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Special Education and Needs Resources

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Special education resources by topic.

Accommodations and Environment Curriculum Support IEP Resources Behavior Management Special Education Inclusion

Understanding that special education resources are applicable to both general education and special education teachers alike, TeacherVision provides resources that can be used as part of an IEP both in the general education classroom and in specialist resources rooms. Our resources have been curated from leading special education partners and publishers, and are easily categorized for the most common uses by both generalists and specialists.

What Is Special Education?

Special education can generally be defined as the integration of instructional, behavioral, social-emotional, developmental, and curricular support services and strategies designed to help students with disabilities learn. Special education resources and services are usually delivered across a variety of school settings, depending on the needs of the child and the availability of school staff and environment.

Some special education students may spend part of their time in an integrated classroom, receiving instruction from generalists and interacting with classmates, with scheduled interventions from specialists (speech, language, behavioral, physical therapy, etc.). Others may spend the bulk of their time in dedicated special services environments, with specialized physical, developmental, and learning supports.

Most students designated for special education services will receive an Individualized Education Program (IEP). IEP special education services take into account the varying needs among special education students, and tailor learning and specialized services for each individual student. In most cases, an IEP special education plan involves the development and implementation of specific accommodations designed to meet the needs of each individual student, both in the general education classroom and in specialist resource rooms.

Accommodations and Environment

These special education classroom resources have been specially selected to help general and special education teachers with instructional and environmental accommodations and supports, such as assessment accommodation, special education classroom setup, accommodations for disabilities, and more.

Curriculum Support

These resources provide generalists and special education teachers with strategies and tools for developing and implementing special education curriculum supports. Included are special education lesson plans, special education activities, and other materials for academic instruction and support.

Behavior Management

Use these special education behavior management resources to plan and implement behavior management strategies in integrated and special education classrooms.

IEP Resources

This collection of IEP special education resources gives general education teachers, special education teachers, and parents all the IEP forms, accommodations, strategies, and advice necessary for planning and implementing an Individualized Education Plan in both the general ed classroom and specialist resource rooms.

Special Education Inclusion

Various techniques, tips, and suggestions for promoting special education inclusion in integrated general education classrooms are included in these resources, such as, using stories about children with disabilities to teach others, and proactive tips and effective techniques in your classroom.

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Your One-Stop Shop for Special Education Lesson Plans and Resources

TeachTastic Publishing provides a wide range of resources and materials that are specifically designed to support special education teachers in creating effective lesson plans and teaching students with diverse learning needs.

With a variety of materials available for students with different levels of prior learning and learning disabilities, TeachTastic Publishing provides a comprehensive suite of resources that can be tailored to meet the unique needs of each student.

Free Lesson Plan Templates

Whether a teacher is looking for free lesson plans, examples of effective accommodations and modifications in a lesson plan, or strategies for integrating technology into the classroom, TeachTastic Publishing has everything that a special education teacher needs to help their students succeed.

Learn How Our Special Education Lesson Plans Can Help Your Students in all Content Areas

And if you ever get stuck just give us a help request - we are always here ready help out with anything you might need along the way. so what are you waiting for get started on making this school year amazing right now by bookmarking or sharing our smart iep goals and objectives bank today.

Special education lesson plans that are scaffolded and differentiated for students with diverse learning needs.

Lesson plans cover math, reading, and writing and are designed to meet the needs of all students, regardless of prior knowledge or learning disability.

Curriculum for kindergarten through 6th grade includes all major learning objectives.

Nothing makes a special education lesson better than having built-in direct instruction that students understand, along with tips for many learning disabilities.

Providing educators with easy-to-follow directions, thoughtful teaching tip ideas, free resources, and classroom activities to use to help their students with special needs.

Our Comprehensive Curriculum Covers All Major Learning Objectives for Special Education Students in Kindergarten Through Sixth Grade

At TeachTastic Publishing, we provide a comprehensive special education curriculum tailored to meet the needs of students with diverse learning needs. Our curriculum is available for kindergarten through 6th-grade students and covers all major learning objectives. We offer math, reading, and writing lessons that are scaffolded and differentiated for all learning disabilities, ensuring every student has access to quality education and equal opportunities for success.

Our Lesson Plans

Scaffolding and differentiation strategies for teaching math to special education students.

Math Lesson Plans TeachTastic Publishing’s math lesson plans are designed to help students with diverse learning needs understand mathematical concepts.  

We offer differentiated and scaffolded lesson plans for all learning disabilities, making math accessible to every student. Our math lesson plans include strategies such as modified worksheets, task analysis, graphic organizers, peer tutoring, and mnemonics, ensuring that students understand the material and make progress.

Even More Lesson Plans

Incorporate Direct Instruction Strategies into Your Lesson Plans for Maximum Student Learning & Success

Direct Instruction TeachTastic Publishing’s lesson plans include built-in direct instruction to help students understand and retain the material. Our direct instruction strategies are designed to be engaging and effective for students with diverse learning needs. Our direct instruction strategies include strategies for math, reading, and writing lessons and are tailored to meet the individual needs of each student.  

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Special Education Lesson Plans

Have you been looking for new ideas for special education classroom lesson planning?

Don't miss the the update and my reflection on the special education lesson plan process below!

I've been asked to share ideas on lesson planning, but first – I have a few questions for you!  

• How does your school or grade-level team lesson plan?  
• Do you lesson plan together as a team, vertical plan based on content, or individually plan for your own class?  
• Are you required to submit special education lesson plans to a “coach” or administrator?  
• Is there a required lesson plan template that you follow?
• Do special ed lesson plans look different than general education?
• Our grade-level teams plan in the following way: each teacher tackles one content area: Math, Comprehension, Writing, Language, Vocabulary/Morning Message, and Phonics. This general education teacher writes the unit plans and assessments, weekly lessons, resources for class (flipcharts, activity pages, exit tickets), and homework. These lesson plans are shared out 2 weeks (10 days minimum) in advance on our “intranet” where we can upload files. Each teacher is also required to presubmit their lesson plan to a designated Teacher Development Leader (often an administrator) for review. This review is a big process at the beginning of the year with constructive feedback, and then often falls into a “check for completion” after the first quarter of the school year. 
• We backwards plan the year, so the scope and sequence and unit plans/calendar are already shared out before the school year starts (we work during the summer!). This “big picture” is extremely helpful to the special educator (me!) and I access them often. Weekly grade-level team meetings often include discussions regarding timing adjustments to the completed plans due to field trips, snow days, and/or data review (i.e.: our students need more practice!).
• The lesson planners also meet vertically with other grade levels planning the same content area. For example, the first grade teacher planning math will meet with the kindergarten and 2nd-4th grade math teachers to discuss key teaching points. 
• As the special educator, I download the general education weekly lesson plans and then differentiate them for students on my caseload. I'd love to say I do it the same way every week/month/year, but as my students' needs change,  so does my planning!
• This year, I've often “stuck to the script” for comprehension, phonics, and math, and then differentiated the presentation  (small groups, more guided practice, parallel teaching).  Next, I supplement and add in tons and TONS of spiral review based on data analysis (I collect data daily!). In previous years, my students have been in a completely different place than the general education population, so my lessons were following a  different (more “bare bones”) scope and sequence. It completely depends on my students' IEP goals and objectives and their areas of strength/growth. VERY interesting, especially because my first graders seem to grow and change WEEKLY!  This makes my job exhausting exciting! 🙂
• I submit my lesson plans 10 days in advance to my team leader. This is the accountability piece our school has built in for every teacher. I find that my lesson plans can be cumbersome and I don't refer to them too often throughout the week. Still, they are a great resource when I'm prepping and/or a student is absent and we need to find a way to catch up the instruction. 

