language proficiency essay

2 Chapter 2: Language Proficiency and Communicative Competence

• Language proficiency is multidimensional and entails linguistic, cognitive, and sociocultural factors.
• As students learn a second language, they progress at different rates along a continuum of predictable stages.
• CAN DO Descriptors depict what students can do with language at different levels of language proficiency.
• Communicative competence involves more than linguistic or grammatical competence.
• Native languages, cultures, and life experiences are resources to be tapped and provide a solid foundation for learning language and content.

As you read the scenario below, think about English language learners (ELLs) you may know. What are their language proficiency levels? How is instruction planned to address their different content and language needs? Reflect on how knowledge of their English language proficiency might help teachers better address their unique needs and tap their strengths.

Scenario Rudi Heinz’s head was swimming: state content standards, national content standards, state English language development standards, Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL) English language proficiency standards, WIDA [1] standards, district mandates, mandatory curriculum. It was becoming overwhelming to try to fit all of the different and sometimes conflicting objectives together into a coherent lesson. “How can I possibly teach all of this? Why do I have to worry about English language development standards anyway?” moaned Rudi to himself. “That’s the English department’s job—or the ELL teacher’s job—not mine! I teach history!” Suddenly the picture of a bumbling juggler (with himself in the lead role) trying to add one more item to his routine sprang into his mind. Like many others, Rudi was a creative guy with a passion for teaching. Sure, stress affected his ability to be creative, but he refused to give up. He drew courage, strength, and inspiration from the memory of the smiling and inquisitive faces of Roman, Marina, Yelena, Augusto, Faridah, and Kumar. Rudi turned once again to the history and English language proficiency standards spread out before him. Each one of his English learners was a unique individual with specific strengths and weaknesses in both language and content. These diverse needs made lesson planning challenging, but his ELL kids were counting on him to find a way to communicate with them. Rudi was determined to do just that.

STOP AND DO

To assist you with the pronunciation of many foreign names, visit How to Say that Name.com. Many names are available with audio files by native speakers.

STOP AND THINK

Think about the English learners you know. What information do you already have that would help to inform the strategies you can use to meet their instructional needs? What information do you still need to obtain?

Language Proficiency

Language proficiency can be defined as the ability to use language accurately and appropriately in its oral and written forms in a variety of settings (Cloud, Genesee, & Hamayan, 2000). Kern (2000) developed a broad conceptual framework for understanding language proficiency that includes three dimensions of academic literacy: linguistic, cognitive, and sociocultural. To be proficient in a language requires knowledge and skills using the linguistic components. It also requires background knowledge, critical thinking and metacognitive skills, as well as understanding and applying cultural nuances, beliefs, and practices in context. Finally, being proficient in a language requires skill in using appropriately the four language domains—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—for a variety of purposes, in a variety of situations, with a variety of audiences.

Language Domains

There are four language domains: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Although these four domains are interrelated, they can develop at different rates and independently of one another. These four domains can be classified as receptive or productive skills and as oral or written. The matrix in Figure 2.1 depicts the four language domains.

Figure 2.1 Language domains. Receptive language refers to the information someone receives through listening or reading activities. Listening. English learners process, understand, and respond to spoken language from a variety of speakers for a range of purposes in a variety of situations. Listening, however, is not a passive skill; it requires the active pursuit of meaning. Reading. English learners process, interpret, and evaluate written words, symbols, and other visual cues used in texts to convey meaning. Learning to read in a second language may be hindered or enhanced by students’ levels of literacy in their native languages. Students who have strong reading foundations in their first languages bring with them literacy skills that can typically be transferred to the process of learning to read in English. Productive language refers to the information produced to convey meaning. The very nature of productive language implies an audience, although not always an immediate audience, as in the case of writing a book or an e-mail. Speaking. English learners engage in oral communication in a variety of situations for a variety of purposes and audiences in a wide array of social, cultural, and academic contexts. Contextual roles for getting and keeping the floor, turn taking, and the way in which children converse with adults are only a few examples. Writing. English learners engage in written communication in a variety of forms for a variety of purposes and audiences. These forms include expressing meaning through drawing, symbols, and/or text. ELLs may come with writing styles and usages that are influenced by their home cultures. Understanding the different demands of each language domain aids educators in addressing the language learning needs of their ELLs. Note that proficiency in a language may vary across the four basic language skills. For example, think about the times we have heard an adult language learner say, “I can read German, but I can’t speak it at all.” Likewise, some ELLs may have stronger listening and speaking skills, while others might be stronger writers but not as strong when it comes to speaking. When assessing the proficiency levels of ELLs, it is important to take into account an individual student’s performances in each domain.

Rudi Heinz has learned that his sixth-grade ELL student, Faridah, scored at a Level 2 on the state’s English language proficiency (ELP) exam. However, this information provides an incomplete and misleading picture of Faridah’s needs and abilities. To address her language needs effectively, to understand the impact of her language proficiencies in the content areas, and to build on her language strengths, Rudi must uncover Faridah’s individual scores in every language domain and in combinations of domains. Faridah’s cumulative file holds a copy of the state’s language proficiency test, which she completed the previous spring. Here are the scores (on a scale from 1 to 4, with 4 being advanced proficiency):

Rudi felt some degree of success at locating the language proficiency information, but he still wondered what to do next. How are these scores helpful? What do they mean in the real-life context of the busy classroom?

English Language Proficiency

As students learn a second, third, or fourth language, they move along a continuum of predictable stages. Careful observation of and interaction with individual students aids educators in identifying each student’s level of language proficiency. This information is pivotal when planning appropriate instruction for ELLs. State English language proficiency (ELP) standards (e.g., Washington state ELPs at http://www.k12.wa.us/MigrantBilingual/ELD.aspx ) or multistate ELPs (e.g., TESOL’s 2006 PreK–12 English language proficiency Standards, or WIDA’s 2012 English language development standards at https://wida.wisc.edu/sites/default/files/resource/2012-ELD-Standards.pdf ) provide helpful guidance for teaching content across the four language domains. TESOL’s five preK–12 English language proficiency standards (see Figure 2.2) can guide teachers in helping ELs become proficient in English while, at the same time, achieving in the content areas.

Figure 2.2 PreK-12 Englis Language Proficiency Standards. Source: PreK-12 English Language Proficiency Standards by TESOL. Copyright 2006 by Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL). Reprinted with permission.

English Language Proficiency Levels

Students progress through the stages of language proficiency at different rates: some acquire nativelike competency in 7 years, some may take 10 years, while others may never reach that level. Most students learning a second language follow a similar route; that is, certain linguistic forms and rules are acquired early, whereas others tend to be acquired late, as illustrated in Figure 2.3. In other words, while most students follow the same path in learning English, their pace and rate are different depending on a variety of factors, such as native language, familiarity with the Latin alphabet, competence in the native language, age, previous schooling experiences, aptitude, motivation, personality, and other social and psychological factors.

Figure 2.3 Acquisition of English features While many states have developed their own sets of standards and may use four, five, or six proficiency levels or apply different labels for each stage (e.g., beginning, early intermediate, intermediate, early advanced, and advanced), the standards outline the progression of English language development in the four domains of listening, speaking, reading, and writing through each of the different levels from novice to proficient.

Check examples of state English language proficiency standards for K–12 education on the website for the state of California at http://www.cde.ca.gov/be/st/ss/documents/englangdevstnd.pdf ; Illinois at https://www.isbe.net/Pages/English-Language-Learning-Standards.aspx ; and Texas at http://ipsi.utexas.edu/EST/files/standards/ELPS/ELPS.pdf The English language proficiency (ELP) standards developed by TESOL provide a model of the process of language acquisition that can be adapted by districts and states within the context of their own language leveling system (see Figure 2.4 for these standards).

Figure 2.4 Levels of language proficiency Source: PreK-12 English Language Proficiency Standards by TESOL. Copyright 2006 by Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL). Reprinted with permission. The language proficiency levels are not necessarily connected to cognitive functions. Often students may be able to process advanced cognitive tasks and yet not be able to express those understandings in the second language. For example, Level 1 or Level 2 English language learners can still analyze and classify information if it is presented in small chunks and supported visually.

Take a moment to recall the information Rudi Heinz collected about Faridah’s English language proficiency test scores:

Using the information presented in the preceding section, answer the following questions.

• What are Faridah’s strengths?
• How does this information help Rudi plan instruction for Faridah?
• What can Rudi reasonably expect Faridah to understand and do in his ancient history class?
• Is that all there is to learning a language?

Communicative Competence

Pike (1982), notes that “[l]anguage is not merely a set of unrelated sounds, clauses, rules, and meanings; it is a total coherent system of these integrating with each other, and with behavior, context, universe of discourse, and observer perspective” (p. 44). As early as the 1970s, Dell Hymes (1972) put forward a notion of linguistic competence to mean more than mastery of formal linguistic systems. Communication is not only about oral and written language. When we speak, our speech is often accompanied by nonverbal communications such as facial expressions, gestures, body movement, and sighs. The way we stand, the distance between our listeners and us, the looks on our faces, and our tone of voice all influence the manner and content of our communication. While the ability to correctly form words, sentences, paragraphs, and larger bodies of text is an important expectation by schools and educators, the area of communicative competence can sometimes be overlooked. Briefly, the idea of communicative competence is the communicator’s comprehensive knowledge and appropriate application of a language in a specific context. This knowledge helps the communicator know what to communicate and, more important, how, when, and where to communicate something. For example, the following exchange between a principal and her middle school Honduran student includes appropriate grammatical features but much more information than needed:

While Antonio’s grammatical constructions are acceptable, in U.S. settings this may not be the response expected by a principal or teacher because it contains much more information than needed.

• Can you recall any conversations with English language learners and/or their families that are similar to the example involving Antonio above?
• What did you find inappropriate in the example(s) that you recalled?
• Why was that instance from your student (or from his or her family member) inappropriate? By whose standards?

Elements of Communicative Competence

Communicative competence does not apply only to oral language. Communicative competence means competence in all four language domains—both the productive and the receptive. When talking of communicative competence, we need to consider four important elements: grammatical or linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. Each will be defined below. Examples are provided in Figure 2.6.

• Grammatical or linguistic competencies involve accuracy of language used (e.g., spelling, vocabulary, sentence formation, pronunciation).
• Sociolinguistic competencies entail the use of language in an appropriate manner or style in a given context. These competencies take into account a variety of factors such as rules and social conventions, the status of participants, and cultural norms.
• Discourse competencies involve the ability to connect correctly formed phrases and sentences into a coherent and cohesive message in a particular style. These competencies involve the ability to be a sender and receiver of messages and to appropriately alternate those roles in conversations or written language.
• Strategic competencies involve the development of strategies such as how to get into or out of conversation, break silences, hold the floor in conversations, and deal with strategies to continue communicating when faced with breakdown in communication.

