research paper or term paper

📕 Studying HQ

Term papers versus research papers and how to write them, rachel r.n..

• November 30, 2023
• How to Guides

College and university students often have to do writing assignments that involve a lot of research, planning, and writing. While many students know about research papers, only a few really understand what a term paper is and how to write one.

If you’re confused about the differences or wondering if there’s any distinction between the two, you’re not alone. Many students can’t tell a research paper apart from a term paper and end up not doing as well as they could.

In this short guide about term papers versus research papers, we’ll break down the differences and similarities of these common assignments in college and university. This will help clear up any confusion and get you ready for the work ahead.

Why is it important to know the difference between a research paper and a term paper?

Well, first things first, these two papers serve different purposes and have different structures. When you compare an essay to a research paper, you’ll notice that an essay is simpler. It usually involves discussing a specific problem based on personal observations.

On the other hand, a research paper is a more serious task. It requires a thorough analysis of a topic from various perspectives, and the writer needs to study credible and relevant sources.

Now, once you grasp the essential difference between an essay and a research paper, let’s look at how to understand the distinction between a term paper and a research paper. Knowing the nature of these papers is crucial for figuring out how to organize your writing and meet your professor’s requirements.

Now that we have a solid overview, let’s explore the nuances of term papers and research papers in more detail.

Are you Working on a Research Paper?

Feel free to let our professional writers help you

What You'll Learn

What is a Term Paper?

A term paper is an important academic writing assignment that students undertake at the end of an academic term . It involves extensive research and analysis of a particular subject, demonstrating a student’s knowledge and understanding of the course material. Term papers can take various forms, such as reports, essays, or reviews, but they all require adherence to high academic standards.

Unlike research papers, term papers may not always require a thesis statement. Instead, they focus on summarizing and synthesizing the concepts and information learned throughout the term. Term papers provide an opportunity for students to showcase their comprehension of the course material and their ability to apply critical thinking skills to analyze and discuss the topics covered.

Completing a term paper successfully requires thorough research, organization, and clear writing. It is important to gather relevant sources, cite them properly, and present the findings in a coherent manner. Term papers are typically assigned towards the end of the term, giving students enough time to delve into the subject matter and produce a well-researched and well-structured paper.

What is a Research Paper?

A research paper is an academic document that involves the systematic investigation of a specific research topic . It requires comprehensive research, data analysis, and the formation of meaningful conclusions. Research papers can include primary research through experiments, surveys, or interviews, or rely on secondary sources such as books, scholarly articles, or online databases.

Research papers are typically longer and more in-depth than term papers, and they often require a thesis statement to guide the research process. The structure and format of a research paper can vary based on the discipline and the specific requirements set by the instructor or academic institution. However, research papers generally include sections such as an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion .

When writing a research paper, it is important to choose a specific research topic that aligns with your academic interests and goals. Conducting thorough research and critically analyzing the collected data are crucial steps in the research process. The findings and conclusions drawn from the research should contribute to the existing knowledge within the field and provide valuable insights for further study

Related blog article: A Comprehensive Guide to Writing a Nursing Research Paper

Key Characteristics of a Research Paper:

• Systematic investigation of a specific research topic
• Comprehensive research and data analysis
• Inclusion of primary or secondary sources
• Potentially longer and more in-depth than term papers
• Structured with sections such as introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion
• Contribution to existing knowledge within the field

By understanding the purpose and characteristics of research papers, students can effectively conduct research, analyze data, and contribute to their chosen academic field.

Key Differences Between Term Papers and Research Papers

When it comes to academic assignments, term papers and research papers are often mentioned interchangeably. However, there are distinct differences between the two in terms of purpose , approach , topic selection , level of research , references and sources , paper length , structure and organization , and time of assignment .

A term paper aims to summarize course material and evaluate a student’s understanding of the topics studied. On the other hand, a research paper requires original research and analysis of a specific topic to contribute to existing knowledge within a field.

Approach and Topic Selection

Term papers tend to have a more general approach, focusing on summarizing the material learned throughout a semester, while research papers require a more specific and in-depth analysis of a chosen topic. Term papers are often assigned by professors, while research papers allow students to select their own topics.

Level of Research

Term papers mostly rely on secondary sources, such as textbooks and scholarly articles, to support arguments and provide evidence. In contrast, research papers require more extensive research , often relying on a combination of primary sources and secondary sources.

References and Sources

Term papers typically use a limited number of sources for referencing, while research papers require a comprehensive list of sources and citations. Research papers also commonly include a literature review section to provide a context for the research topic.

Paper Length and Structure

Term papers are generally shorter in length compared to research papers. They usually follow a traditional essay structure with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Research papers, on the other hand, can be more extensive and often include additional sections such as an abstract, literature review, methodology, results, and discussion.

Time of Assignment

Term papers are often assigned at the end of a semester, serving as a comprehensive assessment of what students have learned. Research papers, however, can be assigned at any point during an academic term, depending on the course requirements and objectives.

Understanding these key differences is crucial for students to meet the specific requirements of term papers and research papers. It allows them to approach the assignments with the appropriate level of research , structure their papers effectively, and deliver a successful academic output.

The Purpose of Term Papers

Term papers serve a specific purpose in academia, as they are designed to summarize the course material learned during a semester and evaluate a student’s knowledge and understanding of the topics studied. They are a way for students to demonstrate their comprehension of the subject matter through written analysis and arguments. Term papers play a crucial role in assessing what students have learned and serve as a culmination and reflection of the knowledge acquired throughout the term.

When writing a term paper, the primary goal is to summarize the course material accurately. This requires a thorough understanding of the topics covered, as well as the ability to condense and synthesize the information into a coherent and concise written document. Term papers allow students to showcase their ability to analyze, evaluate, and draw connections between different concepts discussed in class.

Furthermore, term papers also serve as an opportunity for students to express their own thoughts and insights on the subject matter. While summarizing the course material is essential, term papers also provide an avenue for students to critically engage with the content, offering their own perspectives, interpretations, and arguments based on their understanding of the material.

Key Components of a Term Paper

When writing a term paper, there are key components that should be included to effectively fulfill its purpose. These components include:

• A clear introduction that provides an overview of the topic and sets the context for the paper.
• A well-structured body that presents and analyzes the course material, drawing connections between different concepts.
• Evidence-based arguments that support the student’s understanding and interpretation of the material.
• Proper citation and referencing of sources used to avoid plagiarism.
• A conclusion that summarizes the main points and demonstrates the student’s mastery of the course material.

Benefits of Writing Term Papers

While writing term papers may seem like a daunting task, they offer several benefits to students. Firstly, term papers provide an opportunity for students to develop and enhance their research, analysis, and writing skills. By engaging in extensive research and synthesizing information, students strengthen their ability to critically evaluate sources and draw meaningful conclusions.

In addition, term papers also foster independent thinking and intellectual growth. They allow students to explore topics of interest in greater depth, encouraging curiosity and a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Term papers also cultivate effective communication skills, as students must articulate their ideas clearly and persuasively through written expression.

Overall, the purpose of term papers is to challenge students to engage with the course material, apply critical thinking skills, and effectively communicate their understanding. Through this process, students develop essential academic skills and gain a deeper appreciation for the subject matter.

The Purpose of Research Papers

Research papers serve a distinct purpose in academia: to conduct original research and analyze a specific topic. Through in-depth investigation and critical analysis, researchers aim to contribute to the existing body of knowledge within a given field. By delving into their chosen subject matter, researchers generate new insights, ideas, and arguments that can shape and advance their field of study.

Unlike term papers, which focus on summarizing course material , research papers require researchers to embark on their own intellectual journey. They formulate research questions, gather relevant data, and analyze findings to draw meaningful conclusions. This process often involves reviewing existing literature, designing and conducting experiments, or studying real-world phenomena. By engaging in original research, researchers contribute valuable knowledge that expands the understanding of their chosen topic and fosters academic growth.

The analysis and interpretation of research findings are essential components of a research paper. Researchers critically evaluate their data, draw connections between different pieces of information, and explore the implications of their findings. This rigorous examination allows for the development of new theories, the validation of existing hypotheses, and the exploration of alternative perspectives. Through their work, researchers contribute to the ongoing dialogue in their field and inspire future studies and discoveries.

Research papers provide a platform for researchers to share their discoveries, insights, and theories. Through the analysis and interpretation of original research findings, researchers contribute valuable knowledge to their field and advance the collective understanding of a specific topic.

Tips for Writing Term Papers and Research Papers

Writing term papers and research papers can be challenging tasks, but with the right approach and techniques, you can successfully complete these academic assignments. Here are some tips to help you write your term papers and research papers effectively:

1. Develop a clear outline:

Before you start writing your paper, it’s essential to create a well-structured outline. This will serve as a roadmap for your writing and help you organize your thoughts and arguments. Your outline should include the main sections and subheadings that you plan to cover in your paper.

2. Conduct thorough research:

Both term papers and research papers require extensive research to support your arguments and provide evidence. Make sure to gather relevant sources from reputable academic journals, books, and credible websites. Take detailed notes and keep track of your sources for proper citation.

3. Analyze and synthesize your findings:

Once you have gathered all the necessary research materials, analyze and synthesize the information. Identify key findings, arguments, and supporting evidence. Look for patterns and connections between different sources to develop a comprehensive understanding of your topic.

4. Follow proper structure and organization:

Ensure that your paper follows the appropriate structure and organization . Use clear and concise paragraphs to present your ideas and provide smooth transitions between different sections. Introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion should be well-defined and logically connected.

Remember to cite all your sources properly to avoid plagiarism and maintain academic integrity. By following these tips, you can improve your writing skills and produce high-quality term papers and research papers.

What is the difference between term papers and research papers?

Term papers focus on summarizing course material and evaluating a student’s understanding, while research papers require original research and analysis of a specific topic.

What is a term paper?

A term paper is an assignment completed by college students at the  end of an academic term . It involves extensive research and focuses on a particular subject.

What is a research paper?

A research paper is an  academic document  that involves the  systematic investigation  of a specific research topic. It requires comprehensive research, data analysis, and the formation of meaningful conclusions.

What are the key differences between term papers and research papers?

Term papers are more general in approach and summarize course material, while research papers require more specific research and analysis. Term papers are often assigned at the end of a semester, while research papers can be assigned at any point. Term papers typically use secondary sources, while research papers require original research and often rely on primary sources. Additionally, the structure and organization of term papers and research papers can differ.

What is the purpose of a term paper?

The purpose of a term paper is to summarize the course material learned during the semester and evaluate a student’s knowledge and understanding of the topics studied.

What is the purpose of a research paper?

The purpose of a research paper is to conduct original research and analyze a specific topic. Research papers aim to contribute to the existing knowledge within a given field by conducting thorough research, analyzing data, and drawing meaningful conclusions.

What are some tips for writing term papers and research papers?

Some tips for  writing term papers  and research papers include developing an outline, conducting in-depth research, gathering and analyzing relevant sources, developing a thesis statement (if required), ensuring proper structure and organization, and citing all sources properly to avoid plagiarism.

Source Links

• https://www.biodieseluniversity.org/term-papers-vs-research-papers-what-are-the-differences.jsp

Start by filling this short order form order.studyinghq.com

And then follow the progressive flow. 

Having an issue, chat with us here

Cathy, CS. 

New Concept ? Let a subject expert write your paper for You​

Have a subject expert write for you now, have a subject expert finish your paper for you, edit my paper for me, have an expert write your dissertation's chapter, popular topics.

Business StudyingHq Essay Topics and Ideas How to Guides Samples

• Nursing Solutions
• Study Guides
• Free Study Database for Essays
• Privacy Policy
• Writing Service 
• Discounts / Offers 

Study Hub: 

• Studying Blog
• Topic Ideas 
• Business Studying 
• Nursing Studying 
• Literature and English Studying

Writing Tools  

• Citation Generator
• Topic Generator
• Paraphrasing Tool
• Conclusion Maker
• Research Title Generator
• Thesis Statement Generator
• Summarizing Tool
• Terms and Conditions
• Confidentiality Policy
• Cookies Policy
• Refund and Revision Policy

Our samples and other types of content are meant for research and reference purposes only. We are strongly against plagiarism and academic dishonesty. 

Contact Us:

📧 [email protected]

📞 +15512677917

2012-2024 © studyinghq.com. All rights reserved

Term Papers Versus Research Papers: What is the Difference?

College and university students do many writing assignments involving intensive research, planning, and writing. Although many students are familiar with research papers, only a few understand a term paper and how to write one.

If you are confused about the differences or wonder whether there is any difference between the two, you are not alone. Many students cannot distinguish a research paper from a term paper and end up not performing as required.

In this brief term paper versus research paper guide, we narrow down the differences and similarities of these typical college and university assignments to clear your doubts and prepare you for the task ahead.

What is a Term Paper, and what is a Research Paper?

A term paper is an academic writing assignment involving comprehensive research with a specific focus on certain concepts, topics, or issues covered within a given course over a semester. Term papers can take many forms, including essays, reviews, projects, or reports. Term papers must demonstrate a deeper understanding of the topics and course content, mostly exploring information gathered throughout the semester.

A research paper, on the other hand, is a formal writing task that involves research into a specific subject and examination of data. It entails systematic research to explore a specific topic. Although some research papers might require data collection, analysis, and reporting, some research papers are longer essays that expound a research thesis statement. Research papers may include primary research such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, and experiments. It also involves using secondary sources such as peer-reviewed journal articles, government or institutional documents, and other secondary sources.

Related Blog Article: How to write a terrorism research paper.

Research Paper vs. Term Paper: The Differences

If you have written a term or research paper, you might conclude they are the same. However, these two pieces of assignments are not similar. Let's categorize the comparison into themes to explore the differences and similarities better.

Purpose and Scope

A research paper is a comprehensive document that reports the results of a given research process. It entails synthesizing information from primary and secondary research to answer a research question or prove a hypothesis. Research papers contribute new insights or knowledge to your field. When writing a research paper, you must conduct an in-depth investigation, critical analysis, and examination of existing literature to support claims and findings.

On the other hand, a term paper covers the materials, concepts, and theories studied during a specific academic term, semester, or course. The core role of a term paper is to assess the student’s level of understanding of the subject matter. When writing a term paper, you synthesize information from assigned readings, lecture slides and notes, and class discussions.

Related: How to write a research thesis statement.

Writing a research paper is time-consuming and requires considerable planning and execution. You can spend several weeks or months working on a research paper. Some professors will require a research proposal at first before approving you to conduct the research and write a research paper.

Term papers are usually assigned within shorter frames. Your professor will expect the term paper within a few weeks or the entire semester. The course timeline dictates how long you will be expected to deliver the final draft. The main thing is that they are assigned when you have covered a lot of material to prove that you have a good grasp of the contents.

Originality and Contribution

Unlike a research paper that requires in-depth inquiry into new topics and testing new theories, a term paper only requires structured arguments supported by evidence. The main aim of a term paper is to demonstrate that you have comprehended the concepts and can apply them in real-life situations. A research paper, on the other hand, must be original as you can. There is an emphasis on generating new ideas, insights, and knowledge to the already existing body of knowledge. When writing a research paper, you can critique the existing theories, fill existing research gaps, and combine theories to explain different issues. Research Methodology

Research paper writing entails conducting either primary or secondary research. This way, you must design a study, collect and analyze data, and write a paper showing a well-ordered discourse. You have to conduct original research on a given research topic. A short research paper can also involve synthesizing information from published research studies or journal articles. On the other hand, a term paper relies on secondary sources such as articles, textbooks, and other scholarly or credible materials. Some professors will also direct you to conduct primary research, although you are not limited to the extensive methodology as with research papers.

Related Reading: Steps for writing a research paper.

Format and Structure

Research papers might be prose, like longer essays with headings and subheadings. They can also take the scientific paper format, including an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, research findings (results), discussion, conclusion, and recommendations (IMRAD format). A research paper is written in a formal, objective, and concise format, focusing heavily on academic phrases and words.

Term papers have an introduction, main body, and conclusion. If you must write a literature review or formal methodology section, the tone is generally conversational and less formal than in research papers.

A term paper is generally longer than a typical essay but less voluminous than a research paper. Most term papers range between 7 and 20 pages, with some professors assigning short papers ranging from 1000 to 1200 words.

Research papers are longer than term papers. Although there are shorter research papers, 7-9 pages long, most research papers are typically 10-40 pages or more. A standard research paper is 4000-6000 words long, excluding the abstract, references, and appendices pages.

Sources and references

A research paper is anchored on your primary or secondary research. You need to design and conduct primary research. The only part you are to use secondary data is when introducing the research paper topic, stating the problem, literature review, and the discussions section to expound on knowledge.

A successful research paper must prove an in-depth understanding of the topic, theories, and concepts so that you can synthesize information from various sources.

When writing a term paper, you primarily use secondary scholarly sources such as journals, articles, book chapters, dissertations, theses, biographies, commentaries, and other materials. You will learn from lecture notes, class discussion posts and responses, and other assignments. While a term paper also synthesizes information, it also summarizes findings from other scholars to help advance knowledge.

Related Readings: Steps for writing a nursing paper

Similarities between Research and Term Papers

You are not doubting, nor is it false, that a research paper and a term paper share similarities. There are certain features that you will find in either of the assignment. Here are some of the similarities between research papers and term papers.

Topic Selection

Both the research paper and term paper topic selection process are the same. In many cases, your professor or instructor will assign you a topic to explore, or they can let you choose a topic you are comfortable handling. When you can select a research topic on your own, which is more likely, go for a narrow, engaging, and manageable one. Select a topic you can spend many hours researching and writing about without changing your mind midway.

Related Readings:

• Research topics for aviation
• Topics on pollution
• Sports research topics
• Making a research paper title page
• Criminal justice research topics
• International business research topics
• Psychology research topics and ideas

Requirements

A research paper and a term paper prompt might be the same. You need to adhere to standard academic writing conventions. You should also frame the papers in a given format and include citations in APA, MLA, Chicago, ASA, AMA, Turabian, Oxford, Harvard, etc. You must also adhere to the submission deadlines and ensure the paper is entirely plagiarism-free.

They can mean the same thing

A term paper can be a research paper. Yes, although this might come out as confusing, it is true. Your instructor can assign you a research topic and expect that you conduct in-depth research that includes a methodological approach. For instance, you can be asked to research a given issue or problem using qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods approaches and then write a 10–12-page term paper. In this case, you must write a research paper using the IMRAD format.

As you Ruminate Everything …

Understanding the difference and similarities between a research paper and a term paper helps you differentiate what to include when assigned either assignment.

Both share some slight similarities, but they also have glaring differences. The next time you are required to write a research paper assignment, you will know what scope to cover. The same applies to term paper writing.

• Research papers vs. essays
• Writing an English 102 paper
• Research paper outline
• IMRAD research paper format
• The number of sources to use in your paper

We know that too much homework or assignments can bog you down. You will end up getting stressed, worried, and anxious. In such times, you can trust our professional paper-writing experts to help you write your academic papers and assignments. We have completed thousands of research papers and term papers on various subjects for our ever-growing client base. Our website writes high-quality, custom-written, and well-researched term papers or research papers for high school, college, and university students. Try us today and see what magic we can do on your papers.

Gradecrest is a professional writing service that provides original model papers. We offer personalized services along with research materials for assistance purposes only. All the materials from our website should be used with proper references. See our Terms of Use Page for proper details.

How to Research a Term Paper

#scribendiinc

The term paper researching process

So, you wrote a great college admissions essay and were accepted at the university or college of your dreams. Now, you've been assigned your first term paper, and you don't know where to start!

The research process is an exploratory quest, a hunt for information that can be both exciting and rewarding. The word itself is derived from the French rechercher, which literally means "to investigate thoroughly." So, when embarking on writing a term paper or research paper, think of yourself as a detective. You will not only search for information but also delve into the whys and wherefores behind the subject material, seeking to provide elucidation through your term paper.

Select a topic for your term paper

Let's start at the beginning. The first step in the essay writing process is to decide on a worthy topic, choosing one that is interesting to you. Make a list of keywords—these are important words or phrases that encapsulate the essence of your topic. Good keywords will specifically describe your topic, but consider using closely related words, as well.  Use these keywords when searching print or electronic sources that you can use in your term paper.

Research your term paper topic

General-purpose reference books, such as encyclopedias and fact books, provide comprehensive summaries and suggestions for sub-topics, as well as related terminology. Although these books are not generally considered suitable sources to cite in a term paper, the bibliographies they contain can be very helpful. This initial reading may help you to narrow your interest, stimulate additional questions, and focus your research. We recommend the following general resources, as they are more global in scope:   The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World , CQ Researcher , the Political Handbook of the World, the Index to International Public Opinion, and World Opinion Update . These publications deal with particular topics, give summaries of various governments, or take other specialized approaches, which are generally considered acceptable sources to cite in a term paper.

The next step is to either narrow your topic (so you can deal with the amount of information) or to broaden it so you have enough to write about. You might have to pick a particular sub-topic and make that your area of interest, or combine certain aspects of a topic to create a narrower one. Decide the direction you want the research for your term paper to take. What are the most interesting aspects of the topic, and what do you want to learn? Be careful not to be too general. This term paper researching process will keep you from getting lost or sidetracked when searching for information.

Find suitable sources for your term paper

At this point, decide on the most likely sources of information—books, journal articles, newspapers, online databases, CD-ROM databases, interviews, etc. Dig around in the library and locate sources for your term paper. Use your library's computer access system to find books on your subject. Some topics may be so current that few, if any, books are available. If this is the case, research scholarly journals for up-to-date information and analyses. You should consult journals even for non-contemporary topics, since scholars may have unearthed new information or produced new analyses. You may also find valuable information published in the reports of a government agency, in hearings or reports of a government committee, or in the transcripts of the proceedings of a government body. The United Nations and a number of other international organizations also publish proceedings and reports.

Don't forget that when you locate the sources you want to use for your term paper, you should be trying to find answers to the questions you posed previously. Also, don't forget to make use of the reference librarian, who can help you to locate and use sources efficiently.

Get organized early! Keep track of your sources

It is very helpful to make notes about your sources on index cards or in an Excel spreadsheet . Such notes should include bibliographic information, page numbers for quotations, and source locations. This way, you can easily find the source of an idea, quote, reference, etc. Number these cards so you can link them to your term paper notes: this will make the references section of your report a snap to complete.

Remember—thoroughly peruse all the information you have gathered, making copious notes as you go. This preliminary research should answer basic factual questions, as well as interpretive ones, and should help you to refocus. Give yourself a reasonable amount of time to absorb all the information you've read.

Writing a research or term paper

In our follow-up article about writing a research paper , we explain the next steps in the term paper writing process. The article discusses your thesis statement, body of your paper, and your reference page. If you would like to learn more about essay writing, check out Scribendi's article   12 Ways to Quickly Improve Your Academic Essay Writing Skills .

Image source: Samuel Zeller/Unsplash.com

Have You Read?