That was A LOT of information about lesson planning!

Here's what my weekly lesson plan overview looks like:

Sorry about those “fancy” font choices I made back in 2012 😉

UPDATE – Wow, this post brings back a lot of memories! It was originally written in 2012 and has received many revisions along the way.

Upon a lot of reflection and opportunities to have meaningful conversations with other special educators, I actually can't believe the expectations we had way back when. It was a WHOLE lot of extra and while the intentions were well-meaning, it was just so much.

I'm keeping the information here because I think (hope!) it may still be helpful for others, especially if you've tried out many special education activities and lesson formats and still haven't found one that works. Maybe some components of these sped lesson plans will be helpful to you and spark some fresh ideas!

If you interested in learning more about special education lesson planning, check out this video:

I'm Jennifer!

I’m Jennifer and I was a special educator in the elementary school setting over the past decade. I entered the classroom every day dedicated to making learning inclusive AND engaging.

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Special Educator Survival Guide

Mastering Special Education Lesson Plans: Your Ultimate Guide

Are you ready to master your special education lesson plans up to the next level? Prepare to embark on a journey that will revolutionize your teaching experience and empower your students’ success. In this blog post, we unveil the secrets to creating exceptional special education lesson plans. From the what, how, where, and why of the concept to real-life stories and frequently asked questions, this guide will equip you with the tools and knowledge needed to make a lasting impact in your classroom.

Unleashing the Power of Special Education Lesson Plans

The Catalyst for Extraordinary Learning

How can you transform your special education classroom through effective lesson planning?

Special Education Lesson Plans are more than just a roadmap for instruction. They serve as the catalyst for extraordinary learning experiences. By adopting a structured approach and leveraging tailored strategies, you can unlock the potential of each student and ensure their individual needs are met. In this section, we’ll explore the fundamental components and benefits of special education lesson plans.

Crafting Effective Special Education Lesson Plans

From Vision to Execution

How can I create effective lesson plans that cater to diverse learner needs?

Creating effective special education lesson plans requires careful consideration and intentional design. This section will guide you through the step-by-step process of crafting comprehensive lesson plans that engage and empower your students. We’ll explore techniques for setting clear objectives, differentiating instruction, and utilizing appropriate accommodations. Prepare to discover the power of intentional planning and the impact it can have on student outcomes.

Accessing Resources for Special Education Lesson Planning

Your Toolkit for Success- parts of a special education lesson plan

From engaging warm-up activities to meaningful closure, each component plays a vital role in supporting your students’ individual needs. Join us on this journey as we delve into the essential elements that will empower you to master the art of special education lesson planning.

Setting the Stage for Success

Engaging Warm-up Activities

Every great lesson begins with an engaging warm-up activity that sparks curiosity and activates prior knowledge. Learn how to captivate your students’ attention right from the start by incorporating interactive questions, thought-provoking prompts, or intriguing visual aids. Discover the power of setting the stage for success and paving the way for meaningful learning experiences.

Crafting Clear Objectives

Navigating the Learning Path

Clear objectives provide a roadmap for your lesson and guide both you and your students throughout the learning journey. Discover strategies for formulating concise and measurable objectives that address individualized goals and align with academic standards. Learn how to break down complex concepts into manageable steps, ensuring that your students are on track to achieve success.

Differentiating Instruction

Meeting Diverse Needs

Special education classrooms thrive on differentiation, where instruction is tailored to meet the unique needs of every student. Explore techniques for providing multiple entry points, offering varied levels of support, and implementing accommodations or modifications. Discover the joy of watching each student grow and succeed within an inclusive learning environment.

Engaging Activities and Assessments

Fostering Active Learning

Engaging activities and assessments are the heart of any special education lesson plan. Dive into the world of interactive learning experiences, such as hands-on experiments, collaborative projects, or digital simulations. Learn how to design formative and summative assessments that accurately gauge student progress and inform future instruction.

Meaningful Closure and Reflection

Sealing the Learning

Closure is a critical element of effective lesson planning, as it allows students to reflect on their learning and solidify their understanding. Discover strategies for facilitating meaningful closure activities that encourage student reflection, such as exit slips, journaling, or group discussions. Learn how to celebrate achievements and set the stage for future learning.

You have now explored the key elements that make up a successful special education lesson plan. By incorporating engaging warm-up activities, clear objectives, differentiated instruction, engaging activities and assessments, and meaningful closure, you can create transformative learning experiences for your students. Remember, Cultivating Exceptional Minds is here to support you on your journey. Connect with us for further assistance and explore our Special Education Lesson Plan Template product in our TeachersPayTeachers shop. Let’s work together to unlock your full teaching potential and make a lasting impact in your special education classroom.

Overcoming Challenges and Maximizing Success

Navigating Roadblocks to Achieve Excellence

How can you overcome common challenges in special education lesson planning?

In this section, we’ll address common challenges faced by special education teachers during the lesson planning process. From time constraints to individualized accommodations, we’ll explore practical strategies to overcome these obstacles and maximize success. Discover innovative techniques to streamline your planning, effectively differentiate instruction, and ensure the success of every student in your classroom.

Remember, Cultivating Exceptional Minds is here to support you every step of the way. Connect with us for further assistance, explore our Special Education Lesson Plan Template product in our TeachersPayTeachers shop, and unlock your true teaching potential.

You are now equipped with the knowledge and tools to master special education lesson planning. By implementing the strategies and resources outlined in this guide, you can create exceptional learning experiences that meet the unique needs of your students. Read more lesson-planning tips here in this blog post !

Ready to transform your special education lesson plans? Connect with Cultivating Exceptional Minds today for personalized assistance and explore our Special Education Lesson Plan Template product on our TeachersPayTeachers shop. Let’s work together to create exceptional learning experiences for your students!

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Creating a plan for a year in an elementary school classroom for special-needs children requires flexibility and, in many cases, unique activities for each child depending on their situation. This classroom environment can be very rewarding for teachers who have created a solid base in classroom and curriculum design—and because you’re here reading this, you’re no doubt determined to establish exactly that—or perhaps you’re considering getting into special education teaching. Either way, good for you; we’re happy to help.

Below are four tips for making elementary school lesson plans for special education classrooms.

Create a multi-sensory environment

Children in a special education class may have trouble learning or communicating, or be behind developmentally for their age. As a result, they could struggle with processing lessons and expressing their emotions, and most learn best in a slightly different way.

By setting up the classroom with different objects and displays for students to see, manipulate, and hear, teachers can increase the chances that students will find a learning tool they connect with. For example, to teach the seasons, you might use a large visual display, boxes filled with items associated with each season, and a hot-cold station. Students can listen to birds chirp and waves crash as they learn about each season to incorporate new senses into the learning experience.