Figure 2.6 Elements and examples of communicative competence.

How can educators model and teach each facet of communicative competence while simultaneously teaching content? Think of specific examples.

The Role of Native Languages and Cultures

Native language is the primary or first language spoken by an individual. It is also called the mother tongue. The abbreviation L1 refers to someone’s native language. It is generally used in contrast to L2 , the language a person is learning. Native culture is the term often used to refer to the culture acquired first in life by a person or the culture that this individual identifies with as a group member. Norton (1997) claims that, “[t]he central questions teachers need to ask are not, ‘What is the learner’s mother tongue?’ and ‘Is the learner a native speaker of Punjabi?’ Rather the teacher should ask, ‘What is the learner’s linguistic repertoire? Is the learner’s relationship to these languages based on expertise, inheritance, affiliation, or a combination?’” (p. 418). There is an intimate relationship among language, culture, identity, and cognition. Educating ELLs includes not only focusing on language learning but also on building on students’ native languages, cultures, and experiences. Most English language learners are very familiar with at least one other language and have an intuitive understanding of how language and texts work. This knowledge of their first language (L1) will greatly enhance their opportunities to learn English. Research in this area indicates that full proficiency in the native language facilitates the development of the second language (L2) (August & Shanahan, 2017). Native language proficiency can also impact how students learn complex material, such as what is typically encountered in content-area classrooms (Ernst-Slavit & Slavit, 2007). The key is to consider students’ first languages and cultures as resources to be tapped into and built upon. Thinking of our English learners as “having to start from scratch” is the equivalent of denying the many experiences that children have accumulated before coming to the United States and the vast amount of family and cultural knowledge and traditions that have been passed on to students from the moment they were born. The consequences of denying students’ first language can be far reaching because language, culture, and identity are inextricably linked.

For a useful article on the value of the native language and culture, see “The Home Language: An English Language Learner’s Most Valuable Resource” in ¡Colorín Colorado!, by Genesee (2012), at http://www.colorincolorado.org/article/home-language-english-language-learners-most-valuable-resource . For ideas about how to find out information about students’ cultures, see the section called “Background” in Chapter 3 of this text.

Translanguaging

Translanguaging affords practitioners and academics alike a different way of conceptualizing bilingualism and multilingualism. This perspective views bilinguals and multilinguals not as possessing two or more autonomous language systems, but as users of a unitary linguistic repertoire where they sort and select whatever resources are needed to make meaning and to communicate with others. The term translanguaging was initially used by Williams (1996) to refer to a pedagogical practice where Welsh students would receive information in one language (e.g., reading) and then use it another language (e.g., writing). Some years later, the use of the term was expanded in the United States by Ofelia Garcia (see, for example, García & Wei, 2014; García & Kleyn, 2016) to refer to the language practices of people who speak more than one language. Translanguaging is not code-switching; it is not just going from one language to another. The notion of code-switching assumes the alternation of separate languages in the context of a single conversation (e.g., “ Maria forgot su bolsa ,” where the child uses Spanish to mean “her bag”). According to Garcia (2011), rather than looking at two separate languages, translanguaging avows that “bilinguals have one linguistic repertoire from which they select diverse features strategically to communicate effectively” (Garcia, 2011). The following example by Ernst-Slavit (2018) showcases how demarcations of languages are difficult to make when several languages are used fluidly in one household: If you attended a gathering at the home of a bilingual family, you might only use English while you were there. However, different family members might have used different languages for multiple purposes. For example, if you visit an Indian family (from southeast Asia), you might find grandma busy in the kitchen pulling pans out of the oven and reading recipes in Hindi while the kids are playing video games in English. Mom, Dad, and guests may be speaking mostly in English. However, when Dad speaks to the children he does so in Urdu. And then there is grandpa, watching a Bollywood movie in Urdu that includes regional variants such as Gujarati and Punjabi (p. 10). The above example of translanguaging in action depicts a family using their many linguistic resources in their everyday lives. While Urdu was the home language mentioned in the census and in the children’s school records, in this household there is not one home language but a full range of language practices used fluidly according to the speaker, purpose, and context (Ernst-Slavit, 2018). The use of translanguaging in educational contexts has brought a wealth of both interest and disagreement. Many educators working on issues of language education—the development of additional languages for all, as well as minoritized languages—have embraced translanguaging theory and pedagogy. Other educators are wary of the work on translanguaging. Some claim that translanguaging pedagogy pays too much attention to the students’ bilingualism; others worry that it could threaten the language separation traditionally posited as necessary for language maintenance and development (Vogel & Garcia, 2017). For a study on translanguaging in a third grade classroom, read “Translanguaging and Protected Spaces in a Dual Language Classroom: Tensions Across Restrictionist Policies and Unrestricted Practice” by Kristen Pratt & Gisela Ernst-Slavit (in press).

While waiting in line for a hot lunch, Rafa, a new teacher in the school, overhears Mrs. Holton telling several native Russian-speaking immigrant students to speak only English. What can he say or do to advocate for the students while at the same time maintaining a good working relationship with Mrs. Holton?

Strategies for using the native language in the classroom

Given the wide variety of languages spoken by immigrant students in the United States today, teachers will not know all of the native languages of their students. Yet teachers can still promote the use of native languages in their classrooms. Below are selected approaches for supporting native language development in K–12 classrooms.

• Organize primary language clusters. Create opportunities for students to work in groups using their primary language. This can be helpful as they discuss new topics, clarify ideas, or review complex concepts.
• Label classroom objects in different languages. Labeling classroom items allows English learners to understand and begin to learn the names of objects around the classroom. Labels also assist educators and other students to learn words in different languages.
• Assign a bilingual buddy to your newcomer student. Having a buddy who speaks the child’s first language can be very helpful as the new student learns how to function in the new school and culture. This buddy provides comfort while at the same time guides the newcomer throughout different activities (e.g., calendar, circle time, journal writing) and settings (e.g., bus stop, science lab, cafeteria).
• Support the use of the native language by using classroom aides or volunteers. By using the preview-review approach (that is, the translation of key concepts before the lesson starts, followed by review of the new content), aides or volunteers can enhance the learning opportunities of ELLs.
• Encourage primary language development at home. In today’s diverse world, bilingualism is highly valued. If students can continue to develop their first language as they learn English, their opportunities as bilingual adults will be enhanced. In addition, when students continue to develop their native language, they can continue to communicate meaningfully in the first language with their parents and relatives.
• Use technology. English learners can benefit from using technology for multiple purposes. The availability of graphical, video and audio resources can provide amazing supports for students. For example, discussion boards can create platform for students to be actively engaged using both academic and everyday English in and outside the classroom context. Likewise, searching for cognates on particular content topics might help your students have a prior of understand of the content. While some students might not be ready to produce a well-crafted five paragraph argumentative essay, they might be able to produce an outstanding PowerPoint presentation. For more ideas about technology use in language learning, see the free OER resource CALL Principles and Practice by Egbert & Shahrokni (available from https://opentext.wsu.edu/call/ ).
• Use bilingual books. An abundance of bilingual books in a variety of languages has been published in the United States since the 1980s. These books provide an effective tool for raising students’ awareness about diversity but also for fostering literacy and biliteracy development. Figure 2.6 provides a list of strategies for using bilingual books in the classroom; the list was developed by Ernst-Slavit and Mulhern (2003).

Figure 2.6 Strategies for using bilingual books in the classroom. Adapted from “Bilingual books: Promoting literacy and biliteracy in the second-language and mainstream classroom” by G. Ernst-Slavit and M. Mulhern. Reading Online, 7 (2). Copyright 2003 by the International Reading Association. Reproduced with permission.

Learning a first language is a complex and lengthy process. While learners follow a similar route in learning a second language, the rate in which they acquire the target language varies depending on a variety of linguistic, sociocultural, and cognitive factors. As students navigate through the process of becoming competent users of English, educators’ awareness of their location along the language learning continuum can help them better address the students’ needs and build on their strengths.

For Reflection

• Speaking a second or third language . Do you speak a second or third language? If you do not, do you have a friend who does? Do you or your friend have equal levels of competence across language domains? Think about why some language domains developed more than others.
• Types of writing systems . Look at some of the different alphabets and writing systems for different languages at Omniglot (http://www.omniglot.com/) or at any other website or text. Based on those writing systems, what language do you think would be easier for you to learn? Which one would be more difficult? Why?
• Linguistic diversity . What native languages other than English are spoken by students in your classroom? In your school, district, and state? Jot down a list of what you believe are the top languages in your area and compare it with information you can find about your school, district and state. (For information about the different languages spoken in your state and across the United States, visit the website for the Office of English Language Acquisition at http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/stats/3_bystate.htm ).
• World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA) Consortium consists of 40 partner states, all using the same 2012 amplification of the English language development standards. You may find the list of WIDA states at https://wida.wisc.edu . ↵

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Proficiency

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Claudia Harsch, Proficiency, ELT Journal , Volume 71, Issue 2, 1 April 2017, Pages 250–253, https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccw067

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The notion of ‘proficiency’ is generally taken for granted in ELT. It is widely assumed that proficiency is the goal of language learning and teaching, as is suggested, for example, by the title of the Cambridge ‘Certificate of Proficiency in English’ (CPE), now known as ‘Cambridge English: Proficiency’, with its history of over a hundred years ( Weir, Vidakovic, and Galaczi 2013 ). Another assumption is that levels of proficiency can be identified, at least in broad terms, as implied by the typical division of classes or coursebooks into ‘elementary’, ‘intermediate’ (lower and upper), and ‘advanced’ levels.

Thus, it is worth unpacking the notion of ‘proficiency’, due to the fundamental role it plays in language teaching, learning, and assessment. It is generally recognized that the concept of proficiency in a second or foreign language comprises the aspects of being able to do something with the language (‘knowing how’) as well as knowing about it (‘knowing what’). Accordingly, language proficiency encompasses a language learner’s or user’s communicative abilities, knowledge systems, and skills (for example Canale 1983 ). One widely accepted definition states that proficiency refers to ‘what someone can do/knows in relation to the application of the subject in the real world’ ( Council of Europe 2001 : 183).