"The Complete Beginner's Guide to Academic Writing"

Related Posts

Essay Writing Help

How to Improve Essay Writing Skills

How to Write a Great Thesis Statement

Upload your file(s) so we can calculate your word count, or enter your word count manually.

We will also recommend a service based on the file(s) you upload.

English is not my first language. I need English editing and proofreading so that I sound like a native speaker.

I need to have my journal article, dissertation, or term paper edited and proofread, or I need help with an admissions essay or proposal.

I have a novel, manuscript, play, or ebook. I need editing, copy editing, proofreading, a critique of my work, or a query package.

I need editing and proofreading for my white papers, reports, manuals, press releases, marketing materials, and other business documents.

I need to have my essay, project, assignment, or term paper edited and proofread.

I want to sound professional and to get hired. I have a resume, letter, email, or personal document that I need to have edited and proofread.

 Prices include your personal % discount.

 Prices include % sales tax ( ).

• PRO Courses Guides New Tech Help Pro Expert Videos About wikiHow Pro Upgrade Sign In
• EDIT Edit this Article
• EXPLORE Tech Help Pro About Us Random Article Quizzes Request a New Article Community Dashboard This Or That Game Popular Categories Arts and Entertainment Artwork Books Movies Computers and Electronics Computers Phone Skills Technology Hacks Health Men's Health Mental Health Women's Health Relationships Dating Love Relationship Issues Hobbies and Crafts Crafts Drawing Games Education & Communication Communication Skills Personal Development Studying Personal Care and Style Fashion Hair Care Personal Hygiene Youth Personal Care School Stuff Dating All Categories Arts and Entertainment Finance and Business Home and Garden Relationship Quizzes Cars & Other Vehicles Food and Entertaining Personal Care and Style Sports and Fitness Computers and Electronics Health Pets and Animals Travel Education & Communication Hobbies and Crafts Philosophy and Religion Work World Family Life Holidays and Traditions Relationships Youth
• Browse Articles
• Learn Something New
• Quizzes Hot
• This Or That Game New
• Train Your Brain
• Explore More
• Support wikiHow
• About wikiHow
• Log in / Sign up
• Education and Communications
• College University and Postgraduate
• Academic Writing
• Research Papers

Everything You Need to Know to Write an A+ Term Paper

Last Updated: March 4, 2024 Fact Checked

Sample Term Papers

Researching & outlining.

• Drafting Your Paper
• Revising Your Paper

Expert Q&A

This article was co-authored by Matthew Snipp, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Raven Minyard, BA . C. Matthew Snipp is the Burnet C. and Mildred Finley Wohlford Professor of Humanities and Sciences in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University. He is also the Director for the Institute for Research in the Social Science’s Secure Data Center. He has been a Research Fellow at the U.S. Bureau of the Census and a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He has published 3 books and over 70 articles and book chapters on demography, economic development, poverty and unemployment. He is also currently serving on the National Institute of Child Health and Development’s Population Science Subcommittee. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin—Madison. There are 13 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,228,064 times.

A term paper is a written assignment given to students at the end of a course to gauge their understanding of the material. Term papers typically count for a good percentage of your overall grade, so of course, you’ll want to write the best paper possible. Luckily, we’ve got you covered. In this article, we’ll teach you everything you need to know to write an A+ term paper, from researching and outlining to drafting and revising.

Quick Steps to Write a Term Paper

• Hook your readers with an interesting and informative intro paragraph. State your thesis and your main points.
• Support your thesis by providing quotes and evidence that back your claim in your body paragraphs.
• Summarize your main points and leave your readers with a thought-provoking question in your conclusion.

• Think of your term paper as the bridge between what you’ve learned in class and how you apply that knowledge to real-world topics.
• For example, a history term paper may require you to explore the consequences of a significant historical event, like the Civil War. An environmental science class, on the other hand, may have you examine the effects of climate change on a certain region.
• Your guidelines should tell you the paper’s word count and formatting style, like whether to use in-text citations or footnotes and whether to use single- or double-spacing. If these things aren’t specified, be sure to reach out to your instructor.

• Make sure your topic isn’t too broad. For example, if you want to write about Shakespeare’s work, first narrow it down to a specific play, like Macbeth , then choose something even more specific like Lady Macbeth’s role in the plot.
• If the topic is already chosen for you, explore unique angles that can set your content and information apart from the more obvious approaches many others will probably take. [3] X Research source
• Try not to have a specific outcome in mind, as this will close you off to new ideas and avenues of thinking. Rather than trying to mold your research to fit your desired outcome, allow the outcome to reflect a genuine analysis of the discoveries you made. Ask yourself questions throughout the process and be open to having your beliefs challenged.
• Reading other people's comments, opinions, and entries on a topic can often help you to refine your own, especially where they comment that "further research" is required or where they posit challenging questions but leave them unanswered.

• For example, if you’re writing a term paper about Macbeth , your primary source would be the play itself. Then, look for other research papers and analyses written by academics and scholars to understand how they interpret the text.

• For example, if you’re writing a paper about Lady Macbeth, your thesis could be something like “Shakespeare’s characterization of Lady Macbeth reveals how desire for power can control someone’s life.”
• Remember, your research and thesis development doesn’t stop here. As you continue working through both the research and writing, you may want to make changes that align with the ideas forming in your mind and the discoveries you continue to unearth.
• On the other hand, don’t keep looking for new ideas and angles for fear of feeling confined. At some point, you’re going to have to say enough is enough and make your point. You may have other opportunities to explore these questions in future studies, but for now, remember your term paper has a finite word length and an approaching due date!

• Abstract: An abstract is a concise summary of your paper that informs readers of your topic, its significance, and the key points you’ll explore. It must stand on its own and make sense without referencing outside sources or your actual paper.
• Introduction: The introduction establishes the main idea of your paper and directly states the thesis. Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing sentence to intrigue your readers, and provide any necessary background information to establish your paper’s purpose and direction.
• Body paragraphs: Each body paragraph focuses on a different argument supporting your thesis. List specific evidence from your sources to back up your arguments. Provide detailed information about your topic to enhance your readers’ understanding. In your outline, write down the main ideas for each body paragraph and any outstanding questions or points you’re not yet sure about.
• Results: Depending on the type of term paper you’re writing, your results may be incorporated into your body paragraphs or conclusion. These are the insights that your research led you to. Here you can discuss how your perspective and understanding of your topic shifted throughout your writing process.
• Conclusion: Your conclusion summarizes your argument and findings. You may restate your thesis and major points as you wrap up your paper.

Drafting Your Term Paper

• Writing an introduction can be challenging, but don’t get too caught up on it. As you write the rest of your paper, your arguments might change and develop, so you’ll likely need to rewrite your intro at the end, anyway. Writing your intro is simply a means of getting started and you can always revise it later. [10] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
• Be sure to define any words your readers might not understand. For example, words like “globalization” have many different meanings depending on context, and it’s important to state which ones you’ll be using as part of your introductory paragraph.

• Try to relate the subject of the essay (say, Plato’s Symposium ) to a tangentially related issue you happen to know something about (say, the growing trend of free-wheeling hookups in frat parties). Slowly bring the paragraph around to your actual subject and make a few generalizations about why this aspect of the book/subject is so fascinating and worthy of study (such as how different the expectations for physical intimacy were then compared to now).

• You can also reflect on your own experience of researching and writing your term paper. Discuss how your understanding of your topic evolved and any unexpected findings you came across.

• While peppering quotes throughout your text is a good way to help make your point, don’t overdo it. If you use too many quotes, you’re basically allowing other authors to make the point and write the paper for you. When you do use a quote, be sure to explain why it is relevant in your own words.
• Try to sort out your bibliography at the beginning of your writing process to avoid having a last-minute scramble. When you have all the information beforehand (like the source’s title, author, publication date, etc.), it’s easier to plug them into the correct format.

Revising & Finalizing Your Term Paper

• Trade in weak “to-be” verbs for stronger “action” verbs. For example: “I was writing my term paper” becomes “I wrote my term paper.”

• It’s extremely important to proofread your term paper. If your writing is full of mistakes, your instructor will assume you didn’t put much effort into your paper. If you have too many errors, your message will be lost in the confusion of trying to understand what you’ve written.

• If you add or change information to make things clearer for your readers, it’s a good idea to look over your paper one more time to catch any new typos that may have come up in the process.

• The best essays are like grass court tennis—the argument should flow in a "rally" style, building persuasively to the conclusion. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• If you get stuck, consider giving your professor a visit. Whether you're still struggling for a thesis or you want to go over your conclusion, most instructors are delighted to help and they'll remember your initiative when grading time rolls around. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• At least 2 hours for 3-5 pages.
• At least 4 hours for 8-10 pages.
• At least 6 hours for 12-15 pages.
• Double those hours if you haven't done any homework and you haven't attended class.
• For papers that are primarily research-based, add about two hours to those times (although you'll need to know how to research quickly and effectively, beyond the purview of this brief guide).

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://www.binghamton.edu/counseling/self-help/term-paper.html
• ↑ Matthew Snipp, PhD. Research Fellow, U.S. Bureau of the Census. Expert Interview. 26 March 2020.
• ↑ https://emory.libanswers.com/faq/44525
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/thesis_statement_tips.html
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/outline
• ↑ https://gallaudet.edu/student-success/tutorial-center/english-center/writing/guide-to-writing-introductions-and-conclusions/
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26731827
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/writing-an-abstract-for-your-research-paper/
• ↑ https://www.ivcc.edu/stylesite/Essay_Title.pdf
• ↑ https://www.uni-flensburg.de/fileadmin/content/institute/anglistik/dokumente/downloads/how-to-write-a-term-paper-daewes.pdf
• ↑ https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185937
• ↑ https://www.cornerstone.edu/blog-post/six-steps-to-really-edit-your-paper/

About This Article

If you need to write a term paper, choose your topic, then start researching that topic. Use your research to craft a thesis statement which states the main idea of your paper, then organize all of your facts into an outline that supports your thesis. Once you start writing, state your thesis in the first paragraph, then use the body of the paper to present the points that support your argument. End the paper with a strong conclusion that restates your thesis. For tips on improving your term paper through active voice, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

• Send fan mail to authors

Reader Success Stories

Bill McReynolds

Apr 7, 2017

Did this article help you?

Gerard Mortera

Mar 30, 2016

Ayuba Muhammad Bello

Dec 28, 2016

Mar 24, 2016

Jera Andarino

May 11, 2016

Featured Articles

Trending Articles

Watch Articles

• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Do Not Sell or Share My Info
• Not Selling Info

Don’t miss out! Sign up for

wikiHow’s newsletter

Difference Between a Term Paper and a Research Paper

As a college student, you are largely conversant with writing a research paper. It is a prerequisite requirement most instructors enforce on their students. But what about its less-known relative, the term paper?

A common cause of concern most scholars experience is differentiating the two. An outside look might give an impression of two closely related terms aimed at using research to produce findings.

However, these two assignments are largely unrelated to the pre-writing, writing, and presentation phases. Still skeptical about which to write following your instructors’ details?

This post explores intricacies that relate to and differentiate these two terms. Learn the basic guideline for writing each paper while presenting a high-quality, cohesive, and coherent document for grading.

• 1 What Is a Term Paper?
• 2.1 Argumentative
• 2.2 Definition
• 2.3 Analytical
• 2.4 Compare and contrast
• 3 Term Paper Outline
• 4 What Is a Research Paper?
• 5.1 Argumentative
• 5.2 Analytical
• 5.3 Comparative
• 5.4 Descriptive
• 6 Research Paper Outline
• 7 Bottom Line

What Is a Term Paper?

It is a typical task assigned at the initial stages of the semester. Students write their findings about a topic throughout their course materials and present a finished document.

The essence of these assignments is testing the student’s comprehension of course content. Moreover, it assesses the student’s writing skills, critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving related to the course content.

Moreover, depending on the instructor’s instructions, it can come in different forms. For example, your instructor might decide whether it’s peer-reviewed, a report, or an essay.

Types of Term Papers

Term papers come in different forms. Moreover, there isn’t a specific format for writing a term paper. It all depends on the instructor’s information. Some term papers vary in word count, formatting guidelines, citation style, topic, or length. Here is an overview of some common term papers by EssayWriter :

Argumentative

This assignment tests the student’s ability to formulate an argument on a specific topic while backed with evidence derived from research and critical thinking. The main intent of these tasks is to convince your readers of your viewpoint while stating a clear thesis statement supported with relevant information.

The writer offers a detailed and comprehensive explanation of a specific concept, terminology, or idea. The essence of this paper is exploring and clarifying the meaning, impact, and significance of the chosen related field of study.

These analytical tasks refer to assignments that involve thorough examination, evaluation, and interpretation of a specific topic or subject matter. The essence of this analysis is breaking down topics into individualized parts while drawing meaningful conclusions based on the analysis.

Compare and contrast

A compare and contrast term paper analyzes the close relationship between two subject matters, ideas, concepts, or texts. The writer engages their audience in exploring relationships between subjects under comparison to come to meaningful conclusions. The end goal is to draw a connection between the stated variables.

Term Paper Outline

An outline forms the backbone of your academic assignment. Here is a simple guide to writing a stellar outline to keep your assignment complete and coherent:

• Cover page – State your name, institution, field, course name, unit number, instructor’s name, and date.
• Abstract – Provide a synopsis of what readers should expect from your term paper. Keep it short and interesting.
• Introduction – Clearly state your thesis statement while explaining how you plan to cover it.
• Body – Divide your research into different parts with careful analysis of each aspect with diverse standpoints.
• Results – Reveal your findings from in-depth research to back your main arguments within the paper.
• Discussion – Summarize the entirety of your paper while restating your thesis statement

What Is a Research Paper?

It is a comprehensive and formal academic assignment that showcases results from original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific subject related to a study field. It is a scholarly work that contributes to knowledge in a particular field.

Through in-depth research, writers can present new insights that add valuable information to the existing database under study.

Moreover, it assesses the scholar’s writing skills and ability to use research to execute a coherent, format, and naturally flowing task.

Breakdown of Different Types

Fields of study determine the nature of the research paper. Here is a look at some common types used in colleges:

The research presents an argument while backing their standpoints with research. The argument must be unique, original, and don’t exist in the current database. The main essence is convincing your audience with evidence, counterarguments, and presentation of evidence.

A writer analyzes a subject or topic by breaking it into components while examining the existing relationship. The main ideology behind this assignment is assessing the ‘how’ and ‘why.’

Comparative

A writer compares two subjects, concepts, ideas, or terminologies. The goal is to establish the key similarities and differences while drawing logical conclusions from the analysis.

Descriptive

These assignments provide a detailed description of a specific experimental study researched by a specific author. The research analyses the process, including the research methods, design, data analysis, and methodology.

Research Paper Outline

Different research manuscripts call for different outlines. Here is a look at the most basic template:

• Title page – Contains important user details such as name, institution, course name, course unit, teacher’s name, and date.
• Abstract- It is a summary of the entire research paper’s work. It gives an overview for readers.
• Introduction – Contains attention-grabbing information and thesis statement to entice readers to continue reading.
• Literature review – Offers an overview of existing research about the topic while handling theories, concepts, and findings from previous research.
• Methodology – Contains the entire research design and approach. The writer reveals their data collection methods and analysis techniques.
• Findings – The writer presents results based on their research methodology. It contains categorized sections that answer the research questions.
• Discussion – Contains in-depth analysis and interpretation based on the research findings. Moreover, it compares results with current knowledge and discusses its relevance in the course material.
• Conclusion – Offers a summarized version of the research findings while restating the thesis statement.
• References – Lists all sources included that resulted in the finds.

Bottom Line

Despite close relations, these assignments are two distinct terminologies in the academic scene. Each bears significant importance in adding new information to existing knowledge.

How to Write a Term Paper From Start to Finish

The term paper, often regarded as the culmination of a semester's hard work, is a rite of passage for students in pursuit of higher education. Here's an interesting fact to kick things off: Did you know that the term paper's origins can be traced back to ancient Greece, where scholars like Plato and Aristotle utilized written works to explore and document their philosophical musings? Just as these great minds once wrote their thoughts on parchment, you, too, can embark on this intellectual voyage with confidence and skill.

How to Write a Term Paper: Short Description

In this article, we'll delve into the core purpose of this kind of assignment – to showcase your understanding of a subject, your research abilities, and your capacity to communicate complex ideas effectively. But it doesn't stop there. We'll also guide you in the art of creating a well-structured term paper format, a roadmap that will not only keep you on track but also ensure your ideas flow seamlessly and logically. Packed with valuable tips on writing, organization, and time management, this resource promises to equip you with the tools needed to excel in your academic writing.

Understanding What Is a Term Paper

A term paper, a crucial component of your college education, is often assigned towards the conclusion of a semester. It's a vehicle through which educators gauge your comprehension of the course content. Imagine it as a bridge between what you've learned in class and your ability to apply that knowledge to real-world topics.

For instance, in a history course, you might be asked to delve into the causes and consequences of a significant historical event, such as World War II. In a psychology class, your term paper might explore the effects of stress on mental health, or in an environmental science course, you could analyze the impact of climate change on a specific region.

Writing a term paper isn't just about summarizing facts. It requires a blend of organization, deep research, and the art of presenting your findings in a way that's both clear and analytical. This means structuring your arguments logically, citing relevant sources, and critically evaluating the information you've gathered.

For further guidance, we've prepared an insightful guide for you authored by our expert essay writer . It's brimming with practical tips and valuable insights to help you stand out in this academic endeavor and earn the recognition you deserve.

How to Start a Term Paper

Before you start, keep the guidelines for the term paper format firmly in mind. If you have any doubts, don't hesitate to reach out to your instructor for clarification before you begin your research and writing process. And remember, procrastination is your worst enemy in this endeavor. If you're aiming to produce an exceptional piece and secure a top grade, it's essential to plan ahead and allocate dedicated time each day to work on it. Now, let our term paper writing services provide you with some valuable tips to help you on your journey:

• Hone Your Topic : Start by cultivating a learning mindset that empowers you to effectively organize your thoughts. Discover how to research a topic in the section below.
• Hook Your Readers: Initiate a brainstorming session and unleash a barrage of creative ideas to captivate your audience right from the outset. Pose intriguing questions, share compelling anecdotes, offer persuasive statistics, and more.
• Craft a Concise Thesis Statement Example : If you find yourself struggling to encapsulate the main idea of your paper in just a sentence or two, it's time to revisit your initial topic and consider narrowing it down.
• Understand Style Requirements: Your work must adhere to specific formatting guidelines. Delve into details about the APA format and other pertinent regulations in the section provided.
• Delve Deeper with Research : Equipped with a clearer understanding of your objectives, dive into your subject matter with a discerning eye. Ensure that you draw from reputable and reliable sources.
• Begin Writing: Don't obsess over perfection from the get-go. Just start writing, and don't worry about initial imperfections. You can always revise or remove those early sentences later. The key is to initiate the term papers as soon as you've amassed sufficient information.

Ace your term paper with EssayPro 's expert help. Our academic professionals are here to guide you through every step, ensuring your term paper is well-researched, structured, and written to the highest standards.

Term Paper Topics

Selecting the right topic for your term paper is a critical step, one that can significantly impact your overall experience and the quality of your work. While instructors sometimes provide specific topics, there are instances when you have the freedom to choose your own. To guide you on how to write a term paper, consider the following factors when deciding on your dissertation topics :

• Relevance to Assignment Length: Begin by considering the required length of your paper. Whether it's a substantial 10-page paper or a more concise 5-page one, understanding the word count will help you determine the appropriate scope for your subject. This will inform whether your topic should be broad or more narrowly focused.
• Availability of Resources : Investigate the resources at your disposal. Check your school or community library for books and materials that can support your research. Additionally, explore online sources to ensure you have access to a variety of reference materials.
• Complexity and Clarity : Ensure you can effectively explain your chosen topic, regardless of how complex it may seem. If you encounter areas that are challenging to grasp fully, don't hesitate to seek guidance from experts or your professor. Clarity and understanding are key to producing a well-structured term paper.
• Avoiding Overused Concepts : Refrain from choosing overly trendy or overused topics. Mainstream subjects often fail to captivate the interest of your readers or instructors, as they can lead to repetitive content. Instead, opt for a unique angle or approach that adds depth to your paper.
• Manageability and Passion : While passion can drive your choice of topic, it's important to ensure that it is manageable within the given time frame and with the available resources. If necessary, consider scaling down a topic that remains intriguing and motivating to you, ensuring it aligns with your course objectives and personal interests.

Worrying About the Quality of Your Upcoming Essay?

"Being highly trained professionals, our writers can provide term paper help by creating a paper specifically tailored to your needs.

Term Paper Outline

Before embarking on the journey of writing a term paper, it's crucial to establish a well-structured outline. Be mindful of any specific formatting requirements your teacher may have in mind, as these will guide your outline's structure. Here's a basic format to help you get started:

• Cover Page: Begin with a cover page featuring your name, course number, teacher's name, and the deadline date, centered at the top.
• Abstract: Craft a concise summary of your work that informs readers about your paper's topic, its significance, and the key points you'll explore.
• Introduction: Commence your term paper introduction with a clear and compelling statement of your chosen topic. Explain why it's relevant and outline your approach to addressing it.
• Body: This section serves as the meat of academic papers, where you present the primary findings from your research. Provide detailed information about the topic to enhance the reader's understanding. Ensure you incorporate various viewpoints on the issue and conduct a thorough analysis of your research.
• Results: Share the insights and conclusions that your research has led you to. Discuss any shifts in your perspective or understanding that have occurred during the course of your project.
• Discussion: Conclude your term paper with a comprehensive summary of the topic and your findings. You can wrap up with a thought-provoking question or encourage readers to explore the subject further through their own research.

How to Write a Term Paper with 5 Steps

Before you begin your term paper, it's crucial to understand what a term paper proposal entails. This proposal serves as your way to introduce and justify your chosen topic to your instructor, and it must gain approval before you start writing the actual paper.

In your proposal, include recent studies or research related to your topic, along with proper references. Clearly explain the topic's relevance to your course, outline your objectives, and organize your ideas effectively. This helps your instructor grasp your term paper's direction. If needed, you can also seek assistance from our expert writers and buy term paper .

Draft the Abstract

The abstract is a critical element while writing a term paper, and it plays a crucial role in piquing the reader's interest. To create a captivating abstract, consider these key points from our dissertation writing service :

• Conciseness: Keep it short and to the point, around 150-250 words. No need for lengthy explanations.
• Highlight Key Elements: Summarize the problem you're addressing, your research methods, and primary findings or conclusions. For instance, if your paper discusses the impact of social media on mental health, mention your research methods and significant findings.
• Engagement: Make your abstract engaging. Use language that draws readers in. For example, if your paper explores the effects of artificial intelligence on the job market, you might begin with a question like, 'Is AI revolutionizing our work landscape, or should we prepare for the robots to take over?'
• Clarity: Avoid excessive jargon or technical terms to ensure accessibility to a wider audience.