Understand the IEP

Parents of special needs children develop an individualized education plan, or IEP, with the teachers and schools. Special education teachers should be familiar with both the requirements for an IEP and their role—and the parents’ expectations. Children with a speech delay, for example, will have different requirements than students with physical disabilities.

An IEP will go over a student’s learning style and offer suggestions to accommodate it. ADHD students may need to be told instructions individually, while maintaining eye contact, to be sure they understand. Teachers should meet with parents and administrators at least twice a year to go over the success of an IEP and suggest changes based on the child’s development.

Work with peer tutors

Since the late 1980s, studies have shown that working briefly in a general education setting helps special education students comprehend language and new information. Today, we call this inclusive education. Besides the academic advantages, peer tutors are an excellent way to give special needs students practice interacting with others in a controlled setting.

Bringing students of the same grade level in daily can also give a special education classroom structure, and students are likely to most feel comfortable in their own classroom when meeting new people. This practice also benefits the general education class, who will learn kindness, acceptance, and patience. Reviewing information by explaining it will give students a deeper understanding, while presenting special needs students with a different way of thinking about the lesson.

Adapt assessments

When developing a special education curriculum, you may want to place more weight on the process and daily improvements than on a final quiz. However, when test time comes around, an alternative assessment may give students the opportunity to show off their knowledge and express themselves.

By creating a collage, acting it out, or explaining something verbally, students who find getting their ideas on paper challenging can prove their understanding. Remember to be flexible and creative. Even students who are comfortable with a more traditional test may need more time or a quiet (or louder!) environment.

You’ve got this

Creating a strong special education lesson plan for elementary students is imperative for a successful year. Like all students, children in special-needs classrooms want structure and consistency. To come up with new ideas, many teachers collaborate with partners or other educators. Even social-sharing sites like Pinterest have dozens of boards devoted to special-needs activities, strategies, and printable worksheets. By over-preparing and adopting non-traditional strategies, you can ensure that your students have a fun and productive year. You can do this!

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Tagged as: Early Childhood and Elementary (Grades: PreK-5) ,  Special Education

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Lesson Plans and Activities

These guides can assist you with creating lesson plans and activities in special education and inclusion settings. Find information on special end support, listening comprehension, and project-based learning so you have the tools to support your students' growth.

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Special education online resources

Special education digital and remote resources.

• Do2Learn Free social skills and behavioral regulation activities
• Educating All Learners Alliance
• Curated tools, strategies, tips and best practices for supporting students with disabilities online
• EmotionalABCs Social-emotional learning resources for grades K-3
• Google Chrome Extensions for Students with Special Needs Help with text-to-speech, readability, comprehension and focus 
• Intervention Central Clearinghouse for free RTI materials
• IXL.com Full curriculum with diagnostics and personalized learning
• Meadows Center research brief Online learning: benefits and barriers
• National Center on Intensive Intervention Educator page featuring videos and teaching modules
• Newsela Leveled reading resources
• New York Public Library Free Tutoring Offering live tutoring & homework help 
• Scaffolded Math & Science Teacher-created resource (with YouTube instructional videos )
• USDOE's Teacher Digital Learning Guide Resources and recommendations to support digital learning
• UFT's Students With Disabilities Resources Online materials and sites for literacy-building and other activities

Discipline-specific materials

Autism ASD Nest Support Project at NYU Steinhardt Online learning resources for teachers of students with autism

Cognitive disabilities TIES Center Supports for students with significant cognitive disabilities

Learning disabilities Digital Promise Resources and products to support learners with disabilities 

Occupational therapists Edutopia Occupational Therapy Shifts From Tactile to Digital

School counselors American School Counselor Association School counseling in an online world

Speech therapists Understood.org Providing and preparing for speech teletherapy

Visual impairments Paths to Literacy Getting started with a struggling reader with visual impairments

Feeling stuck writing your IEPs? Download the 10 IEP Writing Commandments for FREE here!

Fall Lesson Plans and Resources for Any Special Ed Classroom

Fall is a refreshing time of year with those crunching leaves and breaths of fresh air. Not to mention, you’re likely settling into the school year with your new students.

So if you’re searching for Autumnn lesson plans and resources for your classroom, look no further!

Here are 10 of our favorite Fall resources:

Fall Literacy Lessons 

The  Autumn Adapted Piece Book Set  is a seasonal staple for storytime. These interactive pieces will help you transform eight of the most famous children’s books into an exciting reading experience. We’ve found that even students who don’t love reading enjoy these! This set includes pieces for titles such as Red Leaf Yellow, Leaf, Ten Orange Pumpkins, and Pumpkin Jack. 

Teach your students about the changing seasons with this  Autumn Adapted Book  and use it during small group instruction or morning meetings. This reader focuses on changing leaves, Fall holidays, and other seasonal vocabulary.

Have you read Fletcher and the Falling Leaves? This is an adorable Fall story about a fox named Fletcher who worries when the leaves start falling from his favorite tree. The  Fletcher and the Falling Leaves Book Companio n is filled with cross-curricular, no-prep lesson extensions. It’s a story unit made easy! 

Fall Life Skill Lesson Plans

Give students the chance to practice an important life skill, addressing envelopes! The Fall version of  Addressing an Envelope  will prepare an envelope with ‘to’ and ‘from’ labels, as well as a stamp. This center time activity comes in 2 levels, “errorless” and fill-in-the-blank. 

Get students in the swing of dressing for the season with the  Dress Me for the Seasons File Folder  game. Practice the same skill in a different format with these  Seasonal Clothing Sorting Mats .

Fall Lesson Plan Bundles

 The  All About Autumn Bundle  is an all-encompassing unit that includes math, science, and ELA activities. It also has three Fall book companions! This bundle will help you fill your Fall planner with the click of a few buttons and very little prep. Similarly, this  Autumn Thematic Unit  will get your students excited about the season with vocabulary cards, readers, graphic organizers, graphing activities, science activities, and more!

The  Seasons Adapted Work Binder  is a great tool for morning work. This work binder is filled with functional and differentiated skill work that includes labeling seasonal pictures, sorting seasonal pictures, and identifying months within each season. 

More Fall Lesson Plans

Students can practice following step-by-step directives and visual-motor skills with these  Autumn Directed Drawings . This set gives students the chance to draw ten different Fall designs, including scarecrows, acorns, sunflowers, leaves, and more. 

The  Fall Memory Digital Activity  is an excellent independent task that can be set out during center time or for early finishers. This paperless skill work has thirty different pages, all in the theme of Fall! If you love this one, you’ll want to check out the  Autumn Digital Activity Bundle  as well. 

Debate time:  When you teach this unit, do you call it Fall or Autumn? Let us know in the comments! 

YOU MAY ALSO LIKE:

• 20 Autumn Books for Any Classroom
• Messaging Platforms to Communicate with Parents
• What Special Ed Teachers Want Parents to Know

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The National Association of Special Education Teachers (NASET) is the only national membership organization dedicated solely to meeting the needs of special education teachers and those preparing for the field of special education teaching.

