importance of research in study

Buy Me a Coffee

Home » Significance of the Study – Examples and Writing Guide

Significance of the Study – Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Significance of the Study

Definition:

Significance of the study in research refers to the potential importance, relevance, or impact of the research findings. It outlines how the research contributes to the existing body of knowledge, what gaps it fills, or what new understanding it brings to a particular field of study.

In general, the significance of a study can be assessed based on several factors, including:

Originality : The extent to which the study advances existing knowledge or introduces new ideas and perspectives.
Practical relevance: The potential implications of the study for real-world situations, such as improving policy or practice.
Theoretical contribution: The extent to which the study provides new insights or perspectives on theoretical concepts or frameworks.
Methodological rigor : The extent to which the study employs appropriate and robust methods and techniques to generate reliable and valid data.
Social or cultural impact : The potential impact of the study on society, culture, or public perception of a particular issue.

Types of Significance of the Study

The significance of the Study can be divided into the following types:

Theoretical Significance

Theoretical significance refers to the contribution that a study makes to the existing body of theories in a specific field. This could be by confirming, refuting, or adding nuance to a currently accepted theory, or by proposing an entirely new theory.

Practical Significance

Practical significance refers to the direct applicability and usefulness of the research findings in real-world contexts. Studies with practical significance often address real-life problems and offer potential solutions or strategies. For example, a study in the field of public health might identify a new intervention that significantly reduces the spread of a certain disease.

Significance for Future Research

This pertains to the potential of a study to inspire further research. A study might open up new areas of investigation, provide new research methodologies, or propose new hypotheses that need to be tested.

How to Write Significance of the Study

Here’s a guide to writing an effective “Significance of the Study” section in research paper, thesis, or dissertation:

Background : Begin by giving some context about your study. This could include a brief introduction to your subject area, the current state of research in the field, and the specific problem or question your study addresses.
Identify the Gap : Demonstrate that there’s a gap in the existing literature or knowledge that needs to be filled, which is where your study comes in. The gap could be a lack of research on a particular topic, differing results in existing studies, or a new problem that has arisen and hasn’t yet been studied.
State the Purpose of Your Study : Clearly state the main objective of your research. You may want to state the purpose as a solution to the problem or gap you’ve previously identified.
Contributes to the existing body of knowledge.
Addresses a significant research gap.
Offers a new or better solution to a problem.
Impacts policy or practice.
Leads to improvements in a particular field or sector.
Identify Beneficiaries : Identify who will benefit from your study. This could include other researchers, practitioners in your field, policy-makers, communities, businesses, or others. Explain how your findings could be used and by whom.
Future Implications : Discuss the implications of your study for future research. This could involve questions that are left open, new questions that have been raised, or potential future methodologies suggested by your study.

Significance of the Study in Research Paper

The Significance of the Study in a research paper refers to the importance or relevance of the research topic being investigated. It answers the question “Why is this research important?” and highlights the potential contributions and impacts of the study.

The significance of the study can be presented in the introduction or background section of a research paper. It typically includes the following components:

Importance of the research problem: This describes why the research problem is worth investigating and how it relates to existing knowledge and theories.
Potential benefits and implications: This explains the potential contributions and impacts of the research on theory, practice, policy, or society.
Originality and novelty: This highlights how the research adds new insights, approaches, or methods to the existing body of knowledge.
Scope and limitations: This outlines the boundaries and constraints of the research and clarifies what the study will and will not address.

Suppose a researcher is conducting a study on the “Effects of social media use on the mental health of adolescents”.

The significance of the study may be:

“The present study is significant because it addresses a pressing public health issue of the negative impact of social media use on adolescent mental health. Given the widespread use of social media among this age group, understanding the effects of social media on mental health is critical for developing effective prevention and intervention strategies. This study will contribute to the existing literature by examining the moderating factors that may affect the relationship between social media use and mental health outcomes. It will also shed light on the potential benefits and risks of social media use for adolescents and inform the development of evidence-based guidelines for promoting healthy social media use among this population. The limitations of this study include the use of self-reported measures and the cross-sectional design, which precludes causal inference.”

Significance of the Study In Thesis

The significance of the study in a thesis refers to the importance or relevance of the research topic and the potential impact of the study on the field of study or society as a whole. It explains why the research is worth doing and what contribution it will make to existing knowledge.

For example, the significance of a thesis on “Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare” could be:

With the increasing availability of healthcare data and the development of advanced machine learning algorithms, AI has the potential to revolutionize the healthcare industry by improving diagnosis, treatment, and patient outcomes. Therefore, this thesis can contribute to the understanding of how AI can be applied in healthcare and how it can benefit patients and healthcare providers.
AI in healthcare also raises ethical and social issues, such as privacy concerns, bias in algorithms, and the impact on healthcare jobs. By exploring these issues in the thesis, it can provide insights into the potential risks and benefits of AI in healthcare and inform policy decisions.
Finally, the thesis can also advance the field of computer science by developing new AI algorithms or techniques that can be applied to healthcare data, which can have broader applications in other industries or fields of research.

Significance of the Study in Research Proposal

The significance of a study in a research proposal refers to the importance or relevance of the research question, problem, or objective that the study aims to address. It explains why the research is valuable, relevant, and important to the academic or scientific community, policymakers, or society at large. A strong statement of significance can help to persuade the reviewers or funders of the research proposal that the study is worth funding and conducting.

Here is an example of a significance statement in a research proposal:

Title : The Effects of Gamification on Learning Programming: A Comparative Study

Significance Statement:

This proposed study aims to investigate the effects of gamification on learning programming. With the increasing demand for computer science professionals, programming has become a fundamental skill in the computer field. However, learning programming can be challenging, and students may struggle with motivation and engagement. Gamification has emerged as a promising approach to improve students’ engagement and motivation in learning, but its effects on programming education are not yet fully understood. This study is significant because it can provide valuable insights into the potential benefits of gamification in programming education and inform the development of effective teaching strategies to enhance students’ learning outcomes and interest in programming.

Examples of Significance of the Study

Here are some examples of the significance of a study that indicates how you can write this into your research paper according to your research topic:

Research on an Improved Water Filtration System : This study has the potential to impact millions of people living in water-scarce regions or those with limited access to clean water. A more efficient and affordable water filtration system can reduce water-borne diseases and improve the overall health of communities, enabling them to lead healthier, more productive lives.

Study on the Impact of Remote Work on Employee Productivity : Given the shift towards remote work due to recent events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, this study is of considerable significance. Findings could help organizations better structure their remote work policies and offer insights on how to maximize employee productivity, wellbeing, and job satisfaction.

Investigation into the Use of Solar Power in Developing Countries : With the world increasingly moving towards renewable energy, this study could provide important data on the feasibility and benefits of implementing solar power solutions in developing countries. This could potentially stimulate economic growth, reduce reliance on non-renewable resources, and contribute to global efforts to combat climate change.

Research on New Learning Strategies in Special Education : This study has the potential to greatly impact the field of special education. By understanding the effectiveness of new learning strategies, educators can improve their curriculum to provide better support for students with learning disabilities, fostering their academic growth and social development.

Examination of Mental Health Support in the Workplace : This study could highlight the impact of mental health initiatives on employee wellbeing and productivity. It could influence organizational policies across industries, promoting the implementation of mental health programs in the workplace, ultimately leading to healthier work environments.

Evaluation of a New Cancer Treatment Method : The significance of this study could be lifesaving. The research could lead to the development of more effective cancer treatments, increasing the survival rate and quality of life for patients worldwide.

When to Write Significance of the Study

The Significance of the Study section is an integral part of a research proposal or a thesis. This section is typically written after the introduction and the literature review. In the research process, the structure typically follows this order:

Title – The name of your research.
Abstract – A brief summary of the entire research.
Introduction – A presentation of the problem your research aims to solve.
Literature Review – A review of existing research on the topic to establish what is already known and where gaps exist.
Significance of the Study – An explanation of why the research matters and its potential impact.

In the Significance of the Study section, you will discuss why your study is important, who it benefits, and how it adds to existing knowledge or practice in your field. This section is your opportunity to convince readers, and potentially funders or supervisors, that your research is valuable and worth undertaking.

Advantages of Significance of the Study

The Significance of the Study section in a research paper has multiple advantages:

Establishes Relevance: This section helps to articulate the importance of your research to your field of study, as well as the wider society, by explicitly stating its relevance. This makes it easier for other researchers, funders, and policymakers to understand why your work is necessary and worth supporting.
Guides the Research: Writing the significance can help you refine your research questions and objectives. This happens as you critically think about why your research is important and how it contributes to your field.
Attracts Funding: If you are seeking funding or support for your research, having a well-written significance of the study section can be key. It helps to convince potential funders of the value of your work.
Opens up Further Research: By stating the significance of the study, you’re also indicating what further research could be carried out in the future, based on your work. This helps to pave the way for future studies and demonstrates that your research is a valuable addition to the field.
Provides Practical Applications: The significance of the study section often outlines how the research can be applied in real-world situations. This can be particularly important in applied sciences, where the practical implications of research are crucial.
Enhances Understanding: This section can help readers understand how your study fits into the broader context of your field, adding value to the existing literature and contributing new knowledge or insights.

Limitations of Significance of the Study

The Significance of the Study section plays an essential role in any research. However, it is not without potential limitations. Here are some that you should be aware of:

Subjectivity: The importance and implications of a study can be subjective and may vary from person to person. What one researcher considers significant might be seen as less critical by others. The assessment of significance often depends on personal judgement, biases, and perspectives.
Predictability of Impact: While you can outline the potential implications of your research in the Significance of the Study section, the actual impact can be unpredictable. Research doesn’t always yield the expected results or have the predicted impact on the field or society.
Difficulty in Measuring: The significance of a study is often qualitative and can be challenging to measure or quantify. You can explain how you think your research will contribute to your field or society, but measuring these outcomes can be complex.
Possibility of Overstatement: Researchers may feel pressured to amplify the potential significance of their study to attract funding or interest. This can lead to overstating the potential benefits or implications, which can harm the credibility of the study if these results are not achieved.
Overshadowing of Limitations: Sometimes, the significance of the study may overshadow the limitations of the research. It is important to balance the potential significance with a thorough discussion of the study’s limitations.
Dependence on Successful Implementation: The significance of the study relies on the successful implementation of the research. If the research process has flaws or unexpected issues arise, the anticipated significance might not be realized.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and...

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

2.1 Why is Research Important

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Explain how scientific research addresses questions about behavior
Discuss how scientific research guides public policy
Appreciate how scientific research can be important in making personal decisions

Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority, and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with the world around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting claims. At various times in history, we would have been certain that the sun revolved around a flat earth, that the earth’s continents did not move, and that mental illness was caused by possession (figure below). It is through systematic scientific research that we divest ourselves of our preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.

A skull has a large hole bored through the forehead.

Some of our ancestors, across the work and over the centuries, believed that trephination – the practice of making a hole in the skull, as shown here – allowed evil spirits to leave the body, thus curing mental illness and other diseases (credit” “taiproject/Flickr)

The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical : It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.

We can easily observe the behavior of others around us. For example, if someone is crying, we can observe that behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes, asking about the underlying cognitions is as easy as asking the subject directly: “Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly, or is incapable of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In other situations, it may be hard to identify exactly why you feel the way you do. Think about times when you suddenly feel annoyed after a long day. There may be a specific trigger for your annoyance (a loud noise), or you may be tired, hungry, stressed, or all of the above. Human behavior is often a complicated mix of a variety of factors. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior. This chapter explores how scientific knowledge is generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain.

USE OF RESEARCH INFORMATION

In the meantime, we should strive to think critically about the information we encounter by exercising a degree of healthy skepticism. When someone makes a claim, we should examine the claim from a number of different perspectives: what is the expertise of the person making the claim, what might they gain if the claim is valid, does the claim seem justified given the evidence, and what do other researchers think of the claim? Science is always changing and new evidence is alwaus coming to light, thus this dash of skepticism should be applied to all research you interact with from now on. Yes, that includes the research presented in this textbook.

Evaluation of research findings can have widespread impact. Imagine that you have been elected as the governor of your state. One of your responsibilities is to manage the state budget and determine how to best spend your constituents’ tax dollars. As the new governor, you need to decide whether to continue funding the D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) program in public schools (figure below). This program typically involves police officers coming into the classroom to educate students about the dangers of becoming involved with alcohol and other drugs. According to the D.A.R.E. website (www.dare.org), this program has been very popular since its inception in 1983, and it is currently operating in 75% of school districts in the United States and in more than 40 countries worldwide. Sounds like an easy decision, right? However, on closer review, you discover that the vast majority of research into this program consistently suggests that participation has little, if any, effect on whether or not someone uses alcohol or other drugs (Clayton, Cattarello, & Johnstone, 1996; Ennett, Tobler, Ringwalt, & Flewelling, 1994; Lynam et al., 1999; Ringwalt, Ennett, & Holt, 1991). If you are committed to being a good steward of taxpayer money, will you fund this particular program, or will you try to find other programs that research has consistently demonstrated to be effective?

A D.A.R.E. poster reads “D.A.R.E. to resist drugs and violence.”

The D.A.R.E. program continues to be popular in schools around the world despite research suggesting that it is ineffective.

It is not just politicians who can benefit from using research in guiding their decisions. We all might look to research from time to time when making decisions in our lives. Imagine you just found out that a close friend has breast cancer or that one of your young relatives has recently been diagnosed with autism. In either case, you want to know which treatment options are most successful with the fewest side effects. How would you find that out? You would probably talk with a doctor or psychologist and personally review the research that has been done on various treatment options—always with a critical eye to ensure that you are as informed as possible.

In the end, research is what makes the difference between facts and opinions. Facts are observable realities, and opinions are personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate. In the scientific community, facts can be established only using evidence collected through empirical research.

THE PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Two types of reasoning are used to make decisions within this model: Deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning, ideas are tested against the empirical world. Think about a detective looking for clues and evidence to test their “hunch” about whodunit. In contrast, in inductive reasoning, empirical observations lead to new ideas. In other words, inductive reasoning involves gathering facts to create or refine a theory, rather than testing the theory by gathering facts (figure below). These processes are inseparable, like inhaling and exhaling, but different research approaches place different emphasis on the deductive and inductive aspects.

A diagram has a box at the top labeled “hypothesis or general premise” and a box at the bottom labeled “empirical observations.” On the left, an arrow labeled “inductive reasoning” goes from the bottom to top box. On the right, an arrow labeled “deductive reasoning” goes from the top to the bottom box.

Psychological research relies on both inductive and deductive reasoning.

In the scientific context, deductive reasoning begins with a generalization—one hypothesis—that is then used to reach logical conclusions about the real world. If the hypothesis is correct, then the logical conclusions reached through deductive reasoning should also be correct. A deductive reasoning argument might go something like this: All living things require energy to survive (this would be your hypothesis). Ducks are living things. Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (logical conclusion). In this example, the hypothesis is correct; therefore, the conclusion is correct as well. Sometimes, however, an incorrect hypothesis may lead to a logical but incorrect conclusion. Consider the famous example from Greek philosophy. A philosopher decided that human beings were “featherless bipeds”. Using deductive reasoning, all two-legged creatures without feathers must be human, right? Diogenes the Cynic (named because he was, well, a cynic) burst into the room with a freshly plucked chicken from the market and held it up exclaiming “Behold! I have brought you a man!”

Deductive reasoning starts with a generalization that is tested against real-world observations; however, inductive reasoning moves in the opposite direction. Inductive reasoning uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations. Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based. For example, you might be a biologist attempting to classify animals into groups. You notice that quite a large portion of animals are furry and produce milk for their young (cats, dogs, squirrels, horses, hippos, etc). Therefore, you might conclude that all mammals (the name you have chosen for this grouping) have hair and produce milk. This seems like a pretty great hypothesis that you could test with deductive reasoning. You go out an look at a whole bunch of things and stumble on an exception: The coconut. Coconuts have hair and produce milk, but they don’t “fit” your idea of what a mammal is. So, using inductive reasoning given the new evidence, you adjust your theory again for an other round of data collection. Inductive and deductive reasoning work in tandem to help build and improve scientific theories over time.

We’ve stated that theories and hypotheses are ideas, but what sort of ideas are they, exactly? A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Theories are repeatedly checked against the world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once. Instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory.

A hypothesis is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our theory is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests (figure below).

A diagram has four boxes: the top is labeled “theory,” the right is labeled “hypothesis,” the bottom is labeled “research,” and the left is labeled “observation.” Arrows flow in the direction from top to right to bottom to left and back to the top, clockwise. The top right arrow is labeled “use the hypothesis to form a theory,” the bottom right arrow is labeled “design a study to test the hypothesis,” the bottom left arrow is labeled “perform the research,” and the top left arrow is labeled “create or modify the theory.”

The scientific method of research includes proposing hypotheses, conducting research, and creating or modifying theories based on results.

To see how this process works, let’s consider a specific theory and a hypothesis that might be generated from that theory. As you’ll learn in a later chapter, the James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotional experience relies on the physiological arousal associated with the emotional state. If you walked out of your home and discovered a very aggressive snake waiting on your doorstep, your heart would begin to race and your stomach churn. According to the James-Lange theory, these physiological changes would result in your feeling of fear. A hypothesis that could be derived from this theory might be that a person who is unaware of the physiological arousal that the sight of the snake elicits will not feel fear.

A scientific hypothesis is also falsifiable, or capable of being shown to be incorrect. Recall from the introductory chapter that Sigmund Freud had lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors (figure below). However, a major criticism of Freud’s theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable. The essential characteristic of Freud’s building blocks of personality, the id, ego, and superego, is that they are unconscious, and therefore people can’t observe them. Because they cannot be observed or tested in any way, it is impossible to say that they don’t exist, so they cannot be considered scientific theories. Despite this, Freud’s theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts because of their historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and these remain the root of all modern forms of therapy.

(a)A photograph shows Freud holding a cigar. (b) The mind’s conscious and unconscious states are illustrated as an iceberg floating in water. Beneath the water’s surface in the “unconscious” area are the id, ego, and superego. The area just below the water’s surface is labeled “preconscious.” The area above the water’s surface is labeled “conscious.”

Many of the specifics of (a) Freud’s theories, such ad (b) his division on the mind into the id, ego, and superego, have fallen out of favor in recent decades because they are not falsifiable (i.e., cannot be verified through scientific investigation). In broader strokes, his views set the stage for much psychological thinking today, such as the idea that some psychological process occur at the level of the unconscious.

In contrast, the James-Lange theory does generate falsifiable hypotheses, such as the one described above. Some individuals who suffer significant injuries to their spinal columns are unable to feel the bodily changes that often accompany emotional experiences. Therefore, we could test the hypothesis by determining how emotional experiences differ between individuals who have the ability to detect these changes in their physiological arousal and those who do not. In fact, this research has been conducted and while the emotional experiences of people deprived of an awareness of their physiological arousal may be less intense, they still experience emotion (Chwalisz, Diener, & Gallagher, 1988).

Scientific research’s dependence on falsifiability allows for great confidence in the information that it produces. Typically, by the time information is accepted by the scientific community, it has been tested repeatedly.

Scientists are engaged in explaining and understanding how the world around them works, and they are able to do so by coming up with theories that generate hypotheses that are testable and falsifiable. Theories that stand up to their tests are retained and refined, while those that do not are discarded or modified. IHaving good information generated from research aids in making wise decisions both in public policy and in our personal lives.

Review Questions:

1. Scientific hypotheses are ________ and falsifiable.

a. observable

b. original

c. provable

d. testable

2. ________ are defined as observable realities.

a. behaviors

c. opinions

d. theories

3. Scientific knowledge is ________.

a. intuitive

b. empirical

c. permanent

d. subjective

4. A major criticism of Freud’s early theories involves the fact that his theories ________.

a. were too limited in scope

b. were too outrageous

c. were too broad

d. were not testable

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. In this section, the D.A.R.E. program was described as an incredibly popular program in schools across the United States despite the fact that research consistently suggests that this program is largely ineffective. How might one explain this discrepancy?

2. The scientific method is often described as self-correcting and cyclical. Briefly describe your understanding of the scientific method with regard to these concepts.

Personal Application Questions:

1. Healthcare professionals cite an enormous number of health problems related to obesity, and many people have an understandable desire to attain a healthy weight. There are many diet programs, services, and products on the market to aid those who wish to lose weight. If a close friend was considering purchasing or participating in one of these products, programs, or services, how would you make sure your friend was fully aware of the potential consequences of this decision? What sort of information would you want to review before making such an investment or lifestyle change yourself?

deductive reasoning

falsifiable

hypothesis: (plural

inductive reasoning

Answers to Exercises

Review Questions:

1. There is probably tremendous political pressure to appear to be hard on drugs. Therefore, even though D.A.R.E. might be ineffective, it is a well-known program with which voters are familiar.

2. This cyclical, self-correcting process is primarily a function of the empirical nature of science. Theories are generated as explanations of real-world phenomena. From theories, specific hypotheses are developed and tested. As a function of this testing, theories will be revisited and modified or refined to generate new hypotheses that are again tested. This cyclical process ultimately allows for more and more precise (and presumably accurate) information to be collected.

deductive reasoning: results are predicted based on a general premise

empirical: grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing

fact: objective and verifiable observation, established using evidence collected through empirical research

falsifiable: able to be disproven by experimental results

hypothesis: (plural: hypotheses) tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

inductive reasoning: conclusions are drawn from observations

opinion: personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate

theory: well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

Share This Book

Increase Font Size

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Explain how scientific research addresses questions about behavior
Discuss how scientific research guides public policy
Appreciate how scientific research can be important in making personal decisions

Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority, and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with the world around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting claims. At various times in history, we would have been certain that the sun revolved around a flat earth, that the earth’s continents did not move, and that mental illness was caused by possession ( Figure 2.2 ). It is through systematic scientific research that we divest ourselves of our preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.

While behavior is observable, the mind is not. If someone is crying, we can see behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes we can learn the reason for someone’s behavior by simply asking a question, like “Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly, or is incapable of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior. This chapter explores how scientific knowledge is generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain.

Use of Research Information

Trying to determine which theories are and are not accepted by the scientific community can be difficult, especially in an area of research as broad as psychology. More than ever before, we have an incredible amount of information at our fingertips, and a simple internet search on any given research topic might result in a number of contradictory studies. In these cases, we are witnessing the scientific community going through the process of reaching a consensus, and it could be quite some time before a consensus emerges. For example, the explosion in our use of technology has led researchers to question whether this ultimately helps or hinders us. The use and implementation of technology in educational settings has become widespread over the last few decades. Researchers are coming to different conclusions regarding the use of technology. To illustrate this point, a study investigating a smartphone app targeting surgery residents (graduate students in surgery training) found that the use of this app can increase student engagement and raise test scores (Shaw & Tan, 2015). Conversely, another study found that the use of technology in undergraduate student populations had negative impacts on sleep, communication, and time management skills (Massimini & Peterson, 2009). Until sufficient amounts of research have been conducted, there will be no clear consensus on the effects that technology has on a student's acquisition of knowledge, study skills, and mental health.

In the meantime, we should strive to think critically about the information we encounter by exercising a degree of healthy skepticism. When someone makes a claim, we should examine the claim from a number of different perspectives: what is the expertise of the person making the claim, what might they gain if the claim is valid, does the claim seem justified given the evidence, and what do other researchers think of the claim? This is especially important when we consider how much information in advertising campaigns and on the internet claims to be based on “scientific evidence” when in actuality it is a belief or perspective of just a few individuals trying to sell a product or draw attention to their perspectives.

We should be informed consumers of the information made available to us because decisions based on this information have significant consequences. One such consequence can be seen in politics and public policy. Imagine that you have been elected as the governor of your state. One of your responsibilities is to manage the state budget and determine how to best spend your constituents’ tax dollars. As the new governor, you need to decide whether to continue funding early intervention programs. These programs are designed to help children who come from low-income backgrounds, have special needs, or face other disadvantages. These programs may involve providing a wide variety of services to maximize the children's development and position them for optimal levels of success in school and later in life (Blann, 2005). While such programs sound appealing, you would want to be sure that they also proved effective before investing additional money in these programs. Fortunately, psychologists and other scientists have conducted vast amounts of research on such programs and, in general, the programs are found to be effective (Neil & Christensen, 2009; Peters-Scheffer, Didden, Korzilius, & Sturmey, 2011). While not all programs are equally effective, and the short-term effects of many such programs are more pronounced, there is reason to believe that many of these programs produce long-term benefits for participants (Barnett, 2011). If you are committed to being a good steward of taxpayer money, you would want to look at research. Which programs are most effective? What characteristics of these programs make them effective? Which programs promote the best outcomes? After examining the research, you would be best equipped to make decisions about which programs to fund.

Link to Learning

Watch this video about early childhood program effectiveness to learn how scientists evaluate effectiveness and how best to invest money into programs that are most effective.

Ultimately, it is not just politicians who can benefit from using research in guiding their decisions. We all might look to research from time to time when making decisions in our lives. Imagine that your sister, Maria, expresses concern about her two-year-old child, Umberto. Umberto does not speak as much or as clearly as the other children in his daycare or others in the family. Umberto's pediatrician undertakes some screening and recommends an evaluation by a speech pathologist, but does not refer Maria to any other specialists. Maria is concerned that Umberto's speech delays are signs of a developmental disorder, but Umberto's pediatrician does not; she sees indications of differences in Umberto's jaw and facial muscles. Hearing this, you do some internet searches, but you are overwhelmed by the breadth of information and the wide array of sources. You see blog posts, top-ten lists, advertisements from healthcare providers, and recommendations from several advocacy organizations. Why are there so many sites? Which are based in research, and which are not?

NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

Psychological research has a long history involving important figures from diverse backgrounds. While the introductory chapter discussed several researchers who made significant contributions to the discipline, there are many more individuals who deserve attention in considering how psychology has advanced as a science through their work ( Figure 2.3 ). For instance, Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) was the first woman to earn a PhD in psychology. Her research focused on animal behavior and cognition (Margaret Floy Washburn, PhD, n.d.). Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was a preeminent first-generation American psychologist who opposed the behaviorist movement, conducted significant research into memory, and established one of the earliest experimental psychology labs in the United States (Mary Whiton Calkins, n.d.).

Francis Sumner (1895–1954) was the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology in 1920. His dissertation focused on issues related to psychoanalysis. Sumner also had research interests in racial bias and educational justice. Sumner was one of the founders of Howard University’s department of psychology, and because of his accomplishments, he is sometimes referred to as the “Father of Black Psychology.” Thirteen years later, Inez Beverly Prosser (1895–1934) became the first African American woman to receive a PhD in psychology. Prosser’s research highlighted issues related to education in segregated versus integrated schools, and ultimately, her work was very influential in the hallmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court ruling that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional (Ethnicity and Health in America Series: Featured Psychologists, n.d.).

Although the establishment of psychology’s scientific roots occurred first in Europe and the United States, it did not take much time until researchers from around the world began to establish their own laboratories and research programs. For example, some of the first experimental psychology laboratories in South America were founded by Horatio Piñero (1869–1919) at two institutions in Buenos Aires, Argentina (Godoy & Brussino, 2010). In India, Gunamudian David Boaz (1908–1965) and Narendra Nath Sen Gupta (1889–1944) established the first independent departments of psychology at the University of Madras and the University of Calcutta, respectively. These developments provided an opportunity for Indian researchers to make important contributions to the field (Gunamudian David Boaz, n.d.; Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, n.d.).

When the American Psychological Association (APA) was first founded in 1892, all of the members were White males (Women and Minorities in Psychology, n.d.). However, by 1905, Mary Whiton Calkins was elected as the first female president of the APA, and by 1946, nearly one-quarter of American psychologists were female. Psychology became a popular degree option for students enrolled in the nation’s historically Black higher education institutions, increasing the number of Black Americans who went on to become psychologists. Given demographic shifts occurring in the United States and increased access to higher educational opportunities among historically underrepresented populations, there is reason to hope that the diversity of the field will increasingly match the larger population, and that the research contributions made by the psychologists of the future will better serve people of all backgrounds (Women and Minorities in Psychology, n.d.).

The Process of Scientific Research

Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method . Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on. In this sense, the scientific process is circular. The types of reasoning within the circle are called deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning , ideas are tested in the real world; in inductive reasoning , real-world observations lead to new ideas ( Figure 2.4 ). These processes are inseparable, like inhaling and exhaling, but different research approaches place different emphasis on the deductive and inductive aspects.

In the scientific context, deductive reasoning begins with a generalization—one hypothesis—that is then used to reach logical conclusions about the real world. If the hypothesis is correct, then the logical conclusions reached through deductive reasoning should also be correct. A deductive reasoning argument might go something like this: All living things require energy to survive (this would be your hypothesis). Ducks are living things. Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (logical conclusion). In this example, the hypothesis is correct; therefore, the conclusion is correct as well. Sometimes, however, an incorrect hypothesis may lead to a logical but incorrect conclusion. Consider this argument: all ducks are born with the ability to see. Quackers is a duck. Therefore, Quackers was born with the ability to see. Scientists use deductive reasoning to empirically test their hypotheses. Returning to the example of the ducks, researchers might design a study to test the hypothesis that if all living things require energy to survive, then ducks will be found to require energy to survive.

Deductive reasoning starts with a generalization that is tested against real-world observations; however, inductive reasoning moves in the opposite direction. Inductive reasoning uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations. Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based. For instance, you may notice that your favorite fruits—apples, bananas, and oranges—all grow on trees; therefore, you assume that all fruit must grow on trees. This would be an example of inductive reasoning, and, clearly, the existence of strawberries, blueberries, and kiwi demonstrate that this generalization is not correct despite it being based on a number of direct observations. Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate theories, which in turn generate hypotheses that are tested with deductive reasoning. In the end, science involves both deductive and inductive processes.

For example, case studies, which you will read about in the next section, are heavily weighted on the side of empirical observations. Thus, case studies are closely associated with inductive processes as researchers gather massive amounts of observations and seek interesting patterns (new ideas) in the data. Experimental research, on the other hand, puts great emphasis on deductive reasoning.

We’ve stated that theories and hypotheses are ideas, but what sort of ideas are they, exactly? A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Theories are repeatedly checked against the world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory.

A hypothesis is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests Figure 2.5 .

A scientific hypothesis is also falsifiable , or capable of being shown to be incorrect. Recall from the introductory chapter that Sigmund Freud had lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors ( Figure 2.6 ). However, a major criticism of Freud’s theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable; for example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego—the three elements of personality described in Freud’s theories. Despite this, Freud’s theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts because of their historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and these remain the root of all modern forms of therapy.

As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases.

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

Authors: Rose M. Spielman, William J. Jenkins, Marilyn D. Lovett
Publisher/website: OpenStax
Book title: Psychology 2e
Publication date: Apr 22, 2020
Location: Houston, Texas
Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction
Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/2-1-why-is-research-important

© Jan 6, 2024 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.

40+ Reasons Why Research Is Important in Education

Do you ever wonder why research is so essential in education? What impact does it really have on teaching and learning?

These are questions that plague many students and educators alike.

According to experts, here are the reasons why research is important in the field of education.

Joseph Marc Zagerman, Ed.D.

Assistant Professor of Project Management, Harrisburg University of Science and Technology

Wisdom is knowledge rightly applied. Conducting research is all about gaining wisdom. It can be an exciting part of a college student’s educational journey — be it a simple research paper, thesis, or dissertation.

Related: What Is the Difference Between Knowledge and Wisdom?

As we know, there is primary research and secondary research:

Primary research is first-hand research where the primary investigator (PI) or researcher uses a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methodology approach in gaining original data. The process of conducting primary research is fascinating but beyond the scope of this article.
In contrast, secondary research examines secondhand information by describing or summarizing the work of others. This article focuses on the benefits of conducting secondary research by immersing oneself in the literature.

Research develops students into becoming more self-sufficient

There are many benefits for college students to engage in scholarly research. For example, the research process itself develops students into becoming more self-sufficient.

In other words, students enhance their ability to ferret out information regarding a specific topic with a more functional deep dive into the subject matter under investigation.

The educational journey of conducting research allows students to see the current conversations taking place regarding a specific topic. One can parse out the congruity and incongruity among scholars about a particular topic.

Developing one’s fundamental library skills is a tremendous upside in becoming self-sufficient. And yet another benefit of conducting scholarly research is reviewing other writing styles, which often enhances one’s reading and writing skills.

Conducting an annotated bibliography is often a critical first step in conducting scholarly research. Reviewing, evaluating, and synthesizing information from several sources further develops a student’s critical thinking skills.

Related: 9 Critical Thinking Examples

Furthermore, in becoming immersed in the literature, students can recognize associated gaps , problems , or opportunities for additional research.

From a doctoral perspective, Boote & Beile (2005) underscore the importance of conducting a literature review as the foundation for sound research and acquiring the skills and knowledge in analyzing and synthesizing information.

So, if conducting research is beneficial for college students, why do some college students have problems with the process or believe it doesn’t add value?

First off, conducting research is hard work . It takes time. Not to make a sweeping generalization, but some college students embrace a “fast-food” expectation of academic assignments.

For example, finish a quiz, complete a discussion board, or watch a YouTube video and check it off your academic to-do list right away. In contrast, conducting a literature review takes time. It’s hard work.

It requires discipline, focus, and effective time management strategies.

Yet, good, bad, or indifferent, it remains that the process of conducting research is often perceived as a non-value-added activity for many college students. Why is this so? Is there a better way?

From an educational standpoint, research assignments should not be a “one and done.” Instead, every course should provide opportunities for students to engage in research of some sort.

If a student must complete a thesis or dissertation as part of their degree requirement, the process should begin early enough in the program.

But perhaps the most important note for educators is to align the research process with real-world takeaways . That builds value . That is what wisdom is all about.

Dr. John Clark, PMP

Corporate Faculty (Project Management), Harrisburg University of Science and Technology

Research provides a path to progress and prosperity

The research integrates the known with the unknown. Research becomes the path to progress and prosperity. Extant knowledge, gathered through previous research, serves as the foundation to attaining new knowledge.

The essence of research is a continuum.

Only through research is the attainment of new knowledge possible. New knowledge, formed through new research, is contributed back to the knowledge community. In the absence of research, the continuum of knowledge is severed.

Reminiscent of the continuum of knowledge, the desire and understanding to conduct research must transcend into the next generation. This magnifies the relevance to convey the techniques and the desire to seek new knowledge to the younger generations.

Humbly, it is argued that education possibly serves to facilitate the importance of research. The synergy between research and education perpetuates the continuum of knowledge.

Through education, the younger generations are instilled with the inspiration to address the challenges of tomorrow.

Related: Why Is Education Important in Our Life?

It plants the seeds for scientific inquiry into the next generation

Research, whether qualitative or quantitative , is grounded in scientific methods . Instructing our students in the fundamentals of empirically-based research effectively plants the seeds for scientific inquiry into the next generation.

The application and pursuit of research catalyze critical thinking . Rather than guiding our students to apply pre-existing and rote answers to yesterday’s challenges, research inspires our students to examine phenomena through new and intriguing lenses.

The globalized and highly competitive world of today effectively demands the younger generations to think critically and creatively to respond to the new challenges of the future.

Consequently, through research and education, the younger generations are inspired and prepared to find new knowledge that advances our community. Ultimately, the synergy between research and education benefits society for generations to come.

Professor John Hattie and Kyle Hattie

Authors, “ 10 Steps to Develop Great Learners “

Research serves many purposes

Imagine your doctor or pilot disregarding research and relying on experience, anecdotes, and opinions. Imagine them being proud of not having read a research article since graduation. Imagine them depending on the tips and tricks of colleagues.

Research serves many great purposes, such as:

Keeping up to date with critical findings
Hearing the critiques of current methods of teaching and running schools
Standing on the shoulders of giants to see our world better

Given that so much educational research is now available, reading syntheses of the research, hearing others’ interpretation and implementation of the research, and seeing the research in action helps.

What matters most is the interpretation of the research — your interpretation, the author’s interpretation, and your colleagues’ interpretation. It is finding research that improves our ways of thinking, our interpretations, and our impact on students.

There is also much to be gained from reading about the methods of research, which provide ways for us to question our own impact, our own theories of teaching and learning, and help us critique our practice by standing on the shoulders of others.

Research also helps to know what is exciting, topical, and important.

It enables us to hear other perspectives

Statements without research evidence are but opinions. Research is not only about what is published in journals or books, but what we discover in our own classes and schools, provided we ask, “What evidence would I accept that I am wrong?”

This is the defining question separating research from opinion. As humans, we are great at self-confirmation — there are always students who succeed in our class, we are great at finding evidence we were right, and we can use this evidence to justify our teaching.

But what about those who did not succeed? We can’t be blind about them, and we should not ascribe their lack of improvement to them (poor homes, unmotivated, too far behind) but to us.

We often need to hear other perspectives of the evidence we collect from our classes and hear more convincing explanations and interpretations about what worked best and what did not; who succeeded and who did not; and were the gains sufficient.

When we do this with the aim of improving our impact on our students, then everyone is the winner.

It provides explanations and bigger picture interpretations

Research and evaluation on your class and school can be triangulated with research studies in the literature to provide alternative explanations, to help see the importance (or not) of the context of your school. And we can always write our experiences and add to the research.

For example, we have synthesized many studies of how best parents can influence their children to become great learners. Our fundamental interpretation of the large corpus of studies is that it matters more how parents think when engaged in parenting.

For instance, the expectations, listening and responsive skills, how they react to error and struggle, and whether their feedback was heard, understood, and actionable.

Research is more than summarizing ; it provides explanations and bigger picture interpretations, which we aimed at in our “10 steps for Parents” book.

Dr. Glenn Mitchell, MPH, CPE, FACEP

Vice Provost for Institutional Effectiveness , Harrisburg University of Science and Technology

Research gives us better knowledge workers

There is a tremendous value for our society from student participation in scientific research. At all levels – undergraduate, master’s, and Ph.D. —students learn the scientific method that has driven progress since the Enlightenment over 300 years ago.

They learn to observe carefully and organize collected data efficiently.
They know how to test results for whether or not they should be believed or were just a chance finding.
They learn to estimate the strength of the data they collect and see in other scientists’ published work.

With its peer review and wide visibility, the publication process demands that the work be done properly , or it will be exposed as flawed or even falsified.

So students don’t just learn how to do experiments, interviews, or surveys. They learn that the process demands rigor and ethical conduct to obtain valid and reliable results.

Supporting and educating a new generation of science-minded citizens makes our population more likely to support proven facts and take unproven allegations with a grain of salt until they are rigorously evaluated and reviewed.

Thus, educating our students about research and involving them with hands-on opportunities to participate in research projects gives us better knowledge workers to advance technology and produce better citizens.

Chris A. Sweigart, Ph.D.

Board Certified Family Physician | Education Consultant, Limened

Research plays a critical role in education as a guide for effective practices, policies, and procedures in our schools.