Craft the Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for your entire term paper and should engage readers from the outset. To craft an intriguing introduction, consider these tips:

• Hook Your Audience: Start with a captivating hook, such as a thought-provoking question or a compelling statistic. For example, if your paper explores the impact of smartphone addiction, you could begin with, 'Can you remember the last time you went a whole day without checking your phone?'
• State Your Purpose: Clearly state the purpose of your paper and its relevance. If your term paper is about renewable energy's role in combating climate change, explain why this topic is essential in today's world.
• Provide a Roadmap: Briefly outline how your paper is structured. For instance, if your paper discusses the benefits of mindfulness meditation, mention that you will explore its effects on stress reduction, emotional well-being, and cognitive performance.
• Thesis Statement: Conclude your introduction with a concise thesis statement that encapsulates the central argument or message of your paper. In the case of a term paper on the impact of online education, your thesis might be: 'Online education is revolutionizing learning by providing accessibility, flexibility, and innovative teaching methods.'

Develop the Body Sections: Brainstorming Concepts and Content

Generate ideas and compose text: body sections.

The body of your term paper is where you present your research, arguments, and analysis. To generate ideas and write engaging text in the body sections, consider these strategies from our research paper writer :

• Structure Your Ideas: Organize your paper into sections or paragraphs, each addressing a specific aspect of your topic. For example, if your term paper explores the impact of social media on interpersonal relationships, you might have sections on communication patterns, privacy concerns, and emotional well-being.
• Support with Evidence: Back up your arguments with credible evidence, such as data, research findings, or expert opinions. For instance, when discussing the effects of social media on mental health, you can include statistics on social media usage and its correlation with anxiety or depression.
• Offer Diverse Perspectives: Acknowledge and explore various viewpoints on the topic. When writing about the pros and cons of genetic engineering, present both the potential benefits, like disease prevention, and the ethical concerns associated with altering human genetics.
• Use Engaging Examples: Incorporate real-life examples to illustrate your points. If your paper discusses the consequences of climate change, share specific instances of extreme weather events or environmental degradation to make the topic relatable.
• Ask Thought-Provoking Questions: Integrate questions throughout your text to engage readers and stimulate critical thinking. In a term paper on the future of artificial intelligence, you might ask, 'How will AI impact job markets and the concept of work in the coming years?'

Formulate the Conclusion

The conclusion section should provide a satisfying wrap-up of your arguments and insights. To craft a compelling term paper example conclusion, follow these steps:

• Revisit Your Thesis: Begin by restating your thesis statement. This reinforces the central message of your paper. For example, if your thesis is about the importance of biodiversity conservation, reiterate that biodiversity is crucial for ecological balance and human well-being.
• Summarize Key Points: Briefly recap the main points you've discussed in the body of your paper. For instance, if you've been exploring the impact of globalization on local economies, summarize the effects on industries, job markets, and cultural diversity.
• Emphasize Your Main Argument: Reaffirm the significance of your thesis and the overall message of your paper. Discuss why your findings are important or relevant in a broader context. If your term paper discusses the advantages of renewable energy, underscore its potential to combat climate change and reduce our reliance on fossil fuels.
• Offer a Thoughtful Reflection: Share your own reflections or insights about the topic. How has your understanding evolved during your research? Have you uncovered any unexpected findings or implications? If your paper discusses the future of space exploration, consider what it means for humanity's quest to explore the cosmos.
• End with Impact: Conclude your term paper with a powerful closing statement. You can leave the reader with a thought-provoking question, a call to action, or a reflection on the broader implications of your topic. For instance, if your paper is about the ethics of artificial intelligence, you could finish by asking, 'As AI continues to advance, what ethical considerations will guide our choices and decisions?'

Edit and Enhance the Initial Draft

After completing your initial draft, the revision and polishing phase is essential for improving your paper. Here's how to refine your work efficiently:

• Take a Break: Step back and return to your paper with a fresh perspective.
• Structure Check: Ensure your paper flows logically and transitions smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion.
• Clarity and Conciseness: Trim excess words for clarity and precision.
• Grammar and Style: Proofread for errors and ensure consistent style.
• Citations and References: Double-check your citations and reference list.
• Peer Review: Seek feedback from peers or professors for valuable insights.
• Enhance Intro and Conclusion: Make your introduction and conclusion engaging and impactful.
• Coherence Check: Ensure your arguments support your thesis consistently.
• Read Aloud: Reading your paper aloud helps identify issues.
• Final Proofread: Perform a thorough proofread to catch any remaining errors.

Term Paper Format

When formatting your term paper, consider its length and the required citation style, which depends on your research topic. Proper referencing is crucial to avoid plagiarism in academic writing. Common citation styles include APA and MLA.

If unsure how to cite term paper for social sciences, use the APA format, including the author's name, book title, publication year, publisher, and location when citing a book.

For liberal arts and humanities, MLA is common, requiring the publication name, date, and location for referencing.

Adhering to the appropriate term paper format and citation style ensures an organized and academically sound paper. Follow your instructor's guidelines for a polished and successful paper.

Term Paper Example

To access our term paper example, simply click the button below.

The timeline of events from 1776 to 1861, that, in the end, prompted the American Civil War, describes and relates to a number of subjects modern historians acknowledge as the origins and causes of the Civil War. In fact, pre-Civil War events had both long-term and short-term influences on the War—such as the election of Abraham Lincoln as the American president in 1860 that led to the Fall of Fort Sumter in April of the same year. In that period, contentions that surrounded states’ rights progressively exploded in Congress—since they were the initial events that formed after independence. Congress focused on resolving significant issues that affected the states, which led to further issues. In that order, the US’s history from 1776 to 1861 provides a rich history, as politicians brought forth dissimilarities, dissections, and tensions between the Southern US & the people of slave states, and the Northern states that were loyal to the Union. The events that unfolded from the period of 1776 to 1861 involved a series of issues because they promoted the great sectional crisis that led to political divisions and the build-up to the Civil War that made the North and the South seem like distinctive and timeless regions that predated the crisis itself.

Final Thoughts

In closing, approach the task of writing term papers with determination and a positive outlook. Begin well in advance, maintain organization, and have faith in your capabilities. Don't hesitate to seek assistance if required, and express your individual perspective with confidence. You're more than capable of succeeding in this endeavor!

Need a Winning Hand in Academia?

Arm yourself with our custom-crafted academic papers that are sharper than a well-honed pencil! Order now and conquer your academic challenges with style!

What is the Difference between a Term Paper and a Research Paper?

What is the fastest way to write a term paper, related articles.

• How It Works
• Prices & Discounts

Term Paper vs. Research Paper: What are the Differences?

Table of contents

As a college student, you’re most probably familiar with a research paper. But have you heard of its lesser-known cousin, the term paper?

Not sure what the differences are or if there is a difference at all? Though most students are skeptical, there’s a significant difference between a term paper and a research paper.

This post will discuss term paper vs. research paper and help you distinguish between the two. We’ll help you understand what makes each type of these papers unique so you can be confident when handling both.

What is a term paper?

A term paper is a form of academic writing that requires extensive research and focus on a particular subject. It’s an assignment that college students are expected to complete at the end of an academic term.

A term paper typically requires extensive research and strong analytical skills. It demonstrates a student's understanding of the topics studied and allows them to form arguments based on the information collected throughout the term.

Depending on the course and professor, term papers can take many forms, including reports, essays, or reviews but must always meet high academic standards.

Does a term paper need a thesis?

No. Unlike research papers, term papers don’t always need a thesis. While some instructors may require you to include a thesis in your term paper, others may be more flexible. If you're unsure whether your assignment requires a thesis, always ask your professor before you start writing.

What is a research paper?

A research paper is an academic document that involves the systematic investigation of a specific research topic. It requires comprehensive research to collect and analyze relevant data, form a hypothesis, and draw meaningful conclusions.

[FREE] Research Paper Samples

A research paper may include primary research, such as experiments and surveys, or secondary sources, like published works and peer-reviewed journal articles. The structure and format of a research paper vary depending on the topic and the type of research undertaken.

Research papers are effective tools for establishing, discussing, and expanding upon current knowledge within the given field.

What is the difference between a research thesis and a term paper?

A research thesis is usually present in research papers and outlines the central argument or the claim the paper is trying to make, supported by evidence. A term paper may or may not have a thesis, depending on the assignment. It may also present an original argument or claim, but it will be shorter and based primarily on primary sources.

Term paper vs. research paper: 8 key differences

Let’s discuss the key components that set the two papers apart so you won’t confuse one for the other when writing.

One of the main differences between the two is in the purpose they serve.

The main purpose of a term paper is, to sum up the course material learned during the semester. It’s typically assigned at the end of a semester to evaluate what a student has known and understood throughout the semester.

On the other hand, the purpose of a research paper is to assess your understanding of a particular topic through original research. It requires you to conduct research and draw your own conclusions about the topic at hand. A research paper can be assigned as part of a larger project or as an independent assignment.

Term papers tend to be more general in nature, while research papers are more specific. Term papers require you to synthesize information from multiple sources, but they will generally not require you to conduct original research.

Research papers will require you to conduct your own original research on a specific topic. They may also require you to find and synthesize information from published research studies. Research papers are often longer and more comprehensive.

Topic selection

The topics for term papers are usually assigned by professors, while for a research paper, students choose the topics themselves. This can sometimes make it easier to write a term paper because you’re not responsible for researching and coming up with the topic. However, it also means you may have less control over the direction of your paper.

For a research paper, you can choose the topic you want to research and write about. The topic of a term paper may be broad, for instance, "the effects of social media on college students."

On the other hand, the topic of a research paper should be more specific, for instance, "the effects of social media on the mental health of college students."

Level of research

As mentioned, research papers require more in-depth research than term papers. This means you’ll have to spend more time gathering sources and evidence to support your claims in a research paper.

Since term papers are generally broad in nature, they require less research than a research paper. However, both papers require you to find and use outside sources to support your claims and arguments.

References and sources

A research paper relies heavily on primary sources and first-hand accounts of an event or phenomenon. Primary sources include interviews, surveys, or field research.

A term paper may only require secondary sources, which are second-hand accounts written about an event or phenomenon. It typically relies on information from lecture notes, texts, and class discussions.

You may also need to get more information to support your points from journal articles, dissertations, textbooks, political commentary, and biographies.

In order to write a successful research paper, you must have an in-depth understanding of the topic and be able to synthesize information from multiple sources. On the other hand, writing a term paper focuses on summarizing the materials already presented to you in class.

Paper length

Term papers are usually shorter than research papers. They often range from 1-3 pages in length, while research papers tend to be longer .

Research papers are often 5-10 pages or more, depending on the instructions of the assignment and the subject matter. This makes sense considering research papers require more effort, more in-depth research, and more content than a term paper.

Some research papers can go as long as 15 pages if the topic under investigation is broad and requires a lot of written content.

Structure and organization

A term paper typically follows one main structure with few variations. It involves an introduction containing your thesis statement , the body paragraphs which support your thesis statement, and a conclusion that summarizes your main points.

The number of body paragraphs may vary depending on the number of points you want to discuss in the paper. However, 3-4 paragraphs are usually enough.

A research paper may also follow the same structure but often has additional sections like the literature review, the methodology, data collection, data analysis, and the discussion.

Since you need to draw conclusions from different sources of information, an organization is a key factor to consider when writing a research paper.

Time of assignment

Another key factor that differentiates a term paper from a research paper is that they are written at different times during the semester.

Term papers are often assigned near the end of the semester or trimester. This is because they require students to demonstrate what they have learned throughout their coursework.

However, research papers can be assigned at any point during the semester since they focus on any particular topic or issue related to your coursework, regardless of the timing. That said, don’t be surprised when your professor assigns you a research paper towards the end of the semester.

Key takeaway

In the end, understanding the difference between a term paper and a research paper is vital to completing a successful academic paper.

While both a term paper and a research paper require research and analysis, each aims to uniquely contribute to a student's writing competency and understanding of a topic. You should always be aware of the expectations from your professor when writing both types of papers.

Even though they’re both different types of academic papers, our team of professional paper writers can help you with both. They are well aware of the requirements of these two assignments and can research, write, proofread, edit, and cite a high-quality, custom-written term paper and research paper for high school and college.

Share this article

Achieve Academic Success with Expert Assistance!

Crafted from Scratch for You.

Ensuring Your Work’s Originality.

Transform Your Draft into Excellence.

Perfecting Your Paper’s Grammar, Style, and Format (APA, MLA, etc.).

Calculate the cost of your paper

Get ideas for your essay

How To Write a Term Paper: A Guide That Works

30 June, 2020

16 minutes read

Author:  Mathieu Johnson

Once you’ve started your university career, you are going to be asked to present a term paper. What’s the difference between a term paper and a research paper? How can you write a good term? What’s the best way to structure it? Where can you find some tips to make the writing process faster? In this article, we’ll discuss a few tips to help you prepare a term paper quickly and professionally.

What Is a Term Paper… And What Is The First Step?

A term paper is a critical and analytical report on the topic or subject that you covered within the course of studies. It usually consists of two separate but equally important aspects: your own thoughts about the topic and a demonstration of your understanding of the existing literature. The main goal of this assignment is to summarize the material you learned and showcase your understanding of the topic. This aspect makes the term paper a universal instrument for assessing a student’s proficiency. It also explains why term papers cost so many points of your course grade.

We usually associate a term paper with a research paper , but although the concepts are quite similar, a research paper requires a more academic approach and a deeper investigation into the literature of your field of study.

To write an outstanding college term paper, you must understand that your professor has requested it in order to test your analytical thinking skills. You must collect relevant data, analyze it, and then make a summary or solve a particular problem. Such skills are highly relevant to the business world, so this type of the task is as practical as it is educational.

So, let’s start the preparation!

Before you begin writing

Unfortunately, there is no magical recipe that allows you to get everything done fast. You will need to choose the best way forward in whatever situation you find yourself, but here are some tips to help you prepare for the assignment.

To begin with, take the research stage seriously . Sometimes, when students are really interested in a topic, they only want to present their personal ideas about the problem. Unfortunately, if you’re not completely familiar with all the data from the various sources, you will need to reinvent the bicycle.

Term paper writing was never an easy ride. Well, not for our expert writers. Place an order with our term paper writing service and secure yourself an “A!”

In the initial stages of your research, investigate everything you can find on the topic . This may sound like a tall order, but you’ll find that it doesn’t actually entail that much reading. At this point you are only compiling the research, so you will be skimming through numerous prospects rather than reading them completely. Bear in mind that your aim is to get acquainted with the various aspects of your problem. The term paper summarizes the knowledge you gained within a course and requires to familiarize yourself with the research that other people have already made on your topic.

Thinking that your opinions are completely original and unique is quite egocentric, and it can get you into trouble. So, “your” thoughts about the problem are usually just somebody else’s statements that you have rephrased (or even a well-established academic concept!). Remember that your professor will be familiar with all the literature surrounding the issue: if you merely rewrite someone else’s thoughts and present them as your own (even if you don’t realize doing it), be prepared for criticism!

Applying a Structure To Your Term Paper

Once you have read all the leading authors and their approaches to your problem, it’s time to create a structure for your work. This is not yet an outline; you just need to decide what to write about. Sketch out the topic for the theoretical portion of your work and think about practical aspects and how you can approach the research in the best possible way.

At this point, you really need to call or email your supervisor . Your professor will have seen hundreds of term papers like yours (i.e., they have not yet been written, but a definite idea exists!) and will be prepared to give you feedback and advice. He or she will tell you what literature you have omitted, offer suggestions about what you should read, and give you feedback about your paper. It may well be that your approach has already occurred to somebody else, in which case there is no need to repeat it.

Choosing a Topic: Easy as Riding a Bike?

When you choose your topic, make sure you choose something that you are interested in . That’s our advice if you want a painless term paper. If you prefer to investigate a field that you’ve never really explored before, you can challenge yourself to do that, too. That might be sophisticated, but why not?

If you decide to investigate a topic or a problem that you are pretty familiar with, your writing will be more fluid. You will focus your attention on a specific aspect of the chosen field and expand your knowledge within that scope. On the contrary, choosing an unfamiliar subject matter can wash out your expertise.

Be prepared to change the topic if you find out that your research isn’t going anywhere. It might occur that you presuppose that your topic has a potential but somewhere at the stage of initial research, you find that it just won’t work. It’s always a good idea to consider two or three topics when you kick off the term paper writing – even if they are just different ways of examining the same problem. By doing this, you will be able to choose the best version, which may not be the one you started with at all!

Related Post: 100 Persuasive essay topics

Formulating a Thesis statement

Writing a proper thesis statement can also be challenging. To begin with, write down a couple of prominent ideas or concepts, then try to make rough drafts of them to see how they’ll work in the structural framework. You will probably find that one idea fits your style, interests, and knowledge base: you can choose that one as your thesis statement.

Remember that the thesis statement is the skeleton, the central concept of your paper. It is the elemental attribute of almost any academic paper – from master’s thesis to a simple five paragraph essay. If you do a thorough job on it, you will find that writing (and defending!) your argument is much easier.

Be aware that all of these stages are parts of a procedure – one leads to another. When writing a term paper, you should collect the material and wrap it up at the same time.

Planning – The Key To Success

Some people claim that they can write a term paper without any planning. In our opinion, this is impossible. If you don’t have a postgraduate degree and you aren’t a certified genius, you need to prepare an outline for your project. It may come as a surprise, but even people who claim otherwise actually prepare outlines – in their heads. But if you don’t have that much experience, use a pencil and your notebook to ensure that you don’t forget anything.

Don’t procrastinate on your College or University papers anymore. Get professional help with our essay writer !

That’s when we get to preparing your first draft . There’s only one thing to add here: do as many drafts as you need in order to achieve your goal. Understand that your aim is to create an excellent term paper and keep working at it until you are satisfied.

Term Paper Outline: Write Everything In The Proper Section!

In the Introduction , state the topic that you are going to investigate and the context of your work. This is the critical ‘selling’ moment of your work. In a nutshell, your introduction combined with a conclusion should give a sneak peek into what the whole paper is about. If your introduction is well-prepared, it will be quite complacent about the body of your project. The introduction must include an abstract that presents your thesis statement . You should explain your motivation (why should the reader be concerned about this problem?) , your methods (what scientific tools did you use?) , and the results (what you achieved) .

The Literature Review totally corresponds to its name – it is here to review the literature you compiled. Your professor will double check it to make sure that you understand the context of your argument. One more thing to add is: collect all the information you can! Ideally, you should read or at least glance through every book and author that you can find on the topic. Think of your task as a fascinating journey: if you approach it like that, reading hundreds of pages won’t seem like that much of a challenge.

In the Discussion , you must present the interpretations of the problem. Be honest, explain what you pieces of data you don’t agree with and what ideas and concepts you support. This section connects the dots between theory and practice when writing a term paper. Wherever possible, provide several interpretations of the subject matter, then choose the one(s) that are most relevant to the case you are presenting.

In the Body , focus on those arguments that prove your thesis statement. This section must be absolutely logical. If you have chosen a more complicated topic, use heading and sub-headings to improve the appearance of this section. While writing the body, keep your target audience (your professors) in mind. In other words, don’t just record the obvious causes/effects/solutions but also showcase your own findings – what you have discovered and how that proves your thesis statement. Demonstrate that you are familiar with the details and you will stun your readers with the prolific mastery of the topic.

Now, the Conclusion   is her to summarize both the content and the purpose of the paper. The most challenging part is not to make it too dry. Reiterate your thesis statement and briefly show how your results justified your proposition. At the very end, you can suggest a call to action or pose a rhetorical question or statement that leaves your reader wanting more.

What to do next?

When you have finished, reread your work a couple of times. You will almost certainly find a few faults, whether they are contextual, factual, syntactical, grammatical, or even simple spelling mistakes. A very useful tip is to wait for two or three days after writing your final draft to proofread it afterward. Your brain will have time to process the information, and you’ll be able to look at it with a fresh view.

When proofreading, take care to polish the structural problems. The skeleton (the logic and the thesis statement) should make sense. If they don’t, try to approach the problem from another perspective. The changes may take some time, but bear in mind that your objective is to produce professional work. Be patient!

After that, print the term paper. The human eye processes information differently on the paper than on a computer screen; that’s why you need to print it and take one final look for any possible mistakes. Even if you don’t see any serious defects, pay attention to formatting, punctuation, and synonyms. It’s an academic text, so make it shine!

Term Paper Sample

Be sure to check the sample of a term paper, completed by our writers. Use it as an example to perfect your own writing. Link:  Term Paper Sample: Consumer Buying Behavior .

The Do’s and Don’ts of Term Paper Writing

There you have the most important tips to help you succeed in writing a term paper. Now it’s up to you to stop reading and start writing!

A life lesson in Romeo and Juliet taught by death

Due to human nature, we draw conclusions only when life gives us a lesson since the experience of others is not so effective and powerful. Therefore, when analyzing and sorting out common problems we face, we may trace a parallel with well-known book characters or real historical figures. Moreover, we often compare our situations with […]

Ethical Research Paper Topics

Writing a research paper on ethics is not an easy task, especially if you do not possess excellent writing skills and do not like to contemplate controversial questions. But an ethics course is obligatory in all higher education institutions, and students have to look for a way out and be creative. When you find an […]

Art Research Paper Topics

Students obtaining degrees in fine art and art & design programs most commonly need to write a paper on art topics. However, this subject is becoming more popular in educational institutions for expanding students’ horizons. Thus, both groups of receivers of education: those who are into arts and those who only get acquainted with art […]

How to Write a Term Paper

How to Write a Term Paper - Getting to the Basics

A term paper is generally structured with an opening introduction, followed by several body paragraphs, and culminates with a conclusion. It articulates a central thesis statement, bolstered by corroborative evidence and critical analysis. The writing is formal in nature, adheres to a designated formatting style like APA or MLA, and is complemented by accurate citations and a comprehensive bibliography.

Writing a term paper is a structured process that demands careful planning and execution. Here’s a step-by-step approach to guide you:

• Understand the Assignment : Ensure you grasp the requirements, the topic's scope, and the deadline.
• Choose a Topic : Select a topic that is interesting to you and meets the assignment's criteria. It should be narrow enough to explore fully within the paper's constraints.
• Conduct Preliminary Research : Gather background information to further refine your topic, develop a thesis, and create a research question.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : This is the central argument or claim of your paper. It should be clear, concise, and arguable.
• Create an Outline : Organize your main points and supporting details into an outline. This will serve as a roadmap for your term paper.
• Conduct Detailed Research : Use credible sources to collect evidence and information that support your thesis. Take careful notes and keep track of your sources for citations.
• Write the Introduction : Start with a hook to grab the reader's interest, provide background information, and present your thesis statement.
• Write the Body : Each paragraph should focus on a single point that supports your thesis. Use evidence and analysis to back up each point.
• Write the Conclusion : Summarize your main points and restate the thesis in the context of the evidence you provided. Discuss the implications of your findings or future directions for research.
• Revise and Edit : Look for any gaps in logic or content, check for clarity and flow, and ensure each part of the paper supports your thesis. Edit for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.
• Format Your Paper : Follow the required citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) for your discipline, and ensure your paper adheres to all formatting guidelines.
• Final Review : Give your paper a final read-through, checking for coherence, structure, and formatting.
• Submit : Turn in your paper by the deadline, and ensure you have a copy saved for your records.

