Transport Management Rules 2054 (Nepalese calendar year), and National Sustainable Transport Strategy (NSTS) (2015-2040) (still in draft)
• Industry Sector Policies and legislations: Industrial Policy 2011, Foreign Direct Investment Policy 2015, and Industrial Enterprises Act 2073 (Nepalese calendar year)
• Energy Sector Policies and Legislations: Hydropower Development Policy 2001, Rural Energy Policy 2006, and Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy 2016.

Besides formulating the abovementioned policies and legislatives, Nepal Government has also formed various committees to deal with the air pollution problem, as mentioned below:

• Task Force on Air Pollution Control in Kathmandu Valley, 2073 (Nepalese calendar year)
• High Level Committee on Probing and Solving the Issues on 20 year Old Vehicles, 2058 (Nepalese calendar year)
• Committee on Implementation of the Order of Supreme Court on Phase out of 20 Year Old Vehicles, 2058/59 (Nepalese calendar year)
• Committee on Review of Vehicle Emission Standard and Monitoring Mechanism 2060. (Nepalese calendar year)
• Technical Committee on the Relocation of Brick Industries from Kathmandu Valley 2060 (Nepalese calendar year).

Nepal government claims to be seeking to make use of a rich Air Quality Management portfolio created by big cities of developed and developing countries, for implementing and executing successful programs while avoiding many of the recognized pitfalls. Some of the future prospects include the following:

• Strategies on Ambient Urban Air Quality Management: with the vision that all the citizen living or visiting urban cities of Nepal breathe clean air
• Action Program on Ambient Air Quality Management of Kathmandu Valley: the aim is to bring the level of air pollution in the valley to the target set in the National Ambient Air Quality Standard of Nepal within the next 5 years. The various factors to support this plan are Air Quality Management supporting system, Environmentally Sustainable Transport System, Environment Friendly Construction Activities, Reducing Emissions of Industries in Valley, Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes (dealing with toxic air pollutants), Promoting Cleaner Fuel and Technology to Minimize Domestic Pollution (Indoor Air Pollution), Strengthening the Policy and Legislative Framework, Institutional Arrangement for Effective Implementation, and Financing the Action Plan.

6. Areas to Be Addressed

Nepal government has been formulating policies to control environmental pollution since the 1990s, but the implementation of the legislatives has not been effective enough. Several seminars, talks, committees, and task forces have been formulated to curb the issue but no concrete solution has been met. Air pollution has been a burning issue but adequate air quality monitoring stations have been limited only to a few places like Kathmandu, Kavre, Pokhara, Chitwan, and Rupendehi ( http://pollution.gov.np ). No sufficient study regarding air quality of urban and suburban regions has been done and categorically published on the basis of pollution level. It has been generalized that poor air quality is having adverse effect on people's health; however, studies are limited and no sufficient studies have been done longitudinally to find out short and long term effects, seasonal patterns, geographical variations, and other issues of air quality affecting human health. Knowledge and awareness of poor air quality's threat on human health have not reached the common public level which has blind folded them from taking basic precaution measures. Besides, other hindrances are economic conditions, malpractice in politics, and limited approach to health facilities.

7. Conclusion

Air pollution has been a huge burden to the residents of Kathmandu, threatening the lives of thousands of people of every year. The scenario is obvious to worsen in the coming years if immediate preventive measures are not taken in time. It is of utmost urgency to educate the common people on harmful aspects of air pollution and the necessary precautions to prevent its deadly consequences. The solution to Kathmandu's air pollution can be achieved only when the government takes the leading role in addressing the situation. The Constitution of Nepal 2015 has mentioned that clean and healthy environment should be guaranteed to the people as their primary right [ 58 ]. National health policy of Nepal has included air pollution as a priority research/public health agenda, but implementation part has not been efficient. Benefit of doubt can be given to government as the political scenario is still in the transition phase after the Nepalese overthrew centuries-old monarchy and established the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal. Currently, people are awaiting a better political stability whereby a better economic growth can be achieved so that solutions to this public health issue be achieved.

Abbreviations

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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