Evidence-based practice, which involves educators intentionally engaging in instructional practices and programs with strong evidence for positive outcomes from methodologically sound research, is essential to ensure the greatest probability of achieving desired student outcomes in schools.

It helps educators have greater confidence to help students achieve outcomes

There are extensive options for instructional practices and programs in our schools, many of which are promoted and sold by educational companies. In brief, some of these works benefit students, and others don’t, producing no results or even negatively impacting students.

Educators need ways to filter through the noise to find practices that are most likely to actually produce positive results with students.

When a practice has been identified as evidence-based, that means an array of valid, carefully controlled research studies have been conducted that show significant, positive outcomes from engaging in the practice.

By choosing to engage in these practices, educators can have greater confidence in their ability to help students achieve meaningful outcomes.

There are organizations focused on evaluating the research base for programs and practices to determine whether they are evidence-based.

For example, some websites provide overviews of evidence-based practices in education while my website provides practical guides for teachers on interventions for academic and behavioral challenges with a research rating scale.

Educators can use these resources to sift through the research, which can sometimes be challenging to access and translate, especially for busy teachers.

It supports vulnerable student populations

Schools may be especially concerned about the success of vulnerable student populations, such as students with disabilities , who are at far greater risk than their peers of poor short and long-term outcomes.

In many cases, these students are already behind their peers one or more years academically and possibly facing other challenges.

With these vulnerable populations, it’s imperative that we engage in practices that benefit them and do so faster than typical practice—because these students need to catch up!

That said, every minute and dollar we spend on a practice not supported by research is a gamble on students’ well-being and futures that may only make things worse.

These populations of students need our best in education, which means choosing practices with sound evidence that are most likely to help.

If I were going to a doctor for a serious illness, I would want them to engage in practice guided by the cutting edge of medical science to ensure my most significant chance of becoming healthy again. And I want the same for our students who struggle in school.

Will Shaw PhD, MSc

Sport Scientist and Lecturer | Co-founder, Sport Science Insider

Research creates new knowledge and better ideas

At the foundation of learning is sharing knowledge, ideas, and concepts. However, few concepts are set in stone; instead, they are ever-evolving ideas that hopefully get closer to the truth .

Research is the process that underpins this search for new and better-defined ideas. For this reason, it is crucial to have very close links between research and teaching. The further the gap, the less informed teaching will become.

Research provides answers to complicated problems

Another key concept in education is sharing the reality that most problems are complicated — but these are often the most fun to try to solve. Such as, how does the brain control movement? Or how can we optimize skill development in elite athletes?

Here, research can be used to show how many studies can be pulled together to find answers to these challenging problems. But students should also understand that these answers aren’t perfect and should be challenged.

Again, this process creates a deeper learning experience and students who are better equipped for the world we live in.

Basic understanding of research aids students in making informed decisions

We’re already seeing the worlds of tech and data drive many facets of life in a positive direction — this will no doubt continue. However, a byproduct of this is that data and science are commonly misunderstood, misquoted, or, in the worst cases, deliberately misused to tell a false story.

If students have a basic understanding of research, they can make informed decisions based on reading the source and their own insight.

This doesn’t mean they have to mean they disregard all headlines instead, they can decide to what extent the findings are trustworthy and dig deeper to find meaning.

A recent example is this BBC News story that did an excellent job of reporting a study looking at changes in brain structure as a result of mild COVID. The main finding of a 2% average loss in brain structure after mild COVID sounds alarming and is one of the findings from the study.

However, if students have the ability to scan the full article linked in the BBC article, they could learn that:

The measure that decreased by 2% was a ‘proxy’ (estimate) for tissue damage
Adults show 0.2 – 0.3% loss every year naturally
Some covid patients didn’t show any loss at all, but the average loss between the COVID and control group was 2%
We have no idea currently if these effects last more than a few weeks or months (more research is in progress)

This is an excellent research paper, and it is well-reported, but having the ability to go one step further makes so much more sense of the findings. This ability to understand the basics of research makes the modern world far easier to navigate.

Helen Crabtree

Teacher and Owner, GCSE Masterclass

It enables people to discover different ideas

Research is crucial to education. It enables people to discover different ideas, viewpoints, theories, and facts. From there, they will weigh up the validity of each theory for themselves.

Finding these things out for oneself causes a student to think more deeply and come up with their personal perspectives, hypotheses, and even to question widely held facts. This is crucial for independent thought and personal development.

To distortion and manipulation — a frighteningly Orwellian future awaits us if research skills are lost.

You only need to look at current world events and how freedom of the media and genuine journalistic investigation (or research) is distorting the understanding of the real world in the minds of many people in one of the most powerful countries in the world.

Only those who are able to conduct research and evaluate the independence of facts can genuinely understand the world.

Genuine research opens young people’s eyes to facts and opinions

Furthermore, learning how to conduct genuine research instead of merely a Wikipedia or Google search is a skill in itself, allowing students to search through archives and find material that is not widely known about and doesn’t appear at the top of search engines.

Genuine research will open young people’s eyes to facts and opinions that may otherwise be hidden. This can be demonstrated when we look at social media and its algorithms.

Essentially, if you repeatedly read or “like” pieces with a specific worldview, the algorithm will send you more articles or videos that further back up that view.

This, in turn, creates an echo chamber whereby your own opinion is repeatedly played back to you with no opposing ideas or facts, reinforcing your view in a one-sided way.

Conducting genuine research is the antidote.

Lastly, by conducting research, people discover how to write articles, dissertations, and conduct their own experiments to justify their ideas. A world without genuine, quality research is a world that is open.

Pritha Gopalan, Ph.D.

Director of Research and Learning, Newark Trust for Education

It allows us to understand progress and areas of development

Research is vital in education because it helps us be intentional about how we frame and document our practice. At The Trust , we aim to synthesize standards-based and stakeholder-driven frames to ensure that quality also means equity.

Research gives us a lens to look across time and space and concretely understand our progress and areas for improvement. We are careful to include all voices through representative and network sampling to include multiple perspectives from different sites.

Good research helps us capture variation in practice, document innovation, and share bright spots and persistent challenges with peers for mutual learning and growth.

This is key to our work as educators and a city-based voice employing and seeking to amplify asset-based discourses in education.

Research represents stakeholders’ aspirations and needs

When done in culturally sustaining and equitable ways , research powerfully represents stakeholder experiences, interests, aspirations, and needs. Thus, it is critical to informed philanthropy, advocacy, and the continuous improvement of practice.

Our organization is constantly evolving in our own cultural competence . It embodies this pursuit in our research so that the voices of the educators, families, children, and partners that we work with are harmonized .

This is done to create the “big picture” of where we are and where we need to get together to ensure equitable and quality conditions for learning in Newark.

Jessica Robinson

Educator | Human Resources and Marketing Manager, SpeakingNerd

Research makes the problem clearer

In the words of Stanley Arnold, “Every problem contains within itself the seeds of its own solution.” These words truly highlight the nature of problems and solutions.

If you understand a problem thoroughly, you eventually approach closer to the solution for you begin to see what makes the problem arise. When the root of the problem is clear, the solution becomes obvious.

For example, if you suffer from headaches frequently, your doctor will get specific tests done to understand the exact problem (which is research). Once the root cause of the headache becomes clear, your doctor will give you suitable medicines to help you heal.

This implies that to reach a solution, it is crucial for us to understand the problem first. Research helps us with that. By making the problem clearer, it helps us pave closer to the solution.

As the main aim of education is to produce talented individuals who can generate innovative solutions to the world’s problems, research is of utmost importance.

Research boosts critical thinking skills

Critical thinking is defined as observing, understanding, analyzing, and interpreting information and arguments to form suitable conclusions.

In today’s world, critical thinking skills are the most valued skills. Companies look for a candidate’s critical thinking skills before hiring him. This is because critical thinking skills promote innovation, and innovation is the need of the hour in almost every sector.

Further, research is one of the most effective ways of developing critical thinking skills. When you conduct research, you eventually learn the art of observing, evaluating, analyzing, interpreting information, and deriving conclusions. So, this is another major reason why research is crucial in education.

Research promotes curiosity

In the words of Albert Einstein , “Curiosity is more important than knowledge.” Now, you may wonder why so? Basically, curiosity is a strong desire to learn or know things. It motivates you to pursue an everlasting journey of learning.

Every curious individual observes things, experiments, and learns. It seems that knowledge follows curiosity, but the vice versa is not true. An individual may gain a lot of knowledge about multiple things despite not being curious. But, then, he might not use his knowledge to engage in innovation because of the lack of curiosity.

Hence, his knowledge might become futile, or he may just remain a bookworm. So, curiosity is more important than knowledge, and research promotes curiosity. How?

The answer is because research helps you plunge into things. You observe what is not visible to everyone. You explore the wonders of nature and other phenomena. The more you know, the more you understand that you don’t know, which ignites curiosity.

Research boosts confidence and self-esteem

Developing confident individuals is one of the major goals of education. When students undertake the journey of research and come up with important conclusions or results, they develop immense confidence in their knowledge and skills.

Related: Why is Self Confidence Important?

They feel as if they can do anything. This is another important reason why research is crucial in education.

Research helps students evolve into independent learners

Most of the time, teachers guide students on the path of learning. But, research opportunities give students chances to pave their own learning path.

It is like they pursue a journey of learning by themselves. They consult different resources that seem appropriate, use their own methods, and shape the journey on their own.

This way, they evolve into independent learners, which is excellent as it sets the foundation for lifelong learning.

Theresa Bertuzzi

Chief Program Development Officer and Co-founder, Tiny Hoppers

Research helps revamp the curriculum and include proven best techniques

Research is critical in education as our world is constantly evolving, so approaches and solutions need to be updated to best suit the current educational climate.

With the influx of child development and psychology studies, educators and child product development experts are honing how certain activities, lessons, behavior management, etc., can impact a child’s development.

For example, child development research has led to the development of toy blocks, jigsaws, and shape sorters, which have proven to be linked to:

Spatial thinking
Logical reasoning
Shape and color recognition

There is no one-size-fits-all when approaching educational practices; therefore, we can revamp the curriculum and include proven best techniques and methodologies by continuously researching past strategies and looking into new tactics.

Effective teaching requires practical evidence approaches rather than making it a guessing game.

The combination of work done by child educators of all ages, and research in child development psychology allow new developments in toys, activities, and practical resources for other educators, child care workers, and parents. Such ensures children can reap the benefits of child development research.

It enables a better understanding of how to adapt methods of instruction

In addition, with all of the various learning styles, researching the diversity in these types will enable a better understanding of how to adapt methods of instruction to all learners’ needs.

Child development research gives educators, child care workers, and parents the ability to guide the average child at specific age ranges, but each child is unique in their own needs .

It is important to note that while this is the average, it is up to the educator and childcare provider to adapt accordingly to each child based on their individual needs.

Scott Winstead

Education Technology Expert | Founder, My eLearning World

It’s the most important tool for expanding our knowledge

Research is an integral part of education for teachers and students alike. It’s our most important tool for expanding our knowledge and understanding of different topics and ideas.

Educators need to be informed about the latest research to make good decisions and provide students with quality learning opportunities.
Research provides educators with valuable information about how students learn best so they can be more effective teachers.
It also helps us develop new methods and techniques for teaching and allows educators to explore different topics and ideas in more detail.
For students, research allows them to explore new topics and develop critical thinking skills along with analytical and communication skills.

In short, research is vital in education because it helps us learn more about the world around us and improves the quality of education for everyone involved.

Connor Ondriska

CEO, SpanishVIP

It creates better experiences and improves the quality of education

Research continues to be so important in education because we should constantly be improving as educators. If one of the goals of education is to continually work on making a better world, then the face of education a century ago shouldn’t look the same today.

You can apply that same logic on a shorter scale, especially with the technological boom . So research is a way that educators can learn about what’s working, what isn’t, and what are the areas we need to focus on.

For example, we focus purely on distance learning, which means we need to innovate in a field that doesn’t have a ton of research yet. If we’re being generous, we can say that distance education became viable in the 1990s, but people are just now accepting it as a valid way to learn.

Since you can’t necessarily apply everything you know about traditional pedagogy to an online setting, It’s an entirely different context that requires its own study.

As more research comes out about the effectiveness and understanding of this type of education, we can adapt as educators to help our students. Ultimately, that research will help us create better experiences and improve the quality of distance education.

The key here is to make sure that research is available and that teachers actually respond to it. In that sense, ongoing research and continual teacher training can go hand-in-hand.

It leads to more effective educational approaches

Research in the field of language learning is significant. We’re constantly changing our understanding of how languages are learned. Over just the last century, there have been dozens of new methodologies and approaches.

Linguists/pedagogues have frequently re-interpreted the language-learning process, and all of this analytical research has revolutionized the way we understand language.

We started with simple Grammar Translation (how you would learn Latin), and now research focuses on more holistic communication techniques. So we’ve definitely come a long way, but we should keep going.

Now with distance education, we’re experiencing another shift in language learning. You don’t need to memorize textbook vocabulary. You don’t need to travel abroad to practice with native speakers.

Thanks to ongoing research, we’ve developed our own method of learning Spanish that’s been shown to be 10x more efficient than traditional classroom experiences.

So if we’ve been able to do so, then maybe someone will develop an even better methodology in the future. So research and innovation are only leading to more effective educational approaches that benefit the entire society.

Research helps everyone in the education field to become better

This stands in both the public and private sectors. Even though we’re an education business, public schools should also be adapting to new ways to utilize distance learning.

As more technology becomes readily available to students, teachers should capitalize on that to ensure everyone receives a better education.

Related: How Important Is Technology in Education

There is now a vast body of research about technology in the language classroom, so why not take advantage of that research and create better lesson plans?

So as new research appears, everyone in the education field will become a better teacher. And that statement will stand ten years from now. Education needs to adapt to the needs of society, but we need research to know how we can do that appropriately .

James Bacon, MSEd

Director of Outreach and Operations, Edficiency

Research gives schools confidence to adopt different practices

Research in education is important to inform teachers, administrators, and even parents about what practices have been shown to impact different outcomes that can be important, like:

Student learning outcomes (often measured by test scores)
Graduation and/or attendance rates
Social-emotional skills
College and/or job matriculation rates, among many others

Research can give insights into which programs, teaching methods, curricula, schedules, and other structures provide which benefits to which groups and thus give schools the confidence to adopt these different practices.

It measures the impact of innovations

Research in education also enables us to measure different innovations that are tried in schools, which is also essential to push the field of education further.

It also ensures that students learn individually and collectively more than those we’ve educated in the past, or at least in different ways, to respond to changes and help shape society’s future.

Research can give us the formal feedback to know if innovations happening in classrooms, schools, and districts across the country (and the world) are having the intended impact and whether or not they should be continued, expanded, discontinued, or used only in specific contexts.

Without research, we might continue to innovate to the detriment of our students and education system without knowing it.

Loic Bellet

Business English Coach, Speak Proper English

It provides numerous advantages to explore profession

Developing a research-based approach to enhance your practice gives you the evidence you need to make changes in your classroom, school, and beyond.

In the light of the ongoing discussion over what works and why, there are numerous advantages to exploring your profession, whether for immediate improvement via action research and, more broadly, for acquiring awareness and knowledge on topics of interest and significance.

There are several advantages to incorporating research into your practice. This is why research is a part of teacher education from the beginning.

Research can be used to:

Assist you in discovering solutions to specific issues that may arise in your school or classroom.
Support professional knowledge, competence, and understanding of learning
Connect you to information sources and expert support networks.
When implementing change, such as curriculum, pedagogy, or assessment, it’s important to spell out the goals, processes, and objectives.
Improve your organizational, local, and national grasp of your professional and policy environment, allowing you to educate and lead better strategically and effectively.
Inside your school and more broadly within the profession, develop your agency, impact, self-efficacy, and voice.
Each of these may entail an investigation based on evidence out of your environment and evidence from other sources.

Although research methodologies have progressed significantly, the importance of research alone has grown .

We’ve seen online research gaining popularity, and the value of research is increasing by the day. As a result, companies are looking for online access researchers to work with them and carry out research for accurate data from the internet.

Furthermore, research became a requirement for survival. We’ll have to do it nonetheless. We can’t make business judgments, launch businesses, or prove theories without extensive research. There has been a lot of effort to create research a base of info and advancement.

Saikiran Chandha

CEO and Founder, Typeset

It offers factual or evidence-based learning approach

It’s evident that research and education are intertwined! On a broader spectrum, education is something that you perceive as a fundamental part of your learning process (in your institutions, colleges, school, etc.).

It improves your skills, knowledge, social and moral values. But on the other hand, research is something that you owe to as it provides you with the scientific and systemic solution to your educational hardships.

For example: Research aids in implementing different teaching methods, identifying learning difficulties and addressing them, curriculum development, and more.

Accordingly, research plays a significant role in offering a factual or evidence-based learning approach to academic challenges and concerns.

And the two primary benefits of research in education are:

Research helps to improve the education system

Yes, the prime focus of research is to excavate, explore and discover a new, innovative, and creative approach to enhance the teaching and learning methods based on the latest educational needs and advancements.

Research fuels your knowledge bank

Research is all about learning new things, data sourcing, analysis, and more. So, technically, research replenishes your knowledge bank with factual data.

Thus, it helps educators or teachers develop their subject knowledge, aids in-depth harvest erudition, and increases overall classroom performance.

Chaye McIntosh, MS, LCADC

Clinical Director, ChoicePoint Health

It improves the learning curve

Research, I believe, is a fundamental part of education, be it by the student or the teacher.

When you research a topic, you will not just learn and read about stuff related to the topic but also branch out and learn new and different things. This improves the learning curve, and you delve deeper into topics, develop interest and increase your knowledge.

Academically and personally, I can grow every day and attain the confidence that the abundance of information brings me.

It builds up understanding and perspective

Research can help you build up understanding and perspective regarding the niche of choice; help you evaluate and analyze it with sound theories and a factual basis rather than just learning just for the sake of it.

Educationally, it can help you form informed opinions and sound logic that can be beneficial in school and routinely. Not only this, when you do proper research on any educational topic and learn about the facts and figures, chances are you will score better than your classmates who only have textbook knowledge.

So the research will give you an edge over your peers and help you perform better in exams and classroom discussions.

Matthew Carter

Attorney, Inc and Go

Solid research is a skill you need in all careers

That goes double for careers like mine. You might think that attorneys learn all the answers in law school, but in fact, we know how to find the answers we need through research.

Doctors and accountants will tell you the same thing. No one can ever hold all the knowledge they need. You have to be able to find the correct answer quickly. School is the perfect place to learn that.

Research enables you to weigh sources and find the best ones

How do you know the source you have found is reliable? If you are trained in research, you’ve learned how to weigh sources and find the best ones.

Comparing ideas and using them to draw bigger conclusions helps you not only in your career but in your life. As we have seen politically in the last few years, it enables you to be a more informed citizen.

Research makes you more persuasive

Want to have more civil conversations with your family over the holidays? Being able to dig into a body of research and pull out answers that you actually understand makes you a more effective speaker.

People are more likely to believe you when you have formed an opinion through research rather than parroting something you saw on the news. They may even appreciate your efforts to make the conversation more logical and civil.

As for me, I spend a lot of time researching business formation now, and I use that in my writing.

George Tsagas

Owner, eMathZone

Research helps build holistic knowledge

Your background will cause you to approach a topic with a preconceived notion. When you take the time to see the full context of a situation, your perspective changes.

Researching one topic also expands your perspective of other topics. The information you uncover when studying a particular subject can inform other tangential subjects in the future as you build a greater knowledge of the world and how connected it is.

As a result, any initial research you do will be a building block for future studies. You will begin each subsequent research process with more information. You will continue to broaden your perspective each time.

Research helps you become more empathic

Even if you don’t change your mind on a subject, researching that topic will expose you to other points of view and help you understand why people might feel differently about a situation.

The more knowledge you gain about how others think, the more likely you are to humanize them and be more empathetic to diverse viewpoints and backgrounds in the future.

Research teaches you how to learn

Through the research process, you discover where you have information gaps and what questions to ask in order to solve them. It helps you approach a subject with curiosity and a willingness to learn rather than thinking you have the right answer from the beginning.

Georgi Georgiev

Owner, GIGA calculator

It helps us learn about the status quo of existing literature

The starting point of every scientific and non-scientific paper is in-depth literature research.

It helps to:

gather casual evidence about a specific research topic
answer a specific scientific question
learn about the status quo of existing literature
identify potential problems and raise new questions

Anyone writing a scientific paper needs evidence based on facts to back up theories, hypotheses, assumptions, and claims. However, since most authors can’t derive all the evidence on their own, they have to rely on the evidence provided by existing scientific (and peer-reviewed) literature.

Subsequently, comprehensive literature research is inevitable. Only by delving deeply into a research topic will the authors gather the data and evidence necessary for a differentiated examination of the current status quo.

This, in turn, will allow them to develop new ideas and raise new questions.

Craig Miller

Co-Founder, Academia Labs LLC

Research supplements knowledge gaps

In the academe, research is critical. Our daily lives revolve around research, making research an integral part of education.

If you want to know which restaurant in your area serves the best steak, you’d have to research on the internet and read reviews. If you want to see the procedure for making an omelet, you’d have to research on the internet or ask your parents. Hence, research is part of our lives, whether we want it or not.

It is no secret that there are a lot of knowledge gaps in the knowledge pool. Research is the only thing that can supplement these gaps and answer the questions with no answers.

It will also provide the correct information to long-debated questions like the shape of the Earth and the evolution of man.

With every information readily available to us with just a click and a scroll on the internet, research is crucial in identifying which data are factual and which are just fake news . More than that, it helps transfer correct information from one person to another while combating the spread of false information.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the importance of research.

Research plays a critical role in advancing our knowledge and understanding of the world around us. Here are some key reasons why research is so important:

• Generates new knowledge : Research is a process of discovering new information and insights. It allows us to explore questions that have not yet been answered, and to generate new ideas and theories that can help us make sense of the world.

• Improves existing knowledge : Research also allows us to build on existing knowledge, by testing and refining theories, and by uncovering new evidence that supports or challenges our understanding of a particular topic.

• Drives innovation : Many of the greatest innovations in history have been driven by research. Whether it’s developing new technologies, discovering new medical treatments, or exploring new frontiers in science, research is essential for pushing the boundaries of what is possible.

• Informs decision-making : Research provides the evidence and data needed to make informed decisions. Whether it’s in business, government, or any other field, research helps us understand the pros and cons of different options, and to choose the course of action that is most likely to achieve our goals.

• Promotes critical thinking : Conducting research requires us to think critically, analyze data, and evaluate evidence. These skills are not only valuable in research, but also in many other areas of life, such as problem-solving, decision-making, and communication.

What is the ultimate goal of a research?

The ultimate goal of research is to uncover new knowledge, insights, and understanding about a particular topic or phenomenon. Through careful investigation, analysis, and interpretation of data, researchers aim to make meaningful contributions to their field of study and advance our collective understanding of the world around us.

There are many different types of research, each with its own specific goals and objectives. Some research seeks to test hypotheses or theories, while others aim to explore and describe a particular phenomenon. Still, others may be focused on developing new technologies or methods for solving practical problems.

Regardless of the specific goals of a given research project, all research shares a common aim: to generate new knowledge and insights that can help us better understand and navigate the complex world we live in.

Of course, conducting research is not always easy or straightforward.

Researchers must contend with a wide variety of challenges, including finding funding, recruiting participants, collecting and analyzing data, and interpreting their results. But despite these obstacles, the pursuit of knowledge and understanding remains a fundamental driving force behind all scientific inquiry.

How can research improve the quality of life?

Research can improve the quality of life in a variety of ways, from advancing medical treatments to informing social policies that promote equality and justice. Here are some specific examples:

• Medical research : Research in medicine and healthcare can lead to the development of new treatments, therapies, and technologies that improve health outcomes and save lives.

For example, research on vaccines and antibiotics has helped to prevent and treat infectious diseases, while research on cancer has led to new treatments and improved survival rates.

• Environmental research : Research on environmental issues can help us to understand the impact of human activities on the planet and develop strategies to mitigate and adapt to climate change.

For example, research on renewable energy sources can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and protect the environment for future generations.

• Social research : Research on social issues can help us to understand and address social problems such as poverty, inequality, and discrimination.

For example, research on the effects of poverty on child development can inform policies and programs that support families and promote child well-being.

• Technological research : Research on technology can lead to the development of new products and services that improve quality of life, such as assistive technologies for people with disabilities or smart home systems that promote safety and convenience.

How useful was this post?

Click on a star to rate it!

As you found this post useful...

Share it on social media!

We are sorry that this post was not useful for you!

Let us improve this post!

Tell us how we can improve this post?

The Editors

What Is the Importance of Research? 5 Reasons Why Research is Critical

by Logan Bessant | Nov 16, 2021 | Science

Most of us appreciate that research is a crucial part of medical advancement. But what exactly is the importance of research? In short, it is critical in the development of new medicines as well as ensuring that existing treatments are used to their full potential.

Research can bridge knowledge gaps and change the way healthcare practitioners work by providing solutions to previously unknown questions.

In this post, we’ll discuss the importance of research and its impact on medical breakthroughs.

The Importance Of Health Research

The purpose of studying is to gather information and evidence, inform actions, and contribute to the overall knowledge of a certain field. None of this is possible without research.

Understanding how to conduct research and the importance of it may seem like a very simple idea to some, but in reality, it’s more than conducting a quick browser search and reading a few chapters in a textbook.

No matter what career field you are in, there is always more to learn. Even for people who hold a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in their field of study, there is always some sort of unknown that can be researched. Delving into this unlocks the unknowns, letting you explore the world from different perspectives and fueling a deeper understanding of how the universe works.

To make things a little more specific, this concept can be clearly applied in any healthcare scenario. Health research has an incredibly high value to society as it provides important information about disease trends and risk factors, outcomes of treatments, patterns of care, and health care costs and use. All of these factors as well as many more are usually researched through a clinical trial.

What Is The Importance Of Clinical Research?

Clinical trials are a type of research that provides information about a new test or treatment. They are usually carried out to find out what, or if, there are any effects of these procedures or drugs on the human body.

All legitimate clinical trials are carefully designed, reviewed and completed, and need to be approved by professionals before they can begin. They also play a vital part in the advancement of medical research including:

Providing new and good information on which types of drugs are more effective.
Bringing new treatments such as medicines, vaccines and devices into the field.
Testing the safety and efficacy of a new drug before it is brought to market and used in clinical practice.
Giving the opportunity for more effective treatments to benefit millions of lives both now and in the future.
Enhancing health, lengthening life, and reducing the burdens of illness and disability.

This all plays back to clinical research as it opens doors to advancing prevention, as well as providing treatments and cures for diseases and disabilities. Clinical trial volunteer participants are essential to this progress which further supports the need for the importance of research to be well-known amongst healthcare professionals, students and the general public.

The image shows a researchers hand holding a magnifying glass to signify the importance of research.

Five Reasons Why Research is Critical

Research is vital for almost everyone irrespective of their career field. From doctors to lawyers to students to scientists, research is the key to better work.

Increases quality of life

Research is the backbone of any major scientific or medical breakthrough. None of the advanced treatments or life-saving discoveries used to treat patients today would be available if it wasn’t for the detailed and intricate work carried out by scientists, doctors and healthcare professionals over the past decade.

This improves quality of life because it can help us find out important facts connected to the researched subject. For example, universities across the globe are now studying a wide variety of things from how technology can help breed healthier livestock, to how dance can provide long-term benefits to people living with Parkinson’s.

For both of these studies, quality of life is improved. Farmers can use technology to breed healthier livestock which in turn provides them with a better turnover, and people who suffer from Parkinson’s disease can find a way to reduce their symptoms and ease their stress.

Research is a catalyst for solving the world’s most pressing issues. Even though the complexity of these issues evolves over time, they always provide a glimmer of hope to improving lives and making processes simpler.

Builds up credibility

People are willing to listen and trust someone with new information on one condition – it’s backed up. And that’s exactly where research comes in. Conducting studies on new and unfamiliar subjects, and achieving the desired or expected outcome, can help people accept the unknown.

However, this goes without saying that your research should be focused on the best sources. It is easy for people to poke holes in your findings if your studies have not been carried out correctly, or there is no reliable data to back them up.

This way once you have done completed your research, you can speak with confidence about your findings within your field of study.

Drives progress forward

It is with thanks to scientific research that many diseases once thought incurable, now have treatments. For example, before the 1930s, anyone who contracted a bacterial infection had a high probability of death. There simply was no treatment for even the mildest of infections as, at the time, it was thought that nothing could kill bacteria in the gut.

When antibiotics were discovered and researched in 1928, it was considered one of the biggest breakthroughs in the medical field. This goes to show how much research drives progress forward, and how it is also responsible for the evolution of technology .

Today vaccines, diagnoses and treatments can all be simplified with the progression of medical research, making us question just what research can achieve in the future.

Engages curiosity

The acts of searching for information and thinking critically serve as food for the brain, allowing our inherent creativity and logic to remain active. Aside from the fact that this curiosity plays such a huge part within research, it is also proven that exercising our minds can reduce anxiety and our chances of developing mental illnesses in the future.

Without our natural thirst and our constant need to ask ‘why?’ and ‘how?’ many important theories would not have been put forward and life-changing discoveries would not have been made. The best part is that the research process itself rewards this curiosity.

Research opens you up to different opinions and new ideas which can take a proposed question and turn into a real-life concept. It also builds discerning and analytical skills which are always beneficial in many career fields – not just scientific ones.

Increases awareness

The main goal of any research study is to increase awareness, whether it’s contemplating new concepts with peers from work or attracting the attention of the general public surrounding a certain issue.

Around the globe, research is used to help raise awareness of issues like climate change, racial discrimination, and gender inequality. Without consistent and reliable studies to back up these issues, it would be hard to convenience people that there is a problem that needs to be solved in the first place.

The problem is that social media has become a place where fake news spreads like a wildfire, and with so many incorrect facts out there it can be hard to know who to trust. Assessing the integrity of the news source and checking for similar news on legitimate media outlets can help prove right from wrong.

This can pinpoint fake research articles and raises awareness of just how important fact-checking can be.

The Importance Of Research To Students

It is not a hidden fact that research can be mentally draining, which is why most students avoid it like the plague. But the matter of fact is that no matter which career path you choose to go down, research will inevitably be a part of it.

But why is research so important to students ? The truth is without research, any intellectual growth is pretty much impossible. It acts as a knowledge-building tool that can guide you up to the different levels of learning. Even if you are an expert in your field, there is always more to uncover, or if you are studying an entirely new topic, research can help you build a unique perspective about it.

For example, if you are looking into a topic for the first time, it might be confusing knowing where to begin. Most of the time you have an overwhelming amount of information to sort through whether that be reading through scientific journals online or getting through a pile of textbooks. Research helps to narrow down to the most important points you need so you are able to find what you need to succeed quickly and easily.

It can also open up great doors in the working world. Employers, especially those in the scientific and medical fields, are always looking for skilled people to hire. Undertaking research and completing studies within your academic phase can show just how multi-skilled you are and give you the resources to tackle any tasks given to you in the workplace.

The Importance Of Research Methodology

There are many different types of research that can be done, each one with its unique methodology and features that have been designed to use in specific settings.

When showing your research to others, they will want to be guaranteed that your proposed inquiry needs asking, and that your methodology is equipt to answer your inquiry and will convey the results you’re looking for.

That’s why it’s so important to choose the right methodology for your study. Knowing what the different types of research are and what each of them focuses on can allow you to plan your project to better utilise the most appropriate methodologies and techniques available. Here are some of the most common types:

Theoretical Research: This attempts to answer a question based on the unknown. This could include studying phenomena or ideas whose conclusions may not have any immediate real-world application. Commonly used in physics and astronomy applications.
Applied Research: Mainly for development purposes, this seeks to solve a practical problem that draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge. Commonly used in STEM and medical fields.
Exploratory Research: Used to investigate a problem that is not clearly defined, this type of research can be used to establish cause-and-effect relationships. It can be applied in a wide range of fields from business to literature.
Correlational Research: This identifies the relationship between two or more variables to see if and how they interact with each other. Very commonly used in psychological and statistical applications.

The Importance Of Qualitative Research

This type of research is most commonly used in scientific and social applications. It collects, compares and interprets information to specifically address the “how” and “why” research questions.

Qualitative research allows you to ask questions that cannot be easily put into numbers to understand human experience because you’re not limited by survey instruments with a fixed set of possible responses.

Information can be gathered in numerous ways including interviews, focus groups and ethnographic research which is then all reported in the language of the informant instead of statistical analyses.

This type of research is important because they do not usually require a hypothesis to be carried out. Instead, it is an open-ended research approach that can be adapted and changed while the study is ongoing. This enhances the quality of the data and insights generated and creates a much more unique set of data to analyse.

The Process Of Scientific Research

No matter the type of research completed, it will be shared and read by others. Whether this is with colleagues at work, peers at university, or whilst it’s being reviewed and repeated during secondary analysis.

A reliable procedure is necessary in order to obtain the best information which is why it’s important to have a plan. Here are the six basic steps that apply in any research process.

Observation and asking questions: Seeing a phenomenon and asking yourself ‘How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?’. It is best that these questions are measurable and answerable through experimentation.
Gathering information: Doing some background research to learn what is already known about the topic, and what you need to find out.
Forming a hypothesis: Constructing a tentative statement to study.
Testing the hypothesis: Conducting an experiment to test the accuracy of your statement. This is a way to gather data about your predictions and should be easy to repeat.
Making conclusions: Analysing the data from the experiment(s) and drawing conclusions about whether they support or contradict your hypothesis.
Reporting: Presenting your findings in a clear way to communicate with others. This could include making a video, writing a report or giving a presentation to illustrate your findings.

Although most scientists and researchers use this method, it may be tweaked between one study and another. Skipping or repeating steps is common within, however the core principles of the research process still apply.

By clearly explaining the steps and procedures used throughout the study, other researchers can then replicate the results. This is especially beneficial for peer reviews that try to replicate the results to ensure that the study is sound.

What Is The Importance Of Research In Everyday Life?

Conducting a research study and comparing it to how important it is in everyday life are two very different things.

Carrying out research allows you to gain a deeper understanding of science and medicine by developing research questions and letting your curiosity blossom. You can experience what it is like to work in a lab and learn about the whole reasoning behind the scientific process. But how does that impact everyday life?

Simply put, it allows us to disprove lies and support truths. This can help society to develop a confident attitude and not believe everything as easily, especially with the rise of fake news.

Research is the best and reliable way to understand and act on the complexities of various issues that we as humans are facing. From technology to healthcare to defence to climate change, carrying out studies is the only safe and reliable way to face our future.

Not only does research sharpen our brains, but also helps us to understand various issues of life in a much larger manner, always leaving us questioning everything and fuelling our need for answers.

What is STEM education?
How Stem Education Improves Student Learning
What Are the Three Domains for the Roles of Technology for Teaching and Learning?
Why Is FIDO2 Secure?
The Significance of Workplace Incident Reporting Software
The Operating Principle of Syringe Pumps: A Comprehensive Guide
Choosing the Right Penetration Testing Service for Your Business
The Benefits of Powerflushing in Central Heating Systems
The Role of AI and Machine Learning in Modern Scientific Research

Students & Faculty
Health Center
College of Chiropractic
College of Health Sciences
Degrees & Certifications
Continuing Education
University Catalogs
Academic Calendar
Internships & Clinical Experience
Admission Requirements
Tuition & Costs
Financial Aid & Scholarships
Open House Schedule
Visit Campus
How to Apply
Request Information
Admissions Team
For Parents
For Advisors & Counselors
Application for Admission
Student Organizations
About Kansas City
Campus Safety
Academic Support and Access Services
Registrar’s Office
Maps & Directions
The Cleveland Story
CUKC at a Glance
Board of Trustees
Administration
Accreditation
Consumer Information
University Policies
Contact CUKC

Research important to Cleveland University-Kansas City (CUKC)

The Importance of Research to Students

Tags: cleveland university-kansas city , Communications Staff , health sciences , research

When exploring the impact of research, consider what it would be like if the automotive industry ceased all investigative efforts. The cars we drive would likely never improve in safety, comfort, or efficiency, and we would never know the benefits of the advancements we often take for granted. The same is true for the health sciences. Without research, advancements that have improved some lives and saved others may not have come to pass.

For universities, the research component allows for a broader educational experience whereby students are able to explore the effects of applying new thought processes through study and testing. Students are able to use that experience to see the practical application of their classroom experience represented in research projects. Cleveland University-Kansas City (CUKC), for example, offers a challenging curriculum, but also the opportunity to participate in various research studies on campus. ( Learn more about chiropractic here .)

Dr. Mark Pfefer, director of research at CUKC, collaborates with students on various projects. He said students have the opportunity to take an active role in research projects while at the same time learning about proper investigative techniques.

“We’ve had numerous students participate as co-authors on recent publications and presentations,” Pfefer said. “Students are taught strategies to search for information and assess the quality of the information found. Students learn good critical appraisal skills; all information is not the same, some information is good, and some is not.”

Research by Students in College

Pfefer said that students interested in research are mentored by faculty and assist in various ways, including literature searching, data collection, data entry, and manuscript development. The collective work between students and administrators has proven to be a successful combination, and he looks forward to the continuation of these efforts in future studies.

While time in the classroom is invaluable, having access to an on-site research department means that students are able to grow and challenge the boundaries that were established by their predecessors in the field. They are encouraged to open their minds and be open to the possibilities that research can reveal. Ultimately, they can become better health care professionals by engaging in work outside the classroom that challenges them in a similar fashion.

This will also have an impact on their future in their chosen profession by putting them in the position to attach their name to efforts that may have reshaped the parameters that were once the norm. Research can light the fire of curiosity that will continue throughout a professional career, and there is no end to what can be learned.

At Cleveland University-Kansas City (CUKC) , those are the exhilarating breakthroughs that research can deliver. It educates our students personally by opening their eyes to new possibilities. It rewards them professionally by getting their name out into the research community before they’ve even graduated.

Get to Know Cleveland University-Kansas City (CUKC )

CUKC is a private, nonprofit chiropractic and health sciences university in Overland Park, Kansas, a major suburb of the Kansas City metropolitan area. In addition to our 100-year legacy of offering the Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.) degree, CUKC offers two-year degrees Radiologic Technology, and Biological Sciences. CUKC also offers the B.S. in Human Biology, B.S. in Exercise Science, the M.S. in Exercise Physiology and Sports Performance, and a 12-credit-hour Certificate in Sports Performance (CSP).

Explore our academic degrees/certifications here .

Research is a powerful part of the educational experience at CUKC and one we are proud to share with our students. As an example of the topics and issues explored, check out this research blog and our website for evidence-based research on chiropractic issues and topics .

CUKC is a student-focused, high academic quality University. Sound interesting to you? Get more information about CUKC here, and download a free guide to help you plot your college plan: Your Guide to Navigating College Financial Aid .