You always hear the word “term paper,” and in the most basic sense, it is the paper that sums up everything you have learned in a term or semester. Think of it as the ‘gate pass’ for a checkpoint in a game: you need to secure one by finishing one important challenge.

As every game requires, that particular challenge is not similar to other challenges you have encountered. Thus, you must conserve every remaining energy and time to prepare for the challenge.

Going back to our topic, term papers require your knowledge, effort, and time. You can only produce a faultless and astounding term paper once you have mastered the fundamental things you will continuously see in every paper you will be crafting in the coming semesters.

Research-Based

In a term paper, you may not want to ditch your personal experiences or observations when integrating what you have learned in a single term or semester. Most of the time, integrating salient findings and concepts from literature and other scholarly sources may be required depending on the type of paper you are asked to write.

A topic, especially if it is purely theoretical or academic, may warrant you to do a literature review and background research. Fret not, though, as this blog will guide you through making your term paper a work of research.

Since a term paper is research-based, it is almost always impossible not to involve critical thinking and analysis on a certain topic. After all, the best way to discuss a topic, especially if it is complex, is to break it down into pieces. Once disassembled, you can evaluate the evidence, examine its validity, and draw reasoned conclusions based on your findings.

Thesis Statement

You might be able to equate a term paper to an essay. They seem to get along, especially with the structure and purpose of writing. However, you can never go wrong with formulating a good thesis statement for your term paper.

As it is more similar to a research paper, a term paper can be quite long, so having a good thesis statement reinstates the main argument or purpose of your writing. It guides the entire direction of your paper and helps your reader grasp its focus– no matter how long and winding his or her experience will be.

Logical Flow

We may love a fun, creative, and often chaotic way of writing, especially when reading a narrative essay as a coursework assignment. Sorry to burst your bubbles, but a term paper may not follow the same route.

As a standard term paper is full of concepts, terms, arguments, and ideas, it deserves great attention to logic and organization. This means that each section of the paper must build up from the previous one, and transitions between paragraphs and sections should observe smoothness and coherence.

What is a Term Paper In Terms of Its Various Types and Forms

Writing a term paper entails preparation. You can only wish that you have a ton of brain cells and resources to help you finalize your paper that is good for submission– and a stellar score.

However, preparation is only one thing in the long-lasting process of term paper writing.

The term paper structure will still depend on the scope of analysis, as well as the categories of the term paper. Yes, you saw it correctly: types or categories of term papers may have different structures or, in most cases, purposes.

This part of your journey in term paper writing will acquaint you with different types of term papers according to purpose and structure. 

Analytical Paper

From the word itself, an analytical paper requires you to break down a concept, theory, or phenomenon into several parts. These parts may come in the form of elements, experiences, principles, and many other related components.

An analytical paper aims to examine these parts critically and evaluate them accordingly. Analytical papers are often found in social sciences and humanities, and they are mostly requested for a term paper writing service .

Possible topics that resemble your future topic under the mentioned fields are critiquing a philosophical theory or analyzing globalization's impact on a specific country's pop culture.

Argumentative Paper

What is a term paper without presenting a stance? In an argumentative term paper, your professor might give you a debatable or controversial topic that requires your critical thinking and persuasive skills to be utilized.

In this type of term paper, you must integrate a literature review and empirical evidence to support your stance and counter several opposing views. Argumentations are often found in several branches of the social sciences, such as law, ethics, and literature.

You may stumble upon topics like augmenting a controversial public policy or defending a particular interpretation of a literary piece.

Descriptive Paper

Fulfilling this type of term paper entails more than injecting fancy adjectives, imageries, and vivid narrations. When dealing with descriptive term papers, you must provide a detailed overview of a particular topic, event, phenomenon, or concept.

If you ask me how to format a term paper of this kind, the descriptive language used must be realistic and accurate, not just merely ornamental. This orientation would provide a seamless and truthful picture for the reader of your paper.

Although your term paper may be descriptive, objectivity should not be taken away. Descriptive term papers are mostly required in the natural sciences, such as physics, chemistry, Earth science, and biology. A perfect example is the description of the geological features of a national park. 

Comparative Papers

True to its name, this type of term paper compares and contrasts two or more theories, subjects, schools of thought, and approaches.

Upon taking the two major steps, you will need to analyze the similarities and differences between the elements, and you may formulate conclusions regarding their significance or implications. Comparative term papers are commonly seen in economics, political science, literature, sociology, and history.

A prime example might be comparing two distinct economic systems or analyzing the similarities and differences between political theories, such as Republicanism and Democracy.

Expository Papers

How to start a term paper of this type? We just have to take a hint at its name: it ‘exposes’ a piece of information. Elaborating on this, term papers adhering to this type explain or inform the prospective audience about a specific topic, concept, process, or phenomenon.

Since we are dealing with information, it has to be ensured that the latter must be accurate, truthful, and sufficient. Writing expository papers may also entail a handful of related writing tasks, such as defining key terms and organizing information according to related themes.

The fields that most likely require expository term papers are education, communication arts, journalism, and several liberal arts areas.

Grasping each type of term paper above may be quite a handful. Apart from preparing a term paper, you are confronted with a big challenge to choose a type or, in some cases, integrate one type into another.

Regardless of your writing decisions, you are always in for a treat: your term paper proposal will not be a failure if you are more than familiar with your purpose of writing one.

In addition, writing services like Studyfy let you access term paper help like no other. From your term paper outline to the final touches, an array of professional writers are present to provide personalized writing services for negotiable pricing.

What’s The Proper Term Paper Format? From the Ground Up

I am fully aware that you have been wired up with all the information you need to know about term papers, but do not falter yet, as we are just in the most needed part of this blog: formatting your term paper.

Writing a term paper will not be as polished and organized if you do not prepare your format ahead of your writing preparations. So, from conceptualizing your title to proofreading your paper, our tips and tricks will propel you to the towering heights of marks you have always aimed for.

Start Strong with Your Title Page

A well-established term paper will not be realized without a strong facade through a title page. Many students are seen as not focusing on this part of the paper, thinking that it does not hold as much importance as other parts, but if you are thinking the same, you need to change your mind.

Some instructors and professors look at the title page to check if you adhere to the formatting guidelines. If you are less likely to notice such inconsistencies, your professor might think you are not keen enough to eye important details in the rest of your paper.

Pro-Tip: As early as creating your title page, be sure to follow any specific formatting guidelines provided by your professor or academic institution, such as font size, spacing, and margin specifications.

Abstract– Concise Yet Complete

An abstract is likewise an important component of a term paper, just as in a research paper. It encapsulates the crucial pieces of information that the reader must know. It includes the background of the paper, methods, results, and implications of the findings.

While the abstract may require a specific word count that differs from one academic institution to another, it is generally preferred to keep everything short yet complete. Remember: the term paper itself will likely become wordy and extensive, so let us spare space for urgency on the paper’s abstract.

Pro-Tip : Keep everything concise and elaborate on the findings more than the background. The usual word count for an abstract is 150-200 words.

Term Paper’s Background: Where the Thesis Statement is Cleared Its Way

Term paper writing will get as fired up at this point since this part introduces the rationale or context of the paper, asking the question, “What is the topic all about?” In presenting the background, the introduction of the paper's main argument is given– the thesis statement.

This crucial part of the paper is often written as a declarative sentence or a question. To make everything clear and articulated, the paper’s background must provide an extensive exploration of the topic that could lead to formulating the thesis statement. There should be a profound connection between the rationale of the paper and its main purpose.

Pro-Tip : Term papers are more flexible than research papers and journal articles in terms of structuring their introduction. You may hook the reader's attention by putting an engaging opening sentence or anecdote.

Arranging Lit Review: To Each Its Own

Regardless of whether the literature review section of a term paper is separated or integrated into the introduction, this part must provide an extensive overview of existing research and scholarship relevant to the topic.

While one can put empirical and observational studies into the review, it is important to put a premium on reputable articles and research reports that are peer-reviewed and published in indexed journals. When no single guideline talks about a window period for acceptable literature, you may set one for yourself as a guide. 

Pro-Tip: Arrange the literature review thematically, chronologically, or topically, depending on the ways that you desire to highlight some aspects of your term paper.

To an Extensive Results and Discussion Section

Term papers will not be complete without the discussion section. This part seals the deal and is an important piece of a complex puzzle. It interprets the results in conjunction with the questions at hand and assesses their value by comparing them with previous studies according to their agreement or disagreement. 

Pro-Tip: When sourcing previous studies as points of reference for the results, always strive to find ones that both agree or disagree with them. This ensures the polarity and absence of bias in the reporting of the results.

Closing the Curtains with the Paper’s Conclusion

When concluding your term paper writing, always restate the thesis statement. It always feels right and justifiable if the main purpose of the entire term paper is reiterated in the last part of the paper. Apart from that, recommendations and final thoughts may be included in this section.

The conclusion section, deemed shorter than other key sections in the term paper, may come in a short paragraph or bullet format, depending on your guidelines.

Pro-Tip: New information that is not previously included in the paper is not welcome in the conclusion. You might need to write my term paper again if I committed a mistake. You may instead synthesize the key points and results and leave a lasting impression on your reader by either providing a strong closing statement or a reinforcement of the main argument of the term paper.

References and Appendices: Two Pieces That Complete

One may argue that writing term papers may not need references and appendices sections, but the material they provide may prove otherwise. Without the references, sources will not be identified nor assessed, leaving no room for integrity on the writer's part. 

Having no appendices section, on the other hand, does not provide enough context or additional information about the important plans that were executed during the creation of the paper. It is in these sections that small things matter.

Pro-Tip: Double-check the veracity of the references and appendices section. This may entail using the proper citation style for the reference titles and labeling the materials under the appendices section.

What’s a term paper? How to write a successful term paper?

A: A term paper is a type of academic paper that a student, typically from a higher academic institution such as a university, completes at the end of a semester or a term. Since it is considered a terminal requirement, writing a term paper requires one to conduct research, utilize higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, and present findings on a topic or subject by incorporating the knowledge and skills throughout the entirety of the term. 

Since a term paper qualifies as an academic paper, writing services offer custom term paper assistance whenever needed. It is only through tailor-fit writing assistance and professional guidance from seasoned writers that you can achieve a stellar grade without getting down a rough route, thanks to Studyfy.

How to write a term paper if there is a word count?

A word count may be a bummer for some, but it can motivate you to budget how you will use your words efficiently. Make sure to allocate several words strategically. It is recommended that the discussion section gets the highest allocation among all the term paper sections.

Your research and writing process can be influenced by the term paper format and word count. As academic papers often have a specific set of rules, make sure to follow them to the dot.

What is the general structure of a term paper? Is it the same as a research paper?

The universally accepted structure of a term paper is quite similar to a research report: title page, rationale/background, literature review, methodology, results and discussion, and references. An appendices section is optional but necessary for other fields of interest.

A good term paper is like a good research paper. Research papers, like other academic papers, follow the named predictable pattern; just make sure to present your own research through engaging body paragraphs and state primary and secondary sources, including other research papers you used while writing.

Are term papers similar to research papers? How similar and different is the writing process?

Term paper writing is similar to research writing in terms of structure and purpose. However, they differ in scope, audience, and length. While a term paper has a broader scope and is meant to be seen by the course instructor, a research paper has a narrower scope and is written for a wider academic audience. However, what's crucial is the thorough research process.

Featured Posts

How to make an essay longer.

How to Write a Dissertation

How to Write an Essay

How to Write a Research Paper

How to Write a Discussion Post

How to Title an Essay

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Research paper

Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on March 27, 2023.

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your topic and get the reader interested
• Provide background or summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing - try for free!

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.

Try for free

This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

• What research gap is your work intended to fill?
• What limitations in previous work does it address?
• What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

• This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
• We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

• This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
• This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, March 27). Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide. Scribbr. Retrieved April 9, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-paper/research-paper-introduction/

Is this article helpful?

Jack Caulfield

Other students also liked, writing strong research questions | criteria & examples, writing a research paper conclusion | step-by-step guide, research paper format | apa, mla, & chicago templates, unlimited academic ai-proofreading.

✔ Document error-free in 5minutes ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts

• Privacy Policy

Buy Me a Coffee

Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and...

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

We use cookies to give you the best experience possible. By continuing we’ll assume you’re on board with our cookie policy

• A Research Guide
• Writing Guide
• Assignment Writing

How to Write a Term Paper

• Purpose of a term paper
• How to start a term paper
• Structure and outline

Step-by-step writing guide

Standard term paper format.

• Term paper examples
• Writing tips

What is the purpose of a term paper?

How to start a term paper correctly.

• Choose your topic by focusing on what inspires you unless you are already given a topic.
• Take time to research and analyze your subject.
• Start with a term paper outline (see our templates in the next sections).
• Come up with a strong thesis statement before writing anything for body paragraphs.
• Provide topic sentences and practical examples.
• Provide a strong lesson in the conclusion if it suits the subject you write about.
• Edit and proofread available information for trustworthiness.

Term paper structure and outline

• Introduction. This is where you talk about the subject and a problem you are researching. It helps to introduce your thesis statement and explain the objectives that have been set.
• Body Paragraphs. As a rule, in writing college term papers, one must write down several subheadings and headings to divide ideas and arguments into several (at least four) paragraphs. As done below, each body paragraph should contain one idea and a strong topic sentence.
• Heading 1: History of the argument and background.
• Heading 2: Extent of the problem that you write about.
• Heading 3: Effects of the problem and possible causes.
• Heading 4: Possible solutions and outcomes.
• Conclusion. The final part should represent a strong summary and a response to your thesis statement.

Step 1: Data collection

Step 2: explaining research relevance, step 3: introducing your subject, step 4: literature review preparation, step 5: offering results and conclusions, step 6: structural term paper evaluation, step 7: check your citations and references.

Helpful term paper examples

• Term paper examples that earned an A grade from the University of Delaware
• Sample term paper offered by the Justus-Liebig Universitat Giessen
• Purdue Owl Lab Citation Formats Database
• Simon Fraser University Sample Term Paper

Term paper writing tips

• Choose a topic that inspires you if you have an opportunity. If you have been given an already existing prompt to write, research your subject online and ask about the use of course materials. It will help you to narrow things down and already have source materials for referencing purposes.
• If you can choose a subject to write a final paper for your course, think about something you can support with statistical data and some practical evidence.
• Most importantly, keep your term paper relevant to the main objectives of your study course.
• Keep your tone reflective and natural as you write.
• Double-check your grading rubric regarding limitations and obligatory requirements that must be met.
• Always proofread your term paper aloud!
• If you have an opportunity, consider editing your term paper with the help of a friend or a fellow college student.

Receive paper in 3 Hours!

• Choose the number of pages.
• Select your deadline.
• Complete your order.

Number of Pages

550 words (double spaced)

Deadline: 10 days left

By clicking "Log In", you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We'll occasionally send you account related and promo emails.

Sign Up for your FREE account

Forget about ChatGPT and get quality content right away.

How to Write a Term Paper: A Complete Guide With Examples

You just got your term paper assignment and have no idea what to do or how to start? This guide will navigate you through every step of the process, from idea formation to final editing and proofreading. We will start with outlining, drafting and brainstorming, and get you through the writing part in no time. So, let’s dive into the question of how to write a term paper.

If you want to know everything you will need about term papers, this guide, written by the writers at the best essay writing service will help you along.

Table of Contents

What is a term paper.

A term paper is an academic milestone more so than anything else. As a student, you are tasked with learning and then transmitting that knowledge to others. A term paper is just that, a way to show what you have learnt, and disseminate the knowledge to others. Unlike other types of academic writing , a term paper is more detailed, requires more research, and is generally seen as the hardest piece of written work aside from a thesis.

The aim of a term paper is to showcase your understanding of the subject matter and how well you handle pressure and deadlines. In this context, a term paper proves invaluable. In terms of scope, term papers may zero in on an important historical event – if you’re studying history – a scientific concept, or a contentious argument. The choice hinges on the prompt created by your academic advisor. The typical length of a term paper can stretch to five or seven pages, and is generally the prerequisite to attend end-of-semester examination. But, it is also a part of the weighted grade you’ll receive, which only adds to its importance.

For the average student, writing a term paper takes around two weeks, and is a process many do not fully understand. Term paper starts from a very basic element, a question.

Say your teacher wants you to analyze the arguments for and against US involvement in World War II. How would you start? By asking a question; something like: Why did the US enter the war? Or, why did the US waive its neutrality and entered the war.

This opens the door for you and allows you to find an article or two that then leads to the second step, and so on and so on, until you are done. The problem is many students do not know how the process works, or what skills are needed to get the job done. To write an excellent paper you need to plan carefully, adapt to new conditions, be analytical yet persuasive, and understand how referencing works. In addition, the paper has to be formatted to specifications of your chosen citation style – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, Harvard, etc. This is a lot of work!

What is the Purpose of a Term Paper

At its core, a term paper serves to test your ability to understand arguments and defend them using written constructs within a pre-determined time period. Put simply, it tests your ability to navigate complex ideas when faced with a deadline – something that comes in handy in almost every job you’ll ever have later in life. If you can understand a complex event, a scientific theory, or a debatable stance, based on the directive from your academic mentor, you can manage pretty much anything that is thrown your way.

A typical term paper will be between five to seven pages, and represents the pinnacle of writing tasks in the semester. The process of term paper writing, even when the topic is prescribed, can be an arduous and time-consuming undertaking. To succeed you need meticulous planning, good composition skills, and scrupulous analysis, structure, and edit

Doing the Basics Right Saves You Time

As Seneca famously said, “Luck Is What Happens When Preparation Meets Opportunity.” In short, prepare, prepare, prepare. To create a perfect term paper you need to know, well in advance, how it will look, what will it be about, and how will it be structured. This then allows you to simply fill in the blanks as you go. But, if you start a day before submission, you’re toast – or, you can always ask for help from us J – because the result will be Red Bull frenzy induced compilation of internet’s best hits. And trust me when I say, your teacher has those stored in memory; you’re not the first student to turn a deaf ear on old Seneca….

So, let’s see how to start your term paper:

• Select your topic – If possible choose something that you’re personally interested in. When you choose early, all the good topics are still free, so keep that in mind.
• Research your topic – Once chosen, sit at your computer and run through Google Scholar or your University Library for anything that pops up when you type in your exact topic.
• Create an outline – When you have a basic understanding of the topic, prepare an outline. It’s always going to be fairly standard, so once you get it right, you can re-use whenever you need to in the future.
• Thesis statement – Now starts the tricky part. Just kidding, this is still the Top Lane, we’re not even close to the Jungle. Thesis statements are always pretty similar. Jolt down your guiding question and then, based on what you’ve read, write a one sentence argument. For example, if writing about solar and wind, you might go with: Solar and wind power are the future of energy production because fossil fuels are unsustainable.
• Topics, topic sentences, and paragraphs – Every paragraph starts with a topic sentence that describes what the paragraph is talking about. The easiest way to understand is this. If writing a paper about wind and solar, you would need at least three topic sentences – 1)Wind 2)Solar 3)Benefits of using wind and solar. Naturally, a term paper needs much more than just three, but you get the idea.
•   Conclusion – Once you’ve written down the topic sentences and outlined the paper, note your own expectations of what you’ll find in the conclusion. This will help you understand what is happening, and when you’re actually writing the conclusion it will tell you if you were right or wrong.

Pro tip: If all of this is too much for you, there is always the possibility of asking professionals for help. Our team of term paper writers are here to help, so feel free to reach out!

Structure of a Term Paper

As you’ve probably guessed by now, every paper has to have a specific structure. In general, you can expect to have at least three parts – introduction, body, and a conclusion. However, longer papers may need several sub-sections, perhaps even an abstract or a summary, and a page dedicated to bibliography.

A typical term paper has three to five body paragraphs that form the backbone of your arguments and analytical discourse. A bibliography is always needed, even if your sources predominantly comprise course materials or excerpts from consulted textbooks. Depending on the chosen style, you will need either a Works Cited page (MLA), a Reference page (APA) or a Bibliography (Harvard, Chicago). Given its pivotal role in determining your final course grade, make sure to adhere to the highest writing and editing standards.

Term Paper Outline

• Title page – this is where you enter your name, teacher name, school, class, and date. The formatting will depend on your chosen style
• Introduction – Introduction sets the stage for your arguments. This is where you present statistics, define helpful terms, and finally present your thesis statement. IMPORTANT: Thesis statement is always the last sentence in the introduction.
• Body 1: Historical setting or development
• Body 2: Current state of knowledge about the problem
• Body 3: Main argument and potential implications
• Body 4: Argument for
• Body 5: Argument against
• Body 6: Summary
• Conclusion : Bring all of the body arguments together and restate your thesis statement.
• Bibliography : Provide references for all sources cited in the term paper using the style of your choice

Now let’s get to the nitty gritty of the writing process.

Topic Selection – In most cases teachers or instructors will provide students with a list of pre-approved topics to choose from. But, in some cases you will get the opportunity to choose for yourself. This is both a blessing and a curse, because it can lead you into a deep pit of despair if you are not careful.

Length – Every paper will have an assigned length. You should never go under the minimum or the maximum word/page count, as that will take points away from your final score. If the prompt asks for 10 pages, write that.

Sources – Consult your school library, Google Scholar, and any other database that has access to journals and books on your topic.

Simplify – While it is admirable to be able to write in a high-brow voice, it’s much better to use plain language as much as possible, but staying within the confines of academic jargon. No don’t’s, couldnt’s, or should’ve. If something is too complicated to explain simply, you do not understand it properly. Ask for clarification.

Do not be afraid to wander – Choosing a common topic may be a safe bet, but your teacher will grade you higher if you take a topic nobody else even though about. Brownie points are there for the taking. Just make sure you know what you’re talking about!

Don’t overextend – While the entire combined histories of all monastic orders may seem like an interesting topic (well, to us at least), it is waaaaaaay too broad to cover in 5 or 10 pages. Heck, that would probably take an entire compendium with multiple volumes. In short, don’t be a megalomaniac and choose a topic that fits in 5 pages.

How to Write a Term Paper: The Writing Process

Before starting your write up, the teacher will expect a proposal. This is a very short summary of the topic, your thesis statement, and a few sources. The goal is to present a topic that you can defend and ask the teacher to approve it.

So how do you write a proposal? Start by writing down your thesis statement and guiding question. Then identify three to four sources and jolt down key statistics and pieces of information that are linked to your thesis statement. The goal is to show you’ve done the work. The proposal will generally have a full outline (see above) so that the teacher knows what you are planning to do. If you explain what the topic is and why it is important in writing , the teacher will accept the proposal.