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NASET Professional Development Program (PDP)

NASET has always provided an online platform that supplied the resources required for Special Education Professional Development. Over the years, we have added numerous courses, lectures, PowerPoint presentations, resources and e-Publications. In fact, the sheer volume of content has reached a point where another approach to maximize the primary function of professional development was needed. From this need for a better layout to allow for easier access and use of our website for Professional Development we created the PDP. To learn more - Click here

NASET e-Publications

Hundreds of e-Publications available for online viewing and as PDF files for downloading. All past articels are archived. Take a moment to review the large list of our e-Publications that grows monthly. - To learn more - Click here  

Professional Resources

Comprehensive resources from audio lectures, databases of informational resources, IEP development tool, Conferences, Teacher Forum and Much More...To learn more - Click here

Career Center

From the latest job listings to professional development courses, NASET 's Career Center provides you with tools and information to further your Career as a Special Educator. To learn more - Click here

Members Benefits -  Click here

Latest Issue of JAASEP

(journal of the american academy of special education professionals).

Click on the JAASEP Image for the Table of Contents

NASET's Career Center showcases the latest job openings in special education.

Also, you'll find:

• Career Advice
• Book Resources
• Tips on Resumes & Cover Letters
• Interviewing Techniques
• Special Ed Career Fact Sheets
• Guidelines for Licensing and Certification in all 50 States

* Ed Specialist - Provide assessment services and,  if needed,  develop,  implement,  and supervise  Individualized  Education  Plans  (IEPs). In collaboration with classroom teachers and parents/guardians, Education Specialists support and monitor student progress towards IEP goals, and play a crucial role in communicating needs, services, and accommodations to staff and  parents/guardians. To learn more- Click here

* Exceptional Student Education (Special Needs) Teachers - Hillsborough County Public Schools (HCPS) is recruiting talented, compassionate teachers dedicated to helping every student in the district succeed. Successful applicants will share a commitment to excellence in the classroom and a belief that great teaching is the key to unlocking student success. To learn more- Click here

* Special Education Teachers - The Newark Board of Education is where passion meets progress. We want you to discover a rewarding career with us.  If the opportunity to make learning limitless excites you then, join our community of educators. To learn more- Click here

* Special Education Teaching Position in the Greater Boston Area - Reed Academy in Framingham, MA, offers a structured and therapeutic environment to boys with variety of education needs. Teach in a small and family-like, nurturing environment for Students with Moderate Needs. To learn more- Click here

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Here's What NASET Has to Offer

Take a moment to review the various e-Publications, professional development and special education resources.

NASET is proud to offer its' members free access to one of the most extensive and comprehensive sources of Professional Development courses available today. With over 100 courses ranging from 1 to 3 hours each, NASET provides it's members the opportunity for over 100 hours of professional development included with your membership in NASET.

Professional Development Courses (101 courses) - Free with Membership!

Board certification in special education (b.c.s.e.).

Board Certification in Special Education establishes a much needed standard for professionals, across disciplines, who work with exceptional children.

IEP Information

NASET provides the multiple areas with valuable information about IEPs. From a ePublication IEP Components to mutlple articles resources, forms, NASET has a wealth of information for the special education professional.

NASET Special Educator e-Journal

The online Special Educator e-Journal is published monthly throughout the year and provides timely information on what's current in special education.

The Special Educator’s List of 100 Forms, Tables, Checklists, and Procedures

This list is provided to all members of NASET to help facilitate the numerous tasks required on a daily basis. All documents are available to view online or download as a PDF file for offline printing.

NASETs' Week in Review

NASET's Week in Review is a weekly emailed publication that provides members with some of the most interesting stories, topics and issues reported during the week in the field of special education.

NASET News Alerts

NASET News Alerts provide the latest special education news as it happens. News Alerts are emailed, posted and through RSS feeds.

This series provides NASET members with an in-depth look at the step-by-step process of assessing students for eligibility and educational placement in special education.

Lesser Known Disorders in Special Education Series

This series is devoted to lesser known disorders that you may encounter in special education. While not as prevalent as other disorders experienced by most special education teachers, you should be aware of these disorders in order to become more knowledgeable, and increase your ability to assist patents of children with these disorders if they should appear in your classroom or school. Each month we will present a list of 3 disorders that appear in the special education population. Some of these  disorders may contain subtypes which will also be presented.

The NASET LD Report is an education resource that provides NASET members with a comprehensive overview of learning disabilities.  The NASET LD Report covers many areas of study in the field of LD.

The Practical Teacher is a monthly education resource that provides NASET members with practical tools, strategies, and relevant information that they can use both in and outside of the classroom.

Parent Teacher Conference Handouts can be given at the end of parent teacher conferences to reinforce concepts and help parents better understand information discussed at the conference. New additions are added monthly.

The NASET RTI Roundtable is an educational resource that provides members with the latest information on RTI.

Autism Spectrum Disorder Series

The NASET Autism Spectrum Disorder Series is an education resource that  focused on the research, writing, and practical information that we have obtained on causes, characteristics, eligibility, assessment, and teaching strategies.

Behavior Management Series

NASET’s Behavior Management Series is a unique guide for all teachers in helping to understand what their student’s behavior really means and how to identify and resolve the issue. This series offers teachers the insight into the inner dynamics, conflicts, fears, symptoms, tension, and so on of students who may be experiencing difficulty learning or behaving in the classroom.

The Classroom Management Series provide teachers with practical guidelines covering a variety of topics and supportive information which may help improve their classroom.

Researched Based Journal in Special Education

A Journal of Research Based Articles in Special Education are provided courtesy of The Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals ( JAASEP ). Each issue contains articles that are derived from multiple authors and are based upon the latest research in our profession.

This series is devoted exclusively to students with severe disabilities. This series will cover all aspects of students with severe disabilities focusing especially on understanding this population and what skills and information are necessary if you are asked to teach this population of students.

NASET Q & A Corner

At NASET , we get many questions from our members about certain areas of interest.  The NASET Q & A Corner provides all members with the opportunities to have access to these questions, and more importantly, answers to them from professionals in the field.

This series is intended to provide teachers, related service personnel, administrators, and other individuals charged with assisting in the development of the paraprofessional workforce with information and strategies to build strong, effective, supportive teams to ensure successful educational services for all students.

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Best Sites and Apps for Special Education

These top special education sites and apps are designed for teachers, students and families

As of 2020-21, 14.5% of all U.S. students were special education students (ages 3-21). That translates to more than seven million who need teachers with specialized training to help kids with physical, emotional, mental and behavioral disabilities. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandates that these students be educated with non-disabled peers to the greatest extent possible, in the least restrictive environment, and these apps and sites for special education can help. 

When teachers improve their ability to engage and educate special ed learners, they’re simply fulfilling another version of individualized learning. Fortunately, in addition to graduate-level coursework, there are several high-quality online resources to help any teacher learn the theory and practice of working with kids with disabilities. 

The following sites and apps provide lessons and activities for special needs learners, as well as professional development tools for teachers. All are free or modestly priced. 

Better Lesson Instructional Strategies Explore a broad range of instructional strategies that, although diverse, all aim to support individualized learning. Choose from social-emotional learning, culturally responsive teaching, competency-based learning, and more. Within each category, learn how to plan, practice, and implement several related strategies. For example, SEL offers detailed guidance on self-regulation, self-awareness, and collaborative conversations. A rich resource for all teachers, not just special ed. 