Research-finanacial aid: eBook to learn more

Get Email Alerts!

Full Name * First Last
Email Address *
Doctor of Chiropractic
Concurrent DC/BS Program
Master of Science in Health Education and Promotion
Master of Science is Exercise Physiology and Sports Performance
Bachelor of Science in Human Biology
Bachelor of Science in Exercise Science
Associate of Arts in Biological Sciences
Associate of Applied Science in Radiologic Technology
Workplace Health Promotion Certificate
Certificate in Sports Performance

Shape the Future of Healthcare

The School Code for Cleveland University-Kansas City is 014438 .

1 Chapter 1: The Importance of Research Methods and Becoming an Informed Consumer of Research

Case study : student apprehension regarding research methods.

Research Study

Understanding and Measuring Student Apprehension in Criminal Justice Research Methods Courses 1

Research Question

How do we measure disinterest, relevance argumentation, and math anxiety experienced by students enrolled in research methods courses?

Methodology

It is said that “misery loves company,” so you are not alone in your apprehension and anxiety regarding your research methods course. The problem of student apprehension and anxiety related to taking a research methods course is not new and has been studied for over 25 years. Previously, such apprehension and anxiety appeared to be caused by math anxiety, especially as it applies to statistics. The authors of this article believe that student apprehension goes beyond math anxiety; that math anxiety is too simplistic of an explanation of student fear of research methods courses. Besides math anxiety, the researchers think that apprehension is caused by student indifference to the subject matter and irrelevance of the course because it does not apply to the “real world.” They state that student apprehension in research methods and statistics courses is due to three main factors:

Disinterest (D.);

Relevance Argumentation (RA.), and;

Math Anxiety (MA.).

Taken together, the reconceptualization is known as D.RA.MA., and the combination of these three factors constitutes the D.RA.MA. scale for research methods and statistics courses.

The researchers developed the D.RA.MA. scale by constructing survey questions to measure each factor in the scale (i.e., disinterest, relevance argumentation, and math anxiety). After they developed the survey, they tested it by distributing the survey to three criminal justice classes, totaling 80 students, from a midsized regional comprehensive university in the southern region of the United States. Higher scale scores demonstrate more disinterest, more relevance argumentation, or more math anxiety.

The D.RA.MA. scale consists of 20 survey questions. Ten questions were borrowed from an existing Math Anxiety scale developed by Betz 2 . The researchers then created five items to assess Disinterest and five items intended to measure Relevance Argumentation. The items for the D.RA.MA. scale are illustrated below.

Math Anxiety 3

I usually have been at ease in math classes.

Math does not scare me at all.

I am no good at math.

I don’t think that I could do advanced math.

Generally, I have been secure about attempting math.

For some reason, even though I study, math seems unusually hard for me.

Math has been my worst subject.

My mind goes blank and I am unable to think clearly when working in mathematics.

I think I could handle more difficult math.

I am not the type to do well in mathematics.

Relevance Argumentation 4

I will need research methods for my future work.

I view research methods as a subject that I will rarely use.

Research methods is not really useful for students who intend to work in Criminal Justice.

Knowing research methods will help me earn a living.

Research methods does not reflect the “real world.”

Research Disinterest 5

I am excited about taking research methods.

It would not bother me at all to take more research methods courses.

I expect a research methods class to be boring.

I don’t expect to learn much in research methods.

I really don’t care if I learn anything in research methods, as long as I get the requirement completed.

The Math Anxiety Scale responses for the 80 students ranged from 0 to 30 with a mean of 14, demonstrating a moderate level of math anxiety among the study participants. The responses for Relevance Argumentation ranged from 0 to 12 with a mean of 5.4 while those for Disinterest ranged from 1 to 15 with a mean of 7.0, demonstrating a moderate level of disinterest and relevance argumentation among students regarding research methods. Based on these findings, the study demonstrated that student apprehension regarding research methods courses goes beyond math anxiety and includes two additional factors; disinterest in the subject matter and irrelevance of research methods to the “real world.”

Limitations with the Study Procedure

This research study was designed to develop a broader measure of student apprehension in criminal justice research methods courses. Moving beyond just math anxiety, the researchers accomplished their objective by developing the D.RA.MA. scale; adding disinterest and relevance argumentation to the understanding of student apprehension regarding research methods. As is true for all research, this study is not without limitations. The biggest limitation of this study is the limited sample size. Only 80 students completed the survey. Although this is certainly a good start, similar research (i.e., replication) needs to be completed with larger student samples in different locations throughout the country before the actual quality of the D.RA.MA. scale can be determined.

Impact on Criminal Justice

The D.RA.MA. scale developed in this study identifies disinterest and relevance argumentation, in addition to math anxiety, as part of student apprehension and resistance to research methods. A variety of instructional strategies can be inferred from the D.RA.MA. survey. However, it is important for professors to recognize that no single approach will reduce research methods resistance and apprehension for all students. For example, discussing research methods in a popular culture framework may resonate with students and lead to engaged students who are more interested in the subject matter and identify with the relevance of research methods to criminal justice in general and the future careers of students, in particular. This approach may provide an effective means for combating student disinterest and relevance argumentation in criminal justice research methods courses. At a minimum, it is critical for professors to explain the relevance of research methods to the policies and practices of police, courts, and corrections. Students need to realize that research methods are essential tools for assessing agency policies and practices. Professors will always have D.RA.MA.-plagued students, but recognizing the problem and then developing effective strategies to connect with these students is the challenge all professors face. Experimenting with a multitude of teaching strategies to alleviate the math anxiety, relevance argumentation, and disinterest of criminal justice research methods students will result in more effective teaching and learning.

In This Chapter You Will Learn

What research is and why it is important to be an informed consumer of research

The sources of knowledge development and problems with each

How research methods can dispel myths about crime and the criminal justice system

The steps in the research process

How research has impacted criminal justice operations

Introduction

As noted in the chapter opening case study, it is expected that you have some anxiety and apprehension about taking this criminal justice research methods course. But, you have taken a significant step toward success in this course by opening up your research methods book, so congratulations are in order. You might have opened this book for a number of reasons. Perhaps it is the first day of class and you are ready to get started on the course material. Perhaps you have a quiz or exam soon. Perhaps the book has been gathering dust on your shelf since the first day of class and you are not doing well in your research methods class and are looking for the book to help with course improvement. Perhaps you are taking a research methods class in the future and are seeing if all the chatter among students is true.

No matter how you got here, two things are probably true. First, you are taking this research methods course because it is a requirement for your major. The bottom line is that most of the students who read this text are required to take a research methods course. While you may think studying research methods is irrelevant to your career goals, unnecessary, overly academic, or perhaps even intimidating, you probably must finish this course in order to graduate. Second, you have heard negative comments about this course. The negative comments mention the difficulty of the course and the relevance of the course (e.g., “I am going to be a police officer, so why do I need to take a research methods course?”). If you are like most students we have experienced in our research methods courses in the past, you are not initially interested in this course and are concerned about whether you will do well in it.

If you are concerned about the course, realize that you are not alone because most students are anxious about taking a research methods course. Also realize that your professor is well aware of student anxiety and apprehension regarding research methods. So, relax and do not think about the entire course and the entire book. Take the course content one chapter, one week at a time. One of the advantages of taking a research methods course is that you learn about the process of research methods. Each chapter builds upon the previous chapters, illustrating and discussing more about the research process. This is certainly an advantage, but it is also critical that you understand the initial chapters in this book so you are not confused with the content discussed in later chapters. In addition to anxiety and apprehension over the course material, research methods can be boring if you only read and learn about it with no particular purpose in mind. Although examples are prevalent throughout the book, as you read this material, it is recommended that you think about the relevancy and application of the topics covered in this book to your specific criminal justice interests. As you continue to read the book, think about how you might use the information you are reading in your current position or your intended profession.

The goal of this research methods book is to develop you into an informed consumer of research. Most, if not all, of your fellow classmates will never conduct their own research studies. However, every one of you will be exposed to research findings in your professional and personal lives for the remainder of your lives. You are exposed to research findings in the media (e.g., television, newspapers, and online), in personal interaction with others (e.g., friends and family, doctors, and professors), as well as in class. You should challenge yourself for this semester to keep a journal and document exposure to research in your daily life outside of college whether through the nightly news, newspapers, magazine articles, Internet, personal conversations, or other means. At the end of the semester, you will be amazed at the amount of research you are exposed to in a short period of time. This book is focused on research exposure and assisting you to become an educated consumer of research by providing you the skills necessary to differentiate between good and not so good research. Why should you believe research findings if the study is faulty? Without being an educated consumer of research, you will not be able to differentiate between useful and not useful research. This book is designed to remedy this problem.

This book was written to make your first encounter with research methods relevant and successful while providing you the tools necessary to become an educated consumer of research. Therefore, this book is written with the assumption that students have not had a prior class on research methods. In addition, this book assumes that practical and evaluative knowledge of research methods is more useful than theoretical knowledge of the development of research methods and the relationship between theory and research. Since the focus of this book is on consumerism, not researcher training, practical and evaluative knowledge is more useful than theoretical knowledge.

It is also important to understand that the professors who design academic programs in criminal justice at the associate and bachelor level believe that an understanding of research methods is important for students. That is why, more than likely, this research methods course is a required course in your degree program. These professors understand that a solid understanding of research methods will enrich the qualifications of students for employment and performance in their criminal justice careers.

As previously stated, the basic goal of this book is to make students, as future and possibly even current practitioners in the criminal justice system, better informed and more capable consumers of the results of criminal justice research. This goal is based on the belief that an understanding of research methods allows criminal justice practitioners to be better able to make use of the results of research as it applies to their work-related duties. In fact, thousands of research questions are asked and answered each year in research involving criminal justice and criminological topics. In addition, thousands of articles are published, papers presented at conferences, and reports prepared that provide answers to these questions. The ability to understand research gives practitioners knowledge of the most current information in their respective fields and the ability to use this knowledge to improve the effectiveness of criminal justice agencies.

How Do We Know What We Know? Sources of Knowledge

The reality is the understanding of crime and criminal justice system operations by the public is frequently the product of misguided assumptions, distorted interpretations, outright myths, and hardened ideological positions. 6 This is a bold statement that basically contends that most people’s knowledge of crime and criminal justice is inaccurate. But, how do these inaccuracies occur? Most people have learned what they know about crime and criminal justice system operations through some other means besides scientific research results and findings. Some of that knowledge is based on personal experience and common sense. Much of it is based on the information and images supported by politicians, governmental agencies, and especially the media. This section will discuss the mechanisms used to understand crime and criminal justice operations by the public. It is important to note that although this section will focus on the failings of these knowledge sources, they each can be, and certainly are, accurate at times, and thus are valuable sources of knowledge.

Knowledge from Authority

We gain knowledge from parents, teachers, experts, and others who are in positions of authority in our lives. When we accept something as being correct and true just because someone in a position of authority says it is true, we are using what is referred to as authority knowledge as a means of knowing. Authorities often expend significant time and effort to learn something, and we can benefit from their experience and work.

However, relying on authority as a means of knowing has limitations. It is easy to overestimate the expertise of other people. A person’s expertise is typically limited to a few core areas of significant knowledge; a person is not an expert in all areas. More specifically, criminal justice professors are not experts on all topics related to criminal justice. One professor may be an expert on corrections but know little about policing. If this professor discusses topics in policing in which he is not an expert, we may still assume he is right when he may be wrong. Authority figures may speak on fields they know little about. They can be completely wrong but we may believe them because of their status as an expert. Furthermore, an expert in one area may try to use his authority in an unrelated area. Other times, we have no idea of how the experts arrived at their knowledge. We just know they are experts in the topic area.

As I am writing this, I recall an example of authority knowledge that was wrong during my police academy training in the late 1980s. My academy training was about four years after the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Tennessee v. Garner. 7 In this case, the Court limited the use of deadly force by police to defense of life situations and incidents where the suspect committed a violent offense. Prior to the decision, the police in several states could use deadly force on any fleeing suspect accused of a felony offense. One day, the academy class was practicing mock traffic stops. During one of my mock traffic stops, I received information that the vehicle I stopped was stolen. The driver and passenger exited the vehicle and fled on foot. I did not use deadly force (this was a training exercise so was not real) against the suspects and was chastised by my instructor who insisted that I should have shot the suspects as they were fleeing. Training instructors, just like professors, convey authority knowledge but, in this case, the instructor was wrong. I was not legally authorized to use deadly force in the traffic stop scenario despite the insistence of my instructor to the contrary.

Politicians are sometimes taken as a source of authority knowledge about the law, crime, and criminal justice issues. Since they enact laws that directly impact the operations of the criminal justice system, we may assume they are an authority on crime and criminal justice. More specifically, we may assume that politicians know best about how to reduce crime and increase the effectiveness of the criminal justice system. However, history is rife with laws that sounded good on paper but had no impact on crime. For example, there is little evidence that sex offender registration protects the public from sexual predators or acts as a deterrent to repeat sex offenders even though every state has a law requiring convicted sex offenders to register with local authorities. Perhaps politicians are not the criminal justice experts some perceive them to be.

History is also full of criminal justice authorities that we now see as being misinformed. For example, Cesare Lombroso is the father of the positivist school of criminology. He is most readily recognized for his idea that some individuals are born criminal. He stated that criminals have certain unique biological characteristics, including large protruding jaws, high foreheads, flattened noses, and asymmetrical faces, to name a few. 8 These characteristics were similar to those found in primitive humans. Therefore, Lombroso argued that some individuals were genetic “throwbacks” to a more primitive time and were less evolved than other people and thus, were more likely to be criminals. Lombroso’s research has been discredited because he failed to compare criminals with noncriminals. By studying only criminals, he found characteristics that were common to criminals. However, if Lombroso had studied a group of noncriminals, he would have discovered that these biological characteristics are just as prevalent among noncriminals. This example involves authority knowledge that is supported by research but the research methods used were flawed. The errors of Lombroso seem obvious now, but what do we know today through authority knowledge that is inaccurate or will be proven wrong in the future?

Knowledge from Tradition

In addition to authority knowledge, people often rely on tradition for knowledge. Tradition knowledge relies on the knowledge of the past. Individuals accept something as true because that is the way things have always been so it must be right. A good example of tradition knowledge is preventive/random patrol. Ever since vehicles were brought into the police patrol function, police administrators assumed that having patrol officers drive around randomly in the communities they serve, while they are not answering calls for service, would prevent crime. If you were a patrol officer in the early 1970s and asked your supervisor, “Why do I drive around randomly throughout my assigned area when I am not answering a call for service?” the answer would have been, “That is the way we have always done patrol and random patrol reduces crime through deterrence.” The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment challenged the tradition knowledge that preventive/random patrol reduces crime. The results of the study made it clear that the traditional practice of preventive/random patrol had little to no impact on reducing crime. This allowed police departments to develop other patrol deployment strategies such as directed patrol and “hot spots” policing since preventive patrol was seen as ineffective. The development of effective patrol deployment strategies continues today.

Knowledge from Common Sense

We frequently rely on common sense knowledge for what we know about crime and the criminal justice system because it “just makes sense.” For example, it “just makes sense” that if we send juvenile delinquents on a field trip to prison where they will see first hand the prison environment as well as be yelled at by actual prisoners, they will refrain from future delinquency. That is exactly what the program Scared Straight, originally developed in the 1970s, is designed to do. Scared Straight programs are still in existence today and are even the premise for the television show Beyond Scared Straight on the A&E television network. As originally created, the program was designed to decrease juvenile delinquency by bringing at-risk and delinquent juveniles into prison where they would be “scared straight” by inmates serving life sentences. Participants in the program were talked to and yelled at by the inmates in an effort to scare them. It was believed that the fear felt by the participants would lead to a discontinuation of their delinquent behavior so that they would not end up in prison themselves. This sounds like a good idea. It makes sense, and the program was initially touted as a success due to anecdotal evidence based on a few delinquents who turned their lives around after participation in the program.

However, evaluations of the program and others like it showed that the program was in fact unsuccessful. In the initial evaluation of the Scared Straight program, Finckenauer used a classic experimental design (discussed in Chapter 5), to evaluate the original “Lifer’s Program” at Rahway State Prison in New Jersey where the program was initially developed. 13 Juveniles were randomly assigned to an experimental group that attended the Scared Straight program and a control group that did not participate in the program. Results of the evaluation were not positive. Post-test measures revealed that juveniles who were assigned to the experimental group and participated in the program were actually more seriously delinquent afterwards than those who did not participate in the program. Also using an experimental design with random assignment, Yarborough evaluated the “Juvenile Offenders Learn Truth” (JOLT) program at the State Prison of Southern Michigan at Jackson. 14 This program was similar to that of the “Lifer’s Program,” only with fewer obscenities used by inmates. Post-test measurements were taken at two intervals, three and six months after program completion. Again, results were not positive. Findings revealed no significant differences in delinquency between those juveniles who attended the program and those who did not. Other experiments conducted on Scared Straight- type programs further revealed their inability to deter juveniles from further delinquency. 15 Despite the common sense popularity of these programs, the evaluations showed that Scared Straight programs do not reduce delinquency and, in some instances, may actually increase delinquency. The programs may actually do more harm than good. I guess that begs the question, “Why do we still do these types of programs?”

Scared Straight programs and other widely held common sense beliefs about crime and the criminal justice system are questionable, based on the available research evidence. Common sense is important in our daily lives and is frequently correct, but, at times, it also contains inaccuracies, misinformation, and even prejudice.

CLASSICS IN CJ RESEARCH

Is It Safe to Put Felons on Probation?

Research Study 9

In the mid-1970s, the number of offenders on probation began to significantly increase. By the mid-1980s, probation was the most frequently used sentence in most states and its use was becoming more common for felons, whereas previously, probation was typically limited to misdemeanor crimes and offenses committed by juveniles. Increasing numbers of felony offenders were being placed on probation because judges had no other alternative forms of punishment. Prisons were already operating above capacity due to rising crime rates. Despite the increase in the use of probation in the 1980s, few empirical studies of probation (particularly its use with felony offenders) had been published. In the early 1980s, the Rand Corporation conducted an extensive study of probation to learn more about the offenders sentenced to probation and the effectiveness of probation as a criminal sanction. At the time the study began, over one-third of California’s probation population were convicted felons. 10 This was the first large-scale study of felony probation.

Is it safe to put felons on probation?

Data for the study were obtained from the California Board of Prison Terms (CBPT). The Board had been collecting comprehensive data on all offenders sentenced to prison since 1978 and on a sample of adult males from 17 counties who received probation. From these two data sources, researchers selected a sample of male offenders who had been convicted of the following crimes: robbery, assault, burglary, theft, forgery, and drug offenses. These crimes were selected because an offender could receive either prison or probation if convicted. Approximately 16,500 male felony offenders were included in the study. For each offender, researchers had access to their personal characteristics, information on their crimes, court proceedings, and disposition.

Two main research questions were answered in this study. First, what were the recidivism rates for felony offenders who received probation? When assessing recidivism rates, the study found that the majority of offenders sentenced to probation recidivated during the follow-up period, which averaged 31 months. Overall, 65% of the sample of probationers were re-arrested and 51 % were charged with and convicted of another offense. A total of 18% were convicted of a violent crime.

The second research question asked, what were the characteristics of the probationers who recidivated? Property offenders were more likely to recidivate compared to violent or drug offenders. Researchers also discovered that probationers tended to recidivate by committing the same crime that placed them on probation. Rand researchers included time to recidivism in their analysis and found that property and violent offenders recidivated sooner than drug offenders. The median time to the first filed charge was five months for property offenders and eight months for violent offenders.

The issue of whether or not the findings would generalize to other counties in California and to other states was raised. Data for the study came from probation and prison records from two counties in California. These two counties were not randomly selected, but were chosen because of their large probation populations and the willingness of departments to provide information. Further, the probation departments in these counties had experienced significant budget cuts. Supervision may have become compromised as a result and this could have explained why these counties had high rates of recidivism. Studies of probation recidivism in other states have found recidivism rates to be much lower, suggesting the Rand results may not have applied elsewhere. 11 Several studies examining the effectiveness of probation and the factors correlated with probation outcomes were published after 1985. Much of this research failed to produce results consistent with the Rand study.

The Rand study of felony probation received a considerable amount of attention within the field of corrections. According to one scholar, the study was acclaimed as “the most important criminological research to be reported since World War II.” 12 The National Institute of Justice disseminated the report to criminal justice agencies across the country and even highlighted the study in their monthly newsletter. Today, the study remains one of the most highly cited pieces of corrections research.

According to Rand researchers, these findings raised serious doubts about the effectiveness of probation for felony offenders. Most of the felons sentenced to probation recidivated and researchers were unable to develop an accurate prediction model to improve the courts’ decision-making. The continued use of probation as a sanction for felony offenders appeared to be putting the public at risk. However, without adequate prison space, the courts had no other alternatives besides probation when sentencing offenders.

The researchers made several recommendations to address the limitations of using probation for felony offenders. First, it was recommended that states formally acknowledge that the purpose of probation had changed. Probation was originally used as a means of furthering the goal of rehabilitation in the correctional system. As the United States moved away from that goal in the late 1960s, the expectations of probation changed. Probation was now used as a way to exercise “restrictive supervision” over more serious offenders. Second, probation departments needed to redefine the responsibilities of their probation officers. Probation officers were now expected to be surveillance officers instead of treatment personnel, which required specialized training. In addition, states needed to explore the possibility of broadening the legal authority of its probation officers by allowing them to act as law enforcement officers if necessary. Third, states were advised to adopt a formal client management system that included risk/need assessments of every client. Such a system would help establish uniform, consistent treatment of those on probation and would also help departments allocate their resources efficiently and effectively. Fourth, researchers encouraged states to develop alternative forms of community punishment that offered more public protection than regular probation, which led to the development and use of intensive supervision probation, house arrest, electronic monitoring, day reporting centers, and other intermediate punishments.

Knowledge from Personal Experience

If you personally see something or if it actually happens to you, then you are likely to accept it as true and gain knowledge from the experience. Gaining knowledge through actual experiences is known as personal experience knowledge, and it has a powerful and lasting impact on everyone. Personal experiences are essential building blocks of knowledge and of what we believe to be true. The problem with knowledge gained from personal experiences is that personal experiences can be unique and unreliable, which can distort reality and lead us to believe things that are actually false.

How can events that someone personally experienced be wrong? The events are not wrong. Instead, the knowledge gained from the experience is wrong. For example, the research consistently shows that a person’s demeanor significantly impacts the decision-making of police officers. During a traffic stop, if a person is rude, disrespectful, and uncooperative to the officer, then the driver is more likely to receive a traffic citation than a warning. That is what the research on police discretion shows. However, if a person was rude and uncooperative to a police officer during a traffic stop and was let go without a citation, the person will gain knowledge from this personal experience. The knowledge gained may include that being disrespectful during future traffic stops will get this person out of future tickets. Not likely. The event is not wrong. Instead, the knowledge gained from the experience is wrong because being disrespectful to the police usually leads to more enforcement action taken by the police, not less.

As a student in criminal justice, you have probably experienced something similar in interaction with friends, relatives, and neighbors. Your knowledge of criminal justice that you have developed in your criminal justice classes is trumped by one experience your friend, relative, or neighbor had with the criminal justice system. They believe they are right because they experienced it. However, there are four errors that occur in the knowledge gained from personal experiences: overgeneralization, selective observation, illogical reasoning, and resistance to change.

Overgeneralization happens when people conclude that what they have observed in one or a few cases is true for all cases. For example, you may see that a wealthy businesswomen in your community is acquitted of bribery and may conclude that “wealthy people, especially women, are never convicted in our criminal justice system,” which is an overgeneralization. It is common to draw conclusions about people and society from our personal interactions, but, in reality, our experiences are limited because we interact with just a small percentage of people in society.

The same is true for practitioners in the criminal justice system. Practitioners have a tendency to believe that because something was done a particular way in their agency, it is done that way in all agencies. That may not be true. Although there are certainly operational similarities across criminal justice agencies, there are also nuances that exist across the over 50,000 criminal justice agencies in the United States. Believing that just because it was that way in your agency, it must be that way in all agencies leads to overgeneralization.

Selective observation is choosing, either consciously or unconsciously, to pay attention to and remember events that support our personal preferences and beliefs. In fact, with selective observation, we will seek out evidence that confirms what we believe to be true and ignore the events that provide contradictory evidence. We are more likely to notice pieces of evidence that reinforce and support our ideology. As applied to the criminal justice system, when we are inclined to be critical of the criminal justice system, it is pretty easy to notice its every failing and ignore its successes. For example, if someone believes the police commonly use excessive force, the person is more likely to pay attention to and remember a police brutality allegation on the nightly news than a police pursuit that led to the apprehension of the suspect without incident on the same nightly news. As another example, if you believe treatment efforts on sex offenders are futile, you will pay attention to and remember each sex offender you hear about that recidivates but will pay little attention to any successes. It is easy to find instances that confirm our beliefs, but with selective observation, the complete picture is not being viewed. Therefore, if we only acknowledge the events that confirm our beliefs and ignore those that challenge them, we are falling victim to selective observation.

Besides selective observation, some of our observations may simply be wrong. Consider eyewitness identification. It is a common practice in the criminal justice system, but research has consistently demonstrated inaccuracies in eyewitness identification. The witness feels certain that the person viewed is the person who committed the offense, but sometimes the witness is wrong. Even when our senses of sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell are fully operational, our minds have to interpret what we have sensed, which may lead to an inaccurate observation.

RESEARCH IN THE NEWS

When Your Criminal Past Isn’t Yours 16

The business of background checks on prospective employees is increasing significantly. According to the Society for Human Resource Management, since the events of September 11, 2001, the percentage of companies that conduct criminal history checks during the hiring process has risen past 90%. Employers spend at least $2 billion a year to look into the pasts of their prospective employees. Problems with the business of background checks were identified through research that included a review of thousands of pages of court filings and interviews with dozens of court officials, data providers, lawyers, victims, and regulators.

The business of background checks is a system weakened by the conversion to digital files and compromised by the significant number of private companies that profit by amassing public records and selling them to employers. The private companies create a system in which a computer program scrapes the public files of court systems around the country to retrieve personal data. Basically, these are automated data-mining programs. Today, half the courts in the United States put criminal records on their public websites. So, the data are there for the taking, but the records that are retrieved typically are not checked for errors—errors that would be obvious to human eyes.

The errors can start with a mistake entered into the logs of a law enforcement agency or a court file. The biggest culprits, though, are companies that compile databases using public information. In some instances, their automated formulas misinterpret the information provided them. Other times, records wind up assigned to the wrong people with a common name. Furthermore, when a government agency erases a criminal conviction after a designated period of good behavior, many of the commercial databases don’t perform the updates required to purge offenses that have been removed from public record. It is clear that these errors can have substantial ramifications, including damaged reputations and loss of job opportunities.

Illogical reasoning occurs when someone jumps to premature conclusions or presents an argument that is based on invalid assumptions. Premature conclusions occur when we feel we have the answer based on a few pieces of evidence and do not need to seek additional information that may invalidate our conclusion. Think of a detective who, after examining only a few pieces of evidence, quickly narrows in on a murder suspect. It is common for a detective to assess the initial evidence and make an initial determination of who committed the murder. However, it is hoped that the detective will continue to sort through all the evidence for confirmation or rejection of his original conclusion regarding the murder suspect. Illogical reasoning by jumping to premature conclusions is common in everyday life. We look for evidence to confirm or reject our beliefs and stop when a small amount of evidence is present; we jump to conclusions. If a person states, “I know four people who have dropped out of high school, and each one of them ended up addicted to drugs, so all dropouts abuse drugs,” the person is jumping to conclusions.

Illogical reasoning also occurs when an argument, based on invalid assumptions, is presented. Let’s revisit the Scared Straight example previously discussed. Program developers assumed that brief exposure to the harsh realities of prison would deter juveniles from future delinquency. The Scared Straight program is an example of illogical reasoning. Four hours of exposure to prison life is not going to counteract years of delinquency and turn a delinquent into a nondelinquent. The program is based on a false assumption and fails to recognize the substantial risk factors present in the lives of most delinquents that must be mediated before the juvenile can live a crime-free lifestyle. A fear of prison, developed through brief exposure, is not enough to counteract the risk factors present in the lives of most delinquents. Although the Scared Straight program sounds good, it is illogical to assume that a brief experience with prison life will have a stronger impact on the decisions made by delinquents than peer support for delinquency, drug abuse, lack of education, poor parental supervision, and other factors that influence delinquency.

Resistance to change is the reluctance to change our beliefs in light of new, accurate, and valid information to the contrary. Resistance to change is common and it occurs for several reasons. First, even though our personal experience may be counter to our belief system, it is hard to admit we were wrong after we have taken a position on an issue. Even when the research evidence shows otherwise, people who work within programs may still believe they are effective. As previously stated, even though the research evidence shows otherwise, Scared Straight programs still exist and there is even a television show devoted to the program. Second, too much devotion to tradition and the argument that this is the way it has always been done inhibits change and hinders our ability to accept new directions and develop new knowledge. Third, uncritical agreement with authority inhibits change. Although authority knowledge is certainly an important means of gaining knowledge, we must critically evaluate the ideas, beliefs, and statements of those in positions of authority and be willing to challenge those statements where necessary. However, people often accept the beliefs of those in positions of authority without question, which hinders change.

Knowledge from Media Portrayals

Television shows, movies, websites, newspapers, and magazine articles are important sources of information. This is especially true for information about crime and the criminal justice system since most people have not had much contact with criminals or the criminal justice system. Instead of gaining knowledge about the criminal justice system through personal experience, most people learn about crime and the operations of the criminal justice system through media outlets. Since the primary goal of many of these media outlets is to entertain, they may not accurately reflect the reality of crime and criminal justice. Despite their inaccuracies, the media has a substantial impact on what people know about crime and the criminal justice system. Most people know what they know about crime and criminal justice through the media, and this knowledge even has an impact on criminal justice system operations.

An example of the potential impact of the media on the actual operations of the criminal justice system involves the CSI: Crime Scene Investigation television shows. The shows have been criticized for their unrealistic portrayal of the role of forensic science in solving criminal cases. Critics claim that CSI viewers accept what they see on the show as an accurate representation of how forensic science works. When summoned for jury duty, they bring with them unrealistic expectations of the forensic evidence they will see in trial. When the expected sophisticated forensic evidence is not presented in the real trial, the juror is more likely to vote to acquit the defendant. This phenomenon is known as the CSI Effect. Has the research shown that the CSI Effect exists and is impacting the criminal justice system? Most of the research shows that the CSI Effect does not exist and thus does not impact juror decision-making, but other research has shown that viewers of CSI have higher expectations related to evidence presented at trial. 17

There are several instances in which media attention on a particular topic created the idea that a major problem existed when it did not. An example is Halloween sadism. Halloween sadism is the practice of giving contaminated treats to children during trick or treating. 18 In 1985, Joel Best wrote an article entitled, “The Myth of the Halloween Sadist.” 19 His article reviewed press coverage of Halloween sadism in the leading papers in the three largest metropolitan areas ( New York Times, Los Angeles Times, and Chicago Tribune ) from 1958–1984. Although the belief in Halloween sadism is widespread, Best found few reported incidents and few reports of children being injured by Halloween sadism. Follow-ups on these reported incidents led to the conclusion that most of these reports were hoaxes. Best concluded, “I have been unable to find a substantiated report of a child being killed or seriously injured by a contaminated treat picked up in the course of trick or treating.” 20 Since 1985, Best has kept his research up to date and has come to the same conclusion. Halloween sadism is an urban legend; it is a story that is told as true, even though there is little or no evidence that the events in the story ever occurred.

Dispelling Myths: The Power of Research Methods

In the prior section, sources of knowledge were discussed along with the limitations of each. A researcher (e.g., criminologist), ideally, takes no knowledge claim for granted, but instead relies on research methods to discover the truth. In the attempt to generate new knowledge, a researcher is skeptical of knowledge that is generated by the sources discussed in the prior section, and this skepticism leads to the questioning of conventional thinking. Through this process, existing knowledge claims are discredited, modified, or substantiated. Research methods provide the researcher with the tools necessary to test current knowledge and discover new knowledge.

Although knowledge developed through research methods is by no means perfect and infallible, it is definitely a more systematic, structured, precise, and evidence-based process than the knowledge sources previously discussed. However, researchers should not dismiss all knowledge from the prior sources discussed, because, as mentioned, these sources of knowledge are sometimes accurate and certainly have their place in the development of knowledge. Researchers should guard against an elitist mind-set in which all knowledge, unless it is research-based knowledge, is dismissed.

To further discuss the importance of research methods in the development of knowledge, this section will discuss myths about crime and criminal justice. Myths are beliefs that are based on emotion rather than rigorous analysis. Take the myth of the Halloween sadist previously discussed. Many believe that there are real examples of children being harmed by razor blades, poison, or other nefarious objects placed in Halloween candy. This belief has changed the practices of many parents on Halloween; not allowing their children to trick-or-treat in their neighborhood and forbidding them from going to the doors of strangers. After careful analysis by Best, there is not a single, known example of children being seriously injured or killed by contaminated candy given by strangers. The Halloween sadist is a myth but it is still perpetuated today, and as the definition states, it is a belief based upon emotion rather than rigorous analysis. People accept myths as accurate knowledge of reality when, in fact, the knowledge is false.

The power of research is the ability to dispel myths. If someone were to assess the research literature on a myth or do their own research, she would find that the knowledge based on the myth is wrong. Perceived reality is contradicted by the facts developed through research. But that does not mean that the myth still doesn’t exist. It is important to keep in mind that the perpetuation and acceptance of myths by the public, politicians, and criminal justice personnel has contributed to the failure of criminal justice practices and policies designed to reduce crime and improve the operations of the criminal justice system. In this section, a detailed example of a myth about crime, police, courts, and corrections will be presented to demonstrate how the myth has been dispelled through research. In addition, several additional myths about crime, police, courts, and corrections will be briefly presented.

The Health Benefits of Alcohol Consumption 21

The press release from Oregon State University is titled “Beer Compound Shows Potent Promise in Prostate Cancer Battle.” The press release leads to several newspaper articles throughout the country written on the preventative nature of drinking beer on prostate cancer development with titles such as “Beer Protects Your Prostate” and “Beer May Help Men Ward Off Prostate Cancer.” By the titles alone, this sounds great; one of the main ingredients in beer appears to thwart prostate cancer.

The study that generated these headlines was conducted by a group of researchers at Oregon State University using cultured cells with purified compounds in a laboratory setting. The research showed that xanthohumol, a compound found in hops, slowed the growth of prostate cancer cells and also the growth of cells that cause enlarged prostates. But you would have to drink more than 17 pints of beer to consume a medically effective dose of xanthohumol, which is almost a case of beer. In addition, although the research is promising, further study is necessary to determine xanthohumol’s true impact on prostate cancer.

These are the types of headlines that people pay attention to and want to believe as true, even if disproven by later research. People want to believe that there are health benefits to alcohol consumption. You have probably heard about the health benefits of drinking red wine, but here is something you should consider. Recently, the University of Connecticut released a statement describing an extensive research misconduct investigation involving a member of its faculty. The investigation was sparked by an anonymous allegation of research irregularities. The comprehensive report of the investigation, which totals approximately 60,000 pages, concludes that the professor is guilty of 145 counts of fabrication and falsification of data. The professor had gained international notoriety for his research into the beneficial properties of resveratrol, which is found in red wine, especially its impact on aging. Obviously, this throws his research conclusions, that red wine has a beneficial impact on the aging process, into question.

Myths about Crime—Drug Users Are Violent

The myth of drug users as violent offenders continues to be perpetuated by media accounts of violent drug users. The public sees drug users as violent offenders who commit violent crimes to get money for drugs or who commit violent crimes while under the intoxicating properties of drugs. The public also recognizes the violent nature of the drug business with gangs and cartels using violence to protect their turf. In May 2012, extensive media attention was given to the case of the Miami man who ate the face of a homeless man for an agonizing 18 minutes until police shot and killed the suspect. The police believed that the suspect was high on the street drug known as “bath salts.” This horrific case definitely leaves the image in the public’s mind about the relationship between violence and drug use.

In recent years, media reports have focused on the relationship between methamphetamine use and violence; before then it was crack cocaine use and violence. 32 However, media portrayals regarding the violent tendencies of drug users date back to the 1930s and the release of Reefer Madness. In 1985, Goldstein suggested that drugs and violence could be related in three different ways:

1. violence could be the direct result of drug ingestion;

2. violence could be a product of the instability of drug market activity; and

3. violence could be the consequence of people having a compulsive need for drugs or money for drugs. 33

So, what does the research show? Studies have found that homicides related to crack cocaine were usually the product of the instability of drug market activity (i.e., buying and selling drugs can be a violent activity) and rarely the result of drug ingestion. 34 After an extensive review of research studies on alcohol, drugs, and violence, Parker and Auerhahn concluded, “Despite a number of published statements to the contrary, we find no significant evidence suggesting that drug use is associated with violence. There is substantial evidence to suggest that alcohol use is significantly associated with violence of all kinds.” 35 The reality is not everyone who uses drugs becomes violent and users who do become violent do not do so every time they use drugs; therefore, the relationship between violence and drug use is a myth.

MYTHS ABOUT CRIME

Some additional myths about crime that research does not support include:

•Crime statistics accurately show what crimes are being committed and what crimes are most harmful. 22

•Most criminals—especially the dangerous ones—are mentally ill. 23

•White-collar crime is only about financial loss and does not hurt anyone. 24

•Serial murderers are middle-aged, white males. 25

•Criminals are significantly different from noncriminals. 26

•People are more likely to be a victim of violent crime committed by a stranger than by someone they know. 27

•Older adults are more likely to be victimized than people in any other age group. 28

•Sex offender registration protects the public from sexual predators. 29

•Juvenile crime rates are significantly increasing. 30

•Only the most violent juveniles are tried as adults. 31

Myths about Police—Female Police Officers Do Not Perform as Well as Males

Female police officers still face the myth that they cannot perform as well as male police officers. Throughout history, females have faced significant difficulties even becoming police officers. In the past, it was common for police agencies to require all police applicants to meet a minimum height requirement to be considered for employment. The minimum height requirement was 5′8″ for most agencies, which limited the ability of females to successfully meet the minimum standards to become a police officer. Even if women could meet the minimum height requirements, they were typically faced with a physical-abilities test that emphasized upper body strength (e.g., push-ups and bench presses). Women failed these tests more often than men, and thus were not eligible to be police officers. Minimum height requirements are no longer used in law enforcement, but the perception that female police officers are not as good as males still exists. Today, the myth that women cannot be effective police officers is based largely on the belief that the need to demonstrate superior physical strength is a daily, common occurrence in law enforcement along with the belief that police work is routinely dangerous, violent, and crime-related.