Introduction, well, Introduces the Term Paper

Your essay has to start strong, which is why 99.99%  of all introductions start with a hook that captivates the audience. A hook can be anything, a statistic (like 40% of people in the US have no savings whatsoever, which means around 140 million people are completely broke – now that’s a hook, line, and sinker).

Once you know the reader is hooked, you present a brief overview of the topic you will discuss. This is where you bring statistics, data, and broader theories or concepts that may relate.

The end of the introduction is always reserved for the thesis statement, which is the last sentence of the introduction.

Try to be concise – not more than ¾ of a page (cca 200-250 words), but detailed enough so that the reader understands what the paper is about.

Writing the Body Sections

When you are certain you can understand the concepts and arguments presented in the literature, it’s time to write your body paragraphs.

The goal is to provide the reader with enough context and argumentation to prove your point. So, if you’re writing about the advantages of nuclear energy, you have to provide evidence from the literature as well as a thorough analysis of all benefits and drawbacks. The goal is to be as objective as possible, while ensuring your results are accurate.

Do not dwell on too much detail, you cannot fit all of the information in a 5 – 10 page paper. Isolate the most important pieces of evidence, maybe 3-4 and focus on those.

As a rule of thumb, you will aim for 4 – 5 body paragraphs minimum, but in most cases you will need more. The first section should be the literature review, where you analyze state-of-the-art of the topic you are writing about.

Following the literature review is your analysis, which draws from the information you’ve collected. It’s important to note, do not try and make up new stuff, or draw conclusions in this section. Simply analyze and summarize the findings in your own voice.

The last paragraph of the body section can be your own summary, where you present a different opinion. Be concise and do not go into too much detail, simply note if you think there are any discrepancies in the literature.

Remember : Always start your paragraphs with a topic sentence and try to contain the information within the paragraph to the topic.

Writing the Conclusion

Conclusion is the most important part of the term paper, even though many do not give it enough attention. This is where you put everything you’ve written together and summarize key findings.

Important : Conclusion is not the place to add new information or knowledge!

To write a good conclusion keep in mind your initial research question and thesis statement. The goal of the term paper is to answer the question and prove your thesis statement is correct. Has your paper done this? Write it down and explain why or why not your initial proposal was correct. A thesis statement can be wrong, and you must acknowledge this in your conclusion.

In the conclusion:

• Summarize your findings
• Discuss implications for future reseasrch

Editing and Finalization

The final word of the conclusion has been written, references added and alphabetized, the paper and the title page formatted. You are finally done. Or, maybe not! Now is the time for the final edit.

Teachers, above everything else, hate reading papers with spelling mistakes and poor grammar. To make sure your paper does not annoy the teacher (you don’t want a lower grade), make sure it is completely free of any errors.

The best way to do this is by using a machine learning tool combined with close reading on your own. The machine will weed out the glaring errors, and you will finish the job.

Read through the draft carefully. Remove any fluff or excess words that add nothing to the argument. You will likely find several sentences you will want to change. Do this now. Once done, start the second read-through.

In this read-through you will hone in on the arguments. Do they make sense? Are statistics properly cited, and do you sound coherent? If the answer is no, you will want to fix the mistakes until satisfied.

Now, finally, you are done! Congratulations. Pat yourself on the back. Oh, wait, we forgot about the abstract!

Abstract Comes First, or Last

In no uncertain terms, do not write the abstract before you’ve completed the term paper. This is always the last part of the writing process, but strangely enough the one your paper starts with. Go figure.

When you do get to this stage, use our secret formula. Well, it’s not really secret but we like to think so. The abstract needs three parts to work well, the introduction, the method/procedure, and the conclusion/findings. Depending on the topic these will vary slightly but you will always find them in an abstract.

Introduce your topic and what you plan to do in two to three sentences.

Describe what method you will use – such as literature review, an experiment, or something else. Two to three sentences.

Define the results you obtained after using the method. Two to three sentences.

Remember : The abstract should be between 120 and 200 words in length, no more is needed.

No, they are not. A research paper is an original piece of writing that comes after some type of original research has been done. Maybe you’ve found a new civilization during a dig, or a new chemical element. The research paper is meant to publicize this finding so other scientists can critique, refute, or confirm its validity. A term paper is a much simpler version that requires no original research. But, a term paper is your preparation for writing a research paper later in life.

This will depend on your teacher. In many cases, you will get a pre-defined format to follow, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago. If not, we recommend using APA or Harvard, as they are relatively simple to learn and have a ton of resources to help you along.

It is important to remember you are not writing a book, so keep the topic narrow. For example, if writing about renewable energy, choose only one type of energy or just one region. Do not try to cram everything into 5-10 pages; it won’t work.

Writing a term paper is certainly a challenge, but it is also manageable if you dedicate yourself to the process. Prepare well in advance, read a lot, and do not be afraid to ask for help if you get stuck. Your teachers are paid to help you, so email them if you get stuck. Above everything, make sure you are interested in the topic, as that will make the process so much easier.

Related Posts

10 Tips To Study Effectively

How To Buy Essays Online? A Safety-First Guide For Students!

• Introduction
• Conclusions
• Article Information

Screenshots of the smartphone cognitive tasks developed by Datacubed Health and included in the ALLFTD Mobile App. Details about the task design and instructions are included in the eMethods in Supplement 1. A, Flanker (Ducks in a Pond) is a task of cognitive control requiring participants to select the direction of the center duck. B, Go/no-go (Go Sushi Go!) requires participants to quickly tap on pieces of sushi (go) but not to tap when they see a fish skeleton (no-go). C, Card sort (Card Shuffle) is a task of cognitive flexibility requiring participants to learn rules that change during the task. D, The adaptative, associative memory task (Humi’s Bistro) requires participants to learn the food orders of several restaurant tables. E, Stroop (Color Clash) is a cognitive inhibition paradigm requiring participants to inhibit their tendency to read words and instead respond based on the color of the word. F, The 2-back task (Animal Parade) requires participants to determine whether animals on a parade float match the animals they saw 2 stimuli previously. G, Participants are asked to complete 3 testing sessions over 2 weeks. Shown in dark blue, they have 3 days to complete each testing session with a washout day between sessions on which no tests are available. Session 2 always begins on day 5 and session 3 on day 9. Screenshots are provided with permission from Datacubed Health.

Forest plots present internal consistency and test-retest reliability results in the discovery and validation cohorts, as well as an estimate in a combined sample of discovery and validation participants. ICC indicates interclass correlation coefficient.

A and B, Correlation matrices display associations of in-clinic criterion standard measures and ALLFTD mobile App (mApp) test scores in discovery and validation cohorts. Below the horizontal dashed lines, the associations among app tests and between app tests and demographic characteristics convergent clinical measures, divergent cognitive tests, and neuroimaging regions of interest can be viewed. Most app tests show strong correlations with each other and with age, convergent clinical measures, and brain volume. The measures show weaker correlations with divergent measures of visuospatial (Benson Figure Copy) and language (Multilingual Naming Test [MINT]) abilities. The strength of convergent correlations between app measures and outcomes is similar to the correlations between criterion standard neuropsychological scores and these outcomes, which can be viewed by looking across the rows above the horizontal black line. C and D, In the discovery and validation cohorts, receiver operating characteristics curves were calculated to determine how well a composite of app tests, the Uniform Data Set, version 3.0, Executive Functioning Composite (UDS3-EF), and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) discriminate individuals without symptoms (Clinical Dementia Rating Scale plus National Alzheimer’s Coordinating Center FTLD module sum of boxes [CDR plus NACC-FTLD-SB] score = 0) from individuals with the mildest symptoms of FTLD (CDR plus NACC-FTLD-SB score = 0.5). AUC indicates area under the curve; CVLT, California Verbal Learning Test.

eMethods. Instruments and Statistical Analysis

eResults. Participants

eTable 1. Participant Characteristics and Test Scores in Original and Validation Cohorts

eTable 2. Comparison of Diagnostic Accuracy for ALLFTD Mobile App Composite Score Across Cohorts

eTable 3. Number of Distractions Reported During the Remote Smartphone Testing Sessions

eTable 4. Qualitative Description of the Distractions Reported During Remote Testing Sessions

eFigure 1. Scatterplots of Test-Retest Reliability in a Mixed Sample of Adults Without Functional Impairment and Participants With FTLD

eFigure 2. Comparison of Test-Retest Reliability Estimates by Endorsement of Distractions

eFigure 3. Comparison of Test-Retest Reliability Estimates by Operating System

eFigure 4. Correlation Matrix in the Combined Cohort

eFigure 5. Neural Correlates of Smartphone Cognitive Test Performance

eReferences

Nonauthor Collaborators

Data Sharing Statement

See More About

Sign up for emails based on your interests, select your interests.

Customize your JAMA Network experience by selecting one or more topics from the list below.

• Academic Medicine
• Acid Base, Electrolytes, Fluids
• Allergy and Clinical Immunology
• American Indian or Alaska Natives
• Anesthesiology
• Anticoagulation
• Art and Images in Psychiatry
• Artificial Intelligence
• Assisted Reproduction
• Bleeding and Transfusion
• Caring for the Critically Ill Patient
• Challenges in Clinical Electrocardiography
• Climate and Health
• Climate Change
• Clinical Challenge
• Clinical Decision Support
• Clinical Implications of Basic Neuroscience
• Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Consensus Statements
• Coronavirus (COVID-19)
• Critical Care Medicine
• Cultural Competency
• Dental Medicine
• Dermatology
• Diabetes and Endocrinology
• Diagnostic Test Interpretation
• Drug Development
• Electronic Health Records
• Emergency Medicine
• End of Life, Hospice, Palliative Care
• Environmental Health
• Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion
• Facial Plastic Surgery
• Gastroenterology and Hepatology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Genomics and Precision Health
• Global Health
• Guide to Statistics and Methods
• Hair Disorders
• Health Care Delivery Models
• Health Care Economics, Insurance, Payment
• Health Care Quality
• Health Care Reform
• Health Care Safety
• Health Care Workforce
• Health Disparities
• Health Inequities
• Health Policy
• Health Systems Science
• History of Medicine
• Hypertension
• Images in Neurology
• Implementation Science
• Infectious Diseases
• Innovations in Health Care Delivery
• JAMA Infographic
• Law and Medicine
• Leading Change
• Less is More
• LGBTQIA Medicine
• Lifestyle Behaviors
• Medical Coding
• Medical Devices and Equipment
• Medical Education
• Medical Education and Training
• Medical Journals and Publishing
• Mobile Health and Telemedicine
• Narrative Medicine
• Neuroscience and Psychiatry
• Notable Notes
• Nutrition, Obesity, Exercise
• Obstetrics and Gynecology
• Occupational Health
• Ophthalmology
• Orthopedics
• Otolaryngology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Care
• Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
• Patient Care
• Patient Information
• Performance Improvement
• Performance Measures
• Perioperative Care and Consultation
• Pharmacoeconomics
• Pharmacoepidemiology
• Pharmacogenetics
• Pharmacy and Clinical Pharmacology
• Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
• Physical Therapy
• Physician Leadership
• Population Health
• Primary Care
• Professional Well-being
• Professionalism
• Psychiatry and Behavioral Health
• Public Health
• Pulmonary Medicine
• Regulatory Agencies
• Reproductive Health
• Research, Methods, Statistics
• Resuscitation
• Rheumatology
• Risk Management
• Scientific Discovery and the Future of Medicine
• Shared Decision Making and Communication
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports Medicine
• Stem Cell Transplantation
• Substance Use and Addiction Medicine
• Surgical Innovation
• Surgical Pearls
• Teachable Moment
• Technology and Finance
• The Art of JAMA
• The Arts and Medicine
• The Rational Clinical Examination
• Tobacco and e-Cigarettes
• Translational Medicine
• Trauma and Injury
• Treatment Adherence
• Ultrasonography
• Users' Guide to the Medical Literature
• Vaccination
• Venous Thromboembolism
• Veterans Health
• Women's Health
• Workflow and Process
• Wound Care, Infection, Healing

Get the latest research based on your areas of interest.

Others also liked.

• Download PDF
• X Facebook More LinkedIn

Staffaroni AM , Clark AL , Taylor JC, et al. Reliability and Validity of Smartphone Cognitive Testing for Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(4):e244266. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.4266

Manage citations:

© 2024

• Permissions

Reliability and Validity of Smartphone Cognitive Testing for Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration

• 1 Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco
• 2 Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, New York
• 3 Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
• 4 Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
• 5 Department of Neurology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
• 6 Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla
• 7 Department of Radiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
• 8 Department of Neurology, Indiana University, Indianapolis
• 9 Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
• 10 Department of Neurology, University of Washington, Seattle
• 11 Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
• 12 Department of Neurology, Institute for Precision Health, University of California, Los Angeles
• 13 Department of Neurology, Knight Alzheimer Disease Research Center, Washington University, Saint Louis, Missouri
• 14 Department of Psychiatry, Knight Alzheimer Disease Research Center, Washington University, Saint Louis, Missouri
• 15 Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida
• 16 Department of Neurology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia
• 17 Division of Neurology, University of British Columbia, Musqueam, Squamish & Tsleil-Waututh Traditional Territory, Vancouver, Canada
• 18 Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla
• 19 Department of Neurology, Nantz National Alzheimer Center, Houston Methodist and Weill Cornell Medicine, Houston Methodist, Houston, Texas
• 20 Department of Neurology, UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles)
• 21 Department of Neurology, University of Colorado, Aurora
• 22 Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA
• 23 Department of Neurology, University of Alabama, Birmingham
• 24 Tanz Centre for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, Division of Neurology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
• 25 Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston
• 26 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco
• 27 Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Washington University, Saint Louis, Missouri

Question   Can remote cognitive testing via smartphones yield reliable and valid data for frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD)?

Findings   In this cohort study of 360 patients, remotely deployed smartphone cognitive tests showed moderate to excellent reliability comparedwith criterion standard measures (in-person disease severity assessments and neuropsychological tests) and brain volumes. Smartphone tests accurately detected dementia and were more sensitive to the earliest stages of familial FTLD than standard neuropsychological tests.

Meaning   These findings suggest that remotely deployed smartphone-based assessments may be reliable and valid tools for evaluating FTLD and may enhance early detection, supporting the inclusion of digital assessments in clinical trials for neurodegeneration.

Importance   Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) is relatively rare, behavioral and motor symptoms increase travel burden, and standard neuropsychological tests are not sensitive to early-stage disease. Remote smartphone-based cognitive assessments could mitigate these barriers to trial recruitment and success, but no such tools are validated for FTLD.

Objective   To evaluate the reliability and validity of smartphone-based cognitive measures for remote FTLD evaluations.

Design, Setting, and Participants   In this cohort study conducted from January 10, 2019, to July 31, 2023, controls and participants with FTLD performed smartphone application (app)–based executive functioning tasks and an associative memory task 3 times over 2 weeks. Observational research participants were enrolled through 18 centers of a North American FTLD research consortium (ALLFTD) and were asked to complete the tests remotely using their own smartphones. Of 1163 eligible individuals (enrolled in parent studies), 360 were enrolled in the present study; 364 refused and 439 were excluded. Participants were divided into discovery (n = 258) and validation (n = 102) cohorts. Among 329 participants with data available on disease stage, 195 were asymptomatic or had preclinical FTLD (59.3%), 66 had prodromal FTLD (20.1%), and 68 had symptomatic FTLD (20.7%) with a range of clinical syndromes.

Exposure   Participants completed standard in-clinic measures and remotely administered ALLFTD mobile app (app) smartphone tests.

Main Outcomes and Measures   Internal consistency, test-retest reliability, association of smartphone tests with criterion standard clinical measures, and diagnostic accuracy.

Results   In the 360 participants (mean [SD] age, 54.0 [15.4] years; 209 [58.1%] women), smartphone tests showed moderate-to-excellent reliability (intraclass correlation coefficients, 0.77-0.95). Validity was supported by association of smartphones tests with disease severity ( r range, 0.38-0.59), criterion-standard neuropsychological tests ( r range, 0.40-0.66), and brain volume (standardized β range, 0.34-0.50). Smartphone tests accurately differentiated individuals with dementia from controls (area under the curve [AUC], 0.93 [95% CI, 0.90-0.96]) and were more sensitive to early symptoms (AUC, 0.82 [95% CI, 0.76-0.88]) than the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (AUC, 0.68 [95% CI, 0.59-0.78]) ( z of comparison, −2.49 [95% CI, −0.19 to −0.02]; P  = .01). Reliability and validity findings were highly similar in the discovery and validation cohorts. Preclinical participants who carried pathogenic variants performed significantly worse than noncarrier family controls on 3 app tasks (eg, 2-back β = −0.49 [95% CI, −0.72 to −0.25]; P  < .001) but not a composite of traditional neuropsychological measures (β = −0.14 [95% CI, −0.42 to 0.14]; P  = .32).

Conclusions and Relevance   The findings of this cohort study suggest that smartphones could offer a feasible, reliable, valid, and scalable solution for remote evaluations of FTLD and may improve early detection. Smartphone assessments should be considered as a complementary approach to traditional in-person trial designs. Future research should validate these results in diverse populations and evaluate the utility of these tests for longitudinal monitoring.

Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) is a neurodegenerative pathology causing early-onset dementia syndromes with impaired behavior, cognition, language, and/or motor functioning. 1 Although over 30 FTLD trials are planned or in progress, there are several barriers to conducting FTLD trials. Clinical trials for neurodegenerative disease are expensive, 2 and frequent in-person trial visits are burdensome for patients, caregivers, and clinicians, 3 a concern magnified in FTLD by behavioral and motor impairments. Given the rarity and geographical dispersion of eligible participants, FTLD trials require global recruitment, 4 particularly for those that are far from expert FTLD clinical trial centers. Furthermore, criterion standard neuropsychological tests are not adequately sensitive until symptoms are already noticeable to families, limiting their usefulness as outcomes in early-stage FTLD treatment trials. 4

Reliable, valid, and scalable remote data collection methods may help surmount these barriers to FTLD clinical trials. Smartphones are garnering interest across neurological conditions as a method for administering remote cognitive and motor evaluations. Preliminary evidence supports the feasibility, reliability, and/or validity of unsupervised smartphone cognitive and motor testing in older adults at risk for Alzheimer disease, 5 - 8 Parkinson disease, 9 and Huntington disease. 10 The clinical heterogeneity of FTLD necessitates a uniquely comprehensive smartphone battery. In the ALLFTD Consortium (Advancing Research and Treatment in Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration [ARTFLD] and Longitudinal Evaluation of Familial Frontotemporal Dementia Subjects [LEFFTDS]), the ALLFTD mobile Application (ALLFTD-mApp) was designed to remotely monitor cognitive, behavioral, language, and motor functioning in FTLD research. Taylor et al 11 recently reported that unsupervised ALLFTD-mApp data collection through a multicenter North American FTLD research network was feasible and acceptable to participants. Herein, we extend that work by investigating the reliability and validity of unsupervised remote smartphone tests of executive functioning and memory in a cohort with FTLD that has undergone extensive phenotyping.

Participants were enrolled from ongoing FTLD studies requiring in-person assessment, including participants from 18 centers from the ALLFTD study study 12 and University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) FTLD studies. To study the app in older individuals, a small group of older adults without functional impairment was recruited from the UCSF Brain Aging Network for Cognitive Health. All study procedures were approved by the UCSF or Johns Hopkins Central Institutional Review Board. All participants or legally authorized representatives provided written informed consent. The study followed the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline.

Inclusion criteria were age 18 years or older, having access to a smartphone, and reporting English as the primary language. Race and ethnicity were self reported by participants using options consistent with the National Alzheimer’s Coordinating Center (NACC) Uniform Data Set (UDS) and were collected to contextualize the generalizability of these results. Participants were asked to complete tests on their own smartphones. Informants were encouraged for all participants and required for those with symptomatic FTLD (Clinical Dementia Rating Scale plus NACC FTLD module [CDR plus NACC-FTLD] global score ≥1). Recruitment targeted individuals with CDR plus NACC-FTLD global scores less than 2, but sites had discretion to enroll more severely impaired participants. Exclusion criteria were consistent with the parent ALLFTD study. 12

Participants were enrolled in the ALLFTD-mApp study within 90 days of annual ALLFTD study visits (including neuropsychological and neuroimaging data collection). Site research coordinators (including J.C.T., A.B.W., S.D., and M.M.) assisted participants with app download, setup, and orientation and observed participants completing the first questionnaire. All cognitive tasks were self-administered without supervision (except pilot participants, discussed below) in a predefined order with minor adjustments throughout the study. Study partners of participants with symptomatic FTLD were asked to remain nearby during participation to help navigate the ALLFTD-mApp but were asked not to assist with testing.

The baseline participation window was divided into three 25- to 35-minute assessment sessions occurring over 11 days. All cognitive tests were repeated in every session to enhance task reliability 6 , 13 and enable assessment of test-retest reliability, except for card sort, which was administered once every 6 months due to expected practice effects. Adherence was defined as the percentage of all available tasks that were completed. Participants were asked to complete the triplicate of sessions every 6 months for the duration of the app study. Only the baseline triplicate was analyzed in this study.

Replicability was tested by dividing the sample into a discovery cohort (n = 258) comprising all participants enrolled until the initial data freeze (October 1, 2022) and a validation cohort (n = 102) comprising participants enrolled after October 1, 2022, and 18 pilot participants 11 who completed the first session in person with an examiner present during cognitive pretesting. Sensitivity analyses excluded this small pilot cohort.

ALLFTD investigators partnered with Datacubed Health 14 to develop the ALLFTD-mApp on Datacubed Health’s Linkt platform. The app includes cognitive, motor, and speech tasks. This study focuses on 6 cognitive tests developed by Datacubed Health 11 comprising an adaptive associative memory task (Humi’s Bistro) and gamified versions of classic executive functioning paradigms: flanker (Ducks in a Pond), Stroop (Color Clash), 2-back (Animal Parade), go/no-go (Go Sushi Go!), and card sort (Card Shuffle) ( Figure 1 and eMethods in Supplement 1 ). Most participants with symptomatic FTLD (49 [72.1%]) were not administered Stroop or 2-back, as pilot studies identified these as too difficult. 11 The app test results were summarized as a composite score (eMethods in Supplement 1 ). Participants completed surveys to assess technological familiarity (daily or less than daily use of a smartphone) and distractions (present or absent).

Criterion standard clinical data were collected during parent project visits. Syndromic diagnoses were made according to published criteria 15 - 19 based on multidisciplinary conferences that considered neurological history, neurological examination results, and collateral interview. 20

The CDR plus NACC-FTLD module is an 8-domain rating scale based on informant and participant report. 21 A global score was calculated to categorize disease severity as asymptomatic or preclinical if a pathogenic variant carrier (0), prodromal (0.5), or symptomatic (1.0-3.0). 22 A sum of the 8 domain box scores (CDR plus NACC-FTLD sum of boxes) was also calculated. 22

Participants completed the UDS Neuropsychological Battery, version 3.0 23 (eMethods in Supplement 1 ), which includes traditional neuropsychological measures and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), a global cognitive screen. Executive functioning and processing speed measures were summarized into a composite score (UDS3-EF). 24 Participants also completed a 9-item list-learning memory test (California Verbal Learning Test, 2nd edition, Short Form). 25 Most (339 [94.2%]) neuropsychological evaluations were conducted in person. In a subsample (n = 270), motor speed and dexterity were assessed using the Movement Disorder Society Uniform Parkinson Disease Rating Scale 26 Finger Tapping subscale (0 indicates no deficits [n = 240]).