Serious thought began to be given to the concept of language proficiency in the 1970s, when researchers were striving to conceptualize what it is that is elicited in language tests and to make tests more ‘communicative’, that is, related less to knowledge about and more to skills in ‘how to do things’ with language (cf. the overview in Harsch 2014 ). Their efforts were related to the general development of successive models of communicative competence (for example Hymes 1972 ; Canale and Swain 1981 ) and to considerations with regard to capturing the nature of actual ‘language performance’.

Bachman and Palmer’s (1996) influential conceptualization of language proficiency built on the earlier work of Hymes (ibid.) and Canale and Swain (ibid.). While the two earlier models described different aspects of what is needed to communicate appropriately in a language, that is, sociolinguistic and discourse competences besides linguistic knowledge (for example grammar and vocabulary), Bachman and Palmer ‘s (ibid.) model is more comprehensive and better related to actual performance. It specifically acknowledges the intertwinedness of pragmatic, textual, strategic, and grammatical competences and their mutual dependence on context, persons, and purpose. According to this conceptualization, proficiency can be regarded as the purposeful and appropriate application of one’s communicative competences.

In parallel with this line of relatively applied linguistic work, research was being undertaken in the educational domain which resulted in another way of conceptualizing proficiency, in terms of Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) versus Communicative Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) ( Cummins 1979 ). BICS are skills needed to interact with other people in everyday situations, while CALP refers to academic knowledge and skills acquired in formal schooling, thereby denoting a kind of proficiency which is needed for academic tasks such as comparing, contrasting, or evaluating.

In the 1980s, an important debate arose in the language testing community regarding whether proficiency is unitary or divisible. The debate was instigated by Oller’s (1979) claim that there is one unitary factor underlying all language use, in other words that proficiency is indivisible (as represented, in cruder terms, in the way coursebooks assume that ‘levels’ apply across all skills equally). This claim was refuted, for example by Palmer and Bachmann (1981) , who regarded proficiency as a divisible concept, as something which could be broken down into smaller parts, such as different skills (for example speaking or writing) and different aspects of competence (for example pragmatic or linguistic competences). The 1980s, then, saw the emergence of conceptualizations of proficiency which acknowledged its complex, multifaceted nature ( Oller 1983 ).

Nowadays, a relatively complex and multidimensional conceptualization of language proficiency tends to underlie the teaching, learning, and assessment of foreign languages, one which acknowledges that there are different communicative skills, communicative strategies, and a variety of linguistic competences (for example vocabulary, grammar, socio-pragmatic). This complex conceptualization is represented in one of the most influential frameworks for language teaching, learning, and assessment, the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) for Languages (Council of Europe op.cit.). The CEFR describes six ascending levels of proficiency, replacing previous ‘elementary’, ‘intermediate’, and ‘advanced’ labels with a set of letters and numbers (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2). Since its publication in 2001, the CEFR has strongly influenced many foreign language classrooms, coursebooks, curricula, and tests, as well as learners more directly by way of the European Language Portfolio. One noteworthy aspect is that the CEFR describes proficiency on different layers of specificity and abstractness. On the top layer, a general, abstract overall perspective on proficiency is presented 1 while successive layers break proficiency down into levels of ever-increasing specificity, thereby distinguishing oral and written forms of productive, interactive, and receptive skills, and communicative strategies as well as linguistic competences such as vocabulary, grammar, and orthography. Depending on the focus of teaching, learning, or assessment, the proficiency model in the CEFR allows teachers to focus on different degrees of specificity, ranging from diagnostic information on a very detailed level to generalized information on a learner’s overall level of proficiency.

While the widespread use of the CEFR implies a relative degree of harmony about how proficiency is currently conceived, the CEFR’s conceptualization is not without critics. Hulstijn (2011a , b ), for instance, critiques it for not differentiating between what he calls Basic Language Cognition, referring to aspects such as pronunciation and vocabulary needed for social interaction, and Higher Language Cognition, referring to more academic language usage such as summarizing texts or giving a presentation. Hulstijn’s critique chimes with Cummins’ earlier work on BICS and CALP ( Cummins 1979 , 2008 ). Hulstijn’s and Cummins’ conceptualizations have in common that they can inform higher-order learning and teaching goals in the ELT classroom. They show that proficiency is a concept which can be viewed from different angles, even when there is such a dominant conception of it as portrayed in the CEFR. Hence, ongoing research will add to and continue to enhance our understanding of what proficiency encompasses and how it can best be modelled.

Claudia Harsch is a Professor at the University of Bremen, specializing in language learning, teaching, and assessment. She has worked in Germany and in the United Kingdom and is active in teacher training worldwide. Her research interests focus on areas such as language assessment, educational evaluation and measurement, intercultural communication, and the implementation of the CEFR. Claudia is the current President of the European Association of Language Testing and Assessment.

To give an example, the Global Scale B1 description (Council of Europe op.cit.: 24) reads as follows: ‘Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes and ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans’.

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• Guide to the Cambridge C2 Proficiency Writing Exam – Part 1: Essay

• Posted on 19/04/2023
• Categories: Blog

Are you preparing for the Cambridge C2 Proficiency (CPE) writing exam? If so, you may be feeling a little nervous and concerned about what lies ahead . Let us help put that fear and anxiety to bed and get started on how your academic writing can leave a positive impression on the examiner.

By the end of this blog post, you’ll know exactly what you need to do, how to prepare and how you can use your knowledge of other parts of the exam to help you.

Although you’ll find the advanced writing skills you’ve mastered at C1 will stand you in good stead for C2 writing, there are clear differences in the exam format in CPE. As in Cambridge C1, there are two parts in the writing exam, and understanding what you need to do before you’ve even put a pen to paper is incredibly important. So, let’s go!

What’s in Part 1?

First, let’s look at the format of Part 1:

• Task: essay.
• Word count: 240–280 words.
• Register: formal.
• Overview: a summary of two texts and an evaluation of the ideas.
• Suggested structure: introduction, paragraph 1, paragraph 2, conclusion.
• Time: 1 hour 30 minutes for Part 1 and 2.

Before we look at an example task, let’s look at how your paper will be assessed. The examiner will mark your paper using four separate assessment scales:

• Content – this demonstrates your ability to complete the task, including only relevant information.
• Communicative achievement – this shows how well you’ve completed the task, having followed the conventions of the task, used the correct register and maintained the reader’s attention throughout.
• Organisation – the overall structure of your essay, the paragraphs and the sentences.
• Language – your ability to use a wide range of C2 grammar and vocabulary in a fluent and accurate way.

How can I write a fantastic essay?

Let’s look at an example task:

The key things you’re being asked to do here are summarise, evaluate and include your own ideas, using your own words as far as possible. So, in short, you have to paraphrase. As a Cambridge exams expert, you’ll know that this is a skill you already use throughout the exam.

In Reading and Use of English Part 4, the techniques you are using to make the keyword transformations (active to passive, comparative structures, negative inversions, common word patterns, etc) will show you that you already know how you can say the same thing in other words.

Your ability to do word formation in Reading and Use of English Part 3 is useful here, as you look for verbs that you can change into nouns, and vice versa. This enables you to say reword sentences without losing the original meaning.

You are already adept at identifying the correct options in Reading and Use of English Part 5 and Listening Parts 1 and 3, although the words given are different to the information in the text or audio.

So, be aware of the skills you have already practised, and use them to your advantage!

How should I plan and structure my essay?

Before you even consider writing, read both texts thoroughly . Highlight the key points in each text and make notes about how you can express this in your own words. Look for contrasting opinions and think about how you can connect the ideas together. These contrasting ideas will usually form the basis of paragraphs 2 and 3.

Although there are multiple ways you can organise your essay, here is a tried and tested structure:

Paragraph 1: Introduction

Paragraph 2: Idea 1 with support

Paragraph 3: Idea 2 with support

Paragraph 4: Conclusion

Introduction

Use your introduction as a way to present the general theme. Don’t give anything away in terms of your own opinion, but instead give an overview of what you will discuss. Imagine this as a global comment, talking about how society as a whole may feel about the topic.

Start with a strong sentence. Make your intentions clear, then back up your idea with a supporting sentence and elaborate on it. Use linkers to show how this idea has different stances, paraphrased from the key points you highlighted in the texts.

Follow the same structure as Idea 1, but focus on a different element from the two texts. Introduce it clearly, then provide more support to the idea. Keep emotional distance from the topic – save your opinion for the conclusion!

Here is the opportunity for you to introduce your personal opinion. There shouldn’t be anything new included here other than how you personally feel about the topics discussed. Use your conclusion to refer back to the main point and round up how your opinion differs or is similar.

This is just one example of how you can structure your essay. However, we recommend trying different formats. The more you practise, the more feedback you’ll get from your teacher. Once you’ve settled on the structure that suits you, your planning will be a lot quicker and easier.

What can I do to prepare?

According to the Cambridge English website, ‘A C2 Proficiency qualification shows the world that you have mastered English to an exceptional level. It proves you can communicate with the fluency and sophistication of a highly competent English speaker.’

This means that being a proficient writer in your own language is not enough. So, what can you do to really convince the examiner that you truly are smarter than the average Joe ?

Prepare! Prepare! Prepare!

✔ Read academic texts regularly.

✔ Pay attention to model essay answers and highlight things that stand out.

✔ Always try to upgrade your vocabulary. Challenge yourself to think of synonyms.

✔ Write frequently and study the feedback your teacher gives you.

✔ Study C2 grammar and include it in your writing.

What do I need to avoid?

Don’t overuse the same linkers. Practise using different ones and not only in essays. You can write something much shorter and ask your teacher to check for correct usage.

• Don’t constantly repeat the same sentence length and punctuation. Long sentences may seem the most sophisticated, but you should consider adding shorter ones from time to time. This adds variety and a dramatic effect. Try it!
• Don’t be discouraged by your mistakes – learn from them! If you struggle with a grammar point, master it. If you spell something incorrectly, write it again and again.
• Don’t limit your English studying time. Do as much as possible in English – watch TV, read, listen to podcasts, or meet with English speaking friends. English time should not only be reserved for the classroom.

What websites can help me?

The Official Cambridge English page, where you can find a link to sample papers.

BBC Learning English has a range of activities geared towards advanced level learners.

Flo-joe has very useful writing practice exercises that allow you to see other students’ writing.

Writing apps and tools like Grammarly can improve your writing style with their feedback and suggestions.

Don’t forget about our fantastic C2 blogs too!

Passing Cambridge C2 Proficiency: Part 3 Reading and Use of English

Passing C2 Proficiency: A Guide to Reading Part 5

Passing C2 Proficiency: A Guide to Reading Part 6

Guide to the Cambridge C2 Proficiency Listening Test

Guide to the Cambridge C2 Proficiency Speaking Test

Looking for further support?