So, what does the research show? On occasion, it is useful for police officers to be able to overpower suspects by demonstrating superior physical strength, but those types of activities are rare in law enforcement. In addition, it is fairly rare for a police officer to have to deal with a dangerous and violent encounter or even an incident involving a crime. The Police Services Study conducted in the 1970s analyzed 26,418 calls for service in three metropolitan areas and found that only 19% of calls for service involve crime and only 2% of the total calls for service involve violent crime. 43 This research study was among the first to assess the types of calls for service received by police agencies.

Despite the belief that women do not make good police officers, consistent research findings show that women are extremely capable as police officers, and in some respects, outperform their male counterparts. 44 Research has demonstrated several advantages to the hiring, retention, and promotion of women in law enforcement. First, female officers are as competent as their male counterparts. Research does not show any consistent differences in how male and female patrol officers perform their duties. Second, female officers are less likely to use excessive force. Research has shown that female patrol officers are less likely to be involved in high-speed pursuits, incidents of deadly force, and the use of excessive force. Female officers are more capable at calming potentially violent situations through communication and also demonstrate heightened levels of caution. Third, female officers can help implement community-oriented policing. Studies have shown that female officers are more supportive of the community-policing philosophy than are their male counterparts. Fourth, female officers can improve law enforcement’s response to violence against women. Studies have shown that female officers are more patient and understanding in handling domestic violence calls, and female victims of domestic violence are more likely to provide positive evaluations of female officers than their male counterparts. 52

MYTHS ABOUT POLICE

Some additional myths about the police that research does not support include:

•Police target minorities for traffic stops and arrests. 36

•Most crimes are solved through forensic science. 37

•COMPSTAT reduces crime. 38

•Intensive law enforcement efforts at the street level will lead to the control of illicit drug use and abuse. 39

•Police work primarily entails responding to crimes in progress or crimes that have just occurred. 40

•Police presence reduces crime. 41

•Detectives are most responsible for solving crimes and arresting offenders. 42

Myths about Courts—The Death Penalty Is Administered Fairly

According to a recent Gallup poll, 52% of Americans say the death penalty is applied fairly in the United States, the lowest mark in almost 40 years. 53 The issue of fairness and the death penalty typically concerns whether the punishment is equally imposed on offenders who are equally deserving based on legal factors (i.e., similar offense, similar prior criminal history, similar aggravating circumstances, and similar mitigating circumstances). 54 Unfairness can be shown if similarly situated offenders are more or less likely to receive death sentences based on age, gender, and race.

So, what does the research show? First, has research shown that a defendant’s age influences his or her chances of being sentenced to death? A study of about 5,000 homicides, controlling for legally relevant variables, found that defendants over the age of 25 were more than twice as likely to receive the death penalty in comparison to those 25 years of age or younger. 55

Second, has research shown that a defendant’s gender influences his or her chance of being sentenced to death? Capital punishment is almost exclusively reserved for male defendants. On December 31, 2010, there were 3,158 prisoners under a sentence of death in the United States: 58 were women, or 1.8%. 56 However, women account for 10–12% of all murders in the United States. 57 One research study found that male defendants were 2.6 times more likely than females to receive a death sentence after controlling for legally relevant factors. 58

Third, has research shown that a defendant’s race influences his or her chance of being sentenced to death? Most of the research on the biased nature of the death penalty has focused on racial inequities in the sentence. Although some research has shown that a defendant’s race has an impact on the likelihood of receiving a death sentence, a significant amount of research has shown that the race of the victim has the most substantial impact on death sentences. The research evidence clearly shows that offenders who murder white victims are more likely to receive a death sentence than offenders who murder black victims. 59 When assessing the race of both the victim and offender, the composition most likely to receive the death penalty is when a black offender murders a white victim. 60

MYTHS ABOUT COURTS

Some additional myths about courts that research does not support include:

•Many criminals escape justice because of the exclusionary rule. 45

•Subjecting juvenile offenders to harsh punishments can reduce crime committed by juveniles. 46

•Public opinion is overwhelmingly in favor of imprisonment and harsh punishment for offenders. 47

•The death penalty brings closure and a sense of justice to the family and friends of murder victims. 48

•Insanity is a common verdict in criminal courts in the United States. 49

•Eyewitness identification is reliable evidence. 50

•Most people who commit crimes based on hatred, bias, or discrimination face hate crime charges and longer sentencing. 51

Myths about Corrections—Imprisonment Is the Most Severe Form of Punishment

It seems clear that besides the death penalty, the most severe punishment available in our criminal justice system is to lock up offenders in prison. On a continuum, it is perceived that sentence severity increases as one moves from fines, to probation, to intermediate sanctions such as boot camps, and finally, to incarceration in prison. The public and politicians support this perception as well.

So, what does the research show? What do criminals think is the most severe form of punishment? A growing body of research has assessed how convicted offenders perceive and experience the severity of sentences in our criminal justice system. 61 Research suggests that alternatives to incarceration in prison (i.e., probation and intermediate sanctions) are perceived by many offenders as more severe due to a greater risk of program failure (e.g., probation revocation). In comparison, serving prison time is easier. 62

For example, one study found that about one-third of nonviolent offenders given the option of participating in an Intensive Supervision Probation (ISP) program, chose prison instead because the prospects of working every day and submitting to random drug tests was more punitive than serving time in prison. 73 Prisoners also stated that they would likely be caught violating probation conditions (i.e., high risk of program failure) and be sent to prison anyway. 74 In another research study involving survey responses from 415 inmates serving a brief prison sentence for a nonviolent crime, prison was considered the eighth most severe sanction, with only community service and probation seen as less punitive. Electronic monitoring (seventh), intensive supervision probation (sixth), halfway house (fifth), intermittent incarceration (fourth), day reporting (third), county jail (second), and boot camp (first) were all rated by inmates as more severe sanctions than prison. 75

MYTHS ABOUT CORRECTIONS

Some additional myths about corrections that research does not support include:

•Punishing criminals reduces crime. 63

•Prisons are too lenient in their day-to-day operations (prisons as country clubs). 64

•Prisons can be self-supporting if only prisoners were forced to work. 65

•Private prisons are more cost effective than state-run prisons. 66

•Focus of community corrections is rehabilitation rather than punishment. 67

•Correctional rehabilitation does not work. 68

•Drug offenders are treated leniently by the criminal justice system. 69

•Most death row inmates will be executed eventually. 70

•If correctional sanctions are severe enough, people will think twice about committing crimes. 71

•Sexual violence against and exploitation of inmates of the same gender are primarily the result of lack of heterosexual opportunities. 72

What is Research and Why is It Important to be an Informed Consumer of Research?

We probably should have started the chapter with the question “What is research?” but we wanted to initially lay a foundation for the question with a discussion of the problems with how knowledge is developed and the power of research in discovering the truth. Research methods are tools that allow criminology and criminal justice researchers to systematically study crime and the criminal justice system. The study of research methods is the study of the basic rules, appropriate techniques, and relevant procedures for conducting research. Research methods provide the tools necessary to approach issues in criminal justice from a rigorous standpoint and challenge opinions based solely on nonscientific observations and experiences. Similarly, research is the scientific investigation of an issue, problem, or subject utilizing research methods. Research is a means of knowledge development that is designed to assist in discovering answers to research questions and leads to the creation of new questions.

How Is Knowledge Development through Research Different?

Previously, sources of knowledge development were discussed, including authority, tradition, common sense, personal experience, and media portrayals. The problems generated by each knowledge source were also discussed. Research is another source of knowledge development, but it is different than those previously discussed in several ways. First, research relies on logical and systematic methods and observations to answer questions. Researchers use systematic, well-established research practices to seek answers to their questions. The methods and observations are completed in such a way that others can inspect and assess the methods and observations and offer feedback and criticism. Researchers develop, refine, and report their understanding of crime and the criminal justice system more systematically than the public does through casual observation. Those who conduct scientific research employ much more rigorous methods to gather the information/knowledge they are seeking.

Second, in order to prove that a research finding is correct, a researcher must be able to replicate the finding using the same methods. Only through replication can we have confidence in our original finding. For researchers, it may be important to replicate findings many times over so that we are assured our original finding was not a coincidence or chance occurrence. The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment is an example of this and will be discussed in detail in Chapter 5. In the experiment, the researchers found that arrests for domestic violence lead to fewer repeat incidences in comparison to separation of the people involved and mediation. Five replication studies were conducted and none were able to replicate the findings in the Minneapolis study. In fact, three of the replications found that those arrested for domestic violence had higher levels of continued domestic violence, so arrest did not have the deterrent effect found in the Minneapolis study.

Third, research is objective. Objectivity indicates a neutral and nonbiased perspective when conducting research. Although there are examples to the contrary, the researcher should not have a vested interest in what findings are discovered from the research. The researcher is expected to remain objective and report the findings of the study regardless of whether the findings support their personal opinion or agenda. In addition, research ensures objectivity by allowing others to examine and be critical of the methodology, findings, and results of research studies.

It should be clear that using research methods to answer questions about crime and the criminal justice system will greatly reduce the errors in the development of knowledge previously discussed. For example, research methods reduces the likelihood of overgeneralization by using systematic procedures for selecting individuals or groups to study that are representative of the individuals or groups that we wish to generalize. This is the topic of Chapter 3, which covers sampling procedures. In addition, research methods reduces the risk of selective observation by requiring that we measure and observe our research subjects systematically.

Being an Informed Consumer of Research

Criminal justice and criminological research is important for several reasons. First, it can provide better and more objective information. Second, it can promote better decision-making. Today, more than ever, we live in a world driven by data and in which there is an increasing dependence on the assessment of data when making decisions. As well as possible, research ensures that our decisions are based on data and not on an arbitrary or personal basis. Third, it allows for the objective assessment of programs. Fourth, it has often been the source of innovation within criminal justice agencies. Fifth, it can be directly relevant to criminal justice practice and have a significant impact on criminal justice operations.

Before we apply research results to practices in the criminal justice system, and before we even accept those research results as reasonable, we need to be able to know whether or not they are worthwhile. In other words, should we believe the results of the study? Research has its own limitations, so we need to evaluate research results and the methods used to produce them, and we do so through critical evaluation. Critical evaluation involves identifying both positive and negative aspects of the research study—both the good and the bad. Critical evaluation involves comparing the methodology used in the research with the standards established in research methods.

Through critical evaluation, consumers of research break studies down into their essential elements. What are the research questions and hypotheses? What were the independent and dependent variables? What research design was used? Was probability sampling used? What data-gathering procedures were employed? What type of data analysis was conducted and what conclusions were made? These are some of the questions that are asked by informed consumers of research. The evaluation of research ranges from the manner in which one obtains an idea to the ways in which one writes about the research results, and understanding each step in the research process is useful in our attempts to consume research conducted by others. Located between these two activities are issues concerning ethics, sampling, research design, data analyses, and interpretations.

The research design and procedures are typically the most critically evaluated aspects of research and will likewise receive the greatest amount of attention in this text. Informed consumers of research don’t just take the results of a research study at face value because the study is in an academic journal or written by someone with a Ph.D. Instead, informed consumers critically evaluate research. Taking what is learned throughout this text, critical evaluation of research is covered in Chapter 8, and upon completing this text, it is hoped that you will be an informed consumer of research and will put your research knowledge to use throughout your career.

Although many students will never undertake their own research, all will be governed by policies based upon research and exposed to research findings in their chosen professional positions. Most government agencies, including the criminal justice system, as well as private industry, routinely rely on data analysis. Criminal justice students employed with these agencies will be challenged if not prepared for quantitative tasks. Unfortunately, it is not unusual to find students as well as professionals in criminal justice who are unable to fully understand research reports and journal articles in their own field.

Beyond our criminal justice careers, we are all exposed to and use research to help us understand issues and to make personal decisions. For example, we know that cigarette smoking causes lung cancer and has other significant health impacts, so we don’t smoke. Your doctor tells you that your cholesterol is too high and you need to limit your red meat intake because research shows that consumption of red meat raises cholesterol; so, you quit eating red meat. That is why not all the examples in this text are criminal justice research examples. Some come from the medical field while others come from psychology and other disciplines. This is to remind you that you are probably exposed to much more research than you thought on day one of this class.

Overall, knowledge of research methods will allow you to more appropriately consider and consume information that is important to your career in criminal justice. It will help you better understand the process of asking and answering a question systematically and be a better consumer of the kind of information that you really need to be the best criminal justice professional you can. Once familiar with research methods, your anxiety about reviewing technical reports and research findings can be minimized. As discussed in the next section, research methods involve a process and once you understand the process, you can apply your knowledge to any research study, even those in other disciplines.

The Research Process

One of the nice things about studying research methods is it is about learning a process. Research methods can be seen as a sequential process with the first step being followed by the second step, and so on. There are certainly times when the order of the steps may be modified, but researchers typically follow the same process for each research study they complete regardless of the research topic (as depicted in Figure 2.1 in Chapter 2). Very simply, a research problem or question is identified, and a methodology is selected, developed, and implemented to answer the research question. This sequential process is one of the advantages of understanding research methods, because once you understand the process, you can apply that process to any research question that interests you. In addition, research methods are the same across disciplines. So, sampling is the same in business as it is in health education and as it is in criminal justice. Certainly the use of a particular method will be more common in one discipline in comparison to another, but the protocol for implementing the method to complete the research study is the same. For example, field research (discussed in Chapter 6) is used much more frequently in anthropology than in criminal justice. However, the research protocol to implement field research is the same whether you are studying an indigenous Indian tribe in South America in anthropology or a group of heroin users in St. Louis in criminal justice.

Some authors have presented the research process as a wheel or circle, with no specific beginning or end. Typically, the research process begins with the selection of a research problem and the development of research questions or hypotheses (discussed further in Chapter 2). It is common for the results of previous research to generate new research questions and hypotheses for the researcher. This suggests that research is cyclical, a vibrant and continuous process. When a research study answers one question, the result is often the generation of additional questions, which plunges the researcher right back into the research process to complete additional research to answer these new questions.

In this section, a brief overview of the research process will be presented. The chapters that follow address various aspects of the research process, but it is critical that you keep in mind the overall research process as you read this book, which is why is it presented here. Although you will probably not be expected to conduct a research study on your own, it is important for an educated consumer of research to understand the steps in the research process. The steps are presented in chronological order and appear neatly ordered. In practice, the researcher can go back and forth between the steps in the research process.

Step 1: Select a Topic and Conduct a Literature Review

The first step in the research process is typically the identification of a problem or topic that the researcher is interested in studying. Research topics can arise from a wide variety of sources, including the findings of a current study, a question that a criminal justice agency needs to have answered, or the result of intellectual curiosity. Once the researcher has identified a particular problem or topic, the researcher assesses the current state of the literature related to the problem or topic. The researcher will often spend a considerable amount of time in determining what the existing literature has to say about the topic. Has the topic already been studied to the point that the questions in which the researcher is interested have been sufficiently answered? If so, can the researcher approach the subject from a previously unexamined perspective? Many times, research topics have been previously explored but not brought to completion. If this is the case, it is certainly reasonable to examine the topic again. It is even appropriate to replicate a previous study to determine whether the findings reported in the prior research continue to be true in different settings with different participants. This step in the research process is also discussed in Chapter 2.

Step 2: Develop a Research Question

After a topic has been identified and a comprehensive literature review has been completed on the topic, the next step is the development of a research question or questions. The research question marks the beginning of your research study and is critical to the remaining steps in the research process. The research question determines the research plan and methodology that will be employed in the study, the data that will be collected, and the data analysis that will be performed. Basically, the remaining steps in the process are completed in order to answer the research question or questions established in this step. The development of research questions is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.

Step 3: Develop a Hypothesis

After the research questions have been established, the next step is the formulation of hypotheses, which are statements about the expected relationship between two variables. For example, a hypothesis may state that there is no relationship between heavy metal music preference and violent delinquency. The two variables stated in the hypothesis are music preference and violent delinquency. Hypothesis development is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.

Step 4: Operationalize Concepts

Operationalization involves the process of giving the concepts in your study a working definition and determining how each concept in your study will be measured. For example, in Step 3, the variables were music preference and violent delinquency. The process of operationalization involves determining how music preference and violent delinquency will be measured. Operationalization is further discussed in Chapter 2.

Step 5: Develop the Research Plan and Methodology

The next step is to develop the methodology that will be employed to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses. The research methodology is the blueprint for the study, which outlines how the research is to be conducted. The research questions will determine the appropriate methodology for the study. The research design selected should be driven by the research questions asked. In other words, the research questions dictate the methods used to answer them. The methodology is basically a research plan on how the research questions will be answered and will detail:

1. What group, subjects, or population will be studied and selected? Sampling will be discussed in Chapter 3.

2 . What research design will be used to collect data to answer the research questions? Various research designs will be covered in Chapters 4–7.

You need to have familiarity with all research designs so that you can become an educated consumer of research. A survey cannot answer all research questions, so knowing a lot about surveys but not other research designs will not serve you well as you assess research studies. There are several common designs used in criminal justice and criminology research. Brief descriptions of several common research designs are presented below, but each is discussed in detail in later chapters.

Survey research is one of the most common research designs employed in criminal justice research. It obtains data directly from research participants by asking them questions and is often conducted through self-administered questionnaires and personal interviews. For example, a professor might have her students complete a survey during class to understand the relationship between drug use and self-esteem. Survey research is discussed in Chapter 4.

Experimental designs are used when researchers are interested in determining whether a program, policy, practice, or intervention is effective. For example, a researcher may use an experimental design to determine if boot camps are effective at reducing juvenile delinquency. Experimental design is discussed in Chapter 5.

Field research involves researchers studying individuals or groups of individuals in their natural environment. The researcher is observing closely or acting as part of the group under study and is able to describe in depth not only the subject’s behaviors, but also consider the motivations that drive those behaviors. For example, if a researcher wanted to learn more about gangs and their activities, he may “hang out” with a gang in order to observe their behavior. Field research is discussed in Chapter 6.

A case study is an in-depth analysis of one or a few illustrative cases. This design allows the story behind an individual, a particular offender, to be told and then information from cases studies can be extrapolated to a larger group. Often these studies require the review and analysis of documents such as police reports and court records and interviews with the offender and others. For example, a researcher may explore the life history of a serial killer to try and understand why the offender killed. Case studies are discussed in Chapter 6.

Secondary data analysis occurs when researchers obtain and reanalyze data that was originally collected for a different purpose. This can include reanalyzing data collected from a prior research study, using criminal justice agency records to answer a research question, or historical research. For example, a researcher using secondary data analysis may analyze inmate files from a nearby prison to understand the relationship between custody level assignment and disciplinary violations inside prison. Secondary data analysis is discussed in Chapter 7.

Content analysis requires the assessment of content contained in mass communication outlets such as newspapers, television, magazines, and the like. In this research design, documents, publications, or presentations are reviewed and analyzed. For example, a researcher utilizing content analysis might review true crime books involving murder to see how the characteristics of the offender and victim in the true crime books match reality as depicted in the FBI’s Supplemental Homicide Reports. Content analysis is discussed in Chapter 7.

Despite the options these designs offer, other research designs are available and will be discussed later in the text. Ultimately, the design used will depend on the nature of the study and the research questions asked.

Step 6: Execute the Research Plan and Collect Data

The next step in the research process is the collection of the data based on the research design developed. For example, if a survey is developed to study the relationship between gang membership and violent delinquency, the distribution and collection of surveys from a group of high school students would occur in this step. Data collection is discussed in several chapters throughout this text.

Step 7: Analyze Data

After the data have been collected, the next phase in the research process involves analyzing the data through various and appropriate statistical techniques. The most common means for data analysis today is through the use of a computer and statistically oriented software. Data analysis and statistics are discussed in Chapter 9.

Step 8: Report Findings, Results, and Limitations

Reporting and interpreting the results of the study make up the final step in the research process. The findings and results of the study can be communicated through reports, journals, books, or computer presentations. At this step, the results are reported and the research questions are answered. In addition, an assessment is made regarding the support or lack of support for the hypotheses tested. It is also at this stage that the researcher can pose additional research questions that may now need to be answered as a result of the research study. In addition, the limitations of the study, as well as the impact those limitations may have on the results of the study, will be described by the researcher. All research has limitations, so it is incumbent on the researcher to identify those limitations for the reader. The process of assessing the quality of research will be discussed in Chapter 8.

Research in Action: Impacting Criminal Justice Operations

Research in the criminal justice system has had significant impacts on its operations. The following sections provide an example of research that has significantly impacted each of the three main components of the criminal justice system: police, courts, and corrections. The purpose of this section is to demonstrate that research has aided the positive development and progression of the criminal justice system.

Police Research Example 76

The efforts of criminal justice researchers in policing have been important and have created the initial and critical foundation necessary for the further development of effective and productive law enforcement. One seminal study asked: How important is it for the police to respond quickly when a citizen calls? The importance of rapid response was conveyed in a 1973 National Commission on Productivity Report despite the fact that there was very little empirical evidence upon which to base this assumption. In fact, the Commission stated “there is no definitive relationship between response time and deterrence, but professional judgment and logic do suggest that the two are related in a strong enough manner to make more rapid response important.” 77 Basically the Commission members were stating that we don’t have any research evidence that response times are important, but we “know” that they are. Police departments allocated substantial resources to the patrol function and deployed officers in an effort to improve response time through the use of the 9-1-1 telephone number, computer-assisted dispatch, and beat assignment systems. Officers were typically assigned to a patrol beat. When the officers were not answering calls for service, they remained in their assigned beats so they could immediately respond to an emergency.

The data for the project were collected as part of a larger experiment on preventive patrol carried out in Kansas City, Missouri, between October 1972 and September 1973. 78 To determine the impact of response time, researchers speculated that the following variables would be influenced by response time: 1) the outcome of the response, 2) citizen satisfaction with response time, and 3) citizen satisfaction with the responding officer. Several data sources were used in the study. First, surveys were completed after all citizen-initiated calls (excluding automobile accidents) that involved contact with a police officer. The survey instrument consisted of questions to assess the length of time to respond to a call and the outcome of the call (i.e., arrest). Over 1,100 surveys were completed. Second, a follow-up survey was mailed to citizens whom the police had contacted during their response. These surveys asked questions to assess citizen satisfaction with response time and outcome. Over 425 of these surveys were returned.

The data collected during the study showed that response time did not determine whether or not the police made an arrest or recovered stolen property. This was the most surprising finding from the study because it challenged one of the basic underlying principles of police patrol. Researchers attributed the lack of significance to the fact that most citizens waited before calling the police. Rapid response simply did not matter in situations where citizens delayed in reporting the crime.

Rapid response time was not only believed to be important in determining the outcome of a response (i.e., more likely to lead to an arrest), it was also considered an important predictor of citizen satisfaction. Data from the study showed that when the police arrived sooner than expected, citizens were more satisfied with response time. However, subsequent research has shown that citizens are also satisfied with a delayed response as long as the dispatcher sets a reasonable expectation for when the patrol officer will arrive. Response time was also the best predictor of how satisfied a citizen was with the responding officer. It was further revealed that citizens became dissatisfied with the police when they were not informed of the outcome (i.e., someone was arrested). Again, these findings indicate the need for dispatchers and patrol officers to communicate with complainants regarding when they should expect an officer to arrive and the outcome of the call.

Based on the results of the response time study, the researchers concluded that rapid response was not as important as police administrators had thought. Response time was not related to an officer’s ability to make an arrest or recover stolen property. Results from the response time study challenged traditional beliefs about the allocation of patrol in our communities. Based on tradition knowledge, as previously discussed, rapidly responding to calls for service is what the police had always done since they started using patrol vehicles. In addition, common sense, as previously discussed, played a role in the practice of rapid response to calls for service; it just made sense that if a patrol officer arrives sooner, she will be more likely to make an arrest.

Prior to the research, police departments operated under the assumption that rapid response was a crucial factor in the ability of an officer to solve a crime and an important predictor of citizen satisfaction. In response to the research on rapid response, many police departments changed the way they responded to calls for service. Many departments adopted a differential police response approach. Differential police response protocols allow police departments to prioritize calls and rapidly dispatch an officer only when an immediate response is needed (i.e., crimes in progress). For crimes in progress, rapid response is critical and may reduce the injuries sustained by the victim as well, but these emergency calls usually account for less than 2% of all 9-1-1 calls for police service. For nonemergency calls, an officer is either dispatched at a later time when the officer is available or a report is taken over the phone or through some other means. Differential police response has been shown to save departments money and give patrol officers more time to engage in community-oriented and proactive policing activities. The benefits for a department are not at the expense of the public. In fact, a study by Robert Worden found a high degree of citizen satisfaction with differential police response. 79

Courts Research Example 80

Research on the courts component of the criminal justice system, while far from complete, has produced direct effects on the operations of the criminal justice system. The study reviewed in this section asked the following research question: Are jurors able to understand different legal rules for establishing a defendant’s criminal responsibility? The study described below explored the issue of criminal responsibility as it applies to the insanity defense in the United States. For several years, the M ’ Naghten rule was the legal rule applied in all courts of the United States. Under M ’ Naghten, criminal responsibility was absent when the offender did not understand the nature of his actions due to failure to distinguish “right” from “wrong.” This is known as the “right/wrong test” for criminal responsibility. The case of Durham v. United States was heard in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia and offered an alternative test for criminal responsibility and insanity. The legal rule emerging from Durham was that criminal responsibility was absent if the offense was a product of mental disease or defect. This ruling provided psychiatrists with a more important role at trial because of the requirement that the behavior be linked to a mental disorder that only a psychiatrist could officially determine.

At the time of Simon’s 1967 study, most courts across the country still followed the M ’ Naghten rule. Questions arose, however, regarding whether juries differed in their understanding of M ’ Naghten versus Durham and, in turn, whether this resulted in differences in their ability to make informed decisions regarding criminal responsibility in cases involving the insanity defense. The study was designed to determine the effect of different legal rules on jurors’ decision-making in cases where the defense was insanity. There was a question of whether there was a difference between the rules to the extent that jurors understood each rule and could capably apply it.

Simon conducted an experimental study on jury deliberations in cases where the only defense was insanity. 81 Utilizing a mock jury approach, Simon took the transcripts of two actual trials with one reflecting the use of the M ’ Naghten rule and the other the Durham rule. Both cases were renamed and the transcripts were edited to constitute a trial of 60–90 minutes in length. These edited transcripts were then recorded, with University of Chicago Law School faculty as the attorneys, judges, and witnesses involved in each case. Groups of 12 jurors listened to each trial with instruction provided at the end regarding the particular rule of law ( M ’ Naghten or Durham) for determining criminal responsibility. Each juror submitted a written statement with his or her initial decision on the case before jury deliberations, and the juries’ final decisions after deliberation were also reported.

Simon found significant differences in the verdicts across the two groups ( M ’ Naghten rule applied and Durham rule applied) even when the case was the same. For the M ’ Naghten version of the case, the psychiatrists stated that the defendant was mentally ill yet knew right from wrong during the crime. These statements/instructions should have led to a guilty verdict on the part of the mock jury. As expected, the M ’ Naghten juries delivered guilty verdicts in 19 of the 20 trials, with one hung jury. For the Durham version of the case, the psychiatrists stated that the crime resulted from the defendant’s mental illness, which should have lead to acquittal. However, the defendant was acquitted in only five of the 26 Durham trials. Twenty-six groups of 12 jurors were exposed to the Durham version of the trial and the case was the same each time. Simon interpreted these results as suggesting that jurors were unambiguous in their interpretations and applications of M ’ Naghten (due to the consistency in guilty verdicts), but they were less clear on the elements of Durham and how to apply it (reflected by the mix of guilty, not guilty, and hung verdicts). 82

After Simon’s study, most states rejected the Durham test. Recall her finding that the Durham rule produced inconsistent verdicts. She interpreted this finding as Durham being no better than providing no guidance to jurors on how to decide the issue of insanity. The observation helped to fuel arguments against the use of Durham, which, in turn, contributed to its demise as a legal rule. Today, only New Hampshire uses a version of the Durham rule in insanity cases.

WHAT RESEARCH SHOWS: IMPACTING CRIMINAL JUSTICE OPERATIONS

The Punishment Cost of Being Young, Black, and Male

Steffensmeier, Ulmer, and Kramer 83 hypothesized that African Americans overall were not likely to be treated more harshly than white defendants by the courts because it was only particular subgroups of minority defendants that fit with court actors’ stereotypes of “more dangerous” offenders. In particular, they argued that younger African American males not only fulfilled this stereotype more than any other age, race, and gender combination, they were also more likely to be perceived by judges as being able to handle incarceration better than other subgroups.

In order to test their hypotheses, the researchers examined sentencing data from Pennsylvania spanning four years (1989–1992). Almost 139,000 cases were examined. The sentences they examined included whether a convicted defendant was incarcerated in prison or jail, and the length of incarceration in prison or jail. The researchers found that offense severity and prior record were the most important predictors of whether a convicted defendant was incarcerated and the length of incarceration. The authors found that the highest likelihood of incarceration and the longest sentences for males were distributed to African Americans aged 18–29 years. Their analysis of females revealed that white females were much less likely than African American females to be incarcerated, regardless of the age group examined. Taken altogether, the analysis revealed that African American males aged 18–29 years maintained the highest odds of incarceration and the longest sentences relative to any other race, sex, and age group.

Overall, this research showed that judges focused primarily on legal factors (offense severity and prior record) when determining the sentences of convicted offenders. These are the factors we expect judges to consider when making sentencing decisions. However, the research also found that judges base their decisions in part on extralegal factors, particularly the interaction of a defendant’s age, race, and gender. This research expanded our knowledge beyond the impact of singular factors on sentencing to expose the interaction effects of several variables (race, gender, and age). Court personnel are aware of these interaction effects based on this study, and others that followed, as well as their personal experiences in the criminal justice system. Identification and recognition of inequities in our justice system (in this case that young, African American males are punished more severely in our justice system) is the first step in mitigating this inequity.

Corrections Research Example 84

Although the research in corrections is far from complete, it has contributed greatly to the development of innovative programs and the professional development of correctional personnel. The contributions of academic and policy-oriented research can be seen across the whole range of correctional functions from pretrial services through probation, institutional corrections, and parole.

Rehabilitation remained the goal of our correctional system until the early 1970s, when the efficacy of rehabilitation was questioned. Violent crime was on the rise, and many politicians placed the blame on the criminal justice system. Some believed the system was too lenient on offenders. Interest in researching the effectiveness of correctional treatment remained low until 1974 when an article written by Robert Martinson and published in Public Interest titled “What Works? Questions and Answers about Prison Reform” generated enormous political and public attention to the effectiveness of correctional treatment. 85

Over a six-month period, Martinson and his colleagues reviewed all of the existing literature on correctional treatment published in English from 1945 to 1967. Each of the articles was evaluated according to traditional standards of social science research. Only studies that utilized an experimental design, included a sufficient sample size, and could be replicated were selected for review. A total of 231 studies examining a variety of different types of treatment were chosen, including educational and vocational training, individual and group counseling, therapeutic milieus, medical treatment, differences in length and type of incarceration, and community corrections. All of the treatment studies included at least one measure of offender recidivism, such as whether or not offenders were rearrested or violated their parole. The recidivism measures were used to examine the success or failure of a program in terms of reducing crime.

After reviewing all 231 studies, Martinson reported that there was no consistent evidence that correctional treatment reduced recidivism. Specifically, he wrote, “with few and isolated exceptions, the rehabilitative efforts that have been reported so far have had no appreciable effect on recidivism.” 86 Martinson further indicated that the lack of empirical support for correctional treatment could be a consequence of poorly implemented programs. If the quality of the programs were improved, the results may have proved more favorable, but this conclusion was for the most part ignored by the media and policy-makers.

Martinson’s report became commonly referred to as “nothing works” and was subsequently used as the definitive study detailing the failures of rehabilitation. The article had implications beyond questioning whether or not specific types of correctional treatment reduced recidivism. The entire philosophy of rehabilitation was now in doubt because of Martinson’s conclusion that “our present strategies … cannot overcome, or even appreciably reduce, the powerful tendencies of offenders to continue in criminal behavior.” 87

Martinson’s article provided policy makers the evidence to justify spending cuts on rehabilitative programs. Furthermore, it allowed politicians to respond to growing concerns about crime with punitive, get-tough strategies. States began implementing strict mandatory sentences that resulted in more criminals being sent to prison and for longer periods of time. Over the next several years, Martinson’s article was used over and over to support abandoning efforts to treat offenders until rehabilitation became virtually nonexistent in our correctional system.

Chapter Summary

This chapter began with a discussion of sources of knowledge development and the problems with each. To depict the importance of research methods in knowledge development, myths about crime and the criminal justice system were reviewed along with research studies that have dispelled myths. As the introductory chapter in this text, this chapter also provided an overview of the steps in the research process from selecting a topic and conducting a literature review at the beginning of a research study to reporting findings, results, and limitations at the end of the study. Examples of actual research studies in the areas of police, courts, and corrections were also provided in this chapter to demonstrate the research process in action and to illustrate how research has significantly impacted practices within the criminal justice system. In addition, this chapter demonstrated the critical importance of becoming an informed consumer of research in both your personal and professional lives.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What are the primary sources of knowledge development, and what are the problems with each?

2. How is knowledge developed through research methods different from other sources of knowledge?

3. What myths about crime and criminal justice have been dispelled through research? Give an example of a research study that dispelled a myth.

4. Why is it important to be an informed consumer of research?

5. What are the steps in the research process, and what activities occur at each step?

authority knowledge: Knowledge developed when we accept something as being correct and true just because someone in a position of authority says it is true

case study: An in-depth analysis of one or a few illustrative cases

common sense knowledge: Knowledge developed when the information “just makes sense”

content analysis: A method requiring the analyzing of content contained in mass communication outlets such as newspapers, television, magazines, and the like

CSI Effect: Due to the unrealistic portrayal of the role of forensic science in solving criminal cases in television shows, jurors are more likely to vote to acquit a defendant when the expected sophisticated forensic evidence is not presented

differential police response: Methods that allow police departments to prioritize calls and rapidly dispatch an officer only when an immediate response is needed (i.e., crimes in progress)

experimental designs: Used when researchers are interested in determining whether a program, policy, practice, or intervention is effective

field research: Research that involves researchers studying individuals or groups of individuals in their natural environment

Halloween sadism: The practice of giving contaminated treats to children during trick or treating

hypotheses: Statements about the expected relationship between two concepts

illogical reasoning: Occurs when someone jumps to premature conclusions or presents an argument that is based on invalid assumptions

myths: Beliefs that are based on emotion rather than rigorous analysis

operationalization: The process of giving a concept a working definition; determining how each concept in your study will be measured

overgeneralization: Occurs when people conclude that what they have observed in one or a few cases is true for all cases

personal experience knowledge: Knowledge developed through actual experiences

research: The scientific investigation of an issue, problem, or subject utilizing research methods

research methods: The tools that allow criminology and criminal justice researchers to systematically study crime and the criminal justice system and include the basic rules, appropriate techniques, and relevant procedures for conducting research

resistance to change: The reluctance to change our beliefs in light of new, accurate, and valid information to the contrary

secondary data analysis: Occurs when researchers obtain and reanalyze data that were originally collected for a different purpose

selective observation: Choosing, either consciously or unconsciously, to pay attention to and remember events that support our personal preferences and beliefs

survey research: Obtaining data directly from research participants by asking them questions, often conducted through self-administered questionnaires and personal interviews

tradition knowledge: Knowledge developed when we accept something as true because that is the way things have always been, so it must be right

variables: Concepts that have been given a working definition and can take on different values

1 Briggs, Lisa T., Stephen E. Brown, Robert B. Gardner, and Robert L. Davidson. (2009). “D.RA.MA: An extended conceptualization of student anxiety in criminal justice research methods courses.” Journal of Criminal Justice Education 20 (3), 217–226.

2 Betz, N. E. (1978). “Prevalence, distribution, and correlates of math anxiety in college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology 25 (5), 441–448.

3 Briggs, et al., 2009, p. 221.

4 Ibid, p. 221.

5 Ibid, p. 221.

6 Kappeler, Victor E., and Gary W. Potter. (2005). The mythology of crime and criminal justice. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland.

7 Tennessee v. Gamer, 471 U.S. 1 (1985).

8 Lombroso-Ferrero, Gina. (1911). Criminal man, according to the classification of Cesare Lombroso. New York: Putnam.

9 This study was included in Amy B. Thistlethwaite and John D. Wooldredge. (2010). Forty studies that changed criminal justice: Explorations into the history of criminal justice research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

10 Petersilia, J., S. Turner, J. Kahan, and J. Peterson. (1985). Granting felons probation: Public risks and alternatives. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.

11 Vito, G. (1986). “Felony probation and recidivism: Replication and response.” Federal Probation 50, 17–25.

12 Conrad, J. (1985). “Research and development in corrections.” Federal Probation 49, 69–71.

13 Finckenauer, James O. (1982). Scared straight! and the panacea phenomenon. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

14 Yarborough, J.C. (1979). Evaluation of JOLT (Juvenile Offenders Learn Truth) as a deterrence program. Lansing, MI: Michigan Department of Corrections.

15 Petrosino, Anthony, Carolyn Turpin-Petrosino, and James O. Finckenauer. (2000). “Well-meaning programs can have harmful effects! Lessons from experiments of programs such as Scared Straight,” Crime & Delinquency 46, 354–379.

16 Robertson, Jordan. “I’m being punished for living right”: Background check system is haunted by errors. December 20, 2011. http://finance.yahoo.com/news /ap-impact-criminal-past-isnt-182335059.html. Retrieved on December 29, 2011.

17 Shelton, D. E. (2008). “The ‘CSI Effect’: Does it really exist?” NIJ Journal 259 [NCJ 221501].

18 Best, Joel. (2011). “Halloween sadism: The evidence.” http://dspace.udel.edu:8080/dspace/bitstream/handle/ 19716/726/Halloween%20sadism.revised%20thru%20201l.pdf?sequence=6. Retrieved on May 7, 2012.

19 Best, Joel. (1985, November). “The myth of the Halloween sadist. Psychology Today 19 (11), p. 14.

21 “Beer compound shows potent promise in prostate cancer battle.” Press release from Oregon State University May 30, 2006. http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2006/ may/beer-compound-shows-potent-promise-prostate-cancer-battle. Retrieved on January 6, 2012; Colgate, Emily C., Cristobal L. Miranda, Jan F. Stevens, Tammy M. Bray, and Emily Ho. (2007). “Xanthohumol, a prenylflavonoid derived from hops induces apoptosis and inhibits NF-kappaB activation in prostate epithelial cells,” Cancer Letters 246, 201–209; “Health benefits of red wine exaggerated” http://health.yahoo.net/articles /nutrition/health-benefits-red-wine-exaggerated. Retrieved on January 14, 2012; “Scientific journals notified following research misconduct investigation.” January 11, 2012. http://today.uconn.edu/blog/2012/01/scientific-journals -notified-following-research-misconduct-investigation/. Retrieved on January 14, 2012.