We acquired T1-weighted brain magnetic resonance imaging for 199 participants. Details of image acquisition, harmonization, preprocessing, and processing are provided in eMethods in Supplement 1 and prior publications. 27 Briefly, SPM12 (Statistical Parametric Mapping) was used for segmentation 28 and Large Deformation Diffeomorphic Metric Mapping for generating group templates. 29 Gray matter volumes were calculated in template space by integrating voxels and dividing by total intracranial volume in 2 regions of interest (ROIs) 30 : a frontoparietal and subcortical ROI and a hippocampal ROI. Voxel-based morphometry was used to test unbiased voxel-wise associations of volume with smartphone tests (eMethods in Supplement 1 ). 31 , 32

Participants in the ALLFTD study underwent genetic testing 33 at the University of California, Los Angeles. DNA samples were screened using targeted sequencing of a custom panel of genes previously implicated in neurodegenerative diseases, including GRN ( 138945 ) and MAPT ( 157140 ). Hexanucleotide repeat expansions in C9orf72 ( 614260 ) were detected using both fluorescent and repeat-primed polymerase chain reaction analysis. 34

Statistical analyses were conducted using Stata, version 17.0 (StataCorp LLC), and R, version 4.4.2 (R Project for Statistical Computing). All tests were 2 sided, with a statistical significance threshold of P < .05.

Psychometric properties of the smartphone tests were explored using descriptive statistics. Comparisons between CDR plus NACC-FTLD groups (ie, asymptomatic or preclinical, prodromal, and symptomatic) for continuous variables, including demographic characteristics and cognitive task scores (first exposure to each measure), were analyzed by fitting linear regressions. We used χ 2 difference tests for frequency data (eg, sex and race and ethnicity).

Internal consistency, which measures reliability within a task, was estimated for participants’ first exposure to each test using Cronbach α (details in eMethods in Supplement 1 ). Test-retest reliability was estimated using intraclass correlation coefficients for participants who completed a task at least twice; all exposures were included. Reliability estimates are described as poor (<0.500), moderate (0.500-0.749), good (0.750-0.890), and excellent (≥0.900) 35 ; these are reporting rules of thumb, and clinical interpretation should consider raw estimates. We calculated 95% CIs via bootstrapping with 1000 samples.

Validity analyses used participants’ first exposure to each test. Linear regressions were fitted in participants without symptoms with age, sex, and educational level as independent variables to understand the unique contribution of each demographic factor to cognitive test scores. Correlations and linear regression between the app-based tasks and disease severity (CDR plus NACC-FTLD sum of boxes score), neuropsychological test scores, and gray matter ROIs were used to investigate construct validity in the full sample. Demographic characteristics were not entered as covariates because the primary goal was to assess associations between app-based measures and criterion standards, rather than understand the incremental predictive value of app measures. To address potential motor confounds, associations with disease severity were evaluated in a subsample without finger dexterity deficits on motor examination (using the Movement Disorder Society Uniform Parkinson Disease Rating Scale Finger Tapping subscale). To complement ROI-based neuroimaging analysis based on a priori hypotheses, we conducted voxel-based morphometry (eMethods in Supplement 1 ) to uncover other potential neural correlates of test performance. 31 , 32 Finally, we evaluated the association of the number of distractions and operating system with reliability and validity, controlling for age and disease severity, which are predictive factors associated with test performance in correlation analyses.

To evaluate the app’s ability to select participants with prodromal or symptomatic FTLD for trial enrollment, we tested discrimination of participants without symptoms from those with prodromal and symptomatic FTLD. To understand the app’s utility for screening early cognitive impairment, we fit receiver operating characteristics curves testing the predictive value of the app composite, UDS3-EF, and MoCA for differentiating participants without symptoms and those with preclinical FTLD from those with prodromal FTLD; areas under the curves (AUC) for the app and MoCA were compared using the DeLong test in participants with results for both predictive factors.

We compared app performance in preclinical participants who carried pathogenic variants with that in noncarrier controls using linear regression adjusted for age (a predictive factor in earlier models). For this analysis, we excluded those younger than 45 years to remove participants likely to be years from symptom onset based on natural history studies. 4 We analyzed memory performance in participants who carried MAPT pathogenic variants, as early executive deficits may be less prominent. 34 , 36

Of 1163 eligible participants, 360 were enrolled, 439 were excluded, and 364 refused to participate (additional details are provided in the eResults in Supplement 1 ). Participant characteristics are reported in Table 1 for the full sample. The discovery and validation cohorts did not significantly differ in terms of demographic characteristics, disease severity, or cognition (eTable 1 in Supplement 1 ). In the full sample, there were 209 women (58.1%) and 151 men (41.9%), and the mean (SD) age was 54.0 (15.4) years (range, 18-89 years). The mean (SD) educational level was 16.5 (2.3) years (range, 12-20 years). Among the 358 participants with racial and ethnic data available, 340 (95.0%) identified as White. For the 18 participants self-identifying as being of other race or ethnicity, the specific group was not provided to protect participant anonymity. Among the 329 participants with available CDR plus NACC-FTLD scores ( Table 1 ), 195 (59.3%) were asymptomatic or preclinical (Global Score, 0), 66 (20.1%) were prodromal (Global score, 0.5), and 68 (20.7%) were symptomatic (global score, 1.0 or 2.0). Of those with available genetic testing results (n = 222), 100 (45.0%) carried a pathogenic familial FTLD pathogenic variant, including 63 of 120 participants without symptoms and with available results. On average, participants completed 78% of available smartphone measures over a mean (SD) of 2.6 (0.6) sessions.

Descriptive statistics for each task are presented in Table 2 . Ceiling effects were not observed for any tests. A small percentage of participants were at the floor for flanker (19 [5.3%]), go/no-go (13 [4.0%]), and card sort (9 [3.3%]) scores. Floor effects were only observed in participants with prodromal or symptomatic FTLD.

Except for go/no-go, internal consistency estimates ranged from good to excellent (Cronbach α range, 0.84 [95% CI, 0.81-0.87] to 0.99 [95% CI, 0.99-0.99]), and test-retest reliabilities were moderate to excellent (interclass correlation coefficient [ICC] range, 0.77 [95% CI, 0.69-0.83] to 0.95 [95% CI, 0.93-0.96]), with slightly higher estimates in participants with prodromal or symptomatic FTLD ( Table 2 , Figure 2 , and eFigure 1 in Supplement 1 ). Go/no-go reliability was particularly poor in participants without symptoms (ICC, 0.10 [95% CI, −0.37 to 0.48]) and was removed from subsequent validation analyses except the correlation matrix ( Figure 3 A and B). The 95% CIs for reliability estimates overlapped in the discovery and validation cohorts ( Figure 2 ). Reliability estimates showed overlapping 95% CIs regardless of distractions (eFigure 2 in Supplement 1 ) or operating systems (eFigure 3 in Supplement 1 ), with a pattern of slightly lower reliability estimates when distractions were endorsed for all comparisons except Stroop (Cronbach α).

In 57 participants without symptoms who did not carry pathogenic variants, older age was associated with worse performance on all measures (β range,  − 0.40 [95 CI, −0.68 to −0.13] to −0.78 [95 CI, −0.89 to −0.52]; P ≤ .03), except card sort (β = −0.22 [95% CI, −0.54 to 0.09]; P  = .16) and go-no/go (β = −0.15 [95% CI, −0.44 to 0.14]; P  = .31), though associations were in the expected direction. Associations with sex and educational level were not statistically significant.

Cognitive tests administered using the app showed evidence of convergent and divergent validity (eFigure 4 in Supplement 1 ), with very similar findings in discovery ( Figure 3 A) and validation cohorts ( Figure 3 B). App–based measures of executive functioning were generally correlated with criterion standard in-person measures of these domains and less with measures of other cognitive domains ( r range, 0.40-0.66). For example, the flanker task was associated with the UDS3-EF composite (β = 0.58 [95% CI, 0.48-0.68]; P  < .001) and measures of visuoconstruction (β for Benson Figure Copy, 0.43 [95% CI, 0.32-0.54]; P  = .01) and naming (β for Multilingual Naming Test, 0.25 [95% CI, 0.14-0.37]; P  < .001). The app memory test was associated with criterion standard memory and executive functioning tests.

Worse performance on all app measures was associated with greater disease severity on CDR plus NACC-FTLD ( r range, 0.38-0.59) ( Table 1 , Figure 3 , and eFigure 4 in Supplement 1 ). The same pattern of results was observed after excluding those with finger dexterity issues. Except for go/no-go, performance of participants with prodromal FTLD was statistically significantly worse than that of participants without symptoms on all measures ( P  < .001).

The AUC for the app composite to distinguish participants without symptoms from those with dementia was 0.93 (95% CI, 0.90-0.96). The app also accurately differentiated participants without symptoms from those with prodromal or symptomatic FTLD (AUC, 0.87 [95% CI, 0.84-0.92]). Compared with the MoCA (AUC, 0.68 [95% CI, 0.59-0.78), app composite performance (AUC, 0.82 [95% CI, 0.76-0.88]) more accurately differentiated participants without symptoms and with prodromal FTLD ( z of comparison, −2.49 [95% CI, −0.19 to −0.02]; P  = .01), with similar accuracy to the UDS3-EF (AUC, 0.81 [95% CI, 0.73-0.88]); highly similar results (eTable 2 in Supplement 1 ) were observed in the discovery ( Figure 3 C) and validation ( Figure 3 D) cohorts.

In 56 participants without symptoms who were older than 45 years, those carrying GRN , C9orf72 , or another rare pathogenic variants performed significantly worse on 3 of 4 executive tests compared with noncarrier controls, including flanker (β = −0.26 [95% CI, −0.46 to −0.05]; P  = .02), card sort (β = −0.28 [95% CI, −0.54 to −0.30]; P  = .03), and 2-back (β = −0.49 [95% CI, −0.72 to −0.25]; P  < .001). The estimated scores of participants who carried pathogenic variants were on average lower than those of carriers on a composite of criterion standard in-person tests, but the difference was not statistically significant (UDS3-EF β = −0.14 [95% CI, −0.42 to 0.14]; P  = .32). Participants who carried preclinical MAPT pathogenic variants scored higher than noncarriers on the app Memory test, though the difference was not statistically significant (β = 0.21 [95% CI, −0.50 to 0.58]; P  = .19).

In prespecified ROI analyses, worse app executive functioning scores were associated with lower frontoparietal and/or subcortical volume ( Figures 3 A and B) (β range, 0.34 [95% CI, 0.22-0.46] to 0.50 [95 CI, 0.40-0.60]; P < .001 for all) and worse memory scores with smaller hippocampal volume (β = 0.45 [95% CI, 0.34-0.56]; P  < .001). Voxel-based morphometry (eFigure 5 in Supplement 1 ) suggested worse app performance was associated with widespread atrophy, particularly in frontotemporal cortices.

Only for card sort were distractions (eTables 3 and 4 in Supplement 1 ) associated with task performance; those experiencing distractions unexpectedly performed better (β = 0.16 [95% CI, 0.05-0.28]; P  = .005). The iPhone operating system was associated with better performance on 2 speeded tasks: flanker (β = 0.16 [95% CI, 0.07-0.24]; P  < .001) and go/no-go (β = 0.16 [95% CI, 0.06-0.26]; P  = .002). In a sensitivity analysis, associations of all app tests with disease severity, UDS3-EF, and regional brain volumes remained after covarying for distractions and operating system, as did the models differentiating participants who carried preclinical pathogenic variants and noncarrier controls.

There is an urgent need to identify reliable and valid digital tools for remote neurobehavioral measurement in neurodegenerative diseases, including FTLD. Prior studies provided preliminary evidence that smartphones collect reliable and valid cognitive data in a variety of age-related and neurodegenerative illnesses. This is the first study, to our knowledge, to provide analogous support for the reliability and validity of remote cognitive testing via smartphones in FTLD and preliminary evidence that this approach improves early detection relative to traditional in-person measures.

Reliability, a prerequisite for a valid clinical trial end point, indicates measurements are consistent. In 2 cohorts, we found smartphone cognitive tests were reliable within a single administration (ie, internally consistent) and across repeated assessments (ie, test-retest reliability) with no apparent differences by operating system. For all measures except go/no-go, reliability estimates were moderate to excellent and on par with other remote digital assessments 5 , 6 , 10 , 37 , 38 and in-clinic criterion standards. 39 - 41 Go/no-go showed similar within- and between-person variability in participants without symptoms (ie, poor reliability), and participant feedback suggested instructions were confusing and the stimuli disappeared too quickly. Those endorsing distractions tended to have lower reliability, though 95% CIs largely overlapped; future research detailing the effect of the home environment on test performance is warranted.

Construct validity was supported by strong associations of smartphone tests with demographics, disease severity, neuroimaging, and criterion standard neuropsychological measures that replicated in a validation sample. These associations were similar to those observed among the criterion standard measures and similar to associations reported in other validation studies of smartphone cognitive tests. 5 , 6 , 10 Associations with disease severity were not explained by motor impairments. The iPhone operating system was associated with better performance on 2 time-based measures, consistent with prior findings. 6

A composite of brief smartphone tests was accurate in distinguishing dementia from cognitively unimpaired participants, screening out participants without symptoms, and detecting prodromal FTLD with greater sensitivity than the MoCA. Moreover, carriers of preclinical C9orf72 and GRN pathogenic variants performed significantly worse than noncarrier controls on 3 tests, whereas they did not significantly differ on criterion standard measures. These findings are consistent with previous studies showing digital executive functioning paradigms may be more sensitive to early FTLD than traditional measures. 42 , 43

This study has some limitations. Validation analyses focused on participants’ initial task exposure. Future studies will explore whether repeated measurements and more sophisticated approaches to composite building (current composite assumes equal weighting of tests) improve reliability and sensitivity, and a normative sample is being collected to better adjust for demographic effects on testing. 24 Longitudinal analyses will explore whether the floor effects in participants with symptomatic FTLD will affect the utility for monitoring. The generalizability of the findings is limited by the study cohort, which comprised participants who were college educated on average, mostly White, and primarily English speakers who owned smartphones and participated in the referring in-person research study. Equity in access to research is a priority in FTLD research 44 , 45 ; translations of the ALLFTD-mApp are in progress, cultural adaptations are being considered, and devices have been purchased for provisioning to improve the diversity of our sample.

The findings of this cohort study, coupled with prior reports indicating that smartphone testing is feasible and acceptable to patients with FTLD, 11 suggest that smartphones may complement traditional in-person research paradigms. More broadly, the scalability, ease of use, reliability, and validity of the ALLFTD-mApp suggest the feasibility and utility of remote digital assessments in dementia clinical trials. Future research should validate these results in diverse populations and evaluate the utility of these tests for longitudinal monitoring.

Accepted for Publication: February 2, 2024.

Published: April 1, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.4266

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2024 Staffaroni AM et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Author: Adam M. Staffaroni, PhD, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, 675 Nelson Rising Ln, Ste 190, San Francisco, CA 94158 ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Dr Staffaroni had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Staffaroni, A. Clark, Taylor, Heuer, Wise, Forsberg, Miller, Hassenstab, Rosen, Boxer.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: Staffaroni, A. Clark, Taylor, Heuer, Sanderson-Cimino, Wise, Dhanam, Cobigo, Wolf, Manoochehri, Mester, Rankin, Appleby, Bayram, Bozoki, D. Clark, Darby, Domoto-Reilly, Fields, Galasko, Geschwind, Ghoshal, Graff-Radford, Hsiung, Huey, Jones, Lapid, Litvan, Masdeu, Massimo, Mendez, Miyagawa, Pascual, Pressman, Ramanan, Ramos, Rascovsky, Roberson, Tartaglia, Wong, Kornak, Kremers, Kramer, Boeve, Boxer.

Drafting of the manuscript: Staffaroni, A. Clark, Taylor, Heuer, Wolf, Lapid.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Staffaroni, Taylor, Heuer, Sanderson-Cimino, Wise, Dhanam, Cobigo, Manoochehri, Forsberg, Mester, Rankin, Appleby, Bayram, Bozoki, D. Clark, Darby, Domoto-Reilly, Fields, Galasko, Geschwind, Ghoshal, Graff-Radford, Hsiung, Huey, Jones, Lapid, Litvan, Masdeu, Massimo, Mendez, Miyagawa, Pascual, Pressman, Ramanan, Ramos, Rascovsky, Roberson, Tartaglia, Wong, Miller, Kornak, Kremers, Hassenstab, Kramer, Boeve, Rosen, Boxer.

Statistical analysis: Staffaroni, A. Clark, Taylor, Heuer, Sanderson-Cimino, Cobigo, Kornak, Kremers.

Obtained funding: Staffaroni, Rosen, Boxer.

Administrative, technical, or material support: A. Clark, Taylor, Heuer, Wise, Dhanam, Wolf, Manoochehri, Forsberg, Darby, Domoto-Reilly, Ghoshal, Hsiung, Huey, Jones, Litvan, Massimo, Mendez, Miyagawa, Pascual, Pressman, Ramanan, Kramer, Boeve, Boxer.

Supervision: Geschwind, Miyagawa, Roberson, Kramer, Boxer.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Staffaroni reported being a coinventor of 4 ALLFTD mobile application tasks (not analyzed in the present study) and receiving licensing fees from Datacubed Health; receiving research support from the National Institute on Aging (NIA) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bluefield Project to Cure FTD, the Alzheimer’s Association, the Larry L. Hillblom Foundation, and the Rainwater Charitable Foundation; and consulting for Alector Inc, Eli Lilly and Company/Prevail Therapeutics, Passage Bio Inc, and Takeda Pharmaceutical Company. Dr Forsberg reported receiving research support from the NIH. Dr Rankin reported receiving research support from the NIH and the National Science Foundation and serving on the medical advisory board for Eli Lilly and Company. Dr Appleby reported receiving research support from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the NIH, Ionis Pharmaceuticals Inc, Alector Inc, and the CJD Foundation and consulting for Acadia Pharmaceuticals Inc, Ionis Pharmaceuticals Inc, and Sangamo Therapeutics Inc. Dr Bayram reported receiving research support from the NIH. Dr Domoto-Reilly reported receiving research support from NIH and serving as an investigator for a clinical trial sponsored by Lawson Health Research Institute. Dr Bozoki reported receiving research funding from the NIH, Alector Inc, Cognition Therapeutics Inc, EIP Pharma, and Transposon Therapeutics Inc; consulting for Eisai and Creative Bio-Peptides Inc; and serving on the data safety monitoring board for AviadoBio. Dr Fields reported receiving research support from the NIH. Dr Galasko reported receiving research funding from the NIH; clinical trial funding from Alector Inc and Esai; consulting for Esai, General Electric Health Care, and Fujirebio; and serving on the data safety monitoring board of Cyclo Therapeutics Inc. Dr Geschwind reported consulting for Biogen Inc and receiving research support from Roche and Takeda Pharmaceutical Company for work in dementia. Dr Ghoshal reported participating in clinical trials of antidementia drugs sponsored by Bristol Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly and Company/Avid Radiopharmaceuticals, Janssen Immunotherapy, Novartis AG, Pfizer Inc, Wyeth Pharmaceuticals, SNIFF (The Study of Nasal Insulin to Fight Forgetfulness) study, and A4 (The Anti-Amyloid Treatment in Asymptomatic Alzheimer’s Disease) trial; receiving research support from Tau Consortium and the Association for Frontotemporal Dementia; and receiving funding from the NIH. Dr Graff-Radford reported receiving royalties from UpToDate; reported participating in multicenter therapy studies by sponsored by Biogen Inc, TauRx Therapeutics Ltd, AbbVie Inc, Novartis AG, and Eli Lilly and Company; and receiving research support from the NIH. Dr Grossman reported receiving grant support from the NIH, Avid Radiopharmaceuticals, and Piramal Pharma Ltd; participating in clinical trials sponsored by Biogen Inc, TauRx Therapeutics Ltd, and Alector Inc; consulting for Bracco and UCB; and serving on the editorial board of Neurology . Dr Hsiung reported receiving grant support from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the NIH, and the Alzheimer Society of British Columbia; participating in clinical trials sponsored by Anavax Life Sciences Corp, Biogen Inc, Cassava Sciences, Eli Lilly and Company, and Roche; and consulting for Biogen Inc, Novo Nordisk A/S, and Roche. Dr Huey reported receiving research support from the NIH. Dr Jones reported receiving research support from the NIH. Dr Litvan reported receiving research support from the NIH, the Michael J Fox Foundation, the Parkinson Foundation, the Lewy Body Association, CurePSP, Roche, AbbVie Inc, H Lundbeck A/S, Novartis AG, Transposon Therapeutics Inc, and UCB; serving as a member of the scientific advisory board for the Rossy PSP Program at the University of Toronto and for Amydis; and serving as chief editor of Frontiers in Neurology . Dr Masdeu reported consulting for and receiving research funding from Eli Lilly and Company; receiving personal fees from GE Healthcare; receiving grant funding and personal fees from Eli Lilly and Company; and receiving grant funding from Acadia Pharmaceutical Inc, Avanir Pharmaceuticals Inc, Biogen Inc, Eisai, Janssen Global Services LLC, the NIH, and Novartis AG outside the submitted work. Dr Mendez reported receiving research support from the NIH. Dr Miyagawa reported receiving research support from the Zander Family Foundation. Dr Pascual reported receiving research support from the NIH. Dr Pressman reported receiving research support from the NIH. Dr Ramos reported receiving research support from the NIH. Dr Roberson reported receiving research support from the NIA of the NIH, the Bluefield Project, and the Alzheimer’s Drug Discovery Foundation; serving on a data monitoring committee for Eli Lilly and Company; receiving licensing fees from Genentech Inc; and consulting for Applied Genetic Technologies Corp. Dr Tartaglia reported serving as an investigator for clinical trials sponsored by Biogen Inc, Avanex Corp, Green Valley, Roche/Genentech Inc, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly and Company/Avid Radiopharmaceuticals, and Janssen Global Services LLC and receiving research support from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR). Dr Wong reported receiving research support from the NIH. Dr Kornak reported providing expert witness testimony for Teva Pharmaceuticals Industries Ltd, Apotex Inc, and Puma Biotechnology and receiving research support from the NIH. Dr Kremers reported receiving research funding from NIH. Dr Kramer reported receiving research support from the NIH and royalties from Pearson Inc. Dr Boeve reported serving as an investigator for clinical trials sponsored by Alector Inc, Biogen Inc, and Transposon Therapeutics Inc; receiving royalties from Cambridge Medicine; serving on the Scientific Advisory Board of the Tau Consortium; and receiving research support from NIH, the Mayo Clinic Dorothy and Harry T. Mangurian Jr. Lewy Body Dementia Program, and the Little Family Foundation. Dr Rosen reported receiving research support from Biogen Inc, consulting for Wave Neuroscience and Ionis Pharmaceuticals, and receiving research support from the NIH. Dr Boxer reported being a coinventor of 4 of the ALLFTD mobile application tasks (not the focus of the present study) and previously receiving licensing fees; receiving research support from the NIH, the Tau Research Consortium, the Association for Frontotemporal Degeneration, Bluefield Project to Cure Frontotemporal Dementia, Corticobasal Degeneration Solutions, the Alzheimer’s Drug Discovery Foundation, and the Alzheimer’s Association; consulting for Aeovian Pharmaceuticals Inc, Applied Genetic Technologies Corp, Alector Inc, Arkuda Therapeutics, Arvinas Inc, AviadoBio, Boehringer Ingelheim, Denali Therapeutics Inc, GSK, Life Edit Therapeutics Inc, Humana Inc, Oligomerix, Oscotec Inc, Roche, Transposon Therapeutics Inc, TrueBinding Inc, and Wave Life Sciences; and receiving research support from Biogen Inc, Eisai, and Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: This work was supported by grants AG063911, AG077557, AG62677, AG045390, NS092089, AG032306, AG016976, AG058233, AG038791, AG02350, AG019724, AG062422, NS050915, AG032289-11, AG077557, K23AG061253, and K24AG045333 from the NIH; the Association for Frontotemporal Degeneration; the Bluefield Project to Cure FTD; the Rainwater Charitable Foundation; and grant 2014-A-004-NET from the Larry L. Hillblom Foundation. Samples from the National Centralized Repository for Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Dementias, which receives government support under cooperative agreement grant U24 AG21886 from the NIA, were used in this study.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Group Information: A complete list of the members of the ALLFTD Consortium appears in Supplement 2 .