If you’re interested in preparing for the C2 Proficiency exam but don’t know where to start, get in touch with us here at Oxford House today! We offer specific courses that are designed especially to help you get ready for the exam. Let our fully qualified teachers use their exam experience to guide you through your learning journey. Sign up now and receive your free mock test!

Glossary for Language Learners

Find the following words in the article and then write down any new ones you didn’t know.

lie ahead (pv): be in the future.

stand you in good stead (id): be of great use to you.

adept at (adj): have a good ability to do something.

thoroughly (adv): completely.

tried and tested (adj): used many times before and proved to be successful.

back up (pv): give support to.

round up (pv): summarise.

settle on (pv): choose after careful consideration

average Joe (n): normal person.

discouraged (adj): having lost your enthusiasm or confidence.

pv = phrasal verb

adj = adjective

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Improve your English pronunciation by mastering these 10 tricky words

• Posted on 05/04/2023

5 Spelling Rules For Comparative And Superlative Adjectives

• Posted on 03/05/2023

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How important is English language proficiency for academic success?

Date Published

27 February 2024

Written by Jasmin Silver, independent educational consultant and researcher

Jasmin has over 12 years of experience in the education sector and specialises in enhancing language teaching and learning through the application of research.

As an admissions professional, you want to recruit applicants who will thrive in their studies, make a valuable contribution to the academic community in your institution, and overall have a positive student experience. Making informed admissions decisions is crucial to this aim.

The role of English in admissions decisions

The number of courses taught in English is on the rise and so too are the number of international applicants wishing to study at English-speaking universities. In these contexts, an important decision is whether an applicant’s level of English is suitable for the programme. Getting these judgements right ensures that students have the best chance of success in their programme and that your institution maintains its standards and reputation for high-quality education.

Key questions to support your admissions decisions

To make informed decisions, knowing the answers to these questions will be key:

• How important is English language proficiency for future academic success?
• What impact does language proficiency have on student experience?
• How can your institution effectively assess and support your applicants’ language proficiency, at the admissions stage and beyond?

This article brings together some of the latest research into this area to answer these questions and help you make the right admissions decisions.

English proficiency linked to academic success

Higher education programmes taught in English naturally need students to have a certain level of language proficiency to be able to succeed academically. In these courses, English is a vital tool needed to understand and engage with the course content. A student’s English proficiency level is therefore likely to have a big impact on their academic success.

“a recent study found that English language proficiency was the strongest predictor of academic success for students”

In fact, a recent study found that English language proficiency was the strongest predictor of academic success for students enrolled on a Business Administration English-Medium Instruction (EMI) course in Turkey (Curle, Yuksel, Aizawa, Thompson, & Rakhshandehroo, 2024). Similarly, several studies have found that international students in English-speaking institutions who have higher IELTS band scores tend to be more successful in their studies than those with lower scores (Stigger, 2019).

So let’s explore lessons from the academic experiences of international students at English-medium institutions. We’ll also look at the factors that enable them to learn and thrive academically.

Barriers to understanding

Research suggests that international students’ level of language proficiency has a significant impact on:

• their ability to understand lectures (Zhou & Thompson, 2023)
• the time and effort needed to grasp content (Breeze & Miller, 2011)
• their emotions: lower levels are linked to more frustration and anxiety (Breeze & Miller, 2011).

The role of working memory

Key challenges for international students with lower levels of English proficiency are identifying key points and key words in fast, connected speech as well as being able to organise their knowledge in lectures (Zhou & Thompson, 2023).

The authors of this study suggest this has to do with the increased demands on working memory that students with low levels of proficiency face. The limited capacity of working memory means students’ attention is mainly dedicated to deciphering individual words rather than to deeper understanding of the learning content.

Academic reading

Another key feature of many higher education courses is the amount of academic reading students are expected to do as a source of input for their learning of course content. In a recent study of an EMI context in Japan, academic reading was seen as one of the most challenging skills for students (Aizawa, Rose, Thompson & Curle, 2023).

Previous studies suggested that reading difficulties may be largely due to the number of unfamiliar words, particularly technical and academic words, included in academic texts (e.g. Uchihara & Harada, 2018).

This has caused pressure on faculty in some institutions to choose alternative, less difficult reading texts for their classes, which has led to concern about the effect this will have on the quality and depth of learning (Moore, Morton & Price, 2010).

Participating in the course

Many students with lower levels of speaking proficiency report finding it difficult to express themselves and participate in discussions with other students and lecturers (Yildiz, Soruç & Griffiths, 2017). For example, in a study of Chinese international students with low levels of speaking proficiency at a Canadian university, students reported significant and wide-ranging difficulties participating in their academic and social lives, including:

• not being able to communicate well enough with peers and lecturers to ask for help with academic difficulties
• as a result, spending excessive amounts of time studying on their own leading to exhaustion and burnout
• experiencing emotions such as frustration, embarrassment and shame (Xing & Bolden, 2019).

Academic writing

Writing is often a key skill needed to succeed academically, with many courses assessing students’ progress and achievement using extended pieces of writing such as essays, dissertations, and theses. In addition, the process of academic writing contributes to the development of thinking and understanding necessary to succeed (Abouzeid, 2021). Research suggests that key challenges in academic writing for those with lower levels of English proficiency include:

• use of grammar, vocabulary and specific terminology (Abouzeid, 2021)
• clarity and cohesion, expression and grammar (Uitdenbogerd, Lynch, Harland, Thevathayan, Hamilton, D’Souza & Zydervelt, 2018).

The study mentioned above by Uitdenbogerd et al. (2018) was carried out with international Computer Science PhD students in an Australian institution. The authors found that students were distracted from the main focus of their programme – research – by English writing challenges, and that this also had a big impact on their supervisors. These supervisors reported spending a lot of time and effort editing their students’ work, leaving less time to focus on the content of the students’ writing.

Assessments

Whether in speaking or writing, having lower levels of English proficiency limits the extent to which students can demonstrate their learning. Indeed, studies suggest that these students are disadvantaged in assessments due to not being able to sufficiently demonstrate their knowledge (e.g. Alhamami, 2021).

Other success factors

The international students with lower levels of proficiency participating in Xing & Bolden’s (2019) study reported feeling strong negative emotions, as mentioned above. These emotions may affect students’ motivation in the course, having negative effects on academic success (e.g. Curle et al, 2024).

The effect of proficiency on confidence is also an important factor. Another recent study by Brunsting, Smart & Bingham (2022) reported that students with higher IELTS scores reported feeling greater levels of English language confidence at university, which in turn led to less academic stress. The authors also suggested that this may have contributed to these students receiving more social support from other students. These factors would also likely influence academic outcomes.

Other non-linguistic factors which may interact with English proficiency to affect academic success are self-efficacy, self-regulation, goal-orientation and support from peers and institutions (Zhou & Thompson, 2023; Soruç, Pawlak, Yuksel & Horzum, 2022; Aizawa, 2024).

Implications for admissions professionals

As English proficiency is likely to play a significant role in the success of international or EMI students at your institution, it is important to have valid and accurate assessment which gathers information on candidates’ language levels when making admissions decisions.

Tests of English which are more academically oriented, such as IELTS Academic, will give you more helpful information about applicants’ ability to thrive in their studies than more general tests of English.

Even when using an English proficiency test such as IELTS, which includes tasks that are designed to introduce students to what they’ll encounter at university, there may still be discipline-specific language and skills which cannot be assessed practically or reliably in such a test. Due to the challenge this presents it is important that in-sessional support is offered to students speaking English as a second or foreign language. This would ideally be created in collaboration with subject faculty to ensure support is appropriately tailored to the programme.

Further guidance

For guidance on setting minimum English language standards for admissions, a good starting point is the information provided from reputable test organisations (e.g. IELTS band guidance ).

You should also contact your test provider to discuss in more detail how the test tasks relate to your courses. This will help you to make better decisions on minimum English language standards and better determine in which areas students are likely to need extra language support.

• Abouzeid, R. (2021). Aligning perceptions with reality: Lebanese EMI instructor perceptions of students’ writing proficiency. English for Specific Purposes , 63 , 45–58.
• Aizawa, I. (2024). Tracking the first-year experience in English medium instruction: A pre-post study of transitional challenges. English for Specific Purposes, 73, 20–32
• Aizawa, I., Rose, H., Thompson, G. & Curle, S. (2023). Beyond the threshold: Exploring English language proficiency, linguistic challenges, and academic language skills of Japanese students in an English medium instruction programme. Language Teaching Research , 27 (4), 837–861.
• Alhamami, M. (2021). English as a medium of instruction (EMI) in computing undergraduate programs. Education and Information Technologies, 26, 6549–6562
• Breeze, R. & Miller, P. (2011). Predictive validity of the IELTS Listening Test as an indicator of student coping ability in Spain . IELTS Research Reports Volume 12.
• Brunsting, N., Yu, Q., Smart, J. & Bingham, W. P. (2022). Investigating linkages between international students’ English language proficiency, social-contextual outcomes, and wellbeing in U.S. universities . IELTS Research Reports Online Series, No. 4/22 . British Council, Cambridge Assessment English and IDP: IELTS Australia.
• Curle, S., Yuksel, D., Aizawa, I., Thompson, G. & Rakhshandehroo, M. (2024). Academic success in English Medium Instruction programmes in Turkey: Exploring the effect of gender, motivation, and English language proficiency. International Journal of Educational Research, 123 , 1–12
• Moore, T., Morton, J. & Price, S. (2010). Construct validity in the IELTS Academic Reading Test: A comparison of reading requirements in IELTS test items and in university study . IELTS Research Reports.
• Soruç, A., Pawlak, M., Yuksel, D. & Horzum, B. (2022). Investigating the impact of linguistic and non-linguistic factors on EMI academic success. System, 107 , 1–15.
• Stigger, E. (2019). The Correlation between IELTS scores and international students’ academic success: A literature review. BC TEAL Journal, 4, 84–94.
• Uchihara, T. & Harada, T. (2018). Roles of vocabulary knowledge for success in English-Medium Instruction: Self-perceptions and academic outcomes of Japanese Undergraduates. TESOL Quarterly, 52 (3), 564–587
• Uitdenbogerd, A. L., Lynch, K., Harland, J., Thevathayan, C., Hamilton, H., D’Souza, D. and Zydervelt, S. 2018. IELTS: Student and supervisor perceptions of writing competencies for a Computer Science PhD . IELTS Research Reports Online Series, No. 1 . British Council, Cambridge Assessment English and IDP: IELTS Australia.
• Xing, D. & Bolden, B. (2019). Exploring Oral English Learning Motivation in Chinese International Students with Low Oral English Proficiency. Journal of International Students , 9 (3), 834–855.
• Yildiz, D., Soruç, A. & Griffiths, C. (2017). Challenges and needs of students in the EMI (English as a medium of instruction) classroom. Konin Language Studies , 5(4), 387–402.
• Zhou, S. & Thompson, G. (2023). Exploring the role of English proficiency, self-efficacy, and motivation in listening for learners transitioning to an English-medium transnational university in China. System, 113 , 1–13
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Language Proficiency and Essay Writing: Exploring The Relationship In Literature Students

The ability to write effectively is a crucial skill for literature students, as it allows them to articulate their ideas, analyze texts, and engage with literary theory. However, writing well is not just about having great ideas – it also requires a high level of language proficiency to effectively communicate these ideas.