Sen Teacher   Hundreds of free learning materials for special ed, including customizable printable downloads and interactive games in math, science, sensory/art, and assistive technology. Simple to use, and no account is needed.

TPT: Free Special Education Lessons and Activities   Created, tested, and rated by your fellow teachers, these free special education resources are searchable by subject, grade, standards, and formats. Browse the handwriting practice, sight word activities, life skills, money math, and more to find exactly what you need for your classroom.

MakeBeliefs Comix for Students With Special Needs Learn how teachers across the country are using MakeBeliefsComix to help students with a variety of disabilities—from autism to stuttering—learn and thrive.

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Autism Circuit Tools This site provides a diverse range of tools to help students make decisions, modulate their behavior appropriately, and understand consequences. Autism Circuit offers guidance and brief videos demonstrating how teachers can use tools such as choice boards in their classrooms. Other tools help students communicate, manage emotions, behaviors, and schedules. 

Do2Learn Do2Learn is a nonprofit website providing free resources, tools, and activities to support educators in teaching children and young adults with special needs. The site includes interactive games, visual aids, and printable materials to engage learners of all ages and abilities. Educators can access a variety of lesson plans and curriculum ideas to create more inclusive and supportive learning environments. 

Microsoft Learning Tools Immersive Reader OneNote Learning Tools provides a free immersive reader to help students boost their reading skills. Want to try it first? Just enter your own text into the box and start reading. Choose male or female voice, font and text size, background color and line focus. Other features allow you to assign color to parts of speech and display words in syllables. Click on any word to view a visual representation and to hear the word spoken. Translates words and entire documents into dozens of languages. Very cool tool, and super easy to use!

Paul V. Sherlock Center on Disabilities Adapted Literature and Lessons  Nearly 500 classic, popular, and/or educational works of literature adapted for students with special needs. The works include digital books, movies, videos, music, and PowerPoint presentations that aim to help students with visual and other disabilities. Want to create your own adapted literature? Check out the Creating Your Own Adapted Literature Webinars explaining how to do so. Free, no account required.

Mindful Schools   Features 10 free mindfulness classes for kids, including activities, mindful movement, and read-alouds. Courses for educators cover mindfulness basics, how to implement mindfulness in the classroom, and self compassion (a must for teachers!).

Otsimo Special Education iOs Android Developed by Zafer Elcik for his young autistic brother, the Otsimo app features a gamified, personalized curriculum for special education. Games focus on everyday basics such as clocks, weather and clothes as well as the alphabet, music, and colors. To view the app games, visit the website here . To play games, you’ll need to download the free app. 

Voice Dream A suite of award-winning apps—Reader, Writer, Scanner—that provides text-to-speech reading, writing, and scanning capabilities in 30 languages. 

AAA Math A no-frills K-8 math practice site that offers thousands of interactive math lessons, from addition to geometry to statistics. It’s easy to use -- just click on any topic or lesson and start practicing. Lessons are served in small, attainable blocks, which aids in preventing frustration. Plus, kids get immediate feedback on their answers. Free, no account needed. 

BoomCards Special Education Decks Great collection of Boom Cards decks covering a wide variety of useful topics such as identifying public bathrooms, WH questions, verbs, modes of transportation, compare-contrast exercises, and more. Many are free or modestly priced, and all are sortable by grade, subject, and cost. Free account required. Want to learn more about how to use Boom cards? Check out What is Boom Cards and How Does It Work?

Autism Focused Intervention Resources and Modules Free modules to help educators and caretakers learn about autism and evidence-based practices. Also available for $35 are continuing education credit modules that cover topics from cognitive behavioral intervention to video modeling. 

Paths to Literacy Lessons and Materials Fine collection of lessons, manipulatives, hands-on activities, videos, and more to support teachers who work with students with visual disabilities, including deafblind students and those with multiple disabilities

SENict Teaching Activities Free downloadable exercises curated to aid young people in advancing their accessibility skills via assistive technology, encompassing switches, touch devices, pointing devices, and eye gaze systems. Download each exercise individually or purchase a convenient memory stick loaded with 600+ activities, training videos, and teacher supports for £25 (about $31 U.S.).

Starfall A well-designed, ad-free site that focuses on making reading and math fun for students pre K-3. Starfall’s founder Stephen Schutz struggled with dyslexia as a child and created Starfall to help kids learn to read—and learn to love learning. Art, music, poetry, riddles, and more keeps kids engaged in the interactive material. Four membership levels range from $35 annually for home use to $355 for a school membership. Each section also includes clearly marked free content, so it’s easy to browse the site and try it out without an account. 

Reading Rockets Reading Intervention Videos These highly instructive free videos feature literacy expert Linda Farrell working with struggling readers on specific reading goals such as mastering the alphabet, multisyllabic words, and blending sounds. Each video is accompanied by professional development guides as well as commentary by Farrell. Be sure to explore the entire Reading Rockets website for a wealth of additional literacy guides and resources. 

• Best Deaf Awareness Lessons & Activities  
• Top Sites for Differentiated Instruction
• Using the Metaverse to Help Students With Intellectual Disabilities  

To share your feedback and ideas on this article, consider joining our Tech & Learning online community  here .

Diana has been Tech & Learning's web editor and contributor since 2010, dedicated to ferreting out the best free tech tools for teachers.

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enCORE Math Lesson Plans

TeachTown’s enCORE solution is the only standards-based, core-curriculum based on Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) that provides students with moderate and severe disabilities, including students with autism and other intellectual and developmental disabilities, access to the general education curriculum. Read on to learn more about each segment within enCORE’s Math Lessons.

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Special Education Math Curriculum

enCORE is a comprehensive approach to delivering grade-aligned academic instruction for students with moderate to severe disabilities. The math domain of the K-12 adapted core curriculum was designed with the evidence-based instructional practices found throughout enCORE, including the principles of Applied Behavior Analysis and systematic, explicit instruction .

Structure of enCORE Math Lesson Plans

Each math lesson is structured to flow through the gradual release of responsibility, guiding students towards greater independence as they show they are ready. Lesson plans begin with anchored instruction to help students connect the new learning objective to their existing background knowledge and to make connections to their everyday lives. Then, teachers move through this sequence:

• Direct instruction and modeling
• Shared instruction and guided practice
• Independent student practice with ongoing teacher monitoring

This progression is noted within the print lesson plans as ‘Model, Lead, Test’ and will likely be familiar to educators as the I Do, We Do, You Do model.

Introducing students to new skills in small, bite-sized pieces supports complex learners by ensuring students receive multiple exposures to the new skill, prompting and feedback to avoid practicing incorrectly, and plenty of practice to reinforce new learning.

• Click here to see a sample enCORE Elementary Math Lesson Plan
• Click here to see a sample enCORE Middle Math Lesson Plan
• Click here to see a sample enCORE High Math Lesson Plan 

The math domain also includes evidence-based instructional practices that are specific to math, including concrete representations, the use of technology, and connecting math to real-world events.