22 Pepinsky, Hal. “The myth that crime and criminality can be measured.” 3–11 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

23 Bullock, Jennifer L., and Bruce A. Arrigo. “The myth that mental illness causes crime.” 12–19 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

24 Friedrichs, David O. “The myth that white-collar crime is only about financial loss.” 20–28 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

25 Kuhns III, Joseph B., and Charisse T. M. Coston. “The myth that serial murderers are disproportionately white males.” 37–44 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

26 Longmire, Dennis R., Jacqueline Buffington-Vollum, and Scott Vollum. “The myth of positive differentiation in the classification of dangerous offenders.” 123–131 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

27 Masters, Ruth E., Lori Beth Way, Phyllis B. Gerstenfeld, Bernadette T. Muscat, Michael Hooper, John P. J. Dussich, Lester Pincu, and Candice A. Skrapec. (2013). CJ realities and challenges, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

32 Brownstein, Henry H. “The myth of drug users as violent offenders.” 45–53 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

33 Goldstein, P. (1985). “The drugs/violence nexus: A tripartite conceptual framework.” Journal of Drug Issues 15, 493–506.

34 Goldstein, P, H. Brownstein, and P. Ryan. (1992). “Drug-related homicide in New York City: 1984 and 1988.” Crime & Delinquency 38, 459–476.

35 Parker, R., and K. Auerhahn. (1998). “Alcohol, drugs, and violence.” Annual Review of Sociology 24, 291–311, p. 291.

36 Buerger, Michael. “The myth of racial profiling.” 97–103 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

37 Cordner, Gary, and Kathryn E. Scarborough. “The myth that science solves crimes.” 104–110 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

38 Willis, James J., Stephen D. Mastrofski, and David Weisburd. “The myth that COMPSTAT reduces crime and transforms police organizations.” 111–119 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

39 Masters, et al., 2013.

43 Scott, Eric J. (1981). Calls for service: Citizen demand and initial police response. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

44 Lersch, Kim. “The myth of policewomen on patrol.” 89–96 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

45 Janikowski, Richard. “The myth that the exclusionary rule allows many criminals to escape justice.” 132–139 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

46 Bishop, Donna M. “The myth that harsh punishments reduce juvenile crime.” 140–148 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

47 Immarigeon, Russ. “The myth that public attitudes are punitive.” 149–157 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

48 Acker, James R. “The myth of closure and capital punishment.” 167–175 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

49 Masters, et al., 2013.

52 Lersch, 2006.

53 Newport, Frank. “In U.S., support for death penalty falls to 39-year low.” October 13, 2011. http://www.gallup .com/poll/150089/support-death-penalty-falls-year-low.aspx. Retrieved on April 16, 2012.

54 Applegate, Brandon. “The myth that the death penalty is administered fairly.” 158–166 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

55 Williams, M. R., and J. E. Holcomb. (2001). “Racial disparity and death sentences in Ohio.” Journal of Criminal Justice 29, 207–218.

56 Snell, Tracy L. (2011, December). Capital punishment, 2010—statistical tables. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics.

57 Applegate, 2006.

58 Williams and Holcomb, 2001.

59 Applegate, 2006.

61 Wood, Peter B. “The myth that imprisonment is the most severe form of punishment.” 192–200 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

63 Michalowski, Raymond. “The myth that punishment reduces crime.” 179–191 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

64 McShane, Marilyn, Frank P. Williams III, and Beth Pelz. “The myth of prisons as country clubs.” 201–208 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

65 Parker, Mary. “The myth that prisons can be self-supporting.” 209–213 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

66 Blakely, Curtis, and John Ortiz Smykla. “Correctional privatization and the myth of inherent efficiency.” 214–220 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

67 Jones, G. Mark. “The myth that the focus of community corrections is rehabilitation.” 221–226 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

68 Cullen, Francis T., and Paula Smith. “The myth that correctional rehabilitation does not work.” 227–238 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. (2006). Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

69 Masters, et al., 2013.

73 Petersilia, Joan. (1990). “When probation becomes more dreaded than prison. Federal Probation 54, 23–27.

75 Wood, P. B., and H. G. Grasmick. (1999). “Toward the development of punishment equivalencies: Male and female inmates rate the severity of alternative sanctions compared to prison.” Justice Quarterly 16, 19–50.

76 Example is excerpted from Amy B. Thistlethwaite and John D. Wooldredge. (2010). Forty studies that changed criminal justice: Explorations into the history of criminal justice research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. This is an excellent book that demonstrates the impact research has had on criminal justice operations.

77 National Commission on Productivity. (1973). Opportunities for improving productivity in police services. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, p. 19.

78 Pate, T., A. Ferrara, R. Bowers, and J. Lorence. (1976). Police response time: Its determinants and effects. Washington, DC: Police Foundation.

79 Worden, R. (1993). “Toward equity and efficiency in law enforcement: Differential police response. American Journal of Police 12, 1–32.

80 Example is excerpted from Amy B. Thistlethwaite and John D. Wooldredge. (2010). Forty studies that changed criminal justice: Explorations into the history of criminal justice research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

81 Simon, R. (1967). The jury and the defense of insanity. Boston: Little, Brown.

83 Steffensmeier, D., J. Ulmer, & J. Kramer. (1998). “The interaction of race, gender, and age in criminal sentencing: The punishment cost of being young, black, and male. Criminology 36, 763–797.

84 Example is excerpted from Amy B. Thistlethwaite and John D. Wooldredge. (2010). Forty studies that changed criminal justice: Explorations into the history of criminal justice research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

85 Martinson, R. (1974). “What works? Questions and answers about prison reform.” The Public Interest 10, 22–54.

86 Ibid, p. 25.

87 Ibid, p. 49.

Applied Research Methods in Criminal Justice and Criminology by University of North Texas is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Board Members
Management Team
Become a Contributor
Volunteer Opportunities
Code of Ethical Practices

KNOWLEDGE NETWORK

Search Engines List
Suggested Reading Library
Web Directories
Research Papers
Industry News

Become a Member
Associate Membership
Certified Membership
Membership Application
Corporate Application

CIRS Certification Program
CIRS Certification Objectives
CIRS Certification Benefits
CIRS Certification Exam
Maintain Your Certification

Upcoming Events
Live Classes
Classes Schedule
Webinars Schedules

Latest Articles
Internet Research
Search Techniques
Research Methods
Business Research
Search Engines
Research & Tools
Investigative Research
Internet Search
Work from Home
Internet Ethics
Internet Privacy

Six Reasons Why Research is Important

Everyone conducts research in some form or another from a young age, whether news, books, or browsing the Internet. Internet users come across thoughts, ideas, or perspectives - the curiosity that drives the desire to explore. However, when research is essential to make practical decisions, the nature of the study alters - it all depends on its application and purpose. For instance, skilled research offered as a research paper service has a definite objective, and it is focused and organized. Professional research helps derive inferences and conclusions from solving problems. visit the HB tool services for the amazing research tools that will help to solve your problems regarding the research on any project.

What is the Importance of Research?

The primary goal of the research is to guide action, gather evidence for theories, and contribute to the growth of knowledge in data analysis. This article discusses the importance of research and the multiple reasons why it is beneficial to everyone, not just students and scientists.

On the other hand, research is important in business decision-making because it can assist in making better decisions when combined with their experience and intuition.

Reasons for the Importance of Research

Acquire Knowledge Effectively
Research helps in problem-solving
Provides the latest information
Builds credibility
Helps in business success
Discover and Seize opportunities

1- Acquire Knowledge Efficiently through Research

The most apparent reason to conduct research is to understand more. Even if you think you know everything there is to know about a subject, there is always more to learn. Research helps you expand on any prior knowledge you have of the subject. The research process creates new opportunities for learning and progress.

2- Research Helps in Problem-solving

Problem-solving can be divided into several components, which require knowledge and analysis, for example, identification of issues, cause identification, identifying potential solutions, decision to take action, monitoring and evaluation of activity and outcomes.

You may just require additional knowledge to formulate an informed strategy and make an informed decision. When you know you've gathered reliable data, you'll be a lot more confident in your answer.

3- Research Provides the Latest Information

Research enables you to seek out the most up-to-date facts. There is always new knowledge and discoveries in various sectors, particularly scientific ones. Staying updated keeps you from falling behind and providing inaccurate or incomplete information. You'll be better prepared to discuss a topic and build on ideas if you have the most up-to-date information. With the help of tools and certifications such as CIRS , you may learn internet research skills quickly and easily. Internet research can provide instant, global access to information.

4- Research Builds Credibility

Research provides a solid basis for formulating thoughts and views. You can speak confidently about something you know to be true. It's much more difficult for someone to find flaws in your arguments after you've finished your tasks. In your study, you should prioritize the most reputable sources. Your research should focus on the most reliable sources. You won't be credible if your "research" comprises non-experts' opinions. People are more inclined to pay attention if your research is excellent.

5- Research Helps in Business Success

R&D might also help you gain a competitive advantage. Finding ways to make things run more smoothly and differentiate a company's products from those of its competitors can help to increase a company's market worth.

6- Research Discover and Seize Opportunities

People can maximize their potential and achieve their goals through various opportunities provided by research. These include getting jobs, scholarships, educational subsidies, projects, commercial collaboration, and budgeted travel. Research is essential for anyone looking for work or a change of environment. Unemployed people will have a better chance of finding potential employers through job advertisements or agencies.

How to Improve Your Research Skills

Start with the big picture and work your way down.

It might be hard to figure out where to start when you start researching. There's nothing wrong with a simple internet search to get you started. Online resources like Google and Wikipedia are a great way to get a general idea of a subject, even though they aren't always correct. They usually give a basic overview with a short history and any important points.

Identify Reliable Source

Not every source is reliable, so it's critical that you can tell the difference between the good ones and the bad ones. To find a reliable source, use your analytical and critical thinking skills and ask yourself the following questions: Is this source consistent with other sources I've discovered? Is the author a subject matter expert? Is there a conflict of interest in the author's point of view on this topic?

Validate Information from Various Sources

Take in new information.

The purpose of research is to find answers to your questions, not back up what you already assume. Only looking for confirmation is a minimal way to research because it forces you to pick and choose what information you get and stops you from getting the most accurate picture of the subject. When you do research, keep an open mind to learn as much as possible.

Facilitates Learning Process

Learning new things and implementing them in daily life can be frustrating. Finding relevant and credible information requires specialized training and web search skills due to the sheer enormity of the Internet and the rapid growth of indexed web pages. On the other hand, short courses and Certifications like CIRS make the research process more accessible. CIRS Certification offers complete knowledge from beginner to expert level. You can become a Certified Professional Researcher and get a high-paying job, but you'll also be much more efficient and skilled at filtering out reliable data. You can learn more about becoming a Certified Professional Researcher.

Stay Organized

You'll see a lot of different material during the process of gathering data, from web pages to PDFs to videos. You must keep all of this information organized in some way so that you don't lose anything or forget to mention something properly. There are many ways to keep your research project organized, but here are a few of the most common: Learning Management Software , Bookmarks in your browser, index cards, and a bibliography that you can add to as you go are all excellent tools for writing.

Make Use of the library's Resources

If you still have questions about researching, don't worry—even if you're not a student performing academic or course-related research, there are many resources available to assist you. Many high school and university libraries, in reality, provide resources not only for staff and students but also for the general public. Look for research guidelines or access to specific databases on the library's website. Association of Internet Research Specialists enjoys sharing informational content such as research-related articles , research papers , specialized search engines list compiled from various sources, and contributions from our members and in-house experts.

of Conducting Research

Latest from erin r. goodrich.

Leveraging Local SEO Strategies for Small Business Growth
Digital solutions your pest control business management software
Understanding the Benefits of MKV to MP4 Conversion for Content Creators

Live Classes Schedule

World's leading professional association of Internet Research Specialists - We deliver Knowledge, Education, Training, and Certification in the field of Professional Online Research. The AOFIRS is considered a major contributor in improving Web Search Skills and recognizes Online Research work as a full-time occupation for those that use the Internet as their primary source of information.

Get Exclusive Research Tips in Your Inbox

Privacy Policy
Terms & Conditions
Advertising Opportunities
Knowledge Network

Research Article
Neuroscience

The importance of individual beliefs in assessing treatment efficacy

Shachar Hochman
Zafiris J Daskalakis
Daniel M Blumberger
MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom ;
Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom ;
Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, United Kingdom ;
School of Psychology, University of Surrey, United Kingdom ;
Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, United States ;
Temerty Centre for Therapeutic Brain Intervention at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health and Department of Psychiatry, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Canada ;
Open access
Copyright information

Share this article

Cite this article.

Luisa Fassi
Roi Cohen Kadosh
Copy to clipboard
Download BibTeX
Download .RIS

Joint Public Review:

Author response.

Michael J Frank
Brown University, United States
Noah Philip

Randomized clinical trials use experimental blinding and compare active and placebo conditions in their analyses. In this study, Fassi and colleagues explore how individual differences in subjective treatment (i.e., did the participant think they received the active or placebo treatment) influence symptoms and how this is related to objective treatment. Authors address this highly relevant and interesting question using a powerful method by (re-)analyzing data from four published neurostimulation studies and including subjective treatment in statistical models explaining treatment response. The major strengths include the innovative and important research question, the inclusion of four different studies with different techniques and populations to address this question, sound statistical analyses, and findings that are of high interest and relevance to the field.

The paper will have significant impact on the field. It will promote further investigation of the effects of sham vs active treatment by the introduction of the terms subjective treatment vs objective treatment and subjective dosage that can be used consistently in the future. The suggestions to assess the expectation of sham vs active earlier on in clinical trials will advance the understanding of subjective treatment in future studies. Overall, I believe the data will substantially contribute to the design and interpretation of future clinical trials by underscoring the importance of subjective treatment.

The following is the authors’ response to the original reviews.

Reviewer 1 Public Review (R1.1) Randomized clinical trials use experimental blinding and compare active and placebo conditions in their analyses. In this study, Fassi and colleagues explore how individual differences in subjective treatment (i.e., did the participant think they received the active or placebo treatment) influence symptoms and how this is related to objective treatment. The authors address this highly relevant and interesting question using a powerful method by (re-)analyzing data from four published neurostimulation studies and including subjective treatment in statistical models explaining treatment response. The major strengths include the innovative and important research question, the inclusion of four different studies with different techniques and populations to address this question, sound statistical analyses, and findings that are of high interest and relevance to the field.

We thank the reviewer for this summary and the overall appreciation for our work.

(R1.2) My main suggestion is that authors reconsider the description of the main conclusion to better integrate and balance all findings. Specifically, the authors conclude that (e.g., in the abstract) "individual differences in subjective treatment can explain variability in outcomes better than the actual treatment", which I believe is not a consistent conclusion across all four studies as it does not appropriately consider important interactions with objective treatment observed in study 2 and 3. In study 2, the greatest improvement was observed in the group that received TMS but believed they received sham. While subjective treatment was associated with improvement regardless of objective active or sham treatment, improvement in the objective active TMS group who believed they received sham suggests the importance of objective treatment regardless of subjective treatment. In Study 3, including objective treatment in the model predicted more treatment variance, further suggesting the predictive value of objective treatment.

We thank the reviewer for this comment and agree that the interpretation of findings requires a more nuanced and balanced description. We, therefore, implemented changes in both the abstract and discussion of the manuscript, as reported below (additions are highlighted in grey and deletions are shown in strikethrough):

“Our findings consistently show that the inclusion of subjective treatment can provide a better model fit when accounted for alone or in an interaction term with objective treatment (defined as the condition to which participants are assigned in the experiment). These results demonstrate the significant contribution of subjective experience in explaining the variability of clinical, cognitive and behavioural outcomes. Based on these findings, We advocate for existing and future studies in clinical and non-clinical research to start accounting for participants’ subjective beliefs and their interplay with objective treatment when assessing the efficacy of treatments. This approach will be crucial in providing a more accurate estimation of the treatment effect and its source, allowing the development of effective and reproducible interventions.” (p. 3)

“We demonstrate that participants’ subjective beliefs about receiving the active vs control (sham) treatment are an important factor that can explain variability in the primary outcome and, in some cases, fits the observed data better than the actual treatment participants received during the experiment. Specifically, in Studies 1, 2 and 4, the fact that participants thought to be in the active or control condition explained variability in clinical and cognitive scores to a more considerable extent than the objective treatment alone. Notably, the same pattern of results emerged when we replaced subjective treatment with subjective dosage in the fourth experiment, showing that subjective beliefs about treatment intensity also explained variability in research results better than objective treatment. In contrast to Studies 1 and 4, Studies 2 and 3 showed a more complex pattern of results. Specifically, in Study 2 we observed an interaction effect, whereby the greatest improvement in depressive symptoms was observed in the group that received the active objective treatment but believed they received sham. Differently, in Study 3, the inclusion of both subjective and objective treatment as main effects explained variability in symptoms of inattention. Overall, these findings suggest the complex interplay of objective and subjective treatment. The variability in the observed results could be explained by factors such as participants’ personality, type and severity of the disorder, prior treatments, knowledge base, experimental procedures, and views of the research team, all of which could be interesting avenues for future studies to explore.” (p. 22)

(R1.3) In addition to updating the conclusions to better reflect this interaction, I suggest authors include the proportion of participants in each subjective treatment group that actually received active or sham treatment to better understand how much of the subjective treatment is explained by objective treatment. I think it is particularly important to better integrate and more precisely communicate this finding, because the conclusions may otherwise be erroneously interpreted as improvements after treatment only being an effect of subjective treatment or sham.

We thank the reviewer for this comment. The information about how many participants are included in each group is provided in the every each codebooks under the section “Count of Participants by Treatment Condition and Their Subjective Guess” which is in the project’s OSF link ( https://osf.io/rztxu/ ). Additionally, we added these tables to the supplementary material in tables S1, S8, S15, and S18, and we referred to these tables throughout the Methods section. Further, we added this information to the manuscript results, as follows:

“Further details on participant groupings based on objective treatment and their subjective treatment can be found in the codebook corresponding to each of the four studies as well as S1.” (p. 8).

“The breakdown of participants to objective treatment and subjective treatment in the sample can be found in S8.” (p. 13).

“The breakdown of participants to objective treatment and subjective treatment in the sample can be found in S15.” (p. 17).

“The breakdown of participants to objective treatment and subjective treatment in the sample can be found in S18.” (p. 19).

(R1.4) The paper will have significant impact on the field. It will promote further investigation of the effects of sham vs active treatment by the introduction of the terms subjective treatment vs objective treatment and subjective dosage that can be used consistently in the future. The suggestions to assess the expectation of sham vs active earlier on in clinical trials will advance the understanding of subjective treatment in future studies. Overall, I believe the data will substantially contribute to the design and interpretation of future clinical trials by underscoring the importance of subjective treatment.

We thank the reviewer for this positive comment.

Review for authors (R1.4) Abstract "Here we show that individual differences in subjective treatment.. can explain variability in outcomes better than the actual treatment". "Our findings consistently show that the inclusion of subjective treatment provides a better model fit than objective treatment alone" - these two statements could be interpreted as two different conclusions, authors should be more consistent.

We thank the reviewer for this comment and have now changed the abstract to be consistent, as also highlighted in R1.1:

“Our findings consistently show that the inclusion of subjective treatment can provides a better model fit when accounted for alone or in an interaction term with objective treatment (defined as the condition to which participants are assigned in the experiment). These results demonstrate the significant contribution of subjective experience in explaining the variability of clinical, cognitive and behavioural outcomes. Based on these findings, We advocate for existing and future studies in clinical and non-clinical research to start accounting for participants’ subjective beliefs and their interplay with objective treatment when assessing the efficacy of treatments. This approach will be crucial in providing a more accurate estimation of the treatment effect and its source, allowing the development of effective and reproducible interventions.” (p. 3)

(R1.5) Introduction This is an odd sentence given it is 2023: "As a result, the global neuromodulation device industry is expected to grow to $13.3 billion in 2022 (Colangelo, 2020)."

We have now removed this sentence as indeed not applicable and instead added a reference for the previous sentence:

“In recent years, neuromodulation has been studied as one of the most promising treatment methods (De Ridder et al., 2021).”

De Ridder, D., Maciaczyk, J., & Vanneste, S. (2021). The future of neuromodulation: Smart neuromodulation. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 18(4), 307–317. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2021.1909470

(R1.6) Figures Lines of Figure 1 are vague. Figure 5 color scheme is confusing. It would be better to use green/blue colors for one, (e.g.) sham in both subjective and objective treatment and orange/red colors for active treatment. For Figure 6 it would be better to use the same color for sham as subjective dosage none. Relatedly, it would be easier to keep color scheme consistent across the paper and for example use green/blue colors for sham throughout.

We thank the reviewer for this comment. Following these comments, all the figures of the paper has remade for better clarity.

Figure 1, the individual lines are now shown stronger, there is also a connecting line between the averages.

Figure 5, sham is now on cold colours (blue and green), and active treatment on warm colours (red and orange)

Figure 6, the same colour for sham as subjective dosage none is now applied.

Further, we also edited Figures 2 and 4 by removing the percentages between 0% and 100% on the y-axis. Given that the outcome variable was binary coded, we implemented this change to avoid confusion.

Reviewer 2 Public Review (R2.1) This manuscript focuses on the clinical impact of subjective experience or treatment with transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation studies with retrospective analyses of 4 datasets. Subjective experience or treatment refers to the patient level thought of receiving active or sham treatments. The analyses suggest that subjective treatment effects are an important and under appreciated factor in randomized controlled trials. The authors present compelling evidence that has significance in the context of other modalities of treatment, treatment for other diseases, and plans for future randomized controlled trials. Other strengths included a rigorous approach and analyses. Some aspects of the manuscript are underdeveloped and the findings are over interpreted. Thank you for your efforts and the opportunity to review your work.

We thank the reviewer for their overall appreciation of this work. We address the comment on the overinterpretation of findings in response to reviewer 1 (see R1.2) above, and we expand on the underdeveloped explanation of sham procedures (see R2.2) below.

Review for authors (R2.2) One concern is that the findings are consistently over interpreted and presented with a polarizing framework. This is a complicated area of study with many variables that are not understood or captured. For example, subjective experience effects likely varies with personality dimensions, disease, prior treatments, knowledge base, view of the research team, and disease severity. Framing subjective experience with a more balanced tone, as an important consideration for future trial design and study execution would enhance the impact of the paper.

We thank the reviewer for this comment. We reframed our interpretation of results in both the manuscript abstract and discussion, as highlighted in response to reviewer 1 (see R1.2) above.

(R2.3) The discussion of sham approaches for transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation is underdeveloped. There are approaches that are not discussed. The tilt method is seldom used for modern studies for example.

We thank the reviewer for this comment, and we now rewrote a paragraph elaborating more on different practices to apply sham procedures in the introduction section:

“Participants that take part in TMS and tES studies consistently report various perceptual sensations, such as audible clicks, visual disturbances, and cutaneous sensations (Davis et al., 2013) Consequently, they can discern when they have received the active treatment, making subjective beliefs and demand characteristics potentially influencing performance (Polanía et al., 2018). To account for such non-specific effects, sham (placebo) protocols have been employed. For transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), the most common form of tES, various sham protocols exist. A review by Fonteneau et al., 2019 shows 84% of 173 studies used similar sham approaches to an early method by Gandiga et al., 2005. This initial protocol had a 10s ramp-up followed by 30s of active stimulation at 1mA before cessation, differently from active stimulation that typically lasts up to 20 minutes.. However, this has been adapted in terms of intensity and duration of current, ramp-in/out phases, and the number of ramps during stimulation. Similarly, in sham TMS, the TMS coil may be tilted or replaced with purpose-built sham coils equipped with magnetic shields, which produce auditory effects but ensure no brain stimulation (Duecker & Sack, 2015). By using surface electrodes, the somatosensory effects of actual TMS are also mimicked. Overall, these types of sham stimulation aim to mimic the perceptual sensations associated with active stimulation without substantially affecting cortical excitability (Fritsch et al., 2010; Nitsche & Paulus, 2000). As a result, sham treatments should allow controlling for participants’ specificbeliefs about the type of stimulation received.” (p.6)

Fonteneau, C., Mondino, M., Arns, M., Baeken, C., Bikson, M., Brunoni, A. R., Burke, M. J., Neuvonen, T., Padberg, F., Pascual-Leone, A., Poulet, E., Ruffini, G., Santarnecchi, E., Sauvaget, A., Schellhorn, K., Suaud-Chagny, M.-F., Palm, U., & Brunelin, J. (2019). Sham tDCS: A hidden source of variability? Reflections for further blinded, controlled trials. Brain Stimulation, 12(3), 668–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2018.12.977

Gandiga, P. C., Hummel, F. C., & Cohen, L. G. (2006). Transcranial DC stimulation (tDCS): A tool for double-blind sham-controlled clinical studies in brain stimulation. Clinical Neurophysiology, 117(4), 845–850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2005.12.003

Download links

Downloads (link to download the article as pdf).

Article PDF

Open citations (links to open the citations from this article in various online reference manager services)

Cite this article (links to download the citations from this article in formats compatible with various reference manager tools), be the first to read new articles from elife.

High contrast
Our mandate
Our history
Annual report
PRESS CENTRE

Search UNICEF

School children at a Temporary Learning Centre, Nepal

For every child, answers

Research and foresight that drive change for children

Latest work

Youth, Protests and the Polycrisis

Exploring how youth protests can help to build public support for change

Early Childhood Education Systems in Pacific Islands

Status report

Cash Plus Model for Safe Transitions to Healthy Adulthood

Examining the impacts of “Ujana Salama” (‘Safe Youth’ in Swahili), a cash plus programme targeting adolescents in the United Republic of Tanzania

The Impact of Valor Criança

Social cash transfer pilot programme in Angola

A woman, who is holding a baby, holds up a card

The Impact of the Cash Transfer Intervention

In the commune of Nsélé in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo

Mitigating the socioeconomic impacts of COVID-19

With a cash transfer in peri-urban Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo

Girl in Madagascar in front of their classroom ravaged by a cyclone

Prospects for Children: A Global Outlook 2024

Cooperation in a Fragmented World: Discover the eight trends that will define the year ahead for children and young people.

Children standing at a classroom blackboard

Data Must Speak: Chad

Reports and project briefs

Areas of work

Adolescent participation and civic engagement

Child protection

Climate crisis and the environment

Digital technology

Education and human capital

Health and well-being

Inclusion and equity

Poverty and social protection

Social and behaviour change

The State of the World’s Children

UNICEF’s flagship report – the most comprehensive analysis of global trends affecting children

Changing Childhood Project

What is childhood like today?

Prospects for Children: Global Outlook

An annual analysis of trends shaping the world and their impact on children

Report Card

Understanding child well-being everywhere

Our approach

UNICEF Innocenti works for and with children and young people to seek solutions to their most pressing challenges. As we focus on the rights and lives of children and young people, we always ask: Who else can we include? Will this work cause unintended harm? Are there events that could surprise us? Does this work drive change?

Events and insights

Boys in Madagascar fishing in the waters of a waste water channel

Six ways to make Loss and Damage finance work for children

Climate change is hurting kids. Here is how we can address the harm

Youth Foresight Fellows with UNICEF Innocenti Director Bo Viktor Nylund

The Antidote to Ageism

Understanding the importance of intergenerational collaboration

Celebrating women in education

A closer look at female teachers and school leaders

Children playing a game outdoors, Afghanistan

As they move

Child and youth experiences of migration, displacement and return in Afghanistan

A group of adolescent girls wearing brightly coloured saris in India playing in a field of yellow flowers

Launch of UNICEF's Youth Foresight Playbook

28 November 2023, Dubai Future Forum

Children riding a swing in the playground of a kindergarten

Expert consultation on age-related public expenditure

12-13 April 2023

The Third Annual KIX Symposium

12-13 October 2022

UNICEF at the International SBCC Summit 2022

5-9 December 2022

Become an Innocenti Insider

Receive the latest research and event invites in your inbox once a month

Alzheimer's disease & dementia
Arthritis & Rheumatism
Attention deficit disorders
Autism spectrum disorders
Biomedical technology
Diseases, Conditions, Syndromes
Endocrinology & Metabolism
Gastroenterology
Gerontology & Geriatrics
Health informatics
Inflammatory disorders
Medical economics
Medical research
Medications
Neuroscience
Obstetrics & gynaecology
Oncology & Cancer
Ophthalmology
Overweight & Obesity
Parkinson's & Movement disorders
Psychology & Psychiatry
Radiology & Imaging
Sleep disorders
Sports medicine & Kinesiology
Vaccination
Breast cancer
Cardiovascular disease
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Colon cancer
Coronary artery disease
Heart attack
Heart disease
High blood pressure
Kidney disease
Lung cancer
Multiple sclerosis
Myocardial infarction
Ovarian cancer
Post traumatic stress disorder
Rheumatoid arthritis
Schizophrenia
Skin cancer
Type 2 diabetes
Full List »

share this!

March 25, 2024

This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:

fact-checked

Epigenetics is of critical importance in autoimmune-related skin diseases, says study

by Higher Education Press

The central dogma proposed that genetic information predominantly transfers from DNA to RNA during gene expression to make a functional product protein. This absolute theory has been debunked because of the influence of the environment on how genes are transcribed.

According to the human genome sequencing and analysis, an extremely complex regulatory mechanism is required to regulate gene expression inside the human body, resulting in the activation or inhibition of pathways or molecules that may contribute to health or illness. Epigenetic processes partly account for this regulation.

Epigenetics is the structural modification of chromosomal areas to record, signal, or maintain changed activity levels. Since the word "epi" means "above," epigenetics literally means "above genetics." Over the past decades, the study of epigenetics has blossomed, exposing an astonishing level of complexity in the way genetic information is stored and retrieved in eukaryotes.

Autoimmunity is a pathological disease in which immune cells cannot recognize self-antigens; thus, they attack self-tissues and organs, causing inflammation and organ damage, including the skin. As the body's largest organ, the skin can be affected by overactivated immune cells and autoantibody production. The pathogenetic mechanisms related to autoimmunity in skin diseases remain poorly understood.

However, these diseases are widely believed to result from the interaction of genetic susceptibility and environmental stimuli. Although several associated risk loci have been found via genome-wide association analysis, genetic factors cannot fully explain the high prevalence of discordance in the occurrence of autoimmune diseases in homozygous twins. A growing body of research has demonstrated that epigenetic modifications have a critical role in the onset and development of autoimmune-related skin diseases.

Multiple forms of epigenetic modifications modulate gene expression. The three major features are DNA methylation, histone modifications, and noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs). These epigenetic modifications may substantially affect cell function, defining the phenotype of each cell. Therefore, this review summarizes the most important and current findings of epigenetic contributions to autoimmune diseases in dermatology, including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), bullous skin diseases, psoriasis, and systemic sclerosis (SSc).

Given the development of potent new techniques, studies on epigenetics published over the last few decades have identified multiple epigenetic aberrations in various autoimmune-related skin diseases . These epigenetic alterations have a remarkable impact on the four principal autoimmune-related skin disorders covered in this study, demonstrating a close relationship between epigenetic dysregulation and the pathogenesis of autoimmune-related skin disorders.

Specific epigenetic dysregulations in autoimmune diseases may serve as possible disease biomarkers. One of the research team's earlier studies demonstrated that the IFI44L promoter methylation level is a very sensitive and specific diagnostic biomarker for SLE. This research finding was successfully translated into clinical application . Instead of pyrosequencing IFI44L DNA methylation levels, the group has established a high-resolution melting technique that can be quickly accomplished using quantitative polymerase chain reaction.

Although various epigenetic regulations present insight into the possible biomarkers for diseases, the goal of using epigenetics to develop a stable diagnostic marker remains alluring. Despite clinical biomarkers, the development of precise epigenetic medicines as treatments for autoimmune skin disorders remains constrained. Striving to transform these epigenetic alterations into therapeutic therapies is worthwhile, notwithstanding the challenges in reaching the goal.

The research is published in the journal Frontiers of Medicine .

Explore further

Feedback to editors

Siris tree leaves hold promise for stopping spread of breast cancer cells, say researchers

20 minutes ago

Smartphone app may pave way to treatments for frontotemporal dementia in under-60s

New gene discovery leads advance against a form of heart failure prevalent in men

International study uses AI to show how personality influences the expression of our genes

2 hours ago

Using cryo-shocked tumor cells to fight lung cancer

New insights into adult-onset type 1 diabetes

3 hours ago

Combining multiple meds into a single pill reduces cardiovascular deaths, study confirms

Study documents safety, improvements from stem cell therapy after spinal cord injury

7 hours ago

Researchers produce grafts that replicate the human ear

Mar 30, 2024

An infamous 'inflammasome'—a rogue protein complex—appears to underlie a rare and disabling autoimmune disorder

Mar 29, 2024

Decoding the language of epigenetic modifications

Mar 6, 2024

Immune diseases inflict identical twins differently

Dec 13, 2017

Review: PROTACs targeting epigenetic proteins

Dec 6, 2023

Epigenetic drift underlies epigenetic clock signals, but responds uniquely to various factors

Feb 6, 2024

The protein that stands between us and autoimmunity

Jul 2, 2020

Research provides further evidence that epigenetic changes can cause type 2 diabetes

Dec 13, 2023

Recommended for you

Veterans help provide greater insight into Klinefelter and Jacobs syndromes

Genetic causes of cerebral palsy uncovered through whole-genome sequencing

Researchers develop AI-based tool paving the way for personalized cancer treatments

Let us know if there is a problem with our content.

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Medical Xpress in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

Perceptions towards pronatalist policies in Singapore

Original Research
Open access
Published: 11 May 2023
Volume 40 , article number 14 , ( 2023 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

Jolene Tan ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4968-3482 1

7223 Accesses

4 Citations

8 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

Fertility rates have been declining in most high-income countries. Singapore is at the forefront of developing pronatalist policies to increase birth rates. This study examines perceptions towards pronatalist policies among men and women in Singapore and compares which policies are perceived as the most important contributors to the conduciveness for childbearing. Using data from the Singapore Perceptions of the Marriage and Parenthood Package study ( N = 2000), the results from dominance analysis highlight two important findings. First, paternity leave, shared parental leave, and the Baby Bonus are the top three contributors to the conduciveness to have children. Second, the combined positive effect of financial incentives and work–life policies is perceived to be favorable to fertility. The findings suggest that low-fertility countries may wish to consider adopting this basket of policies as they are like to be regarded as supportive of childbearing. Although previous research suggests that pronatalist policies may only have a modest effect on fertility, the findings raise further questions as to whether fertility may decline even further in the absence of these policies.

Singapore’s Pro-natalist Policies: To What Extent Have They Worked?

Exploring how unemployment and grandparental support influence reproductive decisions in sub-Saharan African countries: Nigeria in focus

Benedict Ogbemudia Imhanrenialena, Wilson Ebhotemhen, … Andrew Asan Ate

Relationship between Chinese Women’s Childhood Family Background and their Fertility Intentions under Different Policy Conditions

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Increasing birth rates in low-fertility countries is important for maintaining sustainable populations. This has become an important policy agenda in many countries with an aging society and workforce. In Singapore, the rapid demographic transition that occurred from the 1960–2000s has led to a precipitous decline in fertility, resulting in a shift from a relatively youthful population to an aging population that is increasingly dependent on immigration for population growth (Yap & Gee, 2015 ). Singapore’s total fertility rates have declined substantially from 5.76 to 1.12 children per woman between 1960 and 2021 (Singapore Department of Statistics, 2022a ). The country’s low fertility imposes significant strains on the government and economy due to the negative consequences associated with a shrinking labor force and an aging population (Jones, 2012 ). To address these demographic and economic challenges, policies to increase fertility have become a priority for Singapore and many other low-fertility nations.

Since the 1980s, the Singaporean government has introduced a range of pronatalist policies to reduce the financial costs of parenthood and facilitate a more conducive work–family balance. However, these policies appear to have only modest effects on Singapore’s fertility rates (Saw, 2016 ). Recent studies point to a potential mistargeting of pronatalist policies as a reason for the lack of policy effectiveness in several advanced Asian societies, including Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea (Chen et al., 2018 , 2020 ). The studies found that policies prioritizing higher order births in Singapore may not provide adequate support to women aged 30–34 to facilitate their transition to parenthood. Thus, it is suggested that the policy focus should shift towards supporting this group of women instead.

Despite the call for policy improvements, systematic research into the needs of potential policy beneficiaries has been very limited (Sun, 2012 ). Most studies on pronatalist policies tend to focus on analyses aimed at quantifying outcomes or attributing fertility change to existing policy (e.g., Drago et al., 2011 ; Son, 2018 ). The needs of childbearing couples may be overlooked due to a lack of research and data regarding what they think about the range of pronatalist policy measures and how conducive these policies are to their fertility choices. Consequently, little is known about whether pronatalist policies actually fit the needs of target populations and their circumstances.

The present study attempts to fill this gap by using a unique data set to examine the perceptions of married men and women towards a range of policy measures intended to raise fertility rates. Drawing on data from the Perception of Policies in Singapore (POPS) Survey 7: Perceptions of the Marriage and Parenthood Package, the study investigates the relative importance of pronatalist policies among married people and within different sociodemographic subgroups (i.e., by age, sex, and child parity). It examines two research questions. First, to what extent do pronatalist policies in Singapore contribute to a conducive environment in which married, heterosexual couples will choose to have children? Conduciveness refers to the extent to which the policies support and facilitate the likelihood of childbearing among couples. Second, how do public perceptions towards different policies differ by individual sociodemographic characteristics?

While this study is unable to directly address the cause and effect of pronatalist policies on fertility, it serves as a first step in investigating how the married population views the importance of these policies, which may support further policy discussions about whether to replicate, scale up or revise pronatalist policies, and how to target different population subgroups more effectively. The policies under investigation—including baby bonus payments; tax incentives; paternal, maternal, and shared parental leave; and childcare support—have been widely adopted by governments around the world (United Nations Population Division, 2017 ). Using Singapore as a case study, the study provides useful insights into the relevance and importance of policy in addressing the potential needs of married men and women in the reproductive age.

Pronatal family policies: a review

Financial incentives and work–family initiatives.

The rational choice approach to pronatalist policy design posits that policies that lower the costs of having children and provide childcare support to parents are likely to positively impact fertility (Coleman, 1990 ; Schultz, 1990 ). Financial incentives provided to parents through cash payments, tax relief, and subsidies can alleviate the direct costs Footnote 1 of having and raising a child. On the other hand, the gender relations perspective posits that work–family policies, such as parental leave and childcare subsidies, may alleviate the indirect costs Footnote 2 of having children and offset the additional time spent on childbearing and child-raising (McDonald, 2006 ).