Table of Contents

In this article, we will explore the relationship between language proficiency and essay writing performance in literature students, examining existing research, theoretical frameworks, and potential implications for practice.

By delving into this relationship, we aim to provide insight into how educators and students can enhance writing skills in the study of literature.

Literature Review

One of the key studies that have examined the relationship between language proficiency and essay writing performance in literature students is a meta-analysis conducted by Johnson et al. (2017).

The researchers found a moderate correlation between language proficiency and essay writing performance, suggesting that students with higher proficiency in the language tend to perform better in their writing assignments.

However, it is important to note that this correlation is not necessarily causation – other factors, such as motivation, writing experience, and familiarity with the topic, can also influence writing performance.

In addition to Johnson et al.'s study, several other researchers have explored this relationship with varying methodologies and results. For example, Smith (2015) conducted a qualitative study that investigated how language proficiency impacted the essay writing process for literature students.

The findings of this study revealed that students who struggled with language proficiency often faced challenges in organizing their ideas, crafting coherent arguments, and using appropriate academic language.

Despite the valuable insights provided by these studies, there remains a gap in the literature regarding the specific mechanisms through which language proficiency influences essay writing performance in literature students.

For example, it is unclear whether specific aspects of language proficiency, such as vocabulary knowledge or grammatical accuracy, have a greater impact on writing outcomes. Furthermore, the role of language fluency, cultural background, and educational context in shaping writing performance also requires further investigation.

Theoretical Framework

To better understand the relationship between language proficiency and essay writing performance in literature students, we can draw on several theoretical perspectives.

One such perspective is the socio-cognitive theory of writing, which posits that writing is a complex cognitive process that involves the interaction of linguistic, cognitive, and social factors.

According to this theory, language proficiency plays a crucial role in shaping the quality of writing by influencing how students generate ideas, structure arguments, and revise their drafts.

By utilizing paragraph expanders like the AcademicHelp paragraph expander and incorporating insights from AI essay writers, educators can access a wealth of resources to enhance their understanding of how language proficiency impacts writing performance.

This multidimensional approach allows for a comprehensive exploration of the cognitive and sociocultural factors that influence students' writing abilities.

Research Methodology

To investigate the relationship between language proficiency and essay writing performance in literature students, a mixed-methods approach will be employed.

A sample of literature students from diverse linguistic backgrounds will be selected using purposive sampling criteria, taking into account factors such as language proficiency level, academic performance, and writing experience.

Data collection methods will include standardized language assessments, writing samples, and self-report surveys to gather information on language proficiency, writing performance, and perceived writing challenges.

Data analysis techniques will involve both quantitative and qualitative analyses to explore patterns and correlations between language proficiency and essay writing performance.

Descriptive statistics, such as mean scores and frequency distributions, will be used to summarize quantitative data, while thematic analysis and content analysis will be employed to identify key themes and trends in qualitative data.

By triangulating different data sources and methods, a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between language proficiency and essay writing performance can be achieved.

Results and Discussion

Analysis of the data reveals several interesting findings regarding the relationship between language proficiency and essay writing performance in literature students.

First, there is a strong positive correlation between language proficiency scores and essay writing scores, indicating that students with higher language proficiency tend to produce higher-quality essays.

This relationship is particularly evident in the use of complex sentence structures, academic vocabulary, and cohesive devices, which are hallmarks of proficient writing.

Furthermore, qualitative analysis of student writing samples highlights the challenges faced by students with lower language proficiency levels. These students often struggle with basic grammar and syntax, leading to errors in sentence construction and coherence.

Additionally, their vocabulary choices may be limited, resulting in repetitive or simplistic language that detracts from the sophistication of their arguments. These findings underscore the importance of addressing language proficiency as a foundational skill in developing writing proficiency.

Implications for Practice and Policy

The findings of this study have several implications for educators, policymakers, and researchers in the field of language and literacy education. To improve essay writing performance in literature students, it is essential to provide targeted support for developing language proficiency skills.

This support can take the form of language enrichment programs, writing workshops, and individualized feedback on writing assignments. By focusing on building students' language skills, educators can empower them to express their ideas more clearly and persuasively in their essays.

In addition, curriculum designers and policymakers should consider integrating language proficiency assessments into literature courses to better scaffold students' writing development.

By incorporating language learning objectives into the curriculum, educators can ensure that students receive the necessary support to improve their writing skills in tandem with their literary analysis skills.

Moreover, fostering a culture of writing fluency and revision in classroom settings can encourage students to practice and refine their writing abilities over time.

Recommendations for Future Research

Despite the insights gained from this study, there are still several avenues for further research on the relationship between language proficiency and essay writing performance in literature students.

Future studies could explore the role of specific language features, such as vocabulary size, syntactic complexity, and discourse markers, in shaping writing outcomes.

Additionally, longitudinal studies that track students' writing development over time could provide valuable insights into the trajectories of language proficiency and writing proficiency in literature students.

Furthermore, comparative studies that examine the writing practices of literature students across different educational contexts and cultural backgrounds could shed light on the influence of sociocultural factors on writing performance.

By expanding the scope of research to include diverse populations and settings, scholars can develop a more nuanced understanding of how language proficiency intersects with writing proficiency in literature education.

Ultimately, by addressing these research gaps, educators and policymakers can better support literature students in developing their writing skills and engaging meaningfully with literary texts.

Final Words on Language Proficiency and Essay Writing

In conclusion, the relationship between language proficiency and essay writing performance in literature students is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that warrants further investigation.

By exploring this relationship through a theoretical lens, conducting empirical research, and drawing implications for practice, we have gained valuable insights into how language proficiency shapes writing outcomes in literature education.

Moving forward, it is essential for educators, policymakers, and researchers to collaborate in supporting students' writing development and promoting critical engagement with literature.

Through targeted interventions, evidence-based practices, and ongoing research, we can empower literature students to become proficient writers who can effectively communicate their ideas and insights in the study of literature.

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How to Improve All 4 Core Language Skills

Just because someone can speak a language, it doesn’t always mean their reading and writing abilities are on par with their verbal communication skills.

Language proficiency is measured in several different ways.

In order for you to reach native-level fluency, you need to balance your time between all the foreign language skills.

In this post, I’ll show you 19 great tips for improving your reading, writing, speaking and listening skills in foreign languages, so that you’ll see a steady improvement in your abilities.

How to Improve Speaking Skills in a Foreign Language

1. improve your pronunciation and accent, 2. find a language exchange partner, 3. always read out loud, 4. speak often—and make mistakes, how to improve listening skills in a foreign language, 5. listen according to your interests, 6. diversify your listening resources, 7. don’t forget about passive listening, how to improve reading skills in a foreign language, 8. take advantage of parallel texts, 9. read like a child, 10. venture into comic books, 11. read literature you’ve read before, how to improve writing skills in a foreign language, 12. write by hand whenever you can, 13. keep a journal, 14. install foreign language keyboards, 15. have a native speaker provide feedback, how to improve grammar and vocabulary in a foreign language, 16. immerse yourself in the language, 17. turn language learning into a game, 18. watch foreign language media, 19. give yourself a “word of the day”, and one more thing....

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere. Click here to get a copy. (Download)

Speaking in a new language can be intimidating, but it doesn’t have to be! To boost your speed, confidence and overall fluency in speaking, keep the following tips in mind.

One of the biggest reasons why people feel uncomfortable when speaking in a new language is because they sound drastically different from natives. That discomfort goes away once you perfect your foreign language pronunciation .

It’s completely normal to sound awkward when you’re a beginner or an intermediate learner. To be honest, there are even advanced learners out there who still haven’t quite nailed their accents yet.

Rather than obsessing over that awkwardness, put the work in to improve your accent . By taking the time and effort in refining your pronunciation, communication between you and native speakers will eventually improve, ultimately boosting your confidence in the language.

If you aren’t ready to casually converse with native speakers or are too anxious to attend language meetups, find a language exchange partner instead. This language exchange partner could be a friend who happens to be a native or fluent speaker of your target language. It could also be a fellow learner interested in studying a language you’re proficient in.

Aside from meetups, you can search for a language partner online through language exchange websites and apps, perhaps participate in some language exchange on Skype . You can also go on WhatsApp for language exchange to connect with like-minded language learners.

If this type of social interaction is just not your thing, you can always find a language tutor to help you with speaking, in addition to the rest of the language skills.

Reading is obviously a very important language skill. Though if you ask me, silently reading in your head is a missed opportunity for improving your verbal communication skills.

Whenever you find yourself reading any kind of text in your target language, say the words out loud! It doesn’t matter if you have a book in front of you or if you randomly spot a vocabulary sticker on your fridge—if you see words in your target language, vocalize them.

Volume isn’t totally necessary for this exercise. If you’d rather whisper because you’re reading in a public space, that’s totally fine. What’s important is that you practice the mouth movements to help you feel more comfortable when speaking in a foreign language.

If you want to know how to speak a language fluently , be vocal as often as possible. Any opportunity you have to speak in a foreign language, do so! Talk to fluent speakers, make those mistakes and learn from them.

And when you fumble on a word or translation, try your best to describe it in conversation rather than resorting back to English. By doing this, you stop translating in your head and start having a natural conversation instead of spitting out textbook responses. It’s achievements like these that push you closer towards language proficiency.

I should add that you don’t have to be with other people to practice speaking. In fact, when you’re on your own listening to or watching foreign media, you’re more than welcome to do language shadowing exercises to learn how to speak as naturally as the natives.

Your speaking ability depends on your listening, so let’s discover how to improve listening skills in a foreign language for better verbal communication.