Concrete Representations

Concrete representations , or math manipulatives like ten-frames and counting toys, are available throughout the enCORE curriculum for elementary , middle , and high school students . Lessons incorporate many everyday items that are found in the classroom. For example, in one elementary lesson, students learn to distinguish between thin and thick by comparing books of different sizes.

The specific math manipulatives included in each grade band are shown below in the manipulative kit item lists:

• enCORE Elementary Math Manipulatives
• enCORE Middle Math Manipulatives
• enCORE High Math Manipulatives

Concrete representations help make math concepts and operations less abstract, more concrete, and relevant to students’ lives. For example, students who practice concepts about money with coins and dollar bills are much more likely to generalize those concepts to their everyday lives.

Math and Technology

Technology is also used to help anchor instruction by making math operations more applicable to day-to-day activities and to literature stories.

Connecting Math to Literature

Literature reviews identify the use of math problems that represent real-life scenarios as an evidence-based practice for teaching math. This is one way to anchor instruction. Math instruction in every unit of enCORE Elementary is anchored in problems that are meaningful by using the literature embedded in the curriculum. For example, word problems designed to teach problem-solving skills and basic math operations focus on the characters and scenarios for the book that anchors that particular unit.

The lesson plan snapshot below shows a sample word problem related to the characters and scenarios from a unit in enCORE Elementary. The book for this unit is The Swiss Family Robinson. Students practice modeling single-digit addition and subtraction math problems through the context of the characters in the Robinson family (e.g., collecting sticks, building a fire, etc.).

Connecting Math to Everyday Living

While enCORE Elementary makes connections from the new math concept to the unit’s literature throughout the lesson plans, enCORE Middle and enCORE High primarily make these connections during the anchor instruction portion of the lesson plans (e.g., the beginning part of the lesson). Activating background knowledge helps older students make sense of new math concepts by drawing upon existing references but also honors the developmental advancement of both the literature and math as the lessons progress.

EnCORE Math incorporates real-world math applications alongside standards-based activities and practices for all grade bands. Skills like budgeting, time management, and other skills that students with low-incidence disabilities may not learn incidentally are explicitly taught and reinforced through warm-up worksheets. These skills are spiraled where appropriate throughout the lesson plans so that students have opportunities to apply foundational concepts to their everyday lives.

Students learn how to:

• Read a bus schedule and plan accordingly
• Account for traffic when deciding what time to leave the house to arrive on time
• Save enough money to make a desired purchase

And much more!

These everyday math skills are reinforced to ensure these foundational skills are acquired, retained, and generalized to support their transition to adulthood & the appropriate level of independence after high school.

Let’s take a look now at the specific math content in each of the grade bands.

enCORE Elementary Math Lessons

In enCORE Elementary, the Math domain includes 8 areas of focus.

The Counting and Cardinality Segment addresses number identification, number sense, rote counting, counting quantities with one-to-one correspondence, and sequencing numbers and quantities. These early numeracy skills provide a strong foundation in what numbers mean and how they relate to the objects in our world, allowing students with moderate to severe disabilities a firm footing for jumping into the content included in other Math segments.

In the Operations and Algebraic Thinking Segment , students are guided through pre-problem-solving and problem-solving activities. Math is brought to life using relatable story problems, and students are taught to identify critical information from a problem and the steps necessary to solve the problem using evidence-based support.

The Measurement and Data Segment addresses measurable attributes of physical objects, sorting and comparing those objects, and graphing and analyzing data. Students and teachers work side by side to complete hands-on activities based both in the curriculum’s literature and in real-world scenarios.

The Math All Around Us Segment addresses two key areas: (1) extending skills taught in other segments as they relate to the world around us, and (2) how we can draw skills from multiple math domains and use them in tandem to solve problems in the education classroom and beyond. [Add another sentence like …] This segment gives students additional practice with newly acquired skills and the valuable opportunity to connect seemingly abstract concepts to their everyday lives.

Each Number and Operations in Base 10 (or Fractions, for Units 19-36 in the 3-5 band) Segment provides teachers and students with hands-on materials and graphic organizers needed to develop conceptual knowledge and clear comprehension of how numbers, quantities, and individual objects can be put together, organized, and taken apart. These lessons encourage students to practice numeracy skills in the context of Base 10 units, tens, and hundreds and in the context of the parts and wholes represented by fractions. Students will bring these skills together to solve equations and word problems using Base 10 Units and fractions.

The Time Segment is designed to address the functional math skills we use daily. From identifying time on various devices to identifying money and making purchases in the community, teachers are provided with scripted step-by-step instructions on how to teach these critical math concepts.

The Money Segment is designed to familiarize students with coins and dollar bills and support them in developing a sense of their value, both in relation to other currencies (e.g., “A $20 bill is worth more than a quarter.”) and in relation to their value in everyday situations (e.g., “I can buy more with a $20 bill than a quarter, but someone should not ask me to pay $20 for a pack of gum.”). These lesson segments focus on identifying coins and bills, counting the value of money, and employing practical strategies to use money effectively in the real-world environment.

The Geometry Segment teaches students to identify two-dimensional and three-dimensional shapes. Additionally, students are taught to identify the attributes of shapes, compare shapes by their attributes, and identify and extend patterns.

enCORE Middle School Math Lessons

In enCORE Middle, the Math domain includes 6 areas of focus:

• The Number System
• Expressions & Equations
• Statistics & Probability
• Geometry, Ratios & Proportions (6th and 7th grade)
• Functions (8th grade)

Within each unit, there are 2 lesson plans, each containing 4 segments that focus on clear, specific learning objectives derived from state and national Math standards.

• The Math Momentum I segment introduces new topics and reviews prerequisite skills, setting students up to learn more complex, multi-step concepts in later segments within the lesson.
• In the Math Foundations I segment, students are introduced to problem-solving and multi-step tasks.
• The Math Foundations II segment expands on the content covered in Math Foundations I.
• The fourth segment, Math Exploration, requires students to solve more complex problems using the skills they have developed over subsequent segments. The instruction in this segment serves as the culmination of a series of scaffolded skills.

At the end of each lesson plan are Generalization and Extension Activities . The Generalization and Extension Activities provide students with extended practice and helps them generalize learned skills and can be completed at times that work with a classroom schedule.

enCORE High School Math Lessons

In enCORE High School, the Math domain includes 4 standard mathematics courses:

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What is Special Education?

Author: University of North Dakota April 23, 2024

Throughout history, students with learning needs not only faced challenges in having their needs properly identified, but their educational requirements were often inadequately addressed within the general education system.

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However, significant strides have been made to rectify this situation, mainly through the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). This legislation aims to ensure that students with learning needs can access and benefit from specialized education services. 

To better understand this area of education, we'll explore key questions like "What is special education?" as well as examine the process students undergo to qualify for special education services. So, read on and uncover the importance of special education in fostering inclusive learning environments for all students.

Understanding the Basics

Let us start by discussing the fundamental aspects of special education. By exploring these crucial elements, we aim to provide a clear understanding of how special education can support students with unique needs.

Special education refers to tailored instructional programs and support services for students with disabilities or special needs. It encompasses a range of interventions and accommodations designed to meet each student's individualized learning requirements.