However, empirical evidence on the impact of financial incentives on fertility has been mixed (Gauthier, 2007 ). Some studies have found positive associations between financial incentives and fertility (Drago et al., 2011 ; Milligan, 2005 ), whereas other studies have found no association between the two (Deutscher & Breunig, 2018 ; Jones, 2019 ). A recent systematic review of quasi-experimental evaluations of fertility policies (Bergsvik et al., 2020 ) showed that universal transfers, childcare, and a reduction in the costs of health services may have a positive impact on fertility, but the effects varied by age, child parity and country context. Notwithstanding the variability in results, one of the most consistent findings is that the overall effect of financial incentives on fertility tends to be modest and temporary, as financial incentives only cover a small fraction of the total cost of raising a child (Thevenon & Gauthier, 2011 ).

Work–family initiatives that support parents in combining work and family responsibilities have been shown to reduce the opportunity cost of children and increase fertility in more gender-egalitarian societies (Duvander et al., 2020 ; Rindfuss et al., 2010 ; Tan, 2022a , b ; Thevenon, 2011 ). However, in low-fertility Asian societies that are heavily influenced by Confucianism, working mothers still tend to shoulder a disproportionately larger share of childcare and domestic tasks (Singapore Ministry of Social & Family Development, 2017 ). In a comparison of parental leave and childcare support policies in Sweden and South Korea, Lee et al. ( 2016 ) found that the policies were less effective in South Korea due to women’s significantly higher contribution to household labor relative to that of men. Considering that Singapore is ranked 54th out of 156 countries on the Global Gender Gap Index 2021, lying approximately halfway between Sweden in fifth place and South Korea in 102nd place, work–family initiatives may provide opportunities for men to get involved in the family, and assist in creating a more conducive environment for couples to have children in Singapore (World Economic Forum, 2021 ).

Pronatal policy targeting

To understand why existing policies may have been less successful than anticipated in increasing fertility rates, recent studies have identified the potential mistargeting of policies as a possible reason for the limited impact of policy on fertility (Chen et al., 2018 , 2020 ; Gauthier, 2016 ). In Japan, South Korea and Taiwan, Gauthier ( 2016 ) found a misalignment between the supply and demand of pronatalist policies. In particular, the high costs of children are perceived to be a major barrier to childbearing in the three East Asian societies, but governmental financial support remains inadequate in meeting the needs of families, especially in light of rising private education costs. In addition to financial costs, there is also a perceived incompatibility between work and family responsibilities that may not have been adequately addressed by policy. As women are often expected to take on a second shift after work and perform the role of a homemaker and caregiver, work–family conflicts hinder progression to higher parities as time and resource demands increase with each additional child (Chen & Yip, 2017 ; Torr & Short, 2004 ).

Some studies have emphasized the need for increased efforts to implement better targeted pronatalist policies. Chen and Yip ( 2017 ) stressed that the perceived challenges of parenthood tend to differ according to child parity. This is because the needs and considerations of parents become more complex as parity increases (Frejka et al., 2010 ). Policies are likely to be more conducive for couples making their first transition to parenthood, as the desire for the first child is generally considered intrinsically motivated; hence, policies tend to be viewed as facilitative or supportive of intended childbearing (Botev, 2015 ). Conversely, policies aimed at incentivizing higher order births could reduce the motivation to have additional children, as they may be perceived as insufficient, coercive, or restrictive of individual autonomy (Frey, 2012 ). Given that the motivation and needs of high-parity parents are unlikely to be met by extrinsic incentives, policies may be less conducive for those with high parity than those with low parity (Botev, 2015 ).

There is also a general age pattern of fertility that aligns with the fecundity (i.e., reproductive capacity) of each couple. Given that fecundability declines as people get older, responses to policy intervention may also wane with time. Previous research suggests that people are more likely to adjust their fertility intentions downwards as they age and, thus, pronatalist policies may be less conducive for older individuals compared to their younger counterparts (Chen & Yip, 2017 ; Liefbroer, 2009 ). There could also be gender differences in parenting responsibilities and expectations because men and women negotiate the demands of parenthood differently (Barnes, 2015 ). Given that women tend to bear the burden of childbearing and child-raising, there are two ways in which policies may be perceived. Policies may be perceived as conducive if women feel that the policies can improve gender equity in the division of housework and childcare (McDonald, 2013 ). However, if women feel that the unequal division of domestic labor is likely to persist, then the usefulness of policy may be weakened.

The Singaporean context

A contextual understanding of Singapore’s fertility trends and policy framework is important for highlighting ongoing demographic and policy shifts. Singapore’s total fertility rate of 1.12 children per woman in 2021 is one of the lowest in the world. Significant delays in childbearing can be observed by the shifting age-pattern of fertility in Fig. 1 . The figure shows that increases in fertility at ages 30 and older did not make up for fertility declines in younger age groups, resulting in an overall decrease in fertility rates across cohorts.

Source : Singapore Department of Statistics ( 2022a )

Cohort-age specific fertility rates, 1940–1994.

Figure 2 shows the declining cumulative cohort fertility rates for each successive cohort after the 1940–1944 cohort. The persistent decline in cohort fertility may lead to an older population age structure and create a momentum for future population decline (Lutz et al., 2006 ). It is thus a demographic imperative for Singapore to increase its fertility rates to ensure a sustainable population.

Cumulative cohort fertility rates in 2020.

Singapore is known for its comprehensive and long-standing policies to encourage childbearing. Since 1987, the government has started promoting family formation, and by 1995 had more pronatalist policies in place than any other country. A comprehensive Marriage and Parenthood Package was introduced by the government in 2001 as part of the ongoing effort to address Singapore’s falling birth rates (National Population and Talent Division, 2012). A range of policy measures were implemented to “create a total environment conducive to raising a family” (National Archives of Singapore, 2000 , para. 118).

Based on Heitlinger ( 1991 ) and McDonald’s ( 2002 ) policy classification framework, Singapore’s pronatalist policies can be grouped into two broad categories: financial incentives and work–family initiatives. Financial incentives include cash payments, tax relief, and housing subsidies. The Baby Bonus cash payments was introduced in 2001 to help families defray the costs of raising a child and offer financial support following the birth of a child. When it was first implemented, eligible couples received cash gifts for having a second (S$500 Footnote 3 ) or third child (S$1000). The amount has since increased to S$8000 for a first or second child and S$10,000 for a third or subsequent child (Made for Families, 2022a ). The Working Mother’s Child Relief provides a tax deduction on a proportion of women’s earned income to encourage working mothers to have children and stay in the workforce. Working mothers may claim 15% of their earned income for their first child, 20% for their second child, and 25% for their third child and any subsequent children, with a maximum cap at 100% of their earned income (Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore, 2022 ). Housing schemes and grants were introduced to help couples purchase and finance their first home. Priority is given to married couples with or expecting a child and families with more than two children (Housing & Development Board, 2022 ). Eligible first-time home buyers who are married may qualify for a housing grant of up to S$80,000 to help with their flat purchase (Housing & Development Board, 2022 ). The government also assists with the costs of conception for Assisted Conception Procedures (ACPs), subsidizes pregnancy-related healthcare expenses, and provides a Medisave account (Singapore’s national medical savings account) for newborns that can be used for a range of healthcare expenses. Couples undergoing ACPs in public assisted reproduction centers can receive up to 75% in co-funding from the government (Singapore Ministry of Health, 2022 ). The maternity package allows parents to use their Medisave for medical care pre-delivery (e.g., pre-natal consultations, ultrasound scans, tests, medications) and during delivery (e.g., delivery procedure, hospital admission) (Made for Families, 2022b ). A grant is also provided to set up a Medisave account to pay for newborn’s healthcare expenses. The grant amount was S$3000 in 2013–2014 and was subsequently increased to S$4000 for children born on or after 1 January 2015 (Singapore Ministry of Health, 2022 ).

Work–family initiatives include maternity leave, paternity leave, child-related leave, and childcare subsidies. Introduced in 2004, the government-paid maternity leave provides working mothers with 16 weeks of paid maternity leave to support their recovery from childbirth and encourage bonding with their newborns. Government-paid paternity leave was later introduced in 2013, entitling working fathers to 1 week of paid paternity leave and allowing them to share up to one week of their wife’s 16 weeks of maternity leave, subject to her agreement (Singapore Ministry of Social & Family Development, 2013 ). Since 2017, the paternity leave was extended to two weeks for eligible working fathers, including those who are self-employed. In addition, eligible fathers can take up to four weeks of shared parental leave (Singapore Ministry of Manpower, 2020 ). To further support parents with combining work and childcare responsibilities, parents of children enrolled at licensed childcare centers are given subsidies of up to S$600 per month for infant care and up to S$300 per month for daycare. Working parents are also allowed to take up to six days of childcare leave per year if their child is below the age of seven, and up to six days of unpaid infant care leave per year if their child is under the age of two.

Existing policy discussions suggest that the policies have not had a positive impact on fertility. Jones ( 2019 ) argues that financial incentives are ineffective as they only cover less than a third of the total costs of raising a child in Singapore. McDonald and Evans ( 2002 ) posit that cash incentives and subsidies are much less effective than initiatives geared towards mitigating the opportunity cost of having children. However, other than policy discussions (Jones, 2012 , 2019 ), content analysis (Wong & Yeoh, 2003 ), aggregate research (Chen et al., 2018 ; Jones & Hamid, 2015 ), and qualitative studies (Teo, 2010 ; Williams, 2014 ), there is limited empirical evidence on the extent to which Singapore’s pronatalist policy measures contribute to a conducive environment in which couples will choose to have children. Even within the broader literature, little attention has been paid to understanding how intended beneficiaries perceive the utility of policy. Therefore, this study aims to understand the policy perceptions among couples and different sociodemographic subgroups to provide insights into the extent to which pronatalist policies are able to meet the needs of individuals for childbearing in a low-fertility context.

Data and methods

This study used data from the POPS Survey 7: Perceptions of the Marriage and Parenthood Package. Permission for the use of the data was obtained from the Singapore Institute of Policy Studies. The POPS Survey 7 is a nationally representative survey of 2000 married Singaporean citizens and permanent residents aged 21–49. The survey was undertaken to examine the attitudes of married, childbearing-age participants towards policies that support family formation. Single parents and individuals who are divorced, separated, or widowed were excluded from the survey. The data were collected between July and September 2014 via a door-to-door interview method. Participants were selected through a multistage cluster sampling method using a sampling frame obtained from the Singapore Department of Statistics. In line with the 2010 Census, quotas based on sex, ethnicity, and housing type were used to ensure a nationally representative sample. Households were first grouped into reticulate units with 200 households of the same housing type in each unit, then a random sample of 100 units was obtained. Twenty households were selected from the 100 units, and an eligible person from each household was interviewed. In cases where the selected household did not have an eligible participant or when a potential participant refused to participate, an eligible person from a matching dwelling was invited to complete the survey. The respondent profiles are generally representative of Singapore’s married resident population aged 21–49. A comparison of sociodemographic characteristics between the sample and the population can be found in Table 5 of the Appendix. The final sample included all 2000 Singaporean residents.

Dependent variable

The dependent variable is the overall conduciveness of policies for childbearing (“On the whole, has the most recent Marriage and Parenthood Package made it conducive for you and your spouse to have children?”), which was recorded as a binary variable (0 = no , 1 = yes ).

Independent variables

Twelve policy measures were examined, covering both financial incentives and work–family initiatives. The policies include the Baby Bonus, housing schemes and grants, working mother’s child relief, the maternity package, the healthcare grant for newborns, co-funding for ACPs, maternity leave, paternity leave, shared parental leave, extended childcare leave, unpaid infant care leave, and subsidies for center-based infant and childcare (see Table 6 in the Appendix for the list of policies). Participants were asked whether each policy would influence them to have (more) children (0 = no , 1 = yes ).

Control variables

Six key sociodemographic variables, including age, sex, ethnicity, educational attainment, number of children born, and employment status, were included in the analyses. Age was coded into three categories: below 30, 30–39, and above 39. Gender was coded as a binary variable (0 = man , 1 = woman ). Ethnicity included four categories: Chinese (reference group), Malay, Indian, and other ethnicities. Educational attainment was categorized into secondary school education or lower (reference group), diploma and other professional qualifications, and university degree or higher. Number of children was grouped into no children (reference group), one child, two children, and three or more children. Employment status was coded as a binary variable (0 = unemployed , 1 = employed ).

Analytic strategy

Dominance analysis was used to evaluate the relative importance of pronatalist policies in contributing to the overall conduciveness for childbearing at the population level and in stratified subgroups (i.e., by age, sex, and child parity). The analyses are based on a logistic regression model with overall conduciveness as the outcome and the 12 policy measures as predictors, adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics. Dominance analysis is a method of comparing the relative importance and ranking of predictors (i.e., dominance profiles) based on how much each predictor contributes to the total variance of the outcome in a model (Azen & Budescu, 2003 ). Dominance analysis considers both the unique contribution of a predictor and its contribution when combined with other predictors. It is an ensemble approach that estimates all possible regression models and subset models to compare the change in model fit ( R 2 ), quantifying the influence of a predictor when added to all possible subset models with a given set of predictors (Azen & Traxel, 2009 ). Specifically. the dominance analyses in this study consisted of 4095 (2 12 –1) regression models containing all possible combinations of predictors. Dominance analysis has been a popular method used by many researchers and practitioners in recent years to assess the relative contribution of a large set of predictors to a specific outcome (e.g., Gromping, 2007 ; Johnson & Lebreton, 2004 ; Mange et al., 2021 ; Peacock, 2021 ; Vize et al., 2019 ). Stata/SE v15.1 was used to prepare the data and conduct the analyses. Dominance analysis was performed using the community-contributed command domin (Luchman, 2021 ).

Descriptive results

Overall, 40% of respondents reported that the policies were conducive. The majority of those who were aged under 30 (61.93%) were more likely to report that the policies were conducive for them compared to those aged between 30 and 39 (49.35%), and those aged above 39 (27.90%) (see Table 1 ). Men were more likely than women to view the policies as conducive. Approximately half of the proportion of ethnic Indians (50.59%) reported that the policy measures were conducive for them, compared to the ethnic Chinese (36.8%), ethnic Malay (45.11%), and respondents of other ethnicities (47.06%). Respondents who had no children (59.25%) were more likely to report that the policies were conducive for them compared to those with one child (47.44%), two children (32.62%), and three or more children (32.36%). Among parents, those who reported that the policy measures were conducive to parenthood had younger children than those who reported otherwise. On average, the youngest child in the family was eight years old for those who reported that the policies were conducive and 11 years old for those who reported that the policies were less conducive. There was no discernible difference in overall conduciveness across education groups and employment statuses, although there are some variations by occupation and monthly household income. Compared to other occupations, professionals (37.96%), technicians and associate professionals (16.62%), and service and sales workers (17.53%) made up a higher proportion of respondents who reported that the policies were conducive. Those with higher monthly household income (> S$6000) were less likely to view the policies as conducive than those in lower household income categories. In addition, about 41% of respondents in a dual-earner relationship reported that the policies were conducive to childbearing.

Main findings

There were three significant policy measures contributing to the conduciveness for childbearing (see Fig. 3 ). Financial incentives and work–family initiatives along with sociodemographic characteristics explained 24% of the variance in the overall conduciveness of policies (see Table 7 in the Appendix for details on the logistic models). The three policy measures explaining most of the variance in the overall conduciveness were paternity leave (2.43%), shared parental leave (2.18%), and Baby Bonus (1.59%) (Fig. 3 ).

Adjusted dominance statistics for all respondents ( N = 2000). Adjusted for age, sex, ethnicity, number of children, educational attainment, and employment status. Rank of policy measures based on average increase in total variance explained by the model ( R 2 ) when adding a variable to all possible subset models. * p < .05, ** p < .01

Stratified analyses

Pronatalist policies were more likely to influence the conduciveness for younger Singaporeans to have children compared to their older counterparts (see Table 2 ). In the analyses stratified by age group, the predictors explained 35.04%, 21.96%, and 20.65% of the variance in overall policy conduciveness for those under 30, between 30 and 39, and above 39 respectively. For the younger age group (< 30 years), the most important policy measures were shared parental leave (6.21%), paternity leave (5.25%), and working mother’s child relief (3.26%). For the middle age group (30–39 years), the most relevant policy measures were the healthcare grant for newborns (2%), Baby Bonus (1.94%), and paternity leave (1.91%). For the older age group (> 39 years), the most important policy measures were paternity leave (2.99%), shared parental leave (2.95%), and extended childcare leave (1.75%).

Men were more likely than women to have a positive perception of the policies (see Table 3 ). The predictors explained 28.37% and 21.42% of the variance in overall conduciveness to have children for men and women respectively. For men, the most important policy measures were paternity leave (3.82%), shared parental leave (3.04%), and extended childcare leave (2%). In contrast, Baby Bonus (1.75%), healthcare grant for newborns (1.71%), and paternity leave (1.55%) were the most important policy measures for women.

Individuals with one or no children were more likely to report that the policy measures were conducive for them compared to individuals with two or more children (see Table 4 ). The predictors explained 28.35% of the variance in overall conduciveness for those with no children, 27.21% for those with one child, 19.72% for those with two children, and 23.36% for those with three or more children. For those with no children, the most important policy measures were paternity leave (3.8%), shared parental leave (2.97%) and the maternity package (2.93%). For those with one child, the most important policy measures were shared parental leave (2.34%), Baby Bonus (2.31%), and infant and childcare subsidies (2.22%). For those with two children, the most important policy measures were paternity leave (2.22%), the healthcare grant for newborns (1.9%), and shared parental leave (1.83%). Lastly, for those with three or more children, the most important policy measures were paternity leave (2.76%), shared parental leave (2.35%), and the healthcare grant for newborns (1.9%).

Sensitivity analysis

Robustness checks were performed for the logistic regression models and ordering of relative importance among policy measures. The bootstrap resampling technique was used to assess the stability of the models and dominance results. The models were fitted repeatedly to 500 additional bootstrap datasets to calculate more accurate standard errors and assess the extent to which the dominance pattern is reproduced in the 500 bootstrap samples (i.e., internal replicability; Thompson, 1994 ). The standard errors and confidence intervals obtained for the bootstrap samples were comparable to the estimates of the final model and the dominance results were obtained in all bootstrap samples. In addition, it may be possible that the effect of sex on the conduciveness of policies could be moderated by age, where the conduciveness of policies may differ for older women reaching the end of their fecundity compared to men of similar ages. The effect of child parity on the conduciveness of policies may be moderated by age, as individuals with more children are likely to be older compared to those with fewer children. It is also plausible that the effect of education on the conduciveness of policies may differ for individuals born in different cohorts. Therefore, a series of two-way interactions were tested to assess the effect of sex by age, parity by age, and education level by age. The interaction terms between sex and age; parity and age; and education and age were not significant and were not included in the final model. Further alternative specifications were made by including other sociodemographic characteristics, such as religion, occupation, residential type, and monthly income. The alternative models yielded similar results and the inclusion of these variables did not improve the model fit; hence, they were not included in the final model.

Discussion and conclusion

This study investigated how married men and women perceived the extent to which a range of pronatalist policies in Singapore are conducive for childbearing. To better understand the needs and demands of married individuals at different life stages, the study also assessed whether the perception of policy conduciveness varied by age, sex, and child parity. To address the first research question, the main analysis showed that the top three policies that were viewed as most conducive to childbearing were paternity leave (2.43%), shared parental leave (2.18%), and the Baby Bonus (1.59%). This finding is in line with the rational choice theory (Coleman, 1990 ) and gender relations perspective (McDonald, 2006 ).

Consistent with the rational choice theory, pronatalist policies aimed at reducing the direct and indirect costs of children contribute positively to facilitate childbearing. While the desire to have children is often intrinsically motivated, financial incentives help to alleviate the costs of children and provide monetary support such that the net psychological benefits of having a child still outweigh its costs. On the other hand, leave provisions can enhance gender equity at home and reduce barriers to parenthood, which accords with the gender relations perspective. Paternity leave and shared parental leave are forms of work and family support that support men to be more engaged fathers and encourage them to contribute to caregiving and family responsibilities. Based on gender equity theories of fertility, men’s increased involvement in the family would reduce the burden on women and increase childbearing (Goldscheider et al., 2015 ; McDonald, 2006 ). Taken together, this study provides suggestive evidence that work–family policies, coupled with financial incentives such as the Baby Bonus, may help to address challenges faced by couples.

Although work–family initiatives (i.e., paternity leave and shared parental leave) ranked higher than the Baby Bonus incentive, they were all positively associated with the conduciveness for childbearing ( p < 0.05). In fact, the combination of financial incentives and work–family initiatives (16.71%) explained the overall conduciveness to have children more than by individual characteristics (7.29%). These findings align with Jones’s ( 2019 ) suggestion that while Singapore’s pronatalist policies may not have been particularly successful in raising the country’s birth rates, it might be that fertility would have declined even further in the absence of these policies.

Speaking to previous findings by Gauthier ( 2016 ), which indicate that economic cost was the main concern for childbearing in Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea, the results of this study showed that work–family initiatives were perceived as more important than financial incentives in Singapore. This may be due to the different economic costs involved in children’s education for parents in the three East Asian societies compared to Singapore. In particular, parents in South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan tend to invest large amounts of money in private education and tutoring to help their children succeed in the education system and gain access to expensive, prestigious schools (Anderson & Kohler, 2013 ). Although parental expectations of children’s educational attainment were not examined in this study, qualitative evidence suggests that similar intensive parenting norms are present in Singapore (Göransson, 2022 ). However, prestigious schools in Singapore are mainly public schools subsidized by the government and the monthly average spending on private tutoring in Singapore is approximately USD$83 per child compared to USD$359 in Korea, USD$275 in Japan, and USD$253 in Taiwan (Gietel-Basten, 2019 ; Korean National Statistics Office, 2021; Singapore Department of Statistics, 2019 ; Tan, 2017 ). Accordingly, the economic burden of private education and tutoring may be less pronounced for parents in Singapore than in South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. In addition, the lower priority given to housing grants as an incentive for childbearing may be due to the higher rate of homeownership among the married population, which reduces the need for such incentives. Nevertheless, housing grants may still be an important policy measure to encourage marriage and subsequent parenthood—particularly among the younger population.

Work–family balance may be particularly important in Singapore, as organizational culture and prevalent work structures continue to encourage the practice of long working hours and continuous full-time service, penalizing alternative career pacing or trajectories. In Singapore, about 67.7% of married women and 94.3% of married men with children participate in the labor market, working an average of 48 h per week with limited flexibility in work arrangements (Singapore Ministry of Social & Family Development, 2017 ). Recent evidence has shown that work-related stress and fatigue have led to the underachievement of ideal sexual frequency and family size among married Singaporean couples (Tan, 2021 ). Thus, the role of work–family initiatives may be perceived positively, as they could potentially alleviate the stress and exhaustion experienced by married couples and facilitate their childbearing ideals. While the results suggest that work–family initiatives such as paternity leave could have a relatively higher impact than financial incentives, it is important to note that the policies were implemented at different times and may have varying degrees of signaling effect. For example, the Baby Bonus (initiated in 2001) and housing schemes (initiated in 1994) are some of the earliest policies introduced, whereas government-paid paternity leave and shared parental leave were introduced more recently, in 2013. Respondents may thus have had greater awareness of the paternity leave than other support schemes during the period when the survey was administered. Notwithstanding the recency effect, official figures indicate that the take-up rate of paternity leave has more than doubled from 25% in 2013 to 55% in 2019 (Singapore Ministry of Social & Family Development, 2022 ). The Singaporean government is optimistic that greater workplace support and shifts towards a culture of father involvement in child-rearing will result in increased paternity leave uptake (Singapore Ministry of Social & Family Development, 2022 ). Evidence in Singapore also shows that paternity leave—especially taking leave for two weeks or longer—is associated with higher marital satisfaction, increased father involvement in raising children, and stronger father–child relationships (Yeung & Li, 2022 ). Thus, initiatives aimed at enhancing work–family balance may not only benefit family dynamics, but also children’s social and emotional outcomes (Yeung & Li, 2022 ).

Turning to the second research question on whether the influence of policy varied by sociodemographic characteristics, the findings from stratified analyses showed slightly varying dominance profiles where the policies were more conducive for younger individuals than older individuals, for men than women, and for individuals with one or no children than individuals with two or more children. These findings are consistent with previous research (Chen et al., 2020 ), which highlights the importance of recognizing the varying needs of different subgroups to tailor policies that respond to their needs and are relevant to their circumstances.

The findings suggest that the support needed for childbearing varies at different ages and life stages. The mean years of schooling have more than doubled over the past half century, increasing from about 5.6 years to 12.1 years for men, and about 3.7 years to 11.3 years for women between 1980 and 2022 (Singapore Department of Statistics, 2022b ). The longer time frame for school completion may result in delays in subsequent adulthood transitions, including the entrance into the workforce, departure from the parental home, marriage, and parenthood (Furstenberg, 2010 ). This suggests that individuals wanting to get married and have children at younger ages (before age 30) may require additional time and financial support to manage the potential trade-off between work and childcare. For individuals aged 30–39, the transition to parenthood may be starting to become the norm and other financial incentives could further assist this transition. Those who have accumulated more socioeconomic resources at later ages (after 40) may prioritize investing more time in parenting. In summation, rather than a one-size-fits-all approach, the findings suggest that the prioritization and sequencing of policies may be better tailored to fulfill each family’s own economic and fertility aspirations at different life stages.

The sex-stratified models showed that men were more likely to have a favorable perception of the policies than women. This may be due to the differential opportunity cost of parenthood for men and women. In other words, the substantial burden accompanying motherhood may not be easily mitigated by policy. Increasing evidence has shown that working mothers tend to suffer a motherhood penalty, as they are likely to experience slower career advancement and earn lower wages than their male counterparts (Budig & England, 2001 ; Pepping & Maniam, 2020 ). The highest wage penalties are experienced by mothers who first return to work after birth (Anderson et al., 2003 ), which may adversely affect their career prospects and disincentivize women from taking time off to have children. While policies that encourage men’s involvement in the family should improve fertility by narrowing the gender gap in the division of household labor (Goldscheider et al., 2015 ), there are larger structural and systemic issues hindering childbearing that may not be resolved until the motherhood wage penalty diminishes and it becomes common for men to contribute to housework and childcare. This may be further supported by the additional findings showing that paternity leave and shared parental leave ranked highly across parities as the most important contributors to the overall conduciveness for childbearing. Overall, these policies may encourage a desirable work-life balance that is supportive of children and families.

The degree to which policy may influence childbearing choices appears to be patterned by one’s sociodemographic characteristics, which could also vary at different phases of adulthood. The observed age pattern suggests that different emphasis is placed on competing parenthood priorities across the life course. This difference may be attributable to the varying financial and emotional costs of raising children at different ages (McDonald, 2006 ). Prevailing social and gender norms could also influence policy perceptions as policies may not adequately address challenges pertaining to the rise in singlehood and slow shifts in gender norms (Jones & Yeung, 2014 ; Tan, 2022a , b ). In addition to policy, grandparental assistance in childcare is highly valued in Singapore, especially among dual-income families (Low & Goh, 2015 ). While intergenerational support was not examined in this study, a holistic and intergenerational approach to understanding and supporting families could benefit future work. Importantly, personal and family circumstances are crucial to note when investigating policy perceptions and their influence on potential childbearing.

The results should be interpreted with caution. First, the data do not provide information on alternative perspectives beyond that of the target population (i.e., married, heterosexual couples). Only respondents who were married at the time of the survey were included. There is a lack of available data and an overall gap in the literature on policy perceptions among, and policy initiatives directed towards, diverse populations (e.g., non-heterosexual and unmarried groups) (Cahill & Tobias, 2007 ). Future research should explore policy initiatives targeted at diverse populations to gain a more encompassing perspective on the influence of policy in addressing low fertility. Second, small sample sizes for certain ethnic groups may limit the ability to estimate associations of interest with precision. In particular, the results relating to individuals of ethnicities other than Chinese, Malay or Indian ( N = 68) should be interpreted with caution due to the small sample size. Third, the impact of pronatalist policies on fertility behavior cannot be directly tested. Given the data availability, this study focuses only on investigating the perception of married individuals towards the conduciveness of pronatalist policies rather than actually capturing the effects of these policies on fertility. Follow-up longitudinal, experimental study designs may address this less explored area. Lastly, fertility is influenced by both facilitating and constraining factors, but it was beyond the scope of this study to address constraining factors that are central to theoretical explanations of low fertility. Pronatalist policies may be perceived as a facilitator as well as a constraint on fertility because policies may have an unintended adverse effect on childbearing by undermining the intrinsic value of having a child and appearing coercive to intended policy beneficiaries (Botev, 2015 ). For example, the Singaporean government’s interference with the private affairs of marriage and procreation has brought criticisms of undue meddling in the intimate lives of citizens (Leong & Sriramesh, 2006 ). Therefore, more research is needed to understand how pronatalist measures may have the opposite effect on fertility than is intended by policy.

Despite these limitations, the present study serves as a provisional first step in understanding the perceptions towards the conduciveness of pronatalist policies among married men and women. The findings of this study suggest that adopting a combination of financial and work–life balance policies may help to lessen the financial and caregiving stress of parents who just had a new child and could potentially support individuals in realizing their ideal family size.

Direct costs of children refer to the actual expenditure incurred by parents to meet the basic needs of their children (e.g., food, education, and healthcare expenses).

Indirect costs of children refer to the loss of time or foregone earnings attributable to parenthood.

At the time of writing, the Singapore dollar is equivalent to approximately USD$0.75.

Anderson, D. J., Binder, M., & Krause, K. (2003). The motherhood wage penalty revisited: Experience, heterogeneity, work effort, and work-schedule flexibility. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 56 (2), 273–294. https://doi.org/10.2307/3590938

Article Google Scholar

Anderson, T., & Kohler, H. (2013). Education fever and the East Asian fertility puzzle: A case study of low fertility in South Korea. Asian Population Studies, 9 (2), 196–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441730.2013.797293

Azen, R., & Budescu, D. V. (2003). The dominance analysis approach for comparing predictors in multiple regression. Psychological Methods, 8 (2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.8.2.129

Azen, R., & Traxel, N. (2009). Using dominance analysis to determine predictor importance in logistic regression. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 34 (3), 319–347. https://doi.org/10.3102/1076998609332754

Barnes, M. W. (2015). Gender differentiation in paid and unpaid work during the transition to parenthood. Sociology Compass, 9 (5), 348–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12263

Bergsvik, J., Fauske, A., Rannveig K. H. (2020). Effects of policy on fertility. A systematic review of (quasi)experiments , Discussion Papers 922, Statistics Norway, Research Department. https://ideas.repec.org/p/ssb/dispap/922.html .

Botev, N. (2015). Could pronatalist policies discourage childbearing? Population and Development Review, 41 (2), 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2015.00048.x

Budescu, D. V., & Azen, R. (2004). Beyond global measures of relative importance: Some insights from dominance analysis. Organizational Research Methods, 7 (3), 341–350. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428104267049

Budig, M. J., & England, P. (2001). The wage penalty for motherhood. American Sociological Review, 66 (2), 204–225. https://doi.org/10.2307/2657415

Bulatao, R. A. (1981). Values and disvalues of children in successive childbearing decisions. Demography, 18 (1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.2307/2061046

Cahill, S., & Tobias, S. (2007). Policy issues affecting lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender families. University of Michigan Press . https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.92262

Chen, M., & Yip, P. S. F. (2017). The discrepancy between ideal and actual parity in Hong Kong: Fertility desire, intention, and behavior. Population Research and Policy Review, 36 (4), 583–605. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-017-9433-5

Chen, M., Yip, P. S. F., & Yap, M. T. (2018). Identifying the most influential groups in determining Singapore’s fertility. Journal of Social Policy, 47 (1), 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279417000241

Chen, M., Gietel-Basten, S., & Yip, P. S. F. (2020). Targeting and mistargeting of family policies in high-income Pacific Asian societies: A review of financial incentives. Population Research and Policy Review, 39 (3), 389–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-019-09539-w

Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundations of social theory . Harvard University Press.

Google Scholar

Deutscher, N., & Breunig, R. (2018). Baby bonuses: Natural experiments in cash transfers, birth timing and child outcomes. The Economic Record, 94 (304), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-4932.12382

Drago, R., Sawyer, K., Shreffler, K. M., Warren, D., & Wooden, M. (2011). Did Australia’s baby bonus increase fertility intentions and births? Population Research and Policy Review, 30 (3), 381–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-010-9193-y

Duvander, A., Lappegard, T., & Johansson, M. (2020). Impact of a reform towards shared parental leave on continued fertility in Norway and Sweden. Population Research and Policy Review, 39 (6), 1205–1229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-020-09574-y

Esping-Andersen, G., & Billari, F. C. (2015). Re-theorizing family demographics. Population and Development Review, 41 (1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2015.00024.x

Frejka, T., Jones, G. W., & Sardon, J. (2010). East Asian childbearing patterns and policy developments. Population and Development Review, 36 (3), 579–606. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2010.00347.x

Frey, B. S. (2012). Crowding effects on intrinsic motivation. Renewal (london, England), 20 (2–3), 91–98.

Furstenberg, F. F., Jr. (2010). On a new schedule: Transitions to adulthood and family change. The Future of Children, 20 (1), 67–87. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.0.0038

Gauthier, A. H. (2016). Governmental support for families and obstacles to fertility in East Asia and other industrialized regions. In R. R. Rindfuss & M. K. Choe (Eds.), Low fertility, institutions, and their policies: Variations across industrialized countries (pp. 283–303). Springer.

Gauthier, A. H. (2007). The impact of family policies on fertility in industrialized countries: A review of the literature. Population Research and Policy Review, 26 (3), 323–346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-007-9033-x

Gietel-Basten, S. (2019). The “population problem” in Pacific Asia . Oxford University Press.

Goldscheider, F., Bernhardt, E., & Lappegård, T. (2015). The gender revolution: A framework for understanding changing family and demographic behavior. Population and Development Review, 41 (2), 207–239. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2015.00045.x

Göransson, K. (2022). Guiding the young child: Trajectories of parents’ educational work in Singapore. Families, Relationships and Societies, 11 (4), 517–533.

Gromping, U. (2007). Estimators of relative importance in linear regression based on variance decomposition. The American Statistician, 61 (2), 139–147. https://doi.org/10.1198/000313007X188252

Heitlinger, A. (1991). Pronatalism and women’s equality policies. European Journal of Population, 7 (4), 343–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01796873

Housing and Development Board. (2022). Priority schemes. https://www.hdb.gov.sg/residential/buying-a-flat/buying-procedure-for-new-flats/application/priority-schemes .

Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore. (2022). Working mother’s child relief. https://www.iras.gov.sg/taxes/individual-income-tax/basics-of-individual-income-tax/tax-reliefs-rebates-and-deductions/tax-reliefs/working-mother%27s-child-relief-(wmcr) .

Johnson, J. W., & Lebreton, J. M. (2004). History and use of relative importance indices in organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 7 (3), 238–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428104266510

Jones, G. W. (2012). Population policy in a prosperous city-state: Dilemmas for Singapore. Population and Development Review, 38 (2), 311–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2012.00494.x

Jones, G. W. (2019). Ultra-low fertility in East Asia: Policy responses and challenges. Asian Population Studies, 15 (2), 131–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441730.2019.1594656

Jones, G. W., & Hamid, W. (2015). Singapore’s pro-natalist policies: To what extent have they worked? In R. R. Rindfuss & M. K. Choe (Eds.), Low and lower fertility: Variations across developed countries (pp. 33–61). Springer.

Chapter Google Scholar

Jones, G. W., & Yeung, W.-J.J. (2014). Marriage in Asia. Journal of Family Issues, 35 (12), 1567–1583. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X14538029

Korean National Statistics Office. (2021). Private Education Expenditures Survey in 2020. http://kostat.go.kr/portal/eng/pressReleases/11/2/index.board .

Lee, S., Duvander, A., & Zarit, S. H. (2016). How can family policies reconcile fertility and women’s employment? Comparisons between South Korea and Sweden. Asian Journal of Women’s Studies, 22 (3), 269–288. https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2016.1202027

Leong, P., & Sriramesh, K. (2006). Romancing Singapore: When yesterday’s success becomes today’s challenge. Public Relations Review, 32 (3), 246–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2006.05.011

Liefbroer, A. C. (2009). Changes in family size intentions across young adulthood: A life-course perspective. European Journal of Population, 25 (4), 363–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-008-9173-7

Low, S. S. H., & Goh, E. C. L. (2015). Granny as nanny: Positive outcomes for grandparents providing childcare for dual-income families. Fact or myth? Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, 13 (4), 302–319. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2015.1111003

Luchman, J. N. (2021). Determining relative importance in Stata using dominance analysis: Domin and domme. The Stata Journal, 21 (2), 510–538. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X211025837

Lutz, W., Skirbekk, V., & Testa, M. R. (2006). The low-fertility trap hypothesis: Forces that may lead to further postponement and fewer births in Europe. Vienna Yearbook of Population Research, 4 , 167–192.

Made for Families. (2022a). Baby bonus scheme. https://www.madeforfamilies.gov.sg/support-measures/raising-your-child/financial-support/baby-bonus-scheme .

Made for Families. (2022b). Medisave maternity package. https://www.madeforfamilies.gov.sg/support-measures/getting-baby-ready/medisave-maternity-package .

Mange, J., Mauduy, M., Sénémeaud, C., Bagneux, V., Cabé, N., Jacquet, D., Leconte, P., Margas, N., Mauny, N., Ritz, L., Gierski, F., & Beaunieux, H. (2021). What really matters in binge drinking: A dominance analysis of binge drinking psychological determinants among university students. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 13 , 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2021.100346

McDonald, P. (2002). Sustaining fertility through public policy: The range of options. Population, 57 (3), 417–446. https://doi.org/10.3917/pope.203.0417

McDonald, P. (2006). Low fertility and the state: The efficacy of policy. Population and Development Review, 32 (3), 485–510. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2006.00134.x

McDonald, P. (2013). Societal foundations for explaining fertility: Gender equity. Demographic Research, 28 , 981–994. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2013.28.34

McDonald, P., Evans, A. (2002). Family formation and risk aversion , paper prepared for the NLC workshop 17–18 May 2002. http://lifecourse.anu.edu/publications/Workshop1_papers/McDonald_w1.pdf .

Milligan, K. (2005). Subsidizing the stork: New evidence on tax incentives and fertility. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 87 (3), 539–555. https://doi.org/10.1162/0034653054638382

National Archives of Singapore. (2000). National Day Rally Address by Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong, Speech in English on 20 August 2000 . https://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/speeches/record-details/768fdeb2-115d-11e3-83d5-0050568939ad .

National Population and Talent Division. (2012). Our Population Our Future , Issue paper 2012 – A Strong and Cohesive Society. https://www.strategygroup.gov.sg/images/PublicationImages/PDFs/issues-paper-our-population-our-future.pdf .