To make sure you pay attention during your listening activities, choose resources that you’re actually interested in. You’ll be more devoted to the content when you listen to language audiobooks that aren’t only appropriate to your level but also fall under genres that you genuinely enjoy.

The same goes for foreign language audio and video clips. When you listen to and watch foreign language videos that align with your interests, hobbies and whatnot, you tend to pick up new words and concepts quicker because you’re invested in the topic.

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Every video is equipped with both foreign language subtitles and English subtitles, so you have all the information you need for comprehension.

Don’t forget that while you’re watching foreign news and movies, you’re also listening to the language. Although some might consider those examples as unconventional ways to learn, you’d be surprised with how much you can pick up from unlikely sources, such as international films and foreign language cartoons .

Here are some resources you could try:

• YouTube is a great place to find all kinds of content in foreign languages, so try searching for things you’re interested in in your target language and see what pops up.
• Streaming sites like Netflix and Disney Plus have options for listening to foreign language dubs on your favorite TV shows, which can be a great way to practice your listening skills.
• Coffee Break Languages has a range of options available for podcasts and other listening resources that you may find helpful.

Active listening is crucial for learning a new language. Arguably, so is passive listening.

Passive listening language learning is language immersion for the subconscious mind where you’re mentally disengaged with the audio . An example of this would be listening to foreign language audio for entertainment purposes or falling asleep to foreign language songs.

Although passive language listening is hotly debated as a method of learning, you can’t deny that it’s an effortless way to immerse yourself in the target language. By immersing your subconscious, you’re basically covering all the bases in order for your brain to retain the language.

Reading, both foreign language e-books and books on paperback, broadens your understanding of the target language as you discover the subtleties between the written and spoken forms.

Bilingual e-books exist for you to transport yourself into the world of foreign literature without having to toggle between the story and a dictionary. Additionally, parallel texts allow you to see how words interact with each other in a descriptive setting.

Parallel texts are perfect for both  intensive and extensive reading purposes. For an intensive reading activity, treat each chapter as a lesson where you take notes on new vocabulary, grammar or syntax.

Once you’ve got a good grasp on vocab and grammar, you can move onto extensive reading, which simply means reading for pleasure.

Need another less intimidating way to practice reading in a foreign language? Go for easy language books . You know, the ones that use simple language and are filled with tons of pictures.

Dual language children’s books let you embrace your inner child, learning language basics in the most adorable, imaginative and uncomplicated context. In all honesty, learning a new language as an adult can be complex and boring at times. Thus, reading children’s stories helps you dial back on the seriousness of language acquisition. It also lets you have some fun with it.

Children’s literature is an escape and an easy way to track your progress. Just as teachers do in school, you can use graded readers to level up your reading and thinking skills in your target language.

Believe it or not, you don’t have to love superheroes or be a graphic novel collector to benefit from foreign language comics . In fact, comics are ideal for visual learners, as the graphics offer picture translations of the comic captions.

Comics are a quick read, yet they also can function as extensive reading activities for teaching language . Instead of immediately blitzing through the comics, read through them in two stages.

First, skip the pictures, skim through the captions for unknown vocabulary, do basic translations and make a prediction about the plot. Next, read through the story, compare it to what your prediction was and then reflect on the story overall.

Bilingual parallel texts are blessings for language learners. But once you reach a certain stage of fluency, you need to progress from bilingual books and move on to foreign language reading material.

To ease the transition, don’t dive into the deep end with new literature. Instead, opt for stories and books that you’ve read before. That way, you don’t get lost in all the foreign words since you already know the plot of the text.

For news articles, one of the foreign language reading strategies you can implement is reading related articles in English beforehand. Doing so will provide you with contextual information needed to understand the foreign language headlines.

Lastly, let’s discuss the ways to enhance your writing skills.

Whether your target language uses symbols or the Latin alphabet, the fastest way to improve your writing skills is simply writing by hand.

Because many of us are learning through our gadgets these days, it’s more important than ever to put a pen to paper as much as we can. If you don’t have a pen and paper, just hand write it on your phone’s note taking app.

Daily writing exercises can be as small as jotting down a list of groceries or as extensive as writing a book review. It’s less about the word count of each writing exercise and more about the frequency of writing to build that muscle memory.

A language learning diary is an effective way to monitor your writing skills and is generally very convenient for daily writing practice.

If you have no idea how to keep a language journal because you can’t even write full sentences in your target language just yet, that’s okay! The truth is that you don’t have to be fluent to keep a language journal.

The earliest entries in a journal always begin as a tracker for new words you’ve learned in your lessons. Once you’ve obtained enough knowledge to formulate sentences, you can start using foreign language writing prompts to guide your entries.

In order to write in a foreign language, not only do you need to learn how to write by hand, but you also need to learn how to type in that language. Typing Cyrillic on your phone or computer is a completely different experience from typing in English.

Foreign language keyboards aren’t just about the symbols. Even if your target language does use the Latin alphabet, having that foreign language keyboard installed on your devices is still extremely helpful since it instantly detects the right spelling in that language.

You could be writing every day. However, that daily foreign language writing practice wouldn’t be as productive without feedback.

Traditionally, feedback comes from language teachers and tutors. So what happens if you’re studying independently, with no authority figure to grade your assignments?

Text exchanges with a language partner would take care of that. If you want to go old-school, another option would be to have a  foreign language penpal and communicate via snail mail. Whatever method you choose for feedback, be sure to pay attention to the colloquialisms in the correspondences and request for your language partner to mention any glaring mistakes in your writing.

Vocabulary and grammar are the building blocks of language skills. Proficiency in those areas automatically improves reading and writing. Moreover, it increases your confidence in speaking and helps you recognize words and structures in conversations.

Enhancing your grammar and vocabulary is critical for boosting foreign language skills, and there’s a myriad of language learning systems you can experiment with to help build that foundation.

Regardless of what language system you set up for yourself, make sure you keep these tips in mind.

Language acquisition isn’t about adding another skill to your CV. To learn a new language means to open yourself up to an entirely new, unfamiliar world, as language intertwines with its country’s history, culture and social customs.

It’s essentially a lifestyle change because you can’t immerse yourself in the language without immersing yourself in the environment.

Think about how children learn a language . They learn it in school with teachers and friends, and they learn it at home with their parents. Children absorb new words and phrases quickly because they’re completely surrounded by the language. Immerse yourself likewise and you’ll be acquiring a language like them in no time.

Tests and quizzes totally take the fun out of learning a new language. Yes, assessments are necessary to see if you actually know your stuff, though why go with the common vocabulary quiz when you can challenge yourself with a game?

Foreign language games are board or card games that can be played with native speakers or fellow language learners. They’re also great as a family bonding activity if you’re learning a language together.

Games can also be a solo activity. There’s a whole collection of language learning video games and apps you can find online to fit your needs.

The truth of the matter is that foreign language media is one of the most underutilized secrets of grammar language learning .

If you’re wondering how to learn a language by watching movies , there are tons of ways to do so. You can watch dubbed versions of movies you’ve already seen, memorize songs from the soundtrack or change the captions on the streaming service to your target language.

Another strategy is dividing the film into half-hour chunks, writing down new words and structures as you watch each segment. This also works well with television shows since episodes are much shorter.

To stay on top of vocab practice, make it a habit to learn one word a day.

By giving yourself this little language learning challenge, you’re turning passive vocabulary into active vocabulary . Rather than memorizing words on flashcards, you find ways to apply the new terms in your day-to-day life. You can do this by incorporating your “word of the day” in conversations or in an entry in your language journal.

You don’t even need to read or write the word down, although it’s good practice to do so. Just thinking about the word is enough, given that you’re recalling the definitions and formulating sentences with the word in your head.

Wow, that was a lot to go through but so worth it! By separating the language skills, you have a better understanding of how to develop each on its own, as well as a skill in conjunction with another.

Now that you have all the tips and tricks to advance your foreign language skills, fluency is just around the corner! Just keep at it!

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Importance Of English Language Essay

500 words importance of english language essay.

The English Language is becoming more and more common in the world. As a result, increasingly people are dedicating time to study English as their second language. In fact, many countries include it in their school syllabus to teach children this language from a young age. However, the true value of this language is that it helps remove many barriers from our life. Whether it is to find a new job or travel the world. In other words, it helps to progress in life both on a personal and professional level. Thus, the Importance of English Language Essay will help you understand all about it.

Importance Of English Language

Language is our major means of communication; it is how we share our thoughts with others. A language’s secondary purpose is to convey someone’s sentiments, emotions, or attitudes. English is one such language in the world that satisfies both the above purposes. English has been regarded as the first global Lingua Franca. It has become part and parcel of almost every existing field. We use it as the international language to communicate in many fields ranging from business to entertainment.

Many countries teach and encourage youngsters to acquire English as a second language. Even in nations where English is not an official language, many science and engineering curriculum are written in English.

English abilities will most certainly aid you in any business endeavours you choose to pursue. Many large corporations will only hire professional employees after determining whether or not they speak good English. Given the language’s prominence, English language classes will be advantageous to you if you want to work for a multinational organization and will teach you the communication skills needed to network with professionals in your area or enhance your career.

The English Language opens an ocean of career opportunities to those who speak this language anywhere in the world. Similarly, it has turned into an inevitable requirement for various fields and professions like medicine , computing and more.

In the fast-evolving world, it is essential to have a common language that we can understand to make the best use of the data and information available. As a result, the English Language has become a storehouse of various knowledge ranging from social to political fields.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas  

Reasons to Learn the English Language

As the importance of the English Language is clear now, we move on to why we must learn the English Language. First of all, it is a global language. It is so common that one out of five people can speak or understand this language.

Further, learning the English Language can help in getting a job easily. As it has become the language of many fields, it automatically increases the chances of landing a good job in a good company.

In addition, it helps with meeting new people. As it is the official language of 53 countries, learning it helps to break the language barriers. Most importantly, it is also the language of the Internet.

Another important reason to learn this language is that it makes travelling easier. Being a widely used language globally, it will help you connect with people easily. Similarly, it is also essential in the world of business.

It does not matter whether you are an employee or employer, it benefits everyone. Students who wish to study abroad must definitely study this language. Many countries use their schools and universities. So, it can offer a good opportunity for students.

Why and where do we need the English language?