The primary purpose of special education is to address the challenges and barriers faced by students with disabilities and ensure their access to a quality education that aligns with their abilities and learning styles. Through specially designed instruction and support, special education aims to empower students with the tools and resources needed to succeed academically, develop essential skills, and achieve their full potential despite their disabilities.

Why is Special Education Important?

Special education is essential to promoting equity and inclusivity within educational systems. By offering specialized instruction, interventions, and support services tailored to the learning needs of each student with disabilities, special education ensures that every individual has equal access to educational opportunities. Additionally, it plays a vital role in facilitating such students' academic and social development, empowering them to reach their full potential and participate meaningfully in school and community life.

Where is Special Education Provided?

Special education services are provided in various settings, with public schools being a prevalent option. Here, students benefit from specialized instruction and support customized to suit their individualized education programs. Inclusive classrooms integrate students with disabilities into general education settings alongside their peers, allowing them to participate in academic and social activities while receiving necessary accommodations and support.

Specialized schools dedicated exclusively to serving students with disabilities also offer special education services. These schools may offer a more intensive level of support and focus on specific disabilities or learning needs, providing a structured and supportive environment for students to thrive. Additionally, special education services may be delivered in alternative settings, such as resource rooms or learning centers within public schools, where students receive targeted interventions and support from special education teachers and staff. 

Who Receives Special Education Services?

Special education services are available to children who meet the criteria outlined by the IDEA. According to the act, they must be identified as having a disability falling under one or more of the following 13 categories :

• Autism: A developmental disability affecting communication, social interaction, and sensory processing
• Deaf-blindness: Simultaneous hearing and visual impairments leading to severe communication and developmental needs
• Deafness: Severe hearing impairment affecting linguistic information processing
• Emotional disturbance: Long-term and marked difficulties in learning, interpersonal relationships, behavior, or mood
• Hearing impairment: Impairment in hearing that affects educational performance but doesn't meet the criteria for deafness
• Intellectual disabilities: Below-average general intellectual functioning with deficits in adaptive behavior
• Multiple disabilities: Concomitant impairments causing severe educational needs
• Orthopedic impairment: Severe orthopedic impairment affecting educational performance
• Other health impairment: Chronic or acute health problems affecting alertness and educational performance
• Specific learning disability: Disorders in basic psychological processes affecting language, reading, writing, or math
• Speech or language impairment: Communication disorders adversely affecting educational performance
• Traumatic brain injury: Acquired brain injury causing functional disability or impairment
• Visual impairment including blindness: Vision impairment affecting educational performance, including partial sight or blindness

Analyzing the Special Education Process: A Step-by-Step Guide

Students must undergo a comprehensive process to determine their eligibility for special education services, confirm their specific needs, and ensure they receive appropriate support. Below, we'll cover the step-by-step process, from identifying their needs to reviewing their progress. Understanding these steps is crucial for parents, educators, and others who support students with special needs.

1. Identification and Referral

The first step in the special education process is identifying and referring students who may require special education services. This process often begins with teachers observing students experiencing difficulties in the classroom, such as attention, behavior, or academic performance. 

Initially, teachers may work with students individually and modify instructional strategies to address their needs. However, if these interventions fail to yield positive results, the teacher is obliged to involve the student's parents or guardians in conversations regarding the challenges their child is facing. Additionally, schools must acquire consent from the student's parent or legal guardian before conducting any assessments or providing special education services.

2. Evaluation and Assessment

Evaluating and assessing students' needs to determine their eligibility for special education services involves various evaluations to gather comprehensive information about their abilities, challenges, and requirements. These evaluations are conducted by a team of professionals, which may include educators, psychologists, speech-language pathologists, and other specialists. The types of evaluations typically completed during this process include:

• Speech-only evaluation: Focusing specifically on assessing speech-language abilities and communication skills
• Speech/language evaluation: Assessing both speech and language abilities, including articulation, fluency, comprehension, and expression
• Teacher narrative or observation: Gathering information from teachers regarding the student's academic performance, behavior, and learning needs through written narratives or direct observations in the classroom
• Full study evaluation: Comprehensive assessment covering various aspects of the student's development, including cognitive, academic, behavioral, and social-emotional functioning
• Socio-cultural evaluation: Examining the influence of cultural and social factors on the student's learning and development
• Psychological evaluation: Assessing cognitive abilities, emotional functioning, and psychological factors that may impact the student's educational performance
• Educational evaluation: Focusing on academic skills, learning style, and educational needs to determine the level of academic support required
• Parent narrative: Obtaining information from parents or guardians about their observations, concerns, and experiences related to their child's development and learning
• Medical evaluation: Conducted by medical professionals to assess any physical or medical conditions that may impact the student's educational needs
• Other evaluations, as needed: Additional assessments may be conducted based on the individual needs of the student, such as adaptive behavior assessments or assistive technology evaluations.

3. Eligibility Determination

Determining eligibility for special education services requires a thorough review of the evaluation results and compliance with legal requirements outlined in the IDEA. Once the evaluation process is completed, the school will conduct a comprehensive assessment of the student's strengths, weaknesses, and overall needs. This assessment considers input from parents or guardians, teachers, specialists, and other relevant individuals involved in the student's education.

The eligibility determination hinges on two key questions: whether the student has a disability and whether that disability adversely affects their academic and functional performance to the extent that they require special education services. If both questions are answered affirmatively, the student is officially deemed eligible for special education services.

4. Individualized Education Program (IEP) Development

Once a student is considered eligible for special education services, the IEP development process begins. The IEP team, comprising educators, specialists, parents or guardians, and the student (when appropriate), collaborates to identify the student's academic and functional needs based on the evaluation results. 

In order to meet the needs of the student and make progress, the IEP team sets measurable goals each year. They decide on the services and support the student requires and mention the education professionals responsible for providing them. The team also outlines the frequency and duration of the services and the settings where they will occur, known as placement.

5. Monitoring and Review

Lastly, monitoring student progress and periodic IEP reviews are needed. Regular monitoring helps educators and support staff track the student's academic and functional development, ensuring that the goals outlined in the IEP are being met effectively. 

Through ongoing assessment and observation, educators can identify any challenges or areas where additional support may be required. Periodic reviews of the IEP provide opportunities to assess the effectiveness of the current strategies and make any necessary adjustments.

Essential Skills Needed for Special Education Graduates

Becoming a special education teacher requires a range of skills and abilities to support students with disabilities effectively. These include:

• Ability to communicate well with students, parents, and colleagues
• Patience and compassion 
• Knowledge of specialized instructional strategies
• Adaptability to different situations and student needs
• Collaboration skills
• Familiarity with assistive technology
• Emotional intelligence
• Cultural sensitivity
• Time management skills

Special education and its dedicated educators play an invaluable role in ensuring that every student, regardless of their abilities or challenges, receives the support they need to thrive academically and socially. These teachers embody the spirit of inclusivity, championing diversity and equity in education. Through their efforts, special education fosters a culture of inclusivity where every student is valued and empowered to fulfill their dreams.

What does "special" stand for in education? ( Open this section)

"Special" in education refers to tailored or individualized instruction and support provided to students with disabilities or exceptionalities.