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 3 .

Additional Contributions: We thank the participants and study partners for dedicating their time and effort, and for providing invaluable feedback as we learn how to incorporate digital technologies into FTLD research.

Additional Information: Dr Grossman passed away on April 4, 2023. We want to acknowledge his many contributions to this study, including data acquisition, and design and conduct of the study. He was an ALLFTD site principal investigator and contributed during the development of the ALLFTD mobile app.

• Register for email alerts with links to free full-text articles
• Access PDFs of free articles
• Manage your interests
• Save searches and receive search alerts

• Study Guides
• Homework Questions

Final term paper

• Arts & Humanities

A Discrimination Report Card

We develop an empirical Bayes ranking procedure that assigns ordinal grades to noisy measurements, balancing the information content of the assigned grades against the expected frequency of ranking errors. Applying the method to a massive correspondence experiment, we grade the race and gender contact gaps of 97 U.S. employers, the identities of which we disclose for the first time. The grades are presented alongside measures of uncertainty about each firm’s contact gap in an accessible report card that is easily adaptable to other settings where ranks and levels are of simultaneous interest.

We thank Ben Scuderi for helpful feedback on an early draft of this paper and Hadar Avivi and Luca Adorni for outstanding research assistance. Seminar participants at Brown University, the 2022 California Econometrics Conference, Columbia University, CIREQ 2022 Montreal, Harvard University, Microsoft Research, Monash University, Peking University, Royal Holloway, UC Santa Barbara, UC Berkeley, The University of Virginia, the Cowles Econometrics Conference on Discrimination and Algorithmic Fairness, and The University of Chicago Interactions Conference provided useful comments. Routines for implementing the ranking procedures developed in this paper are available online at https://github.com/ekrose/drrank. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

Christopher Walters holds concurrent appointments as an Associate Professor of Economics at UC Berkeley and as an Amazon Scholar. This paper describes work performed at UC Berkeley and is not associated with Amazon.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

Download Citation Data

• randomized controlled trials registry entry
• GitHub archive

Working Groups

Conferences, mentioned in the news, more from nber.

In addition to working papers , the NBER disseminates affiliates’ latest findings through a range of free periodicals — the NBER Reporter , the NBER Digest , the Bulletin on Retirement and Disability , the Bulletin on Health , and the Bulletin on Entrepreneurship  — as well as online conference reports , video lectures , and interviews .

• Master Your Homework
• Do My Homework

Paper Trails: Comparing Research and Term Papers

As technology has continued to advance, research and term papers have become increasingly reliant on digital paper trails. This article will compare and contrast the use of traditional ‘paper’ versus digital methods in academic writing – focusing primarily on two key components: authorship and organization. It will explore the potential risks associated with transitioning from physical paper-based records to a fully digitized system, as well as investigate how these practices can be adapted for educational purposes. Finally, it will examine some of the innovative tools which are available today to simplify the management of this type of project.

I. Introduction: Exploring the Different Types of Paper Trails

Ii. research papers – a brief overview, iii. term papers – definition and purpose, iv. comparing research and term papers: major differences, v. identifying similarities between research and term papers, vi. effective strategies for creating a quality paper trail, vii. conclusion: the benefits of understanding paper trails.

Papers, papers everywhere! Papers form the basis of record keeping and communication in many disciplines. When it comes to school work, two main types of paper trail come into play: research papers and term papers.

• Research Paper : A research paper is an in-depth document meant to explore a particular topic or problem more deeply than other forms of academic writing. It takes significantly longer to write one, as its content must be backed up with reliable sources from various angles.

A student’s goal when creating a research paper should be to present their own thoughts on the subject at hand while also providing evidence from outside sources that backs them up. Researching for this type of assignment often requires digging deep into scholarly journals or interviewing experts who are experienced in the subject matter.

• Term Paper : Term papers differ from research assignments because they require students analyze existing theories rather than develop their own arguments based off external information. Though time consuming, it can help improve analytical skills by breaking down complex concepts into simple terms.

Research papers are a common academic task assigned by universities and colleges around the world. They require an in-depth understanding of the topic at hand as well as sound evidence to support any findings or theories suggested. It is important to distinguish between research papers and term papers, although both involve intensive research.

• Research Papers:

Research papers aim to present a thoroughly investigated issue that applies various techniques including data collection, evaluation of sources, analysis of results etcetera. In most cases they will be lengthy works which explore the subject matter from multiple angles with greater attention paid to accuracy than immediacy.

• Term Papers:

On the other hand, term papers generally provide summaries on previously established facts about a particular subject rather than researching new information for it. Here one must rely mostly on already existing literature and reference materials while also being concise enough so that all necessary aspects can fit into one document without overwhelming readers with superfluous details.

What is a Term Paper?

A term paper, also known as an academic paper, is a formal document submitted to university or college professors at the end of a semester. It usually contains research findings and can be based on any relevant topic within its course area. It’s expected that students present their own work instead of simply summarizing other people’s ideas; hence it requires critical thinking and synthesis of information from various sources to form an argument.

Purpose of Term Papers

Term papers have two primary goals:

• To assess student’s understanding about what they have learned in class.
• To provide students with the opportunity for independent research and thought process development regarding certain topics.

. This type of assignment allows instructors to evaluate whether learners are able to apply knowledge effectively by researching various issues related to their courses. Moreover, through this task they get acquainted with different writing styles such as APA or MLA formats which will help them throughout higher education level. It should be noted that there are differences between term papers vs research papers, since while both require original content supported by evidence-based facts; the latter demands more analysis than mere description or opinion statements (for example).

Understanding Research and Term Papers When it comes to academic writing, research papers and term papers are two commonly assigned tasks. Although there are many similarities between these two pieces of work, they also have some noteworthy differences which should be taken into consideration when deciding on the best approach for completing either assignment.

Research papers require a more in-depth analysis than term papers. In order to write a successful research paper, students need to read beyond the information provided in course textbooks or lectures; investigating resources outside their educational environment is often necessary. Additionally, researching material requires strong synthesis skills so that sources can be effectively integrated with each other within an argumentative context.

In contrast, term papers generally focus less on exploring new ideas and theories; instead emphasizing summarizing existing knowledge from texts such as books or articles related to the subject matter at hand. The objective here is usually not finding original conclusions but rather consolidating data already found by scholars before them. Consequently although careful selection of literature remains essential during this process its scope will likely remain narrower compared with what’s needed for research paper composition .

Research Paper vs Term Paper Both research papers and term papers have similar aims, that of conveying information to the reader. However, there are several differences between them as well. Generally speaking, a research paper is more detailed in its content and requires a higher level of expertise than a term paper does. This section will explore these similarities and distinctions further.

At their core, both types of assignments focus on the acquisition or delivery of knowledge based upon an examination into one’s chosen field. The primary difference lies in how they approach this goal; specifically with regard to formatting style and content depth. A research paper usually adheres to formal academic writing conventions while taking advantage of numerous outside sources for data collection such as scholarly journals or books written by experts within the subject area being studied.

• It typically presents original hypotheses alongside supporting evidence.
• In-text citations are often used when referencing any external materials.

On the other hand, a term paper can be considered less rigorous due to shorter lengths which limit what topics can realistically be explored during its time frame – usually only those already known about from prior studies rather than anything novel enough for comprehensive investigation.

• A much smaller number (or even no) references are expected.

As opposed to merely summarizing existing findings like reports do though it should still include some form of critical analysis over various facets depending on individual instructor requirements.

Creating a quality paper trail can be daunting, especially for longer projects like research papers and term papers. Here are some strategies to help you create an effective paper trail:

• Start Early: Getting started on your project early will give you enough time to put together a solid paper trail. This way, if something goes wrong or changes unexpectedly along the way, you’ll have plenty of time to adjust.
• Keep It Organized: Organization is key when it comes to creating an effective paper trail. Keep all related documents in one place (ideally digital), label everything appropriately so that others can follow your train of thought easily, and make sure each document is up-to-date with current information.

Having an understanding of paper trails provides various benefits to a researcher. Firstly, it allows researchers to identify and pursue potentially significant sources of information that may not be immediately apparent during the research process. This is especially important for graduate students who are researching complex topics or attempting to uncover details in archived documents.

Research Paper vs Term Paper : In terms of preparation, there can be some crossover between these two assignments. However, research papers tend to focus more on synthesizing existing knowledge with new evidence whereas term papers rely more heavily on examining published material without further investigation into original findings.

English: This article has provided a comprehensive overview of the differences between research and term papers. It is clear that both types of papers have their own unique purpose, format, and structure. Research papers offer an in-depth exploration into specific topics while term papers are focused more on summarizing material already presented within a course or class. Ultimately, it is up to the student to determine which type of paper best suits their needs as they continue with academic pursuits. With this knowledge in hand, we can all be better prepared for future writing assignments and ensure successful outcomes!

Aggregate Implications of Changing Industrial Trends in Japan

April 8, 2024 Toyoichiro Shirota *1 Satoshi Tsuchida *2

• Full Text [PDF 2,653KB]

This study examines the extent to which the long-term declining trend in Japan's GDP growth rate is attributable to factors common to all the industries or those specific to individual industries. By applying Japan's 1958-2019 data to a multi-industry network model, we obtained the following results. First, common factors explain approximately 60% of the variation in Japan's long-term GDP growth rate. This result contrasts to that in the US: common factors explain only about 30% of the secular trend in US GDP growth. Second, however, the impact of industry-specific factors is non-negligible. In particular, machinery-industry-specific factors explain much of the low growth in the past 20 years. Finally, the spillover effects from individual industries to the aggregate GDP depend on the role of each industry in the production network, and in Japan, the influence of investment-related industries such as the machinery industries and construction is substantial.

The authors thank Kosuke Aoki, Ichiro Fukunaga, Yoshihiko Hogen, Ryo Jinnai, Takashi Nagahata, Jouchi Nakajima, Yoichi Ueno for comments and discussions. Shirota is grateful for financial support from JSPS KAKENHI Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research(C) No. 21K01396. Any remaining errors are the authors' own. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the authors' affiliations, including the Bank of Japan.

• *1 College of Economics, Aoyama Gakuin University E-mail : [email protected]
• *2 Research and Statistics Department, Bank of Japan E-mail : [email protected]

Papers in the Bank of Japan Working Paper Series are circulated to stimulate discussion and comment. Views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Bank. If you have any comments or questions on a paper in the Working Paper Series, please contact the authors. When making a copy or reproduction of the content for commercial purposes, please contact the Public Relations Department ([email protected]) at the Bank in advance to request permission. When making a copy or reproduction, the Bank of Japan Working Paper Series should explicitly be credited as the source.

to submit an obituary

Monday-Friday 8:30am-4:00pm, Call 610-915-2226

(Proofs will be provided for accuracy only, they will not be styled/formatted like the finished product)

Obituaries submitted on Saturday, Sunday and Holidays are accepted from 8:30 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. by email only [email protected]

(No proofs will be furnished. Pricing will not be available until the next business day after 10:00am by calling Dianne at 610-915-2226)

Obituaries received after Deadline will not be published in the following edition of the paper.

Sending Procedure:

Email is the preferable method for receiving Obituaries (and the only method on Saturday, Sunday and Holidays), they can be sent to [email protected] (Feel free to call and confirm that we’ve received the email)

Formatting:

Obituaries will continue to visually look the same as they currently do, but you will no longer be restricted in what you can say (ex. As much Family can be listed as you’d like; Wording like “Went to rest with the Lord” is now permissible)

There is a cost for each obituary. Pricing and payments are only available Monday through Friday, 8:30 am to 4:00 pm. All weekend and holiday submissions will be provided a cost the next business day.

Exceptions:

All New accounts, Out of State Funeral Homes and Private Parties will require prepayment upon approval of the obituary. Weekend and Holiday staff are not authorized to set up a new account or process payments

Deadline for the above is before 4:00 PM Mon – Fri. only (Holiday schedules may vary).

Prepayment required submissions will be handled on the very first business day following the weekend and/or holiday schedule. A complete name, address and best contact phone number are required upon submittal of your obituary request to set up your account. A proof will then be emailed for review but placed on hold until payment is received.

Sponsored Content | Best Research Paper Writing Services: Top 5…

Share this:.

• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on X (Opens in new window)

Sponsored Content

Sponsored content | best research paper writing services: top 5 u.s. companies, after a thorough search, we’ve narrowed down the five leading research paper writing sites. our comparison is based on their quality, affordability, and several other aspects to ensure you pick the best service for your needs..

On all of the factors that we judged these 5 paper writing services by, PaperHelp consistently impressed on all fronts. With prices starting at just $13 for a 1-page essay, PaperHelp provides professional standards of writing at a budget-friendly price.

You can get a paper written for high school, undergraduate, bachelor’s, and even professional education levels. PaperHelp not only offers academic writing samples, but they also have an editing and proofreading service. This allows you to send them a draft of your paper, and get tailored feedback on improvements and corrections.

When you make an order on their website, PaperHelp matches your criteria to one of their hundreds of writers. They have experts in almost every subject area, who provide fast service — they can even write your paper in time for a same-day deadline!

All purchases from PaperHelp also come with a free revision policy, allowing you to tailor your essay to the smallest of details. You can request up to 3 free revisions of your paper. Every essay you buy is also checked thoroughly for plagiarism.

Overall, this is our pick for the best research paper writing service. We love PaperHelp for its easy-to-use website, its generous free revision policy, and its great value for money. If you require research paper writing help, this is the website to choose.

2. BBQPapers : Best For Complex College Papers

Sometimes you need a specialist essay on a niche or complicated topic — and this is exactly the situation where BBQPapers excels. They promise that they have a top 2% expert for every subject area, no matter how broad or specific, and their papers have fast turnarounds of as little as 3 hours.

The professional writers at BBQPapers can help you with not only papers but also presentations — making them one of the few sites to offer help with different types of assignments.

Prices at BBQPapers start at $5.85 for 100 words. If you find yourself needing their services often, or requesting a lot of lengthy papers, then you can take advantage of their loyalty program. This gives you lifetime discounts of 5%, 10%, and 15% off all of your future papers.

Every paper comes with accurate referencing (in the style that you request), a review by a trained editor, and unlimited free revisions within 10 days. If even after this you’re not satisfied with the essay that you receive, you have a 60-day money-back guarantee.

If you’re looking for a specialized, completely confidential service with services available up to Ph.D. level of study, then look no further than BBQPapers.

3. EssayTerritory : Best Value

Saving money everywhere you can as a student is important, which is why great value paper writing services like EssayTerritory are great to find. You can expect a cheap, reliable, and fast service, for both education and business assignments!

A high school level paper with a 14-day deadline from EssayTerritory costs just $10 — and this price includes high-quality editing and proofreading, relevant case studies and sources, and unlimited free revisions. This service has one of the largest varieties of assignment types to choose from, including job applications, dissertation chapters, and thesis proposals.

Essays and college assignments from EssayTerritory can be written for Ph.D. level, and even then, prices are still very competitive. The highest price you’ll pay for Ph.D. projects with a 1-day turnaround is $81, much less than other paper writing services.

If you’re not satisfied with your paper, it’s easy to reach out to EssayTerritory 24/7 customer support. They can guide you through the process of requesting revisions or even give you a full refund thanks to their money-back guarantee.

If you’re looking for a high-quality, fast service at the best possible price that you can find, EssayTerritory can help you to pass your assignments without breaking the bank.

4. SpeedyPaper : Best Customer Support

What sets SpeedyPaper apart from the competition is its commitment to providing excellent service. With their friendly and dedicated customer support, at every stage of your purchase, you can feel confident and assured of the progress of your paper.

Their customer reviews praise the fast delivery, great price, and the communication that was received throughout the process. Their writers are professional and know how to deal with different subject areas to minute levels of detail.

We were impressed with how transparent SpeedyPaper is about its services. They outline their criteria for recruiting writers on their website, which includes academic verification using university degree qualifications, GPA, and high grammar test scores. They even outline how much their writers are paid.

SpeedyPaper pride themselves on their good customer reputation, which is maintained thanks to their reliable service and high quality customer care team. They have samples of previous work available to view on their website, which will give you an idea of the quality you can expect from the finished product.

SpeedyPaper is our recommendation for the research paper writing site that provides the best customer service and dedication to customer satisfaction.

5. EssayPro : Best for Choice and Flexibility

Any good essay writing service will assign writers to papers based on their expertise, knowledge, and education level. But some of these sites do this using an algorithm, which is efficient, but can make mistakes…and there’s no true substitute for a human eye.

EssayPro takes a revolutionary approach to this model, and instead of leaving your paper in the hands of AI, allows you to choose which of their writers you want to take care of your assignment. This unique service means that you can find the best possible writer who matches the needs of your paper.

EssayPro acts as an intermediary service that connects you with freelance writers who are highly qualified, and have often been working as professional writers for years. All of the writers on EssayPro have 5+ years of experience of academic writing, and have a Masters degree or higher qualification.

Thanks to the site-wide policy, you are entitled to unlimited free revisions with your order, no matter which writer you choose. You will also be guaranteed a fast, friendly, and professional writing service.

If you want to make sure that your paper is written by someone you can trust, then make sure to check out EssayPro!

FAQs About Research Paper Writing Services

How do essay writing services work.

If you’ve never ordered from an essay writing service before, then you might not know what to expect — or where to start. More and more college students are turning to these sites to help them with the increasing number of essays that they are assigned every semester — but how do essay writing services work?

The research paper writing services connect you with professional and academic writers, who are either employed by the site or work as self-employed freelancers, to work on your paper. The professional research paper writer will see the subject area you request, the number of words or pages that are needed, the deadline for the paper, and other information that you provide.

The research paper helper may contact you to request additional information, or to keep you updated on the progress of your paper. Because the writer that has been assigned to your paper will have knowledge of your subject area, they will use a variety of specialized resources to write your assignment.

Once your paper has been completed, you will receive a PDF draft from the professional writer — this is the stage where you can ask for any revisions to be made. If you’re happy with what has been written, the full version of the paper will be released to you, and is officially all yours!

Are research paper writing websites legit?

Contrary to popular belief, there is nothing illegal about using a custom research paper writing website. As long as you follow the correct procedures of your university, you also can’t get into trouble for academic misconduct.

Writers who work for research paper writing services are normal human beings, who happen to have a passion and a talent for writing. Usually, these writers are paid a large percentage of what you pay to the research paper help site — sometimes, they are also paid to work specific hours.

Before you start spending money though, it’s important to verify the integrity of the site you’re looking to use. The essay writing services space has exploded in popularity in recent years, which means that some people want to take advantage of this. There are plenty of sites that will take your payment and run, leaving you out of pocket and without an essay for your upcoming deadline.

Make sure to check the reviews of the sites you’re looking at — especially those on impartial sites such as TrustPilot. It can also be helpful to look at the About Us section on the website, to learn more about the company. Finally, if it seems too good to be true, it likely is — don’t trust sites that are charging something like $10 for thousands of words, with a same-day turnaround.

Can I entrust someone to write my research paper? Is it safe?

Research paper assistance sites mentioned on this list are 100% safe to use, and you don’t need to worry about any negative repercussions from using their services. The most reputable sites will have a confidentiality policy, where your interaction with their research paper writers will remain anonymous. Nobody will know you have used the site unless you share this information yourself.

Most sites put their professional paper writers through strict verification processes — this ensures not only their writing ability, but also that they are a real and trustworthy person. They may ask their writers to provide government issued ID, and proof of their employment or academic qualifications.

You may also be concerned about if your payment is secure when using a term paper writing service — many of these sites use secure payment methods such as PayPal, Google Pay, Apple Pay and more. There is also support for a number of international, fee-free payment options.

A good research paper writing service will also have stringent anti-plagiarism measures. This includes checking the finished product a number of times through different services, and some sites will have their own purpose-built plagiarism checkers.

Will my essay be plagiarism-free?

One of the main concerns when ordering an essay from a writing service is whether it will be flagged for plagiarism. Having this happen to one of your assignments can get you into serious trouble. You may be investigated by your school’s academic misconduct department, and you could even be expelled from your high school, university, or college.

Professional research paper services include a guarantee of plagiarism-free content. Your paper will contain only unique content, with no copy-pasted information. All sources will also be properly referenced in the style that you request.

To achieve this, sites use plagiarism checkers from a variety of sources. Many custom research papers and term papers are checked multiple times, and every effort is taken to reduce the similarity percentage of the finished product.

Specifically, many sites will ensure that their research papers pass the plagiarism check enforced by Turnitin — one of the most popular assignment submission platforms that many universities use. The platform has a strict plagiarism checker that will flag an assignment if it is above a certain similarity percentage.

You can be confident that your essay will be plagiarism-free when ordering from a paper writing service; and if it isn’t, you may be entitled for a free refund under their money back guarantee.

How much does it cost to hire professional research paper writers?

The price to buy a research paper online will vary depending on a few factors. Many sites will allow you to input your basic requirements, and give you an estimation of the price based on this. The factors that can increase or decrease the cost of your paper include its length, the deadline for submission, the education level, and sometimes the subject area.

The specific cost of paying for an essay may be calculated per page, or per 100 words. In most cases, our research found that the standard price for a 1 page, high-school level essay with a 2 week turnaround was between $10 and $12.