Peacock, R. (2021). Dominance analysis of police legitimacy’s regressors: Disentangling the effects of procedural justice, effectiveness, and corruption. Police Practice & Research, 22 (1), 589–605. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2020.1851229

Pepping, A., & Maniam, B. (2020). The motherhood penalty. Journal of Business and Behavioral Sciences, 32 (2), 110–125.

Rindfuss, R. R., Guilkey, D. K., Morgan, S. P., & Kravdal, Ø. (2010). Child-care availability and fertility in Norway. Population and Development Review, 36 (4), 725–748. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2010.00355.x

Saw, S. (2016). Population policies and programmes in Singapore (2nd ed.). ISEAS Publishing.

Schultz, T. P. (1990). Testing the neoclassical model of family labor supply and fertility. Journal of Human Resources, 25 (4), 599–634. https://doi.org/10.2307/145669

Singapore Department of Statistics. (2022a). Births and fertility. https://www.singstat.gov.sg/find-data/search-by-theme/population/births-and-fertility/latest-data .

Singapore Department of Statistics. (2022b). Education, language spoken and literacy. https://www.singstat.gov.sg/find-data/search-by-theme/population/education-language-spoken-and-literacy/latest-data .

Singapore Department of Statistics. (2019). Report on the Household Expenditure Survey 2017/18. https://www.singstat.gov.sg/-/media/files/publications/households/hes201718.pdf .

Singapore Ministry of Health. (2022). Marriage and parenthood schemes. https://www.moh.gov.sg/cost-financing/healthcare-schemes-subsidies/marriage-and-parenthood-schemes .

Singapore Ministry of Manpower. (2020). Paternity leave. https://www.mom.gov.sg/employment-practices/leave/paternity-leave .

Singapore Ministry of Social and Family Development. (2022). Comparison between take-up rate of government-paid paternity leave and take-up rate of government-paid maternity leave. https://www.msf.gov.sg/media-room/Pages/Comparison-Between-Take-up-Rate-of-Government-Paid-Paternity-Leave-and-Take-up-Rate-of-Government-Paid-Maternity-Leave.aspx .

Singapore Ministry of Social and Family Development. (2013). Marriage and parenthood package—enhanced leave scheme take effect from 1st May 2013. https://www.msf.gov.sg/media-room/Pages/2013-Marriage-and-Parenthood-Package---Enhanced-Leave-Schemes-Take-Effect-From-1st-May-2013.aspx .

Singapore Ministry of Social and Family Development. (2017). Family and work. https://www.msf.gov.sg/research-and-data/Research-and-Data-Series/Documents/Family%20and%20Work%20Report.pdf .

Son, Y. J. (2018). Do childbirth grants increase the fertility rate? Policy Impacts in South Korea. Review of Economics of the Household, 16 (3), 713–735. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-017-9383-z

Stier, H., & Kaplan, A. (2020). Are children a joy or a burden? Individual- and Macro-Level Characteristics and the Perception of Children. European Journal of Population, 36 (2), 387–413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-019-09535-y

Sun, H. S. (2010). Pronatalist policies and reproductive decision-making in Singapore: The logic and limits of the developmental welfare state , Paper presented at the International Sociological Association.

Sun, S. H. (2012). Population policy and reproduction in Singapore: Making future citizens. Routledge . https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203146187

Tan, C. (2017). Private supplementary tutoring and parentocracy in Singapore. Interchange (toronto. 1984), 48 (4), 315–329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10780-017-9303-4

Tan, J. (2022a). Couples’ division of labor and fertility in Taiwan. Chinese Sociological Review . https://doi.org/10.1080/21620555.2022.2084066

Tan, J. (2022b). Heterogeneity among the never married in a low-fertility context. Demographic Research, 47 (24), 727–776. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2022.47.24

Tan, P. L. (2021). Stress, fatigue, and sexual spontaneity among married couples in a high-stress society: Evidence from sex diary data from Singapore. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50 (6), 2579–2588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01848-y

Teo, Y. (2010). Shaping the Singapore family, producing the state and society. Economy and Society, 39 (3), 337–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/03085147.2010.486215

Thevenon, O. (2011). Does fertility respond to work and family-life reconciliation policies in France? Fertility and public policy. In N. Takayama & M. Werding (Eds.), How to reverse the trend of declining birth rates (pp. 219–259). MIT Press.

Thevenon, O., & Gauthier, A. H. (2011). Family policies in developed countries: A ‘fertility-booster’ with side-effects. Community, Work & Family, 14 (2), 197–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2011.571400

Thompson, B. (1994). The pivotal role of replication in psychological research: Empirically evaluating the replicability of sample results. Journal of Personality, 62 (2), 157–176. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1994.tb00289.x

Torr, B. M., & Short, S. E. (2004). Second births and the second shift: A research note on gender equity and fertility. Population and Development Review, 30 (1), 109–130. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2004.00005.x

United Nations Population Division. (2017). Government policies to raise or lower the fertility level. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/popfacts/PopFacts_2017-10.pdf .

Vize, C. E., Collison, K. L., Crowe, M. L., Campbell, W. K., Miller, J. D., & Lynam, D. R. (2019). Using dominance analysis to decompose narcissism and its relation to aggression and externalizing outcomes. Assessment, 26 (2), 260–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191116685811

Williams, L. (2014). W(h)ither state interest in intimacy? Singapore through a comparative lens. Sojourn (singapore), 29 (1), 132–158. https://doi.org/10.1355/sj29-1e

Wong, T., Yeoh, B. (2003). Fertility and the family: An overview of pro-natalist population policies in Singapore , Research Paper Series No. 12. Asian MetaCentre, National University of Singapore, Singapore.

World Economic Forum. (2021). Global gender gap report 2021. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2021.pdf .

Yap, M. T. (2015). POPS (7): Perceptions of the marriage and parenthood package 2013 . Public Data Sharing Platform.

Yap, M. T., & Gee, C. (2015). Singapore’s demographic transition, the labor force and government policies: The last fifty years. Singapore Economic Review, 60 (3), 195–219.

Yeung, W.-J.J., & Li, N. (2022). Paternity leave, family dynamics, and children’s behavior in Singapore. Journal of Marriage and Family . https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12896

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship. I am grateful to Dr Michael Roettger, Professor Edith Gray and Dr Kim Xu for their comments and ongoing support. I thank the participants at the Australian Population Association Conference 2022 for their useful discussions and suggestions. I also thank the Singapore Institute of Policy Studies for the data. All findings and views in this paper are those of the author and should not be attributed to the Singapore Institute of Policy Studies.

Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and its Member Institutions.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Demography, Research School of Social Sciences, College of Arts and Social Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jolene Tan .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The author has no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

See Tables 5 , 6 , 7 .

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Tan, J. Perceptions towards pronatalist policies in Singapore. J Pop Research 40 , 14 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12546-023-09309-8

Download citation

Accepted : 08 April 2023

Published : 11 May 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12546-023-09309-8

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Dominance analysis
Family support
Low fertility
Pronatalist policies
Find a journal
Publish with us
Track your research

Read our research on: Abortion | Podcasts | Election 2024

Regions & Countries

What the data says about abortion in the u.s..

Pew Research Center has conducted many surveys about abortion over the years, providing a lens into Americans’ views on whether the procedure should be legal, among a host of other questions.

In a Center survey conducted nearly a year after the Supreme Court’s June 2022 decision that ended the constitutional right to abortion , 62% of U.S. adults said the practice should be legal in all or most cases, while 36% said it should be illegal in all or most cases. Another survey conducted a few months before the decision showed that relatively few Americans take an absolutist view on the issue .

Find answers to common questions about abortion in America, based on data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Guttmacher Institute, which have tracked these patterns for several decades:

How many abortions are there in the U.S. each year?

How has the number of abortions in the u.s. changed over time, what is the abortion rate among women in the u.s. how has it changed over time, what are the most common types of abortion, how many abortion providers are there in the u.s., and how has that number changed, what percentage of abortions are for women who live in a different state from the abortion provider, what are the demographics of women who have had abortions, when during pregnancy do most abortions occur, how often are there medical complications from abortion.

This compilation of data on abortion in the United States draws mainly from two sources: the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Guttmacher Institute, both of which have regularly compiled national abortion data for approximately half a century, and which collect their data in different ways.

The CDC data that is highlighted in this post comes from the agency’s “abortion surveillance” reports, which have been published annually since 1974 (and which have included data from 1969). Its figures from 1973 through 1996 include data from all 50 states, the District of Columbia and New York City – 52 “reporting areas” in all. Since 1997, the CDC’s totals have lacked data from some states (most notably California) for the years that those states did not report data to the agency. The four reporting areas that did not submit data to the CDC in 2021 – California, Maryland, New Hampshire and New Jersey – accounted for approximately 25% of all legal induced abortions in the U.S. in 2020, according to Guttmacher’s data. Most states, though, do have data in the reports, and the figures for the vast majority of them came from each state’s central health agency, while for some states, the figures came from hospitals and other medical facilities.

Discussion of CDC abortion data involving women’s state of residence, marital status, race, ethnicity, age, abortion history and the number of previous live births excludes the low share of abortions where that information was not supplied. Read the methodology for the CDC’s latest abortion surveillance report , which includes data from 2021, for more details. Previous reports can be found at stacks.cdc.gov by entering “abortion surveillance” into the search box.

For the numbers of deaths caused by induced abortions in 1963 and 1965, this analysis looks at reports by the then-U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, a precursor to the Department of Health and Human Services. In computing those figures, we excluded abortions listed in the report under the categories “spontaneous or unspecified” or as “other.” (“Spontaneous abortion” is another way of referring to miscarriages.)

Guttmacher data in this post comes from national surveys of abortion providers that Guttmacher has conducted 19 times since 1973. Guttmacher compiles its figures after contacting every known provider of abortions – clinics, hospitals and physicians’ offices – in the country. It uses questionnaires and health department data, and it provides estimates for abortion providers that don’t respond to its inquiries. (In 2020, the last year for which it has released data on the number of abortions in the U.S., it used estimates for 12% of abortions.) For most of the 2000s, Guttmacher has conducted these national surveys every three years, each time getting abortion data for the prior two years. For each interim year, Guttmacher has calculated estimates based on trends from its own figures and from other data.

The latest full summary of Guttmacher data came in the institute’s report titled “Abortion Incidence and Service Availability in the United States, 2020.” It includes figures for 2020 and 2019 and estimates for 2018. The report includes a methods section.

In addition, this post uses data from StatPearls, an online health care resource, on complications from abortion.

An exact answer is hard to come by. The CDC and the Guttmacher Institute have each tried to measure this for around half a century, but they use different methods and publish different figures.

The last year for which the CDC reported a yearly national total for abortions is 2021. It found there were 625,978 abortions in the District of Columbia and the 46 states with available data that year, up from 597,355 in those states and D.C. in 2020. The corresponding figure for 2019 was 607,720.

The last year for which Guttmacher reported a yearly national total was 2020. It said there were 930,160 abortions that year in all 50 states and the District of Columbia, compared with 916,460 in 2019.

How the CDC gets its data: It compiles figures that are voluntarily reported by states’ central health agencies, including separate figures for New York City and the District of Columbia. Its latest totals do not include figures from California, Maryland, New Hampshire or New Jersey, which did not report data to the CDC. ( Read the methodology from the latest CDC report .)
How Guttmacher gets its data: It compiles its figures after contacting every known abortion provider – clinics, hospitals and physicians’ offices – in the country. It uses questionnaires and health department data, then provides estimates for abortion providers that don’t respond. Guttmacher’s figures are higher than the CDC’s in part because they include data (and in some instances, estimates) from all 50 states. ( Read the institute’s latest full report and methodology .)

While the Guttmacher Institute supports abortion rights, its empirical data on abortions in the U.S. has been widely cited by groups and publications across the political spectrum, including by a number of those that disagree with its positions .

These estimates from Guttmacher and the CDC are results of multiyear efforts to collect data on abortion across the U.S. Last year, Guttmacher also began publishing less precise estimates every few months , based on a much smaller sample of providers.

The figures reported by these organizations include only legal induced abortions conducted by clinics, hospitals or physicians’ offices, or those that make use of abortion pills dispensed from certified facilities such as clinics or physicians’ offices. They do not account for the use of abortion pills that were obtained outside of clinical settings .

(Back to top)

A line chart showing the changing number of legal abortions in the U.S. since the 1970s.

The annual number of U.S. abortions rose for years after Roe v. Wade legalized the procedure in 1973, reaching its highest levels around the late 1980s and early 1990s, according to both the CDC and Guttmacher. Since then, abortions have generally decreased at what a CDC analysis called “a slow yet steady pace.”

Guttmacher says the number of abortions occurring in the U.S. in 2020 was 40% lower than it was in 1991. According to the CDC, the number was 36% lower in 2021 than in 1991, looking just at the District of Columbia and the 46 states that reported both of those years.

(The corresponding line graph shows the long-term trend in the number of legal abortions reported by both organizations. To allow for consistent comparisons over time, the CDC figures in the chart have been adjusted to ensure that the same states are counted from one year to the next. Using that approach, the CDC figure for 2021 is 622,108 legal abortions.)

There have been occasional breaks in this long-term pattern of decline – during the middle of the first decade of the 2000s, and then again in the late 2010s. The CDC reported modest 1% and 2% increases in abortions in 2018 and 2019, and then, after a 2% decrease in 2020, a 5% increase in 2021. Guttmacher reported an 8% increase over the three-year period from 2017 to 2020.

As noted above, these figures do not include abortions that use pills obtained outside of clinical settings.

Guttmacher says that in 2020 there were 14.4 abortions in the U.S. per 1,000 women ages 15 to 44. Its data shows that the rate of abortions among women has generally been declining in the U.S. since 1981, when it reported there were 29.3 abortions per 1,000 women in that age range.

The CDC says that in 2021, there were 11.6 abortions in the U.S. per 1,000 women ages 15 to 44. (That figure excludes data from California, the District of Columbia, Maryland, New Hampshire and New Jersey.) Like Guttmacher’s data, the CDC’s figures also suggest a general decline in the abortion rate over time. In 1980, when the CDC reported on all 50 states and D.C., it said there were 25 abortions per 1,000 women ages 15 to 44.

That said, both Guttmacher and the CDC say there were slight increases in the rate of abortions during the late 2010s and early 2020s. Guttmacher says the abortion rate per 1,000 women ages 15 to 44 rose from 13.5 in 2017 to 14.4 in 2020. The CDC says it rose from 11.2 per 1,000 in 2017 to 11.4 in 2019, before falling back to 11.1 in 2020 and then rising again to 11.6 in 2021. (The CDC’s figures for those years exclude data from California, D.C., Maryland, New Hampshire and New Jersey.)

The CDC broadly divides abortions into two categories: surgical abortions and medication abortions, which involve pills. Since the Food and Drug Administration first approved abortion pills in 2000, their use has increased over time as a share of abortions nationally, according to both the CDC and Guttmacher.

The majority of abortions in the U.S. now involve pills, according to both the CDC and Guttmacher. The CDC says 56% of U.S. abortions in 2021 involved pills, up from 53% in 2020 and 44% in 2019. Its figures for 2021 include the District of Columbia and 44 states that provided this data; its figures for 2020 include D.C. and 44 states (though not all of the same states as in 2021), and its figures for 2019 include D.C. and 45 states.

Guttmacher, which measures this every three years, says 53% of U.S. abortions involved pills in 2020, up from 39% in 2017.

Two pills commonly used together for medication abortions are mifepristone, which, taken first, blocks hormones that support a pregnancy, and misoprostol, which then causes the uterus to empty. According to the FDA, medication abortions are safe until 10 weeks into pregnancy.

Surgical abortions conducted during the first trimester of pregnancy typically use a suction process, while the relatively few surgical abortions that occur during the second trimester of a pregnancy typically use a process called dilation and evacuation, according to the UCLA School of Medicine.

In 2020, there were 1,603 facilities in the U.S. that provided abortions, according to Guttmacher . This included 807 clinics, 530 hospitals and 266 physicians’ offices.

A horizontal stacked bar chart showing the total number of abortion providers down since 1982.

While clinics make up half of the facilities that provide abortions, they are the sites where the vast majority (96%) of abortions are administered, either through procedures or the distribution of pills, according to Guttmacher’s 2020 data. (This includes 54% of abortions that are administered at specialized abortion clinics and 43% at nonspecialized clinics.) Hospitals made up 33% of the facilities that provided abortions in 2020 but accounted for only 3% of abortions that year, while just 1% of abortions were conducted by physicians’ offices.

Looking just at clinics – that is, the total number of specialized abortion clinics and nonspecialized clinics in the U.S. – Guttmacher found the total virtually unchanged between 2017 (808 clinics) and 2020 (807 clinics). However, there were regional differences. In the Midwest, the number of clinics that provide abortions increased by 11% during those years, and in the West by 6%. The number of clinics decreased during those years by 9% in the Northeast and 3% in the South.

The total number of abortion providers has declined dramatically since the 1980s. In 1982, according to Guttmacher, there were 2,908 facilities providing abortions in the U.S., including 789 clinics, 1,405 hospitals and 714 physicians’ offices.

The CDC does not track the number of abortion providers.

In the District of Columbia and the 46 states that provided abortion and residency information to the CDC in 2021, 10.9% of all abortions were performed on women known to live outside the state where the abortion occurred – slightly higher than the percentage in 2020 (9.7%). That year, D.C. and 46 states (though not the same ones as in 2021) reported abortion and residency data. (The total number of abortions used in these calculations included figures for women with both known and unknown residential status.)

The share of reported abortions performed on women outside their state of residence was much higher before the 1973 Roe decision that stopped states from banning abortion. In 1972, 41% of all abortions in D.C. and the 20 states that provided this information to the CDC that year were performed on women outside their state of residence. In 1973, the corresponding figure was 21% in the District of Columbia and the 41 states that provided this information, and in 1974 it was 11% in D.C. and the 43 states that provided data.

In the District of Columbia and the 46 states that reported age data to the CDC in 2021, the majority of women who had abortions (57%) were in their 20s, while about three-in-ten (31%) were in their 30s. Teens ages 13 to 19 accounted for 8% of those who had abortions, while women ages 40 to 44 accounted for about 4%.

The vast majority of women who had abortions in 2021 were unmarried (87%), while married women accounted for 13%, according to the CDC , which had data on this from 37 states.

A pie chart showing that, in 2021, majority of abortions were for women who had never had one before.

In the District of Columbia, New York City (but not the rest of New York) and the 31 states that reported racial and ethnic data on abortion to the CDC , 42% of all women who had abortions in 2021 were non-Hispanic Black, while 30% were non-Hispanic White, 22% were Hispanic and 6% were of other races.

Looking at abortion rates among those ages 15 to 44, there were 28.6 abortions per 1,000 non-Hispanic Black women in 2021; 12.3 abortions per 1,000 Hispanic women; 6.4 abortions per 1,000 non-Hispanic White women; and 9.2 abortions per 1,000 women of other races, the CDC reported from those same 31 states, D.C. and New York City.

For 57% of U.S. women who had induced abortions in 2021, it was the first time they had ever had one, according to the CDC. For nearly a quarter (24%), it was their second abortion. For 11% of women who had an abortion that year, it was their third, and for 8% it was their fourth or more. These CDC figures include data from 41 states and New York City, but not the rest of New York.

A bar chart showing that most U.S. abortions in 2021 were for women who had previously given birth.

Nearly four-in-ten women who had abortions in 2021 (39%) had no previous live births at the time they had an abortion, according to the CDC . Almost a quarter (24%) of women who had abortions in 2021 had one previous live birth, 20% had two previous live births, 10% had three, and 7% had four or more previous live births. These CDC figures include data from 41 states and New York City, but not the rest of New York.

The vast majority of abortions occur during the first trimester of a pregnancy. In 2021, 93% of abortions occurred during the first trimester – that is, at or before 13 weeks of gestation, according to the CDC . An additional 6% occurred between 14 and 20 weeks of pregnancy, and about 1% were performed at 21 weeks or more of gestation. These CDC figures include data from 40 states and New York City, but not the rest of New York.

About 2% of all abortions in the U.S. involve some type of complication for the woman , according to an article in StatPearls, an online health care resource. “Most complications are considered minor such as pain, bleeding, infection and post-anesthesia complications,” according to the article.

The CDC calculates case-fatality rates for women from induced abortions – that is, how many women die from abortion-related complications, for every 100,000 legal abortions that occur in the U.S . The rate was lowest during the most recent period examined by the agency (2013 to 2020), when there were 0.45 deaths to women per 100,000 legal induced abortions. The case-fatality rate reported by the CDC was highest during the first period examined by the agency (1973 to 1977), when it was 2.09 deaths to women per 100,000 legal induced abortions. During the five-year periods in between, the figure ranged from 0.52 (from 1993 to 1997) to 0.78 (from 1978 to 1982).

The CDC calculates death rates by five-year and seven-year periods because of year-to-year fluctuation in the numbers and due to the relatively low number of women who die from legal induced abortions.

In 2020, the last year for which the CDC has information , six women in the U.S. died due to complications from induced abortions. Four women died in this way in 2019, two in 2018, and three in 2017. (These deaths all followed legal abortions.) Since 1990, the annual number of deaths among women due to legal induced abortion has ranged from two to 12.

The annual number of reported deaths from induced abortions (legal and illegal) tended to be higher in the 1980s, when it ranged from nine to 16, and from 1972 to 1979, when it ranged from 13 to 63. One driver of the decline was the drop in deaths from illegal abortions. There were 39 deaths from illegal abortions in 1972, the last full year before Roe v. Wade. The total fell to 19 in 1973 and to single digits or zero every year after that. (The number of deaths from legal abortions has also declined since then, though with some slight variation over time.)

The number of deaths from induced abortions was considerably higher in the 1960s than afterward. For instance, there were 119 deaths from induced abortions in 1963 and 99 in 1965 , according to reports by the then-U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, a precursor to the Department of Health and Human Services. The CDC is a division of Health and Human Services.

Note: This is an update of a post originally published May 27, 2022, and first updated June 24, 2022.

Sign up for our weekly newsletter

Fresh data delivered Saturday mornings

Key facts about the abortion debate in America

Public opinion on abortion, three-in-ten or more democrats and republicans don’t agree with their party on abortion, partisanship a bigger factor than geography in views of abortion access locally, do state laws on abortion reflect public opinion, most popular.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 29.3.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Usability of Health Care Price Transparency Data in the United States: Mixed Methods Study

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

Negar Maleki 1 , PhD ;
Balaji Padmanabhan 2 , PhD ;
Kaushik Dutta 1 , PhD

1 School of Information Systems and Management, Muma College of Business, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States

2 Decision, Operations & Information Technologies Department, Robert H. Smith School of Business, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States

Corresponding Author:

Negar Maleki, PhD

School of Information Systems and Management

Muma College of Business

University of South Florida

4202 E Fowler Avenue

Tampa, FL, 33620

United States

Phone: 1 8139742011

Email: [email protected]

Background: Increasing health care expenditure in the United States has put policy makers under enormous pressure to find ways to curtail costs. Starting January 1, 2021, hospitals operating in the United States were mandated to publish transparent, accessible pricing information online about the items and services in a consumer-friendly format within comprehensive machine-readable files on their websites.

Objective: The aims of this study are to analyze the available files on hospitals’ websites, answering the question—is price transparency (PT) information as provided usable for patients or for machines?—and to provide a solution.

Methods: We analyzed 39 main hospitals in Florida that have published machine-readable files on their website, including commercial carriers. We created an Excel (Microsoft) file that included those 39 hospitals along with the 4 most popular services—Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) 45380, 29827, and 70553 and Diagnosis-Related Group (DRG) 807—for the 4 most popular commercial carriers (Health Maintenance Organization [HMO] or Preferred Provider Organization [PPO] plans)—Aetna, Florida Blue, Cigna, and UnitedHealthcare. We conducted an A/B test using 67 MTurkers (randomly selected from US residents), investigating the level of awareness about PT legislation and the usability of available files. We also suggested format standardization, such as master field names using schema integration, to make machine-readable files consistent and usable for machines.

Results: The poor usability and inconsistent formats of the current PT information yielded no evidence of its usefulness for patients or its quality for machines. This indicates that the information does not meet the requirements for being consumer-friendly or machine readable as mandated by legislation. Based on the responses to the first part of the experiment (PT awareness), it was evident that participants need to be made aware of the PT legislation. However, they believe it is important to know the service price before receiving it. Based on the responses to the second part of the experiment (human usability of PT information), the average number of correct responses was not equal between the 2 groups, that is, the treatment group (mean 1.23, SD 1.30) found more correct answers than the control group (mean 2.76, SD 0.58; t 65 =6.46; P <.001; d =1.52).

Conclusions: Consistent machine-readable files across all health systems facilitate the development of tools for estimating customer out-of-pocket costs, aligning with the PT rule’s main objective—providing patients with valuable information and reducing health care expenditures.

Introduction

From 1970 to 2020, on a per capita basis, health care expenditures in the United States have increased sharply from US $353 per person to US $12,531 per person. In constant 2020 dollars, the increase was from US $1875 in 1970 to US $12,531 in 2020 [ 1 ]. The significant rise in health care expenses has put policy makers under enormous pressure to find ways to contain these expenditures. Price transparency (PT) in health care is 1 generally proposed strategy for addressing these problems [ 2 ] and has been debated for years [ 3 ]. Some economists believe that PT in health care will cut health care prices in the same way it has in other industries, while others argue that owing to the specific characteristics of the health care market, PT would not ameliorate rising health care costs. Price elasticity also does not typically apply in health care, since, if a problem gets severe, people will typically seek treatment regardless of cost, with the drawback that individuals learn of their health care costs after receiving treatment [ 4 ]. Complex billing processes, hidden insurer-provider contracts, the sheer quantity of third-party payers, and substantial quality differences in health care delivery are other unique aspects of health care that complicate the situation considerably.

The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) mandated hospitals to post negotiated rates, including payer-specific negotiated costs, for 300 “shoppable services” beginning in January 2021. The list must include 70 CMS-specified services and an additional 230 services each hospital considers relevant to its patient population. Hospitals must include each third-party payer and their payer-specific fee when negotiating multiple rates for the same care. The data must be displayed simply, easily accessible (without requiring personal information from the patient), and saved in a machine-readable manner [ 5 ]. These efforts aim to facilitate informed patient decision-making, reduce out-of-pocket spending, and decrease health care expenditures. Former Secretary of Health and Human Services, Alex Azar, expressed a vision of hospital PT when declaring the new legislation “a patient-centered system that puts you in control and provides the affordability you need, the options and control you want, and the quality you deserve. Providing patients with clear, accessible information about the price of their care is a vital piece of delivering on that vision” [ 6 ].

Despite the legislation, it is not clear if people are actually engaging in using PT tools. For example, in 2007, New Hampshire’s HealthCost website was established, providing the negotiated price and out-of-pocket costs for 42 commonly used services by asking whether the patient is insured or their insurer and the zip code to post out-of-pocket costs in descending order. Mehrotra et al [ 7 ] examined this website over 3 years to understand how often and why these tools have mainly been used. Their analysis suggested that despite the growing interest in PT, approximately 1% of the state’s population used this tool. Low PT tool usage was also seen in other studies [ 8 - 10 ], suggesting that 3% to 12% of individuals who were offered the tool used it during the study period, and in all studies, the duration was at least 12 months. Thus, offering PT tools does not in itself lead to decreased total spending, since few people who have access to them use them to browse for lower-cost services [ 7 , 11 ].

In a recent paper, researchers addressed 1 possible reason for low engagement—lack of awareness. They implemented an extensive targeted online advertising campaign using Google Advertisements to increase awareness and assessed whether it increased New Hampshire’s PT website use. Their findings suggested that although lack of awareness is a possible reason for the low impact of PT tools in health care spending, structural factors might affect the use of health care information [ 12 ]. Individuals may not be able to exactly determine their out-of-pocket expenses from the information provided.

Surprisingly, there is little research on the awareness and usability of PT information after the current PT legislation went into effect. A recent study [ 13 ] highlighted the nonusability of existing machine-readable files for employers, policy makers, researchers, or consumers, and this paper adds to this literature by answering the question—is PT information as provided usable for patients or machines? Clearly, if it is of value to patients, it can be useful; the reason to take the perspective of machines was to examine whether this information as provided might also be useful for third-party programs that can extract information from the provided data (to subsequently help patients through other ways of presenting this information perhaps). We address this question through a combination of user experiments and data schema analysis. While there are recent papers that have also argued that PT data have deficiencies [ 13 , 14 ], ours is the first to combine user experiments with analysis of data schema from several hospitals in Florida to make a combined claim on value for patients and machines. We hope this can add to the discourse on PT and what needs to be done to extract value for patients and the health care system as a whole.

Impact of PT Tools

The impact of PT tools on consumers and health care facilities has been investigated in the literature. Some studies showed that consumers with access to PT tools are more likely to reduce forgone needed services over time. Moreover, consumers who use tools tend to find the lowest service prices [ 8 , 15 - 17 ]. A few studies investigated the impact of PT tools on the selection of health care facilities. They illustrated that some consumers tend to change health care facilities pursuing lower prices, while some others prefer to stay with expensive ones, although they are aware of some other facilities that offer lower prices [ 9 , 18 ]. Finally, some research studied the impact of PT tools on cost and showed that some consumers experienced no effect, while others experienced decreases in average consumer expenses [ 8 , 17 , 18 ]. However, the impact of PT tools on health care facilities is inconclusive, meaning different studies concluded different effects. Some stated that PT tools decrease the prices of imaging and laboratory services, while others said that although public charge disclosure lowers health care facility charges, the final prices remained unchanged [ 17 , 18 ].

Legislation Related Works

In a study, researchers considered 20 leading US hospitals to assess provided chargemasters to understand to what extent patients can obtain information from websites to determine the out-of-pocket costs [ 19 ]. Their findings showed that although all hospitals provided chargemasters on their websites, they rarely offered transparent information, making it hard for patients to determine out-of-pocket costs. Their analysis used advanced diagnostic imaging services to assess hospitals’ chargemasters since these are the most common services people look for. Mehrotra et al [ 7 ] also mentioned that the most common searches belonged to outpatient visits, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and emergency department visits. To this end, we used “MRI scan of the brain before and after contrast” as one of the shoppable services in our analysis. Another study examined imaging services in children’s hospitals (n=89), restricting the analysis to hospitals (n=35) that met PT requirements—published chargemaster rates, discounted cash prices, and payer-negotiated prices in a machine-readable file, and published costs for 300 common shoppable medical services in a consumer-friendly format. Their study revealed that, in addition to a broad range of imaging service charges, most hospitals lack the machine-readable file requirement [ 20 ].

Arvisais-Anhalt et al [ 21 ] identified 11 hospitals with available chargemasters in Dallas County to compare the prices of a wide range of available services. They observed significant variations for a laboratory test: partial thromboplastin time, a medication: 5 mg tablet of amlodipine, and a procedure: circumcision. Reddy et al [ 22 ] focus on New York State to assess the accessibility and usability of hospitals’ chargemasters from patients’ viewpoint. They found that 189 out of 202 hospitals had a locatable chargemaster on their home page. However, only 37 hospitals contain the Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) code, which makes those without the CPT code unusable due to the existence of many different descriptions for the same procedure; for example, an elective heart procedure had 34 entries. We add to this considerable literature by examining a subset of Florida hospitals.

In a competitive market, higher-quality goods and services require higher prices [ 23 ]. Based on this, Patel et al [ 24 ] examined the relationship between the Diagnosis-Related Group (DRG) chargemaster and quality measures. Although prior research found no convincing evidence that hospitals with greater costs also delivered better care [ 25 ], they discovered 2 important quality indicators that were linked to standard charges positively and substantially—mortality rate and readmission rates—which both are quality characteristics that are in line with economic theory. Moreover, Patel et al [ 24 ] studied the variety of one of the most commonly performed services (vaginal delivery) as a DRG code, which motivated us to select “Vaginal delivery without sterilization or D&C without CC/MCC” as another shoppable service in our analysis.

Ethical Considerations

All data used in this study, including the secondary data set obtained from hospitals’ websites and the data collected during the user experiment, underwent a thorough anonymization process. The study was conducted under protocols approved by the University of South Florida institutional review board (STUDY004145: “Effect of price transparency regulation (PTR) on the public decisions”) under HRP-502b(7) Social Behavioral Survey Consent. This approval encompassed the use of publicly available anonymized secondary data from hospitals’ websites, as well as a user experiment aimed at assessing awareness of the PT rule and the usability of hospitals’ files. No individual-specific data were collected during the experiment, which solely focused on capturing subjects’ awareness and opinions regarding the PT rule and associated files. At the onset of the experiment, participants were provided with a downloadable consent form and were allowed to withdraw their participation at any time. Survey participants were offered a US $2 reward, and their involvement was entirely anonymous.

Data Collection

According to CMS, “Starting January 1, 2021, each hospital operating in the United States will be required to provide clear, accessible pricing information online about the items and services they provide in two ways: 1- As a comprehensive machine-readable file with all items and services. 2- In a display of shoppable services in a consumer-friendly format.” As stated, files available on hospitals’ websites should be consumer-friendly, so the question of whether these files are for users arises. On the other hand, as stated, files should be machine-readable, so again the question of whether these files are for machines arises. Below we try to answer both questions in detail, respectively.

Value for Users: User Experiments

When a public announcement is disseminated, its efficacy relies on ensuring widespread awareness and facilitating practical use during times of necessity. Previous research on PT announcements has highlighted the challenges faced by patients in accurately estimating out-of-pocket expenses. However, a fundamental inquiry arises—are individuals adequately informed about the availability of tools that enable them to estimate their out-of-pocket costs for desired services? To address this, we conducted a survey to assess public awareness of PT legislation. The survey encompassed a range of yes or no and multiple-choice questions aimed at gauging participants’ familiarity with the PT rule in health care and their entitlement to obtain cost information prior to receiving a service. Additionally, we inquired about participants’ knowledge of resources for accessing pricing information and whether they were aware of the PT rule. Furthermore, we incorporated follow-up questions to ensure that the survey responses were not provided arbitrarily, thereby securing reliable and meaningful outcomes.

Moreover, considering the previously established evidence of subpar usability associated with the currently available files, we propose streamlining the existing files and developing a user-friendly and comprehensive document for conducting an A/B test. This test aims to evaluate which file better facilitates participants in accurately estimating their out-of-pocket costs. In collaboration with Florida Blue experts during biweekly meetings throughout the entire process outlined in this paper, the authors determined the optimal design for the summary table. This design, which presents prices in a more user-friendly format, enhancing overall participant comprehension, was used during the A/B testing. Participants were randomly assigned to either access the hospitals’ files or a meticulously constructed summary table, manually created in Excel, prominently displaying cost information (Please note that all files, including the hospitals’ files and our Excel file, are made available in the same format [Excel] on a cloud-based platform to eliminate any disparities in accessing the files. This ensures equitable ease of finding, downloading, and opening files, as accessing the hospitals’ files typically requires significant effort.). The experiment entailed presenting 3 distinct health-related scenarios and instructing participants to locate the price for the requested service. Subsequently, participants were asked to provide the hospital name, service price, insurer name, and insurance plan. Additionally, we sought feedback on the perceived difficulty of finding the requested service and their priority for selecting hospitals [ 26 ], followed by Likert scale questions to assess participants’ evaluation of the provided file’s efficacy in facilitating price retrieval.

The experiments were conducted to investigate the following questions: (1) Are the individuals aware of the PT legislation? and (2) Is the information provided usable for patients? To evaluate the usability of files found on websites, we selected 2 prevalent services based on existing literature and 2 other services recommended as high-demand ones by Florida Blue experts, Table 1 . Furthermore, meticulous efforts were made to ensure that both the control and treatment groups encountered identical circumstances, thus allowing for a systematic examination of the disparities solely attributable to variations in data representation.

a DRG: Diagnosis-Related Group.

b D&C: dilation and curettage.

c CC/MCC: complication or comorbidity/major complication or comorbidity.

d CPT: Current Procedural Terminology.

e MRI: magnetic resonance imaging.

Participants

A total of 67 adults (30 female individuals; mean 41.43, SD 12.39 years) were recruited on the Amazon Mechanical Turk platform, with no specific selection criteria other than being located in the United States.

We focused on 75 main hospitals (ie, the main hospital refers to distinguish a hospital from smaller clinics or specialized medical centers within the same health system) in the state of Florida. When we searched their websites for PT files (machine-readable files), only 89% (67/75) of hospitals included machine-readable files. According to the PT legislation, these files were supposed to contain information about 300 shoppable services. However, only 58% (39/67) of hospitals included information such as insurer prices in their files. Therefore, for the rest of the analysis, we only included the 39 hospitals that have the required information in their machine-readable files on their websites. We created an Excel file that included those 39 hospitals along with the 4 services—CPT 45380, 29827 and 70553 and DRG 807—mentioned in the literature ( Table 1 ) for 4 popular (suggested by Florida Blue experts) commercial carriers (Health Maintenance Organization [HMO] or Preferred Provider Organization [PPO] plans)—Aetna, Florida Blue, Cigna, and UnitedHealthcare.

Participants were recruited for the pilot and randomly assigned by the Qualtrics XM platform to answer multiple-choice questions and fill in blanks based on the given scenarios. First, participants responded to questions regarding the awareness of PT and then were divided into 2 groups randomly to answer questions regarding the usability of hospital-provided PT information. One group was assigned hospitals’ website links (control group), while the other group was given an Excel file with the same information provided in files on hospitals’ websites, but in a manner that was designed to allow easier comparison of prices across hospitals ( Multimedia Appendix 1 ). Participants were given 3 scenarios that asked them to find a procedure’s price based on their hospital and insurer selection to compare hospital-provided information with Excel. We provide some examples of hospitals’ files and our Excel file in Multimedia Appendix 1 and the survey experiment questions in Multimedia Appendix 2 .

Value for Machines: Schema Integration—Machine-Readable Files Representation

Through meticulous investigation of machine-readable files from 39 hospitals, we discovered that these files may vary in formats such as CSV or JSON, posing a challenge for machines to effectively manage the data within these files. Another significant obstacle arises from the lack of uniformity in data representation across these files, rendering them unsuitable for machine use without a cohesive system capable of processing them collectively. Our analysis revealed that hospitals within a single health system exhibit consistent data representation, although service prices may differ (we include both the same and different chargemaster prices in our study), while substantial disparities in data representation exist between hospitals affiliated with different health systems.