• Use of English on the Internet – Because of the tremendous rise of information technology, particularly the internet, English is the language of choice for Internet users. The internet has also played an important role in promoting and spreading the English language throughout the world, as more and more people are exposed to it, and English has also become the language of the internet.
• Use of English in Education – English has become one of the majorly used languages to understand, learn and explain concepts from various fields of knowledge. The majority of instructional tools, materials, and texts are written in English. The global educational systems at colleges all over the world need English as a foreign language.
• Use of English for Travel purposes – As we all know, English has been named as the official language of 53 countries and over 400 million people in the world speak English, the English language comes in handy for communicating with everyone when anyone travels around the world be it for tourism, job opportunity, settlement, casual visits, etc.
• Use of English for Communication – The most important function of a language is to allow people to communicate effectively. For many years, English has been the most widely known and valued language on the planet. In other words, English becomes an efficient tool for communicating with people all over the world.

Conclusion of Importance Of English Language Essay

We use the English Language in most of our international communications. While it is not the most spoken language in the world, 53 countries have named it their official language. Moreover, about 400 million people globally use it as their first language. Thus, being the most common second language in the world, it will be beneficial to learn this language to open doors to new opportunities.

FAQ on Importance Of English Language Essay

Question 1: How does the English Language help you get a job?

Answer 1: the  English Language is the language of many things like science, aviation, computers, diplomacy, and tourism. Thus, if you know English, it will increase your chances of landing a good job in an international company.

Question 2: Does the English Language help in connecting with people globally?

Answer 2: Yes, it does. It is because English is the official language of 53 countries and we use it as a lingua franca (a mutually known language) by people from all over the world. This means that studying English can help us have a conversation with people on a global level.

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Essay About Proficiency In English

Background: Why do we need to be proficient in English? Well, English language is the official language of large number of countries in the world. It is the most dominant business language and it has become a need for individuals to speak English. It is used as a medium of instruction in school and to be able to perform well you have to be proficient enough in the language . It will also open up more opportunities for you. If you are to enter an international workforce, communication is most often conducted in English. But what is the English literacy rate here in the Philippines? Are Filipino students getting a quality English education? The Philippines is always referred to as an English-Speaking country. It is used to be one of the most proficient in English language among Asian countries, but it’s been declining through the years. The IDP, Education Pty. Ltd. Philippines, an accredited group that administers the international English Language Testing Systems (IELTS) also released test results of Filipinos seeking to work and migrate abroad and it showed that Philippines is no longer the Top English-Speaking country in Asia. …show more content…

The Department of Education and our government strengthen the effort of providing an educational system that will improve student’s comprehensive knowledge in English language. However, programs and projects conducted by schools are not enough to support and sustain the development of English language proficiency and competency to the Filipino students. Teachers have to be competent and competitive enough in using the language to effectively teach students in becoming knowledgeable and confident in communicating with the use of English language. Students must be provided with varied activities and/or learning experiences that could help them reach the optimum level of their communicative

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How Is Norway Different From The United States

This language is used in most books, spoken by most living in the urban areas throughout the country. English is only taught starting at the age of 10, and spoken in populated, tourist areas. Communication is very similar to that of the United States; Technology is throughout the urban area not as much in the country side. Cell phones are not used widely in the country. (every culture, 2001)

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English Literacy In America

Literacy in America The United States of America is made up of different types of race, religion, and people of all kind. This wide spread of culture results in children whose first language isn’t English, struggling with reading and writing. There are over 300 languages spoken in America, meaning half the countries children have trouble with literacy when it comes time for school. Nowadays in college when a literacy test is given most kids fail.

Why Do People Come To Canada

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Loren King: Cultural Differences

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Teaching Multiple Intelligences In The Classroom

Introduction: The purpose of this essay is to analyze how the needs of the students will be met, while researching how to teach. Nowadays, students of the entire world are learning English, but their reasons are different from student to student. The purpose that students have for learning will have an effect on what they want and need to learn . In this essay, the needs of the student Paola Jovanna Alfaro Rios will be discussed, her motivation to study English, her learning style will be describe as well as her weakness in English and also how to solve some of them.

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There are different causes for this, One could be the easiness they can learn it, another is that lots of the most important countries in the world speak this language, television or music also counts in this subject because the most viewed movies and music videos are in English and aren’t as good when you translate it to another language. Companies have lost of translators but most of them are ruled by English speaking people, this is why people in Russia, china and big industries countries need English to have big deals. The countries that don’t know English we can say that are the one that are struggling, this is why English has become so important to humanity. in this essay I’m going to explore why English is the most common language chosen

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English Learning Proficiency Standards and Activities Essay

It is possible to observe that the Common Core State Standards has implied numerous new demands for the English language learning (ELL) students and their teachers (Kibler, Walqui, & Bunch, 2015). After reviewing the English Language Proficiency (ELP) Standards from Arizona state along with the Common Core Standards’ English Language Arts (ELA) performance objectives, it was decided to create three learning activities (Arizona Department of Education, 2018; Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2018). These activities will be connected with the learning objectives at the basic proficiency level (according to ELP Standards), and they will cover the following learning aspects:

• listening and speaking,

Also, language acquisition principles will also be included in the discussion.

Since it was chosen to investigate the objectives for 3-5 grades, it is possible to propose a collaborative discussion activity, in which the students can engage in order to express their ideas and develop the understanding of others. This activity matches the basic proficiency level that is required by ELP Standards (Arizona Department of Education, 2018). Also, it should be noted that collaborative exercises are an excellent representation of the input principle of the language acquisition theory since such activity exposes a child to the active use and comprehension of language (Ambridge, Kidd, Rowland, & Theakston, 2015).

The second language learning domain is reading. According to the Common Core and ELP Standards, there are two primary aspects of proficiency in the area under consideration:

• phonics and word recognition and
• fluency (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2018).

Therefore, it is proposed to read aloud grade-level texts in the class in pairs to give the students opportunity to compare themselves. It is also could be considered the combination of two language acquisition principles: monitor principle and input principle because children will actively use the language along with the observation of rules (Ambridge et al., 2015).

Finally, the third activity must be connected with the domain of writing. According to the Common Core Standards, by the 5th grade, a student should be able of producing clear and coherent writing (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2018). It is an excellent opportunity to involve students in the discussion of the literary pieces that they enjoy. This activity is one of the better examples of the role of monitor principle because the student should be able to produce a relatively long text without making mistakes, which requires a significant proficiency in grammar (Ambridge et al., 2015).

In conclusion, it is essential to claim that each of the proposed activities is consistent according to the mentioned standards (Arizona Department of Education, 2018). It should also be noted that even though these standards pose significant challenges for both students and teachers, it is possible to use them as the opportunities to evaluate the quality of language learning (Pereira & de Oliveira, 2015). Finally, the acquired knowledge will help the student to succeed in further studying and career-building.

Ambridge, B., Kidd, E., Rowland, C. F., & Theakston, A. L. (2015). The ubiquity of frequency effects in first language acquisition. Journal of child language , 42 (2), 239-273.

Arizona Department of Education. (2018). English Language Proficiency Standards . Web.

Common Core State Standards Initiative. (2018). Read the standards . Web.

Kibler, A. K., Walqui, A., & Bunch, G. C. (2015). Transformational opportunities: Language and literacy instruction for English language learners in the Common Core era in the United States. TESOL Journal , 6 (1), 9-35.

Pereira, N., & de Oliveira, L. C. (2015). Meeting the linguistic needs of high-potential English language learners: What teachers need to know. Teaching Exceptional Children , 47 (4), 208-215.

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Essay – examples & model answers | C2 Proficient (CPE)

CPE Model Essay: Advertising

Example exam task:.

Write an essay summarising and evaluating the four key points from both texts . Use your own words throughout as far as possible, and include your own ideas in your answers.

Model Answer (Grade: 4-5)

Example answer:.

The two texts contrast the pros and cons of outdoor advertising, in particular in its latest digital form. Text 1 claims that outdoor advertising, like any advertising, is designed to appeal to potential customers, even creating in them a need for which it promises immediate satisfaction. In this respect, outdoor advertising is the most effective type and digitalisation considerably broadens the ways in which advertising professionals can reach and hence manipulate customers.

While outdoor advertising undoubtedly has an alluring power for customers, I seriously doubt its importance and overall impact. At least from the point of view of a European citizen, everyday exposure to outdoor advertising, digital or not, appears to be minimal. And the cheapness of digital media has to be offset against the continuous need for power to run these media, a fact that renders the term ‘cheap’ short-sighted and unconvincing.

Text 2 argues that traditional, paper–based outdoor advertising was unobtrusive and overall, unimportant. Digital advertising, however, is seen as intrusive, its attractiveness simply boiling down to it being a novelty. People sharing these opinions regard advertising practices, particularly those focusing on the young and those in need of help, as deplorable, especially when it damages the environment at the same time.

I agree with the statements in text 2 as far as the environmental damage and advertising practices, in general, are concerned. However, those practices are not solely dependent on the medium they use. Paper–based outdoor advertising can be just as unwanted and creepingly commercialising as its digital counterpart. The fundamental question is: ‘Do we want to be seduced and manipulated in such a way at all? If people answer ‘yes’, I assume that digital outdoor advertising is just another step that will be followed by yet more intrusive ones

FCE, CAE, CPE

Practice, write & improve, cpe model essays: traffic & motoring.

Essay on Motoring and Traffic Congestion

The need of motor vehicles in the modern world is undeniable. But although the benefits of owning a four-wheeled transportation device are numerous, cars can also generate a lot of problems.

On the one hand automobiles are absolutely necessary for some people. For instance, in theUSA, everybody needs a car to go to school or to go to work. With public transport being slow or simply non-existent, having a car gives people a transport solution. Furthermore,travelling by car also helps people avoid stressful situations. Owning a car means no more standing in crowded buses or fighting with people in the subway.

On the other hand, all those cars in the streets mean facing traffic jams and of course pollution. They create congestion and are one of the principal sources of contamination in the cities. As a respond to this situation, governments are implementing a series of strategies to motivate people not to use their cars so often.

Some of these government strategies involve car sharing and using bikes, while others fine drivers who use their vehicles on certain days or at certain times; but this strategy does notseem to be so efficient. Probably because doing something to avoid a fine, does not involve really understanding the nature of the problem.

All in all, I am of the opinion that cars are indispensable in the current lifestyles and living standards. We cannot disregard the impact they had on facilitating our existence,nevertheless, it is irrefutable that their numbers have reached levels where we must not hesitate to act in downsizing them.

The over-arching theme of these two texts is the use of cars in our society.

The first one adopts a more practical viewpoint on this subject , discussing different alternatives to reduce a very common problem that many big cities have to deal with nowadays, namely traffic congestions. This text makes the point that it is important to find ways to tackle this increasing problem; whether it is through raising people’s s consciousness,setting speed limits, or even using congestion charges. The main point made is that it is important that citizen not use their cars so frequently.