If you want to save on your research paper, then make sure to request the services of a writing site well in advance — the more time you give them to complete your paper, the less it will cost.

Can you get caught using term paper writing services?

This is a common concern for people who are looking to find a research paper service to write academic papers for them. Plagiarism not only includes using uncited sources from the internet, but also trying to pass off someone else’s work as your own. As we covered earlier, this can get you into a lot of trouble.

When buying an essay to use as a model answer, as reference material, or ideas, you cannot get caught or punished for using it. Your professors won’t need to see the essay that you bought, and you won’t need to cite your usage of it; because for all intents and purposes, it does not exist.

Things become less clear when you consider, or intend to submit a research paper that you bought. Many sites do not encourage this, and it should not be the main reason that you look for a service to write your essay for you. You have a much higher chance of being caught for submitting a bought research paper as your own, but you may also get away with it … do so at your own risk!

So, to conclude, our overall choice for the best research paper writing service is PaperHelp. We’re crowning them as our winner based on their high quality services, low prices, and fast delivery. Their customer reviews and testimonials show that people trust them to deliver on-time, and to take attention to detail in their work.

Whether you’re looking for inspiration, editing and proofreading, or just expert advice on your research paper, you can be sure of receiving an A+ service from PaperHelp.

The news and editorial staff of the Delco Daily Times had no role in this post’s preparation.

More in Sponsored Content

Sponsored Content | The 5 Best Personal Statement Writing Services: Hire a Professional Writer Online

Sponsored Content | Best 15 Trusted Platforms to Buy Instagram Likes (2024)

Sponsored Content | Buy Instagram followers from these 16 best sites (2024)

Sponsored Content | Buy TikTok Followers From These 17 Best & Trusted Sites

Journal of Materials Chemistry A

Zn alloying strategy to improve the photoluminescence of cugas 2 /zns core/shell quantum dots †.

* Corresponding authors

a Department of Physics, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune 411 007, India E-mail: [email protected]

b Symbiosis Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Symbiosis International University, Lavale, Pune 412 115, India

c Atomic & Molecular Physics Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400 094, India

d Beamline Development and Application Section, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400 094, India

Research efforts are being devoted to realize colloidal, heavy metal ion free, and luminescent quantum dots. We address radiative recombination in Zn alloyed CuGaS 2 /ZnS core/shell chalcopyrite quantum dots (CQDs) emitting in the blue-green spectral region. QDs show a systematic increase in the optical band gap and emission energy with an increasing amount of Zn in their core. Intentionally making non-stoichiometric CQDs with core/shell geometry enables defect related emission with high intensity. The location of Cu related defect levels along with the valence band and conduction band edge was determined from electrochemical cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements. The evolution of band gap energies with respect to Zn concentration examined using CV measurements matches well with the optical absorption data. The presence of Cu vacancies in off-stoichiometric samples introduces intra-gap levels, which serve as common acceptor levels for optical transitions. Luminescence transitions in these materials stem from the radiative recombination of electrons from conduction levels as well as donor levels, with holes localized at acceptor levels. Temperature dependent and excitation laser intensity dependent emission measurements confirm the role of the Cu vacancy related acceptor level in the emission. Local structure studies via extended X-ray absorption fine structure and X-ray absorption near edge structure analysis were carried out to understand how Zn is incorporated in CuGaS 2 quantum dots and affects the luminescence. Electron spin resonance measurements confirm the presence of paramagnetic defect complexes. X-ray absorption near edge structure measurements indicate that Cu co-exists in +1 and +2 oxidation states in CuGaS 2 quantum dots.

• This article is part of the themed collection: Journal of Materials Chemistry A HOT Papers

Supplementary files

• Supplementary information PDF (729K)

Article information

Download citation, permissions.

Zn alloying strategy to improve the photoluminescence of CuGaS 2 /ZnS core/shell quantum dots

M. A. Haque, A. Lohar, Y. Jadhav, R. Kumar, S. N. Jha, D. Bhattacharyya, S. Jadkar, S. Sartale and S. Mahamuni, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2024, Advance Article , DOI: 10.1039/D4TA01134A

To request permission to reproduce material from this article, please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

If you are an author contributing to an RSC publication, you do not need to request permission provided correct acknowledgement is given.

If you are the author of this article, you do not need to request permission to reproduce figures and diagrams provided correct acknowledgement is given. If you want to reproduce the whole article in a third-party publication (excluding your thesis/dissertation for which permission is not required) please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

Read more about how to correctly acknowledge RSC content .

Social activity

Search articles by author.

This article has not yet been cited.

Advertisements

Using pulp and paper waste to scrub carbon from emissions

Researchers at McGill University have come up with an innovative approach to improve the energy efficiency of carbon conversion, using waste material from pulp and paper production.

The technique they've pioneered using the Canadian Light Source at the University of Saskatchewan not only reduces the energy required to convert carbon into useful products, but also reduces overall waste in the environment.

"We are one of the first groups to combine biomass recycling or utilization with CO 2 capture," said Ali Seifitokaldani, Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering and Canada Research Chair (Tier II) in Electrocatalysis for Renewable Energy Production and Conversion. The research team, from McGill's Electrocatalysis Lab, published their findings in the journal RSC Sustainability .

Capturing carbon emissions is one of the most exciting emerging tools to fight climate change. The biggest challenge is figuring out what to do with the carbon once the emissions have been removed, especially since capturing CO 2 can be expensive. The next hurdle is that transforming CO 2 into useful products takes energy. Researchers want to make the conversion process as efficient and profitable as possible.

• Energy and Resources
• Energy Technology
• Energy and the Environment
• Environmental Science
• Renewable Energy
• Global Warming
• Hazardous waste
• Photosynthesis
• Climate change mitigation
• Radioactive waste
• Carbon cycle
• Carbon dioxide

Story Source:

Materials provided by McGill University . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Roger Lin, Haoyan Yang, Hanyu Zheng, Mahdi Salehi, Amirhossein Farzi, Poojan Patel, Xiao Wang, Jiaxun Guo, Kefang Liu, Zhengyuan Gao, Xiaojia Li, Ali Seifitokaldani. Efficient integration of carbon dioxide reduction and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural oxidation at high current density . RSC Sustainability , 2024; 2 (2): 445 DOI: 10.1039/D3SU00379E

Cite This Page :

Explore More

• Pregnancy Accelerates Biological Aging
• Tiny Plastic Particles Are Found Everywhere
• What's Quieter Than a Fish? A School of Them
• Do Odd Bones Belong to Gigantic Ichthyosaurs?
• Big-Eyed Marine Worm: Secret Language?
• Unprecedented Behavior from Nearby Magnetar
• Soft, Flexible 'Skeletons' for 'Muscular' Robots
• Toothed Whale Echolocation and Jaw Muscles
• Friendly Pat On the Back: Free Throws
• How the Moon Turned Itself Inside Out

Trending Topics

Strange & offbeat.

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Year in Review
• Published: 04 April 2024

Climate chronicles

Ocean heat content in 2023

• Lijing Cheng   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9854-0392 1 , 2 ,
• Karina von Schuckmann   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9922-8528 3 ,
• Audrey Minière 3 ,
• Maria Z. Hakuba 4 ,
• Sarah Purkey   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1893-6224 5 ,
• Gavin A. Schmidt   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2258-0486 6 &
• Yuying Pan 1 , 2  

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment ( 2024 ) Cite this article

2086 Accesses

1 Citations

241 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Climate change
• Physical oceanography

In 2023, global full-depth ocean heat content (OHC) reached a record increase of 464 ± 55 ZJ since 1960, with strong heat gain observed in the Southern and Atlantic Oceans. OHC was 16 ± 10 ZJ higher than in 2022, continuing the long-term increasing trend that started in 1960.

Full-depth OHC peaked in 2023, with 40%, 24%, 28%, and 8% of heat accumulated within the 0–300 m, 300–700 m, 700–2000 m and below-2000 m layers, respectively, since 1960.

In situ and satellite approaches indicate an increasing — and accelerating — global heating rate, with a trend of 0.16 ± 0.02 W m –2 dec –1 estimated from 1960–2023.

Observed global ocean warming in 2023 is consistent with the projection of the CMIP6 multi-model-median.

You have full access to this article via your institution.

Improved integrated ocean observation systems since the 1960s have made estimates of ocean heat content (OHC) possible 1 . These observations indicate that approximately 90% of extra heat stored in the climate system is taken up by the ocean 2 , resulting in marked OHC increases 3 . Indeed, from 1958 to 2019, it is estimated that the top 2,000 m of the global ocean gained 351 ± 59.8 ZJ (1 ZJ = 10 21  J) heat, with most heat stored in the Atlantic and Southern Oceans (ocean area south of 35 o S) 1 .

On longer timescales, this ocean warming is largely attributed to human-induced greenhouse gas emissions and aerosols 4 . However, OHC variability is also evident at other timescales, including year-to-year variability linked to the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 5 . Although these interannual fluctuations are small (particularly compared to other climate indicators, such as global mean surface temperature), the combined effect with long-term trends determines total annual OHC 6 . Given that 2023 was the warmest year on record for global surface temperature, it is to be expected that OHC also exhibited a record value 3 .

Here, we document the status of OHC for 2023, focusing on gridded observations (the IAP/CAS-OHC dataset 3 , which compiles all available measurements from the surface down to the abyss) supplemented by deep ocean observations below 2000 m (ref. 7 ), satellite observations 8 , 9 and state-of-the-art climate model results 6 ( Supplementary Information ).

Changes in 2023 ocean heat content

According to IAP gridded in situ observational data, total global OHC accumulation since 1960 reached 464 ± 55 ZJ (1 ZJ = 10 21 Joules; throughout, uncertainty represents 90% confidence intervals) in 2023 — the highest levels since reliable records started (Fig.  1a ). In fact, OHC records have been broken every year since 2017, highlighting continued ocean warming. For instance, year-on-year increases of 10 ± 6 ZJ were observed from 2019 to 2020, 19 ± 6 ZJ from 2020 to 2021, and 18 ± 8 ZJ from 2021 to 2022, culminating to an increase of 16 ± 10 ZJ from 2022 to 2023. The slightly smaller increment in 2022–2023 compared to the previous two years is likely associated with increased ocean heat release associated with anomalously high sea surface temperature in the tropical Pacific Ocean during the El Niño event in 2023. This slightly reduced heat gain does not affect the long-term continuous increases.

a , Full-depth ocean heat content time series from observations 3 relative to a 1958–1962 baseline. Blue shadings indicate OHC changes by depth layer; OHC for the upper 2000 m is from ref. 3 and OHC below 2000 m is adapted from ref. 7 (using a linear increase of 1.17 ± 0.51 ZJ yr –1 after 1992 and assuming a zero heating rate before 1991). Grey dashed lines represent the 90% confidence interval (CI) of the OHC estimate, calculated by summing the uncertainty estimates of upper 3 and lower 7 depth layers. The bar on the right depicts the 1960–2023 total heat accumulation by the ocean basin and the below-2000 m layer. The inset displays monthly OHC since January 2019, with the red line depicting the annual means. b , Running 15-year OHC heating rates (solid lines) and uncertainties (shading) for the full-depth in situ data 3 , 7 , the full-depth multi-in situ-data 7 , 10 , the geodetic estimate 9 , satellite observations at the top of the atmosphere (Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System, CERES) 8 , and various CMIP6 multi-model-medians 6 . For observational datasets, uncertainty is represented by 1.65 standard deviations of the linear weighted least squares regression in each 15-year sliding window 10 . For CMIP6, a 17–83% model spread is shown to quantify model uncertainty based on 24 models listed in ref. 1 . The x -axis is scaled after 2023. Various lines of evidence outline that ocean warming reached the highest observed levels in 2023, continuing the ongoing and accelerating trend that models suggest will continue into the future in the absence of drastic emissions reductions.

Ocean heat accumulates at different magnitudes depending on the depth level (Fig.  1a ) owing to various oceanographic mechanisms 4 . Of the 464 ± 55 ZJ heat accumulated since 1960, 40%, 24%, 28% and 8% are stored within the 0–300 m, 300–700 m, 700–2000 m and >2000 m layers, respectively (consistent with estimates from ten available datasets 2 ). In 2023, these values reflect OHC of 185.0 ± 2.9 ZJ (increasing by 17.3 from 2022) for 0–300 m; 110.6 ± 39.7 ZJ (a reduction of 1.3 ZJ from 2022) for 300–700 m; 131.2 ± 32.8 ZJ (a reduction of 0.8 ZJ from 2022) for 700–2000 m; and 37.4 ± 0.5 ZJ (an increase of 1.2 ZJ from 2022) for >2000 m. In general, 2023 reflects greater heat accumulation in the upper layers compared to the deeper layers, consistent with the slower response of the deep ocean to anthropogenic forcings. Some specific differences from 2022 to 2023 also reflect heat redistribution associated with El Niño, namely the redistribution of heat from the 100–700 m layer (–12.8 ZJ from 2022) to the 0–100 m layer (+ 29.0 ZJ from 2022) associated with more tropical thermocline flatting in the Indo-Pacific basin compared to La Niña years and neutral conditions 5 .

Changes in OHC also exhibit spatial differences linked to greenhouse gases, aerosol effects and natural variability 3 . All major basins exhibit warming, albeit at different rates. The upper 2000 m Atlantic and Southern Oceans (south of 35 o S) have warmed at a rate of 2.25 ± 0.11 ZJ yr –1 and 2.04 ± 0.12 ZJ yr –1 , respectively, from 1960 to 2023; that is to say, faster than the Pacific (1.77 ± 0.13 ZJ yr –1 ) and Indian (0.65 ± 0.08 ZJ yr –1 ) Oceans (Fig.  1a ). In particular, the deep (700–2000 m) warming of the Atlantic Ocean (0.85 ± 0.06 ZJ yr –1 ) and Southern Oceans (0.67 ± 0.08 ZJ yr –1 ) is much stronger than that observed in the Pacific (0.36 ± 0.05 ZJ yr –1 ) and Indian Oceans (0.20 ± 0.04 ZJ yr –1 ). This basin-wide difference is mainly due to changes in the deep-reaching ocean circulations and stronger mixing in the Atlantic and Southern Oceans that takes heat more efficiently into the deep layers. From 2022 to 2023, the Atlantic, Southern, and Indian Oceans continued the long-term increase of 0–2000 m OHC of 4.3 ZJ, 7.8 ZJ, and 3.2 ZJ, respectively. By contrast, the upper 2000 m of the Pacific Ocean lost –0.1 ZJ heat.

As alluded to, OHC changes in 2023 provide evidence of ongoing and accelerated heat gain. The acceleration is mainly associated with the elevated ocean warming rate since the 1990s, with a two- to four-fold increase in the rate of OHC since this time 2 , 10 (Fig. 1b ; Supplementary Tables  1 , 2 ). For instance, the full-depth OHC rate increased from 0.16 ± 0.02 W m –2 dec –1 over 1960–2023, 0.19 ± 0.03 W m –2 dec –1 over 1975–2023, 0.06 ± 0.04 W m –2 dec –1 over 1990–2023, to 0.35 ± 0.06 W m –2 dec –1 over 2005–2023 (Supplementary Tables  3 – 6 ; Supplementary Fig.  1 , the acceleration is calculated by taking two times the quadratic term of a quadratic regression).

Supporting evidence for ocean warming

In addition to direct evidence from in situ observations, estimates of 2023 OHC changes can also come from other sources, including sea level budgets, model simulations and the Earth’s energy imbalance (EEI) (Fig.  1b ). As ocean warming, together with ice melt on land, is a major driver of sea level rise 4 , the sea level budget can be used to quantify OHC. Geodetic data 9 updated through November 2023 independently confirm that 2023 experienced the highest OHC on record, yielding a total heat increase of 37 ± 21 ZJ from 2022. Although larger than direct in situ measurements, these values are within their range of uncertainty (Fig.  1a ). The CMIP6 multi-model-median forced with SSP2-4.5 (an intermediate emission scenario that approximately reflects current emissions) is even more consistent with observations: total heat gains of 14 [10, 20] ZJ (17–83% CI for model results) are apparent from 2022 and 368 [283, 445] since 1960. The choice of the emission scenario has only a small effect on the current OHC increase.

Beyond 2023, these different data products and approaches also provide supporting evidence for OHC acceleration. However, specific numbers differ owing to dataset differences, time periods and methodological choices (Supplementary Tables  3 – 6 ). As above, in situ observations suggest an acceleration of OHC gain of 0.16 ± 0.02 W m –2 dec –1 for IAP/CAS and 0.15 ± 0.03 W m –2 dec –1 for multi-in situ-data ensemble mean over 1960–2023 (Fig.  1b ). For 2005–2023, geodetic data suggest an acceleration of 0.54 ± 0.39 W m –2 dec –1 . The CMIP6-MMM (with SSP2-4.5 after 2014) reveals an almost identical long-term acceleration as compared to the observations: from 0.15 [0.13, 0.21] W m –2 dec –1 over 1960–2023 to 0.19 [-0.00, 0.36] W m –2 dec –1 over 2005–2023 (Fig.  1b ). CMIP6 models project that this warming acceleration will only cease between about 2030 and 2040 under a low-emission scenario (SSP1-2.6) 1 , by which time full-depth ocean warming rate peaks at ~1 W m –2 . For the simulated higher emission paths, ocean warming acceleration will continue throughout the twenty-first century.

Given that ocean warming provides direct evidence that the climate system is out of thermal equilibrium and, hence, accumulating heat, the Earth’s Energy Imbalance (EEI) 8 can also be used as a supporting metric. Radiometric data estimates based on satellite observations at the top of the atmosphere (Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System, CERES) indicate an annual mean EEI of 1.8 ± 0.7 W m –2 from 2022 to 2023. EEI using geodetic OHC amounts to 2.5 ± 1.4 W m –2 from 2022 to 2023. These EEI estimates are broadly similar and within uncertainties with the OHC-based estimates (assuming 90% of the heat goes into the ocean), which is 1.1 ± 0.8 W m –2 . As for other OHC metrics, the EEI is increasing. For instance, radiometric data suggest an increasing EEI of 0.57 ± 0.18 W m –2 dec –1 over 2005–2023, consistent with the geodetic OHC acceleration of 0.54 ± 0.39 W m –2 dec –1 over the same period (Fig.  1b ; Supplementary Table  S6 ). The increase of EEI calculated using in situ OHC data over the same periods are 0.35 ± 0.06 W m –2 dec –1 for IAP/CAS data and 0.21 ± 0.17 W m –2 dec –1  for the ensemble mean of other in situ observational data (Supplementary Table  S6 ).

Collectively, these various lines of evidence confirm a robust long-term ocean warming acceleration, with the warming trend progressively increasing since the 1960s. These long-term warming trends set the stage for the record-high OHC in 2023.

OHC reached a record high in 2023, continuing its long-term increasing trend. Ocean warming has already led to pervasive impacts and consequences, for example, altering ocean circulation, rising sea level and vertical stratification, intensifying tropical cyclones, reducing ocean oxygen levels, melting sea ice and ice sheets from below, busting marine heat waves, and other extremes 1 . With the ocean’s large thermal inertia, deep ocean warming is expected to continue for at least hundreds of years. Thus, the consequences of ocean warming are expected to become even more severe. Indeed, the level and the rate of warming depend critically on socioeconomic scenarios, which makes OHC a policy-relevant metric 1 . Detecting changes in ocean warming is crucial for informed decision-making in international climate negotiations to limit anthropogenic warming to specific levels. As a result, it requires sustained and extended monitoring of OHC (and EEI), improved understanding and reduction of uncertainty, and reconciliation of the various heating rate estimates and approaches.

Data availability

Argo data were collected and made freely available by the International Argo Program and the national programmes contributing to it ( https://argo.ucsd.edu , https://www.ocean-ops.org ). The IAP/CAS (Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences) observation and model data used are available at www.ocean.iap.ac.cn .

Cheng, L. et al. Past and future ocean warming. Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 3 , 776–794 (2022).

Article   Google Scholar  

von Schuckmann, K. et al. Heat stored in the Earth system 1960–2020: where does the energy go? Earth Syst. Sci. Data 15 , 1675–1709 (2023).

Cheng, L. et al. New Record Ocean temperatures and related climate impact drivers in 2023. Adv. Atmos. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-024-3378-5 (2024).

Gulev, S. et al. Changing state of the climate system. In Climate Change 2021: The physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (eds. Masson-Delmotte, V. et al.) 287–422 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2021).

Cheng, L. et al. Evolution of Ocean Heat Content Related to ENSO. J. Clim. 32 , 3529–3556 (2019).

Eyring, V. et al. Overview of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) experimental design and organization. Geosci. Model Dev. 9 , 1937–1958 (2016).

Purkey, S. G. & Johnson, G. C. Warming of Global Abyssal and Deep Southern Ocean Waters between the 1990s and 2000s: Contributions to Global Heat and Sea Level Rise Budgets. J. Clim. 23 , 6336–6351 (2010).

Loeb, N. G. et al. Satellite and Ocean Data Reveal Marked Increase in Earth’s Heating Rate. Geophys. Res. Lett. 48 , e2021GL093047 (2021).

Hakuba, M. Z., Frederikse, T. & Landerer, F. W. Earth’s Energy Imbalance From the Ocean Perspective (2005–2019). Geophys. Res. Lett. 48 , e2021GL093624 (2021).

Minière, A., von Schuckmann, K. Sallée, J.-B. & Vogt, L. Robust acceleration of Earth system heating observed over the past six decades. Sci. Rep. 13 , 22975 (2023).

Download references

Acknowledgements

L. C. acknowledges financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number 42076202), the new Cornerstone Science Foundation through the XPLORER PRIZE; Youth Innovation Promotion Association, Chinese Academy of Sciences; National Key Scientific and Technological Infrastructure project “Earth System Science Numerical Simulator Facility” (EarthLab). Research by M. H. was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (80NM0018D0004). Research by K. v. S. was carried out at Mercator Ocean International, France. We thank B. Beckley for providing updated GMSL data utilized in the geodetic analysis. We acknowledge the World Climate Research Programme’s Working Group on Coupled Modelling, which is responsible for CMIP, and we thank the climate modelling groups for producing and making available their model output through the Earth System Grid Federation. The Argo Program is part of the Global Ocean Observing System.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

Lijing Cheng & Yuying Pan

University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

Mercator Ocean International, Toulouse, France

Karina von Schuckmann & Audrey Minière

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

Maria Z. Hakuba

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA, USA

Sarah Purkey

Goddard Institute for Space Studies, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, New York City, NY, USA

Gavin A. Schmidt

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lijing Cheng .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Cheng, L., von Schuckmann, K., Minière, A. et al. Ocean heat content in 2023. Nat Rev Earth Environ (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-024-00539-9

Download citation

Published : 04 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-024-00539-9

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

This article is cited by

Sea ice in 2023.

• Lettie A. Roach
• Walter N. Meier

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment (2024)

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.