Moving forward, we will use the terms “data representation” and “schema” interchangeably, with “schema” denoting its database management context. In this context, a schema serves as a blueprint outlining the structure, organization, and relationships of data within a database system. It encompasses key details such as tables, fields, data types, and constraints that define the stored data. To systematically illustrate schema differences among hospitals associated with different health systems, we adopted the methodology outlined in reference [ 27 ] for schema integration, which offers a valid approach for comparing distinct data representations. The concept of schema integration encompasses four common categories: (1) identical: hospitals within the same health system adhere to this concept as their representations are identical; (2) equivalent: while hospitals in health system “A” may present different representations from those in health system “B,” they possess interchangeable columns; (3) compatible: in cases where hospitals across different health systems are neither identical nor equivalent, the modeling constructs, designer perception, and integrity constraints do not contradict one another; and (4) incompatible: in situations where hospitals within different health systems demonstrate contradictory representations, distinct columns exist for each health system due to specification incoherence.

Our analysis focused on health systems in Florida that encompassed a minimum of 4 main hospitals, using the most up-to-date data available on their respective websites. Within this scope, we identified 8 health systems with at least 4 main hospitals, of which 88% (7/8) of health systems had published machine-readable files on their websites. Consequently, our analysis included 65% (36/55) of hospitals that possessed machine-readable files available on their websites. To facilitate further investigation by interested researchers, we have made the analyzed data accessible on a cloud-based platform. During our analysis, we meticulously extracted the schema of each health system by closely scrutinizing the hospitals associated with each health system, capturing key details such as tables, fields, and data types. Subsequently, we compiled a comprehensive master field name table trying to have the same data type and field names that make it easier for machines to retrieve information. We elaborate on the master field names table in greater detail within the results section.

Value for Users

Question 1 (pt awareness).

Based on the responses, it is evident that participants need to be made aware of the PT legislation. Among the participants, 64% (49/76) reported that they had not heard about the legislation. However, they believe it is important to know the service price before receiving it—response charts are provided in Multimedia Appendix 3 .

Question 2 (Human Usability of PT Information)

Based on the responses to scenarios, the average number of correct responses is not equal between the 2 groups, that is, the treatment group (mean 1.23, SD 1.30) found more correct answers than the control group (mean 2.76, SD 0.58; t 65 =6.46; P <.049; d =1.52). The t tests (2-tailed) for the other questions in the experiment are in Multimedia Appendix 4 .

These suggest that current files on hospitals’ websites are not consumer-friendly, and participants find it challenging to estimate out-of-pocket costs for a desired service. For this reason, in addition to making the files easier to use, this information should also include thorough documentation that explains what each column represents, up to what amount an insurer covers for a specific service, or the stated price covers up to how many days of a particular service, that is, “contracting method.” For example, based on consulting with one of the senior network analysts of Florida Blue, some prices for a service like DRG 807 are presented as per diem costs, and based on the current information on these files, it cannot be recognizable without having comprehensive documentation for them.

Value for Machines

After carefully reviewing all machine-readable file schemas, we create a master field name table, including the available field names in machine-readable files ( Table 2 ). According to Table 2 , the first column represents master field names that we came up with, and the following columns each represent hospitals within a health system. The “✓” mark shows that hospitals within a health system have identical field names as we consider as master field names and the “written” cells show equivalent field names, meaning that hospitals within that health system use different field names—we write what they use in their representation—while the content is equivalent to what we select as the master field name. The “❋” mark means that although hospitals within health system #2 provide insurer names and plans in their field names, some codes make those columns unusable for machines to recognize them the same as master field names. We also include the type of field names for all representations in parentheses.

a As noted previously, since we focus on the health system level instead of the hospital level, our schema does not have hospital-level information; however, it would be beneficial to add hospital information to the table.

b ✓: it means the given master field name in that row appears on the given health system file in that column.

c str: shows “string” as the data type.

d int: shows “integer” as the data type.

e CPT: Current Procedural Terminology.

f HCPCS: Health care Common Procedure Coding System.

g Not applicable.

h Apr: all patients refined.

i DRG: Diagnosis-Related Group.

j Ms: Medicare severity.

k CDM: charge description master.

l UB: uniform billing.

m float: it shows “float” as the data type.

n ❋: it means that although hospitals within health system #2 provide insurer names and plans in their field names, some codes make those columns unusable for machines to recognize them the same as master field names.

We did reverse engineering and drew entity-relationship diagrams (ERDs) for each hospital based on their data representation. However, as hospitals within the same health system have the same ERDs, we only include 1 ERD for each health system ( Figure 1 ). According to Figure 1 , although hospitals have tried to follow an intuitive structure, we can still separate them into three groups: (1) group I: all hospitals within this group have several columns for different insurers. As shown in the ERDs, we decided to have a separate entity, called “Insurance” for this group; (2) group II: all hospitals within this group have many sheets, and each sheet belongs to a specific insurer with a specific plan. As shown in the ERDs, we decided to create an “Insurance_Name” entity for this group’s ERD to show the difference in data representation; and (3) group III: all hospitals within this system have a “payer” column which includes the names of insurers without their plans. As shown in the ERDs, we decided to put this column as an attribute in the “Service” entity, and do not have an “Insurance” entity for this group’s ERD.

In conclusion, although most hospitals have adopted group I logic for data representation, for full similarity, a standard representation with the same intuitive field names (like what we suggest as the master field name; Table 2 ) should be proposed so that it can cover all systems’ data representations and be used as machine-readable file, for at least machine benefits. Mainly, standardization in the format and semantics of the provided data can help substantially in making the data more machine friendly.

Comparison With New CMS Guidelines

Recently, CMS has published guidelines regarding the PT legislation [ 28 ]. The most recent CMS guideline is a step forward in ensuring standardization but is still only recommended and is not mandatory. These guidelines exhibit overlaps with our fields in Table 2 , with slight differences attributed to granularities. Our observation reveals that hospitals within the same health system adopt a uniform schema. Therefore, our suggested schema operates on the granularity of health systems rather than individual hospitals.

The recent CMS guidelines allocate 24% (6/25) of field names specifically to hospital information, encompassing details such as “Hospital Name,” “Hospital File Date,” “Version,” “Hospital Location,” “Hospital Financial Aid Policy,” and “Hospital Licensure Information.” These details, absent in current hospital files, are crucial for informed decision-making. As noted previously, since we focus on the health system level instead of the hospital level, our schema does not have hospital-level information; however, it would be beneficial to add hospital information to the tables.

Our analysis reveals that the 11 field names in Table 2 align with the field names in the new CMS guidelines, demonstrating a substantial overlap of 58% (11/19). The corresponding CMS field names (compatible with our schema) include “Item or Service Description (Description or CDM Service Description),” “Code (Code),” “Code Type (Code Type),” “Setting (Patient Class),” “Gross Charge (Gross Charge),” “Discounted Cash Price (Discounted Cash Price),” “Payer Name (Insurer Name),” “Plan Name (Insurer Plan),” “Payer Specific Negotiated Charge: Dollar Amount (Price),” “De-identified Minimum Negotiated Charge (Min Negotiated Rate),” and “De-identified Maximum Negotiated Charge (Max Negotiated Rate).” Additionally, both our schema and the new CMS guidelines propose data types for each field name.

In our schema, which represents current hospitals’ files, there are 5 field names absent in the new CMS guidelines “Revenue Description,” “Revenue Code,” “Package/Line Level,” “Procedure ID,” and “Self Pay.” Conversely, the new CMS guidelines introduce 8 additional field names “Billing Class,” “Drug Unit of Measurement,” “Drug Type of Measurement,” “Modifiers,” “Payer Specific Negotiated Charge: Percentage,” “Contracting Method,” “Additional Generic Notes,” and “Additional Payer-Specific Notes.” We regard these new field names as providing further detailed information and enhancing consumer decision-making. If hospitals within a health system adopt consistent formats and can map their formats to the new CMS guidelines clearly in a mapping document they also provide, this can be more useful than the current optional guideline that is suggested.

In summary, since our analysis is based on the current data schema that hospitals have in place, we believe the schema we put out is easier to implement with minimal change to what the hospitals are currently doing. However, given the recent CMS guidelines, we recommend adding 8 additional fields as well as hospital-specific information.

Implications

The PT legislation aims to enable informed decision-making, reduce out-of-pocket expenses, and decrease overall health care expenditures. This study investigates the usage of current files by individuals and machines. Our results, unfortunately, suggest that PT data—as currently reported—appear to be neither useful for patients nor machines, raising important questions as to what these appear to be achieving today. Moreover, the findings indicate that even individuals with basic computer knowledge struggle with the usability of these files, highlighting the need for significant revisions to make them consumer-friendly and accessible to individuals of all technical proficiency levels. Additionally, inconsistencies in data representation between hospitals affiliated with different health systems pose challenges for machines, necessitating schema design improvements and the implementation of a standardized data representation. By addressing these concerns, PT legislation can achieve consistency and enhance machine readability, thus improving its effectiveness in promoting informed decision-making and reducing health care costs.

Although the official announcement of PT legislation is recent, prior studies [ 15 - 17 ] have attempted to evaluate the usability of PT, while subsequent studies [ 19 - 22 ] have examined the effectiveness of PT tools following the announcement. However, despite the introduction of PT rules, it appears that the usability of these files has not undergone significant improvements, indicating the necessity for proactive measures from responsible executives to ensure the effectiveness of this legislation. Our analysis of this matter emphasizes 2 primary factors—a lack of awareness among stakeholders and the challenges associated with using files due to inconsistencies in their format and representation.

As of April 2023, the CMS has issued over 730 warning notices and 269 requests for Corrective Action Plans. A total of 4 hospitals have faced Civil Monetary Penalties for noncompliance, and these penalties are publicly disclosed on the CMS website. The remaining hospitals subjected to comprehensive compliance reviews have either rectified their deficiencies or are actively engaged in doing so. While we acknowledge these efforts to comply with PT rules, our research revealed a notable disparity in data representation among hospitals affiliated with different health systems. Consequently, we focused on schema design and proposed the implementation of a master field name that encompasses a comprehensive data representation derived from an analysis of 36 hospitals. Standardizing the data representation across all health systems’ machine-readable files will effectively address concerns about consistency. Therefore, significant modifications are required for the PT legislation to enhance machine readability and provide clearer guidance on the design and structure of the files’ schema. If the hospital-provided information is consistent and of high quality, PT tools provided by health insurers may be able to estimate an individual’s total expenses more accurately.

Limitations

Our objective was to have an equal number in both groups. However, in the case of the group tasked with obtaining information from the hospitals’ websites, most did not finish the task and dropped out without completing it. This occurred because the task of retrieving the cost from the hospitals’ websites in its current form is complex, as indicated by feedback from some participants. Only 19% (13/67) completed the task in that group (control group). Although this is a limitation of the study, it also highlights the complexity of obtaining cost information from hospitals’ websites in the current form. In the treatment group, 81% (54 out of 67) of participants completed the task of retrieving the data, and the completion percentage was much higher.

Conclusions

Due to the poor usability and inconsistency of the formats, we, unfortunately, did not find evidence that the PT rule as implemented currently is useful to consumers, researchers, or policy makers (despite the legislation’s goals that files are “consumer-friendly” and “machine-readable”). As 1 solution, we suggest a master field name for the data representation of machine-readable files to make them consistent, at least for the machines. Building tools that enable customers to estimate out-of-pocket costs is facilitated by having consistent machine-readable files across all health systems, which can be considered as future work for researchers and companies to help the PT rule reach its main goal, which is providing useful information for patients and reducing health care expenditures. In addition, another worthwhile approach to reducing some of the exorbitant health care costs in the United States would be to integrate clinical decision support tools into the providers’ workflow, triggered by orders for medications, diagnostic testing, and other billable services. In this regard, Bouayad et al [ 29 ] conducted experiments with physicians to demonstrate that PT, when included as part of the system they interact with, such as clinical decision support integrated into electronic health record systems, can significantly aid in cost reduction. This is a promising direction for practice but needs to be implemented carefully to avoid unanticipated consequences, such as scenarios where cost is incorrectly viewed as a proxy for quality, or where the use of this information introduces new biases for physicians and patients.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

Example of Excel format of hospitals’ files and our created Excel file.

Survey questions and experiment scenarios.

Participants’ responses chart regarding price transparency awareness.

The t test analysis regarding human usability of price transparency information based on participants’ responses.

McGough M, Winger A, Rakshit S, Amin K. How has U.S. spending on healthcare changed over time? Health System Tracker. 2022. URL: https://www.healthsystemtracker.org/chart-collection/u-s-spending-healthcare-changed-time/ [accessed 2024-03-13]
Christensen HB, Floyd E, Maffett M. The only prescription is transparency: the effect of charge-price-transparency regulation on healthcare prices. Manag Sci. 2020;66(7):2861-2882. [ CrossRef ]
Muir MA, Alessi SA, King JS. Clarifying costs: can increased price transparency reduce healthcare spending? UC Hastings Research Paper No. 38 (SSRN). Feb 26, 2013.:319-367. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ]
Reinhardt UE. Health care price transparency and economic theory. JAMA. 2014;312(16):1642-1643. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
CY 2020 hospital Outpatient Prospective Payment System (OPPS) policy changes: hospital price transparency requirements (CMS-1717-F2). CMS.gov. 2020. URL: https://tinyurl.com/mrafxtvd [accessed 2024-03-13]
Secretary Azar statement on proposed rule for hospital price transparency. HHS.gov. 2020. URL: https://tinyurl.com/yc4dx2vx [accessed 2024-03-13]
Mehrotra A, Brannen T, Sinaiko AD. Use patterns of a state health care price transparency web site: what do patients shop for? Inquiry. 2014;51:0046958014561496. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Desai S, Hatfield LA, Hicks AL, Sinaiko AD, Chernew ME, Cowling D, et al. Offering a price transparency tool did not reduce overall spending among California public employees and retirees. Health Aff (Millwood). 2017;36(8):1401-1407. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Sinaiko AD, Joynt Maddox KE, Rosenthal MB. Association between viewing health care price information and choice of health care facility. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(12):1868-1870. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Desai S, Hatfield LA, Hicks AL, Chernew ME, Mehrotra A. Association between availability of a price transparency tool and outpatient spending. JAMA. 2016;315(17):1874-1881. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Sinaiko AD, Rosenthal MB. Examining a health care price transparency tool: who uses it, and how they shop for care. Health Aff (Millwood). 2016;35(4):662-670. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Desai SM, Shambhu S, Mehrotra A. Online advertising increased New Hampshire residents' use of provider price tool but not use of lower-price providers. Health Aff (Millwood). 2021;40(3):521-528. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Kona M, Corlette S. Hospital and insurer price transparency rules now in effect but compliance is still far away. Health Affairs Forefront. 2022. URL: hhttps://tinyurl.com/3x6ymxf2 [accessed 2024-03-13]
Wheeler C, Taylor R. New year, new CMS price transparency rule for hospitals. Health Affairs Forefront. 2021. URL: https://www.healthaffairs.org/content/forefront/new-year-new-cms-price-transparency-rule-hospitals [accessed 2024-03-13]
Chernew M, Cooper Z, Larsen-Hallock E, Morton FS. Are health care services shoppable? Evidence from the consumption of lower-limb MRI scans. National Bureau of Economic Research. 2021. URL: https://www.nber.org/papers/w24869 [accessed 2024-03-13]
Mehrotra A, Dean KM, Sinaiko AD, Sood N. Americans support price shopping for health care, but few actually seek out price information. Health Aff (Millwood). 2017;36(8):1392-1400. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Brown ZY. Equilibrium effects of health care price information. Rev Econ Stat. 2019;101(4):699-712. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ]
Wu SJ, Sylwestrzak G, Shah C, DeVries A. Price transparency for MRIs increased use of less costly providers and triggered provider competition. Health Aff (Millwood). 2014;33(8):1391-1398. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Glover M, Whorms DS, Singh R, Almeida RR, Prabhakar AM, Saini S, et al. A radiology-focused analysis of transparency and usability of top U.S. hospitals' chargemasters. Acad Radiol. 2020;27(11):1603-1607. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Hayatghaibi SE, Alves VV, Ayyala RS, Dillman JR, Trout AT. Transparency and variability in pricing for pediatric outpatient imaging in US children's hospitals. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(3):e220736. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Arvisais-Anhalt S, McDonald S, Park JY, Kapinos K, Lehmann CU, Basit M. Survey of hospital chargemaster transparency. Appl Clin Inform. 2021;12(2):391-398. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Reddy S, Daly G, Baban S, Kadesh A, Block AE, Grimes CL. Accessibility and usability of hospital chargemasters in New York state. J Gen Intern Med. 2022;37(8):2130-2131. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Robinson JC. Hospital quality competition and the economics of imperfect information. Milbank Q. 1988;66(3):465-481. [ Medline ]
Patel KN, Mazurenko O, Ford E. Analysis of hospital quality measures and web-based chargemasters, 2019: cross-sectional study. JMIR Form Res. 2021;5(8):e26887. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Batty M, Ippolito B. Mystery of the chargemaster: examining the role of hospital list prices in what patients actually pay. Health Aff (Millwood). 2017;36(4):689-696. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Muhlestein DB, Wilks CEA, Richter JP. Limited use of price and quality advertising among American hospitals. J Med Internet Res. 2013;15(8):e185. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
Batini C, Lenzerini M, Navathe SB. A comparative analysis of methodologies for database schema integration. ACM Comput Surv. 1986;18(4):323-364. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ]
Voluntary hospital price transparency machine-readable file sample format data dictionary (version 1.1). CMS.gov. URL: https://www.cms.gov/files/document/hospital-price-transparency-machine-readable-data-dictionary-tall.pdf [accessed 2024-03-13]
Bouayad L, Padmanabhan B, Chari K. Can recommender systems reduce healthcare costs? the role of time pressure and cost transparency in prescription choice. MIS Q. 2020;44(4):1859-1903. [ CrossRef ]

Abbreviations

Edited by S He; submitted 07.07.23; peer-reviewed by KN Patel, R Marshall, G Deckard; comments to author 03.12.23; revised version received 21.01.24; accepted 26.02.24; published 29.03.24.

©Negar Maleki, Balaji Padmanabhan, Kaushik Dutta. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 29.03.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Publications
Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

Advanced Search
Journal List
Arab J Urol
v.12(1); 2014 Mar

Why should I do research? Is it a waste of time?

Athanasios dellis.

a 2nd Department of Surgery, Aretaieion Hospital, University of Athens, Greece

Andreas Skolarikos

b 2nd Department of Urology, Sismanogleion Hospital, University of Athens, Greece

Athanasios G. Papatsoris

• In medicine, research is the search for scientific knowledge, which is crucial for the development of novel medications and techniques.
• Conducting research provides a deeper understanding of several scientific topics of the specialty of each doctor.
• Research through RCTs represents the principal methodological approach.
• There are two main research processes; qualitative and quantitative studies.
• It is important to develop Research Units in hospitals and medical centres.
• Ethics and the high quality of research are ensured by committees (i.e., Internal Board Review, Ethics Research Committee).
• Research sessions could be implemented in the job plans of doctors.
• Research is not a waste of time, but a scientific investment.

To answer the questions ‘Why should I do research? Is it a waste of time?’ and present relevant issues.

Medline was used to identify relevant articles published from 2000 to 2013, using the following keywords ‘medicine’, ‘research’, ‘purpose’, ‘study’, ‘trial’, ‘urology’.

Research is the most important activity to achieve scientific progress. Although it is an easy process on a theoretical basis, practically it is a laborious process, and full commitment and dedication are of paramount importance. Currently, given that the financial crisis has a key influence in daily practice, the need to stress the real purpose of research is crucial.

Research is necessary and not a waste of time. Efforts to improving medical knowledge should be continuous.

What is research?

Research is a general term that covers all processes aiming to find responses to worthwhile scientific questions by means of a systematic and scientific approach. In fact, research is the search for scientific knowledge, a systematically formal process to increase the fund of knowledge and use it properly for the development of novel applications.

There are several types of research, such as basic science laboratory research, translational research, and clinical and population-based research. Medical research through randomised clinical trials (RCTs) represents the principal methodological approach for the structured assessment of medical outcomes. RCTs provide prospective and investigator-controlled studies, representing the highest level of evidence (LoE) and grade of recommendation, and define the ultimate practice guideline [1] . However, many constraints, such as ethical, economic and/or social issues, render the conduct of RCTs difficult and their application problematic. For instance, in one of the largest RCTs in urology, on preventing prostate cancer with finasteride, the LoE was 1 [2] . In this RCT, after 7 years of finasteride chemoprevention, the rate of cancer decreased from 24.4% to 18.4%. Based on this study, it could be postulated that finasteride chemoprevention should be offered to men in the general population in an attempt to reduce the risk of prostate cancer. However, the findings of this RCT could not be implemented universally due to financial issues [3] .

There are two main research processes, i.e., qualitative and quantitative studies. Although very different in structure and methods, these studies represent two arms of the same research body. Qualitative studies are based mainly on human experience, using notions and theoretical information without quantifying variables, while quantitative studies record information obtained from participants in a numerical form, to enable a statistical analysis of the data. Therefore, quantitative studies can be used to establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables.

From a practical perspective, adding a Research Unit to a Medical Department would ultimately enhance clinical practice and education. As such, almost all hospitals in Western countries have research and development (R&D) departments, where the R&D can be linked with clinical innovation. Basic areas in this field include business planning, sales policies and activities, model design, and strategic propositions and campaign development. However, if researchers are not motivated, the research could be counterproductive, and the whole process could ultimately be a waste of time and effort [4] .

The ethics and the high quality of research are ensured by committees, such as the Internal Review Board, and Ethics Research Committees, especially in academic hospitals. They consist of highly educated and dedicated scientists of good faith as well as objectivity, to be the trustees of ethical and properly designed and performed studies.

Do we need research?

Research is the fuel for future progress and it has significantly shaped perspectives in medicine. In urology there are numerous examples showing that current practice has rapidly changed as a result of several key research findings. For example, from the research of Huggins and Hodges (who won the Nobel Prize in 1966), hormone therapy has become the standard treatment for patients with advanced/metastatic prostate cancer. The use of ESWL to treat stones in the urinary tract is another example of research that has improved practice in urology. The current trend in urology to use robotic assistance in surgery is a relatively recent example of how constant research worldwide improves everyday clinical practice [5] . Furthermore, in a more sophisticated field, research is used to identify factors influencing decision-making, clarify the preferred alternatives, and encourage the selection of a preferred screening option in diseases such as prostate cancer [6,7] .

Conducting research provides a deeper understanding of several scientific topics within the specialty of each doctor. Furthermore, it helps doctors of a particular specialty to understand better the scientific work of other colleagues. Despite the different areas of interest between the different specialties, there are common research methods.

In a University, PhD and MSc students concentrate their efforts at higher research levels. Apart from having to produce a challenging and stimulating thesis, young researchers try to develop their analytical, conceptual and critical thinking skills to the highest academic level. Also, postgraduate students thus prepare themselves for a future job in the global market.

During the research process several approaches can be tested and compared for their safety and efficacy, while the results of this procedure can be recorded and statistically analysed to extract the relevant results. Similarly, any aspects of false results and side-effects, e.g., for new medications, can be detected and properly evaluated to devise every possible improvement. Hence, research components under the auspices of dedicated supervisors, assisted by devoted personnel, are of utmost importance. Also, funding is a catalyst for the optimum progress of the research programme, and it must be independent from any other financial source with a possible conflict. Unfortunately, in cases of economic crisis in a hospital, the first department that is trimmed is research.

Is research time a waste of time?

Even if the right personnel are appointed and the funding is secured, it would be a great mistake to believe that the results are guaranteed. Full commitment and dedication are of utmost importance for successful research. Also, these questions are raised in relation to the scientific papers that are accepted for publication in medical journals. About US$ 160 billion is spent every year on biomedical research [8] . Recently, in the Lancet [9] it was estimated that 85% of research is wasteful or inefficient, with deficiencies presented in the following questions: (1) is the research question relevant for clinicians or patients?; (2) are the design and methods appropriate?; (3) is the full report accessible?; (4) is it unbiased and clinically meaningful? Such questions about the importance, purpose and impact of research should surely be answered during the research. The view of the general public is that the purpose of medical research is to advance knowledge for the good of society, to invent new substances to fight disease, to create diagnostic and therapeutic algorithms, to improve public health, to prevent diseases, to improve the quality of life and to prolong overall survival.

Pharmaceutical companies that sponsor research are financially orientated. This fact leads to a sole result, i.e., profit, as a return on their investment. In this framework it would be impossible for academic institutions to operate on any other basis but finance. Economic indicators, even better benefits and the commercial potential of research are important for their survival. Nevertheless, the purpose of research is more than that. It is time to reframe the way research is done and rewarded, leaving profits in second place. We need to remind ourselves about the real purpose of scientific research. Moreover, we need to decide what research is needed and what impact it is likely to have. Researchers and those who benefit from research (i.e., patients, practising doctors) have a crucial role in the research process. Academic institutions should assess and reward researchers on a long-term basis, and help them to concentrate on meaningful research. Researchers must defend their selection of topics as being those appropriate to benefit public health.

Each medical specialty has a different working plan, and surgical specialties such as urology are characterised by a lack of time for research. It is suggested that specific sessions for research could be implemented in the job plan of urologists, and for other doctors. This is more important for the ‘academic doctor’, but even non-academic doctors could undertake research, if only of the current updated medical literature.

Last but not least is the issue of teaching research to junior doctors. This is very important, as the sooner each doctor is involved in the research process the better for his or her career. Even for junior doctors who are not interested in an academic career, understanding the research process helps them to develop their scientific skills. Young doctors should be motivated to understand and undertake research. However, it is important to guide them through the basic principles of research and to mentor them during their first scientific projects. Furthermore, specific academic training opportunities should be offered within developing programmes, such as the academic specialist registrar’s career pathways in the UK [10] .

In conclusion, research is necessary and not a waste of time. All relevant components of the research engine should co-operate to achieve scientific progress that will help patients and the general population.

Take-home messages

• Ethics and the high quality of research are ensured by committees (i.e. Internal Board Review, Ethical Research Committee).

Conflict of interest

Source of funding.

Peer review under responsibility of Arab Association of Urology.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is fx1.jpg

Balancing Carbon Footprints and Nutrition The Importance of Considering Meat’s Nutritional Value in Environmental Assessments

T he study conducted by Hybu Cig Cymru—Meat Promotion Wales Bangor University, Queen’s University, and the Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute AFBI sheds light on a crucial aspect often overlooked in discussions about the environmental impact of meat production: the nutritional value of meat. Published in the journal Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, the research emphasizes the need to consider the nutritional density of meat when assessing its carbon footprint.

Lamb production systems vary widely, ranging from low-input systems, where lambs primarily graze on grass, to higher-input systems that incorporate concentrate feed alongside forage. The study, drawing on data from the Welsh Lamb Meat Quality project, focused on the “finishing” period of lamb production, examining how different finishing diets affect the carbon footprint of lamb meat on a nutritional basis.

Dr. Eleri Thomas, Future Policy and Project Development Executive at Hybu Cig Cymru—Meat Promotion Wales and co-author of the paper, underscores the significance of the findings for the farming sector. She emphasizes that while reducing greenhouse gas emissions is crucial, metrics used to assess the carbon footprint of lamb often overlook its nutritional value and contribution to balanced diets.

The research highlights that lamb can be a valuable source of polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, which are essential for human health. By analyzing data from 33 farms using different finishing diets, the team estimated the carbon footprint of lamb produced from each system. This involved calculating the carbon emissions per unit of product and considering the nutritional content of the meat.

Interestingly, when assessing the carbon footprint per unit of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, lambs finished on grass diets exhibited the lowest carbon footprint for cuts from the loin. This challenges the conventional mass-based approach to carbon footprint assessment, which may not accurately reflect the nutritional differences among meat products.

Elizabeth Swancott, Market Intelligence, Research, and Development Senior Officer for Hybu Cig Cymru—Meat Promotion Wales, underscores the importance of considering nutrition when evaluating the environmental impact of nutrient-dense foods like lamb. While mass-based units are commonly used for comparing environmental efficiencies, they fail to capture the nuanced relationship between farming systems and nutritional outcomes.

In conclusion, the study underscores the need for a holistic approach to assessing the environmental impact of meat production. By incorporating nutritional considerations into carbon footprint assessments, policymakers, farmers, and consumers can make more informed decisions that prioritize both environmental sustainability and human health. As we navigate the complexities of sustainable food systems, acknowledging the symbiotic relationship between nutrition and environmental impact is essential for building a more resilient and equitable future.

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 1.4.2024 in Vol 8 (2024)

Development and Evaluation of a Digital App for Patient Self-Management of Opioid Use Disorder: Usability, Acceptability, and Utility Study

Authors of this article:

IMAGES

Why is Research Important for Undergraduate Students?
7 Reasons Why Research Is Important
Importance of Research
Why Research is Important for Students, Humans, Education
Why research? Exploring the reasons for The Education Hub’s raison d
15 Reasons Why Research Is Important

VIDEO

Importance of Research and Development
Importance of Research
Intro to hypothesis, Types functions
RESEARCH CRITIQUE: Quantitative Study
Buddhist Philosophy for Enhancing well-being in Modern Society
Tips for Better Financial Management

COMMENTS

7 Reasons Why Research Is Important
Studies and Articles About the Importance of Research. In his article "Epistemology," Yale University's David Truncellito identifies three kinds of knowledge: procedural (competence or know-how), acquaintance (familiarity), and propositional (description of "a fact or a state of affairs").. Brain Research UK (formerly Brain Research Trust), a medical-research charity based in the United ...
What Is Research, and Why Do People Do It?
And, because research is a social practice, you should also think about whether the results of your study are likely to be important and significant to the education community. If you are doing research in the way we have described—as scientific inquiry—then one purpose of your study is to understand , not just to describe or evaluate or ...
Significance of the Study
Significance of the study in research refers to the potential importance, relevance, or impact of the research findings. It outlines how the research contributes to the existing body of knowledge, what gaps it fills, or what new understanding it brings to a particular field of study. In general, the significance of a study can be assessed based ...
PDF The Vital Role of Research in Improving Education
The American Educational Research Association (AERA) defines education research in part as "the scientific field of study that examines education and learning processes and the human attributes, interactions, organizations, and institutions that shape educational outcomes." Education research uncovers the evidence that policymakers
PDF Why research is important
Why research is important 3 concepts or constructs. A piece of research is embedded in a frame-work or way of seeing the world. Second, research involves the application of a method, which has been designed to achieve knowledge that is as valid and truthful as possible. 4 The products of research are propositions or statements. There is a
2.1 Why is Research Important
Appreciate how scientific research can be important in making personal decisions. Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people's authority, and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact ...
2.1 Why Is Research Important?
Discuss how scientific research guides public policy. Appreciate how scientific research can be important in making personal decisions. Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people's authority, and blind luck.
Undergraduate students' involvement in research: Values, benefits
1. Introduction. As the world evolves, the need for research grows, and it remains a factor of key importance in creating a knowledge-driven economy and supporting development initiatives as well as driving innovations across all fields [].It is becoming more and more important to increase undergraduate student involvement in research [].Academic institutions, faculty mentors, and students can ...
Undergraduate Research: Importance, Benefits, and Challenges
Thus, the research process has a very favorable impact on valuable learning objectives as undergraduates prepare for their respective professions. Further benefits to the student have been reported and disseminated from the SURE study (Survey of Undergraduate Research Experiences) . Undergraduate students who completed a mentored research ...
The Importance of Undergraduate Research: A Gateway to Possibilities
As clinical research is the precursor to gaining regulatory approvals, a new drug/technology can be brought to market, data integrity is of the upmost importance, and many additional requirements must be implemented to ensure studies are performed in compliance with expectations set forth by regulatory bodies.
40+ Reasons Why Research Is Important in Education
Research gives us better knowledge workers. There is a tremendous value for our society from student participation in scientific research. At all levels - undergraduate, master's, and Ph.D. —students learn the scientific method that has driven progress since the Enlightenment over 300 years ago.. They learn to observe carefully and organize collected data efficiently.
What Is the Importance of Research? 5 Reasons Why Research is Critical
Builds up credibility. People are willing to listen and trust someone with new information on one condition - it's backed up. And that's exactly where research comes in. Conducting studies on new and unfamiliar subjects, and achieving the desired or expected outcome, can help people accept the unknown.
The Importance of Research to Students
The same is true for the health sciences. Without research, advancements that have improved some lives and saved others may not have come to pass. For universities, the research component allows for a broader educational experience whereby students are able to explore the effects of applying new thought processes through study and testing.
The Role Of Research At Universities: Why It Matters
Strength in research helps to define a university's "brand" in the national and international marketplace, impacting everything from student recruitment, to faculty retention, to attracting ...
1 Chapter 1: The Importance of Research Methods and Becoming an
Research Study 9. In the mid-1970s, the number of offenders on probation began to significantly increase. By the mid-1980s, probation was the most frequently used sentence in most states and its use was becoming more common for felons, whereas previously, probation was typically limited to misdemeanor crimes and offenses committed by juveniles.
Understanding relevance of health research: considerations in the
Thus, though the concept of relevance is of central importance to the health research enterprise, the failure to unpack it or explore it both theoretically and practically leaves room for misunderstanding and misapplication. ... (e.g. prior to the initiation of a research study or at different points in time post-completion) and is therefore ...
What Is the Importance of Research in Nursing?
January 26, 2024. Research is a crucial aspect of nursing practice that significantly impacts patient care, healthcare policies, and the advancement of nursing practices. In this article, we will explore the role of research in nursing and its importance in enhancing clinical practice, patient safety, policy-making, and professional growth.
Six Reasons Why Research Is Important
2- Research Helps in Problem-solving. The goal of the research is to broaden our understanding. Research gives us the information and knowledge to solve problems and make decisions. To differentiate between research that attempts to advance our knowledge and research that seeks to apply pre-existing information to real-world situations.
What Is Ethics in Research and Why Is It Important?
Codes and Policies for Research Ethics. Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. ... The research protocol for a study of a drug on ...
Peer review in The importance of individual beliefs in assessing
The major strengths include the innovative and important research question, the inclusion of four different studies with different techniques and populations to address this question, sound statistical analyses, and findings that are of high interest and relevance to the field. The paper will have significant impact on the field.
Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) Directions and Examples
Access the Worksheet and Directions in Word (25 KB) and Worksheet and Directions in PDF (157 KB). Plan-Do-Study-Act Directions and Examples. The Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) method is a way to test a change that is implemented. Going through the prescribed four steps guides the thinking process into breaking down the task into steps and then evaluating the outcome, improving on it, and testing again.
The Importance of Research—A Student Perspective
Abstract. As students, we will focus on the importance of an objective ranking system, research, and mentorship to an applicant. We will address points raised in the (Behavior Analysis In Practice 8 (1):7-15, 2015) article as well as debate the usefulness of proposed standards of objective ranking. Keywords: Graduate school, Graduate training ...
Innocenti Global Office of Research and Foresight
Research and foresight that drive change for children Our projects and reports. Latest work Report. Early Childhood Education Systems in Pacific Islands ... Understanding the importance of intergenerational collaboration Read the story. Article. Celebrating women in education A closer look at female teachers and school leaders Read the story.
Epigenetics is of critical importance in autoimmune-related skin
One of the research team's earlier studies demonstrated that the IFI44L promoter methylation level is a very sensitive and specific diagnostic biomarker for SLE. This research finding was ...
Perceptions towards pronatalist policies in Singapore
This study examines perceptions towards pronatalist policies among men and women in Singapore and compares which policies are perceived as the most important contributors to the conduciveness for childbearing. ... History and use of relative importance indices in organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 7(3), 238-257. https ...
What the data says about abortion in the U.S.
Pew Research Center has conducted many surveys about abortion over the years, providing a lens into Americans' views on whether the procedure should be legal, among a host of other questions. In a Center survey conducted nearly a year after the Supreme Court's June 2022 decision that ended the constitutional right to abortion, ...
Journal of Medical Internet Research
However, they believe it is important to know the service price before receiving it. Based on the responses to the second part of the experiment (human usability of PT information), the average number of correct responses was not equal between the 2 groups, that is, the treatment group (mean 1.23, SD 1.30) found more correct answers than the ...
Why should I do research? Is it a waste of time?
Research is the most important activity to achieve scientific progress. Although it is an easy process on a theoretical basis, practically it is a laborious process, and full commitment and dedication are of paramount importance. ... Although very different in structure and methods, these studies represent two arms of the same research body ...
Balancing Carbon Footprints and Nutrition The Importance of ...
Elizabeth Swancott, Market Intelligence, Research, and Development Senior Officer for Hybu Cig Cymru—Meat Promotion Wales, underscores the importance of considering nutrition when evaluating the ...
JMIR Formative Research
Objective: This study aimed to conduct an acceptability, usability, and utility pilot study of the KIOS app to address these clinical needs. Methods: We developed a unique, patient-centered computational software system (KIOS; Biomedical Development Corporation) to assist in managing OUD in an outpatient, methadone maintenance clinic setting.

Significance of the Study – Examples and Writing Guide

Significance of the Study

Types of Significance of the Study

Theoretical Significance

Practical Significance

Significance for Future Research

How to Write Significance of the Study

Significance of the Study in Research Paper

Significance of the Study In Thesis

Significance of the Study in Research Proposal

Examples of Significance of the Study

When to Write Significance of the Study

Advantages of Significance of the Study

Limitations of Significance of the Study

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

You may also like

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and...

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

2.1 Why is Research Important

USE OF RESEARCH INFORMATION

THE PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Answers to Exercises

Share This Book

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

Use of Research Information

Link to Learning

NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

The Process of Scientific Research

40+ Reasons Why Research Is Important in Education

Research develops students into becoming more self-sufficient

Research provides a path to progress and prosperity

It plants the seeds for scientific inquiry into the next generation

Research serves many purposes

It enables us to hear other perspectives

It provides explanations and bigger picture interpretations

Research gives us better knowledge workers

It helps educators have greater confidence to help students achieve outcomes

It supports vulnerable student populations

Research creates new knowledge and better ideas

Research provides answers to complicated problems

Basic understanding of research aids students in making informed decisions

It enables people to discover different ideas

Genuine research opens young people’s eyes to facts and opinions

It allows us to understand progress and areas of development

Research represents stakeholders’ aspirations and needs

Research makes the problem clearer

Research boosts critical thinking skills

Research promotes curiosity

Research boosts confidence and self-esteem

Research helps students evolve into independent learners

Research helps revamp the curriculum and include proven best techniques

It enables a better understanding of how to adapt methods of instruction

It’s the most important tool for expanding our knowledge

It creates better experiences and improves the quality of education

It leads to more effective educational approaches

Research helps everyone in the education field to become better

Research gives schools confidence to adopt different practices

It measures the impact of innovations

It provides numerous advantages to explore profession

It offers factual or evidence-based learning approach

Research helps to improve the education system

Research fuels your knowledge bank

It improves the learning curve

It builds up understanding and perspective

Solid research is a skill you need in all careers

Research enables you to weigh sources and find the best ones

Research makes you more persuasive

Research helps build holistic knowledge

Research helps you become more empathic

Research teaches you how to learn

It helps us learn about the status quo of existing literature

Research supplements knowledge gaps

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the ultimate goal of a research?

How can research improve the quality of life?