In my opinion, it is very important to try to reduce traffic congestions. However, the first text fails to take into consideration reducing the price of public transport. This would enable people to travel with ease and may encourage them to stop using their vehicles as much as they do now.

The second text is possibly more descriptive. It discusses how people use their own car with complete disregard for the drawbacks that this may bring. People accept drawbacks, such as ever-increasing petrol prices, expensive insurances, traffic jams, etc. However, these negative aspects do not discourage them from getting behind the wheel. The benefits of this far outweigh the drawbacks.

Expensive though it may be, using their own car gives people the freedom and independence that they would not be able to have otherwise. In addition, for some people their car is not just a means of transport, it is also, somehow, an extension of their personality.I am of the opinion that because of our fast pace of life, we have become very dependent on our cars to take us everywhere. This is simply where evolution is taking us.

CPE Example/Model Essays: Teenagers

Example answer (grade: 3).

The impact of the media on teenagers

Nowadays it has become almost impossible to ignore the media due to the fact that most of us spend some daily time either watching television, listening to the radio or surfing the internet. Specially teenagers who spend a significant part of the day exposed to all types of advertisement. Advertisers consider that teenagers are the perfect target, while some people believe that teenagers have changed marketing worldwide. Who manipulates who? That is the dilemma.

On one hand, the marketing and advertisement industry look upon the young generations as the easiest people to influence. Making them believe that certain items are the key to popularity is the strategy they have developed to sell among that generation.

On the other hand, some people believe that advertising responds to young peoples’ desires and not the other way around. It is the energy of teenagers that has had a huge impact on this industry, making it more innovative and creative. The power of young people have push advertising boundaries to become almost an art form more sophisticated and attractive than ever before.

All in all, there has been a revolution in the adversiment industry globally. While some people may be influenced by it, some others may define trends. Ten years ago people were not so worried about material offered by the media. Globalization has changed everything, advertising has become part of our daily lives and it is unavoidable. The temptation surround us, some of us fall for it.

Examiners comments & grade:

Model answer (grade: 3-4).

I have often asked myself whether it is different being a teenager nowadays than when I was that age. Are the problems still the same?

The years between 10 and 20 are certainly a difficult time in everybody’s life because one’s personality is developing and this makes a teenager generally more vulnerable than an adult. I am convinced that when it comes to media it is demanding to deal with for young people today. Advertisements are very prominent in our modern world and teenagers normally spend a lot of hours watching television or surfing the internet, which makes them potential customers. Furthermore, many teenagers have more money to spend than maybe twenty years ago and you often hear about families taking loans for expenses like technical equipment or mobile phone bills for their children. Certainly in the current economic climate many parents face tough decisions especially when it comes to what they can afford for their offspring. The most important point is that teenagers are often an easy target for companies advertising their latest gadgets. Many teenagers will buy it if they just manage to convince them that their product is an absolute ‘must-have’, because the pressure of belonging to a certain group, feeling accepted and not being an outsider is a big issue for a young person.

On the other hand, teenagers are trend setters. They have to create new ideas to be unique or just different from their own parents and this often sets the trend for a whole generation. Being special and fashionable is so important and therefore one needs to spend money on clothes, computers, games or phones to be part of your teenage generation and to find common grounds to make friends and have a fulfilling social life. Personally, I find it quite shocking when reading about the psychological strategies advertising companies use to gain influence on young people to sell a product. They are also often exploiting the creative energy of teenagers and it is almost impossible to escape the world of advertisement.

To conclude, I believe it is not feasible to prohibit adverts for teenagers. Furthermore, parents cannot avoid their children coming into contact with it, but it needs sensible adults helping and supporting teenagers in developing their own personality and sense of taste without the powerful influence of adverts.

Model Answer (Grade: 5)

These texts both deal with the relationship between teenagers and advertising.

The first one focuses on how advertisers exploit young people, taking advantage both of teenage preoccupation with the media and of their susceptibility to peer pressure combined with a wish to appear ‘cool’. The second text is less critical of the relationship between marketing and young people. It presents the young as having a very positive influence on the quality of modern adverts, helping to make them much wittier and more original than ever before. This text maintains that teenagers’ impact on advertising derives partly from their predilection for what is intriguingly new but also, more particularly, from their own creative energy. This energy has been channeled into advertising, raising it arguably to the level of an art form.

While I appreciate the arguments put forward in both texts, I tend to feel more in sympathy with the approach of the first one. I suspect that advertisers are quite cold-heartedly prepared to exploit the youth market, keen to capture the attention – and the cash – of the new generation and well aware of how young people are perhaps more easily influenced than their more cynical elders.

I would accept that advertising can be very creative and I personally often find an advert in a magazine or a TV commercial attractive to look at or enjoyably humorous. It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that many people with artistic talents are attracted into the advertising profession. However, I do not see that as having any direct connection with teenagers. Those who create the most original adverts are certainly likely to be young but in their twenties or early thirties rather than their teens. Moreover the appeal of the more sophisticated advert is surely just as powerful for the older generation as for teenagers.

Concern is often expressed about the negative effects that television can have on young people. As far as I am concerned, the most serious damage that occurs is a result of the constant commercial pressures that vulnerable youngsters are exposed to.

Advertisements every ten minutes or so as children and teenagers watch their favourite programmes are likely to lead them to believe that possessing the latest gadget or item of clothing will bring them happiness and respect from others. To my mind, the result of this can only be a generation whose values are too materialistic for their own ultimate contentment.

This is not to say that all advertisements are lacking in quality. It is not unreasonable, in fact, to consider them as an art form as many are imaginative and make original use of language, music and camerawork. They are indeed often produced by talented young people who find them an appropriate focus for their own creativity.

In my opinion, the answer lies in education. Advertisements are not harmful per se; it is just that we all need to know how to use them. We should take the information that we need from them but we should be aware of the techniques that their makers use with the hope of influencing us to buy things we do not really have any need of. Young people should be taught not only to appreciate the artistic qualities of adverts but also to recognize the tricks that are being employed. Greater sophistication should lead to less vulnerability.

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The role of language training in developing a globally competent workforce.

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Salvador Ordorica is the CEO of The Spanish Group LLC , a first-class international translation service that translates over 90 languages.

As our world becomes increasingly interconnected, being able to communicate virtually anywhere is not just a major advantage but also a way of generating success in business. As the CEO of a language translation provider, I have seen how important language is and how language training can be a linchpin of building a globally competent workforce.

In international contexts, language barriers can significantly impede cooperation and growth. However, language proficiency can provide multiple benefits to employees and organizations, including increased opportunities for teamwork, improved customer relations, and greater growth prospects. In this article, I'll take an in-depth look at the role of language training in fostering the global competency of employees.

Components Of Language Training

Language training comprises two primary processes: acquisition and learning. Acquisition occurs subconsciously through immersion, while learning is a conscious process, often accomplished in a formal environment.

The two most common types of language training involve formal or informal methods, each with associated challenges and benefits. Formal methods often include classroom training and a structured curriculum, while informal methods may include immersion experiences or self-directed learning.

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There have been major advancements in the technological landscape of language learning, including interactive tools such as language learning apps, virtual reality and immersive online platforms. Understanding the backgrounds of these components can help you build any language training for your workforce today.

Cultural Competence

Language and culture are intertwined, with the language we use reflecting a society's cultural values, norms and beliefs. Cultural awareness is important when seeking to communicate effectively in varied contexts, as it can empower us to communicate in a way that is empathetic, respectful and mutually understood.

One way to enhance a learner’s ability to manage cultural differences with consideration and sensitivity is to embed cultural education in language training schemes. By imparting knowledge of cultural customs and societal norms as well as social behavior and communication styles, such programs can provide the cultural insight needed to interact with confidence and respect when operating globally. That's why I believe they should be an integral part of any language training initiative, complementing the acquisition of language so that the workforce can thrive in today's global, culturally diverse business environment.

Language Training Strategies

If you want to put together a language training program for your own workforce, here are a few effective strategies to consider:

1. Immersive Language Programs

Immersive language programs are designed to submerge participants in a target language environment, enabling them to quickly acquire language skills through real-life interactions. Programs may include time abroad, a summer language camp or an intensive language course in another country.

By being surrounded by native speakers and immersed in their culture, learners can naturally internalize their linguistic and cultural nuances, which often leads to increased language fluency and a better understanding of different cultures. This combined approach of increased language proficiency and cultural fluency can lead to workers who are better able to navigate global contexts as confident and adept communicators.

2. Online Language Courses And Self-Study Resources

With the immense popularity of online language learning platforms and self-study resources, learners can improve language proficiency at their own pace. The array of resources available should allow learners to partake in interactive lessons, multimedia activities and virtual classrooms, where they can practice listening, speaking, reading and writing exercises in the target language.

Many platforms also offer self-assessment quizzes and progress tracking, allowing learners to monitor their improvement and adjust their learning strategies as they progress. I have found that this flexibility supports many diverse learning styles and schedules and can empower learners by cultivating a sense of language autonomy and accountability.

3. Language Exchange Programs And Cultural Immersion Experiences

Exchanging languages and cultures can provide great opportunities for language learning. Through reciprocal interaction with native speakers, language learners participate in a mutually beneficial language exchange. Practicing a language with a partner, socializing with new friends, sharing their own language and culture, and contributing to a study-abroad experience can be an unforgettable cultural and linguistic experience. In my experience, these experiences can lead to the development of well-rounded individuals who have a profound understanding of world cultures, and as our world becomes increasingly globalized, this has seemingly become a necessity.

Assessing Effectiveness Of Language Training Programs

Evaluating the effectiveness of a potential language training program requires a multifaceted approach. When choosing the right program for your team, consider components such as:

• Language Proficiency Metrics: A strong program should have benchmarks such as standardized tests, oral proficiency interviews and fluency assessments, among others, which provide a quantitative way of gauging where participants are at.

• Feedback Mechanisms: There should be a real-time data collection process that allows for continuous analysis and refinement to keep your program on track. Participant feedback, instructor ratings, performance reviews and more help program administrators make adjustments as needed.

• Case Studies: Often, the best way to learn about successful language training initiatives in organizations is to simply look at what’s worked before. Detailed looks at the entire process can give you insight into best practices, challenges you can expect and desirable outcomes.

Summing it up, language training can be a cornerstone for preparing a globally competent workforce. By incorporating innovative strategies, assessing effectiveness and embracing cultural competence as a core skill, you can better position your team for success in today's interconnected world.

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