How do you identify children with special needs? ( Open this section)

Children with special needs are identified through a process involving evaluations, assessments, and observations to determine whether they require specialized educational services.

What are the most common special educational needs? ( Open this section)

Some of the most common special educational needs include learning disabilities, speech and language impairments, autism spectrum disorders, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

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• Open access
• Published: 17 April 2024

Students with special educational needs in regular classrooms and their peer effects on learning achievement

• V. B. Salas García   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7568-3879 1 &
• José María Rentería   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6486-0032 2  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  521 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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This study explores the impact of inclusive education on the educational outcomes of students without Special Educational Needs (non-SEN) in Peru, utilizing official Ministry of Education data and implementing cross-sectional regression analyses. Inclusive education is a complex issue that, without appropriate adaptations and comprehensive understanding, can present substantial challenges to the educational community. While prior research from developed nations offers diverse perspectives on the effects of inclusive education on non-SEN students, limited evidence exists regarding its impact in developing countries. Our study addresses this gap by examining inclusive education in Peru and its influence on non-SEN students, thereby contributing to the existing literature. Our findings reveal that, on average, the presence of SEN students in regular classrooms does not significantly affect their non-SEN counterparts. However, we uncover heterogeneous results contingent on the specific type of SEN and students’ academic placement. These results emphasize the importance of targeted resources and parental involvement in facilitating successful inclusive education, particularly for specific SEN types. In summary, this study underscores the need for tailored strategies and additional resources to foster the success of inclusive education and calls for further research in this field to expand our understanding and enhance educational policy.

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Introduction.

Inclusive education has become a significant policy for improving access to and the quality of education for children with special educational needs (SEN), who often encounter physical and social barriers hindering their access to education and entry into the labor market, which in turn is detrimental to the economic and social progress of a country (Filmer, 2008 ; Mitra and Sambamoorthi, 2008 ). Thus, the United Nations has declared “inclusive and equitable quality education” as the fourth 2030 Sustainable Development Goal, which aims to reduce the disability gap in education. Likewise, there exist international declarations like the Salamanca Statement in 1994 (UNESCO, 1994 ) or the Declaration of the Decade of the Americas for the Rights and Dignity of Persons with Disabilities 2016–2026 (OAS, 2018 ) that incorporate the principle of inclusive education to guarantee education for all.

There are different education approaches Footnote 1 to ensure education for children with SEN, but the inclusive approach, unlike others, promotes equal participation of SEN students in regular schools by attending classes alongside same-aged non-SEN students (Dixon, 2005 ). Inclusive education goes beyond the placement of pupils; it refers to a unified system that receives all students regardless of their abilities or disabilities (Dixon, 2005 ). Under the inclusive approach, governments and schools should provide the means (i.e., physical and human resources) to reduce or eliminate physical, academic, and social hurdles faced by SEN students within regular schools (Dixon, 2005 ). Thus, inclusive education aims for social cohesion and a less discriminatory education approach that helps enhance the human capital acquisition of children with SEN (Kiuppis, 2014 ).

Despite the efforts for an inclusive education agenda worldwide, children with SEN remain behind in education indicators such as years of education, school attendance, or academic achievement (Filmer, 2008 ; Rangvid, 2022 ). This raises concerns about the impact that placement of children with SEN in regular schools may have on the educational achievement of children without SEN since these children are also involved in the inclusive education system (Rangvid, 2019 ; Ruijs and Peetsma, 2009 ). In Peru, for instance, some teachers in regular schools as well as some leaders of deaf organizations, do not support inclusive education as they think it is detrimental for both SEN and non-SEN students (Goico, 2019 ; Peruvian Ombudsman, 2019 ). Nevertheless, there is little empirical literature focused on the effects of inclusive education not only on SEN students but also on non-SEN students, especially in developing countries that shelter a high percentage of people with disabilities (Olusanya et al., 2022 ). This paper, therefore, aims to fill that gap by using information from a developing country, namely Peru. It investigates the impact of inclusive education, quantified through the presence of students with SEN in regular classrooms, on the academic performance of their non-SEN counterparts. Analyzing the peer effects of inclusive education is of utmost interest for policymakers aiming to increase the presence of SEN students in regular schools, as policy implications should consider the effects on all children.

The present work provides three main contributions to the existing literature regarding peer effects in the context of inclusive education. First, we provide new evidence using unusual and rich data from a middle-income country. To our knowledge, there is only one study focusing on a developing country. Indeed, Contreras et al. ( 2020 ) analyze the Chilean case and find that placement of children with SEN in regular classrooms negatively affects the standardized test scores in mathematics and reading of their non-SEN peers, but it is neutralized when schools receive additional resources and specialized professionals. Nevertheless, Contreras et al. ( 2020 ) use panel data for students attending primary schools in two periods, 2007 and 2011, without including types of SEN. In contrast, we study children attending primary and secondary schools using cross-section data between 2011 and 2019 and disaggregate our analysis by types of SEN Footnote 2 .

Our second contribution is to disaggregate our analysis by type of SEN. We are aware of two studies that use an overall indicator to reflect the presence of SEN students and disaggregate it by type of SEN. On one hand, Hanushek et al. ( 2002 ) examine two types of special educational needs: learning or emotional and speech; while, Ruijs ( 2017 ) examines four types: visual, hearing, physical or intellectual, and behavioral. In our case, besides evaluating the consequences of placing children with mobility, vision, hearing, and intellectual or learning disabilities in a regular classroom, we also evaluate the repercussions of placing children with autistic spectrum disorder in a regular classroom, which is a much less studied topic.

Finally, our third contribution is to explore the heterogeneous results of inclusive education on the non-SEN student population. Unlike previous studies, we explore the potential different impact of inclusive education between male and female non-SEN students. As most reproductive work has traditionally been done by women (cf. Razavi, 2012 ), it could be argued that female non-SEN students are more likely to take care of or help SEN students, which in turn may influence their educational achievement. Our heterogeneity analysis also takes into account school characteristics like classroom size as well as mother’s characteristics.

In our analysis, we take significant steps to mitigate potential biases stemming from endogenous classroom selection and the sorting of SEN students. We achieve this by focusing on schools with one class per grade level, which provides a more controlled setting for our study. Moreover, our dataset allows us to identify the class composition, which is vital for investigating educational peer effects. The classroom environment is particularly relevant, as classmates have a substantial impact on each other’s educational outcomes, given their shared classroom experience throughout the school day (Balestra et al., 2022 ; Burke and Sass, 2013 ; Lazear, 2001 ).

Our findings suggest that the inclusion of students with SEN in regular classrooms, on average, exerts a neutral influence on their non-SEN peers. A nuanced examination reveals varied results contingent upon the specific categories of SEN. This variability is consistent with the fact that SEN encompasses a broad spectrum of support requirements arising from diverse degrees and types of individual abilities, spanning physical, psychological, cognitive, and sensory domains. Hence, the influence of inclusive education would vary according to the distinct profile of the SEN student integrated into a conventional classroom setting. Furthermore, our results underscore the importance of accounting for temporal dynamics and the particular educational phase in gauging the impact of SEN students on their non-SEN counterparts. This observation aligns with the differential results discerned across academic grades.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The literature review and institutional setting are presented in the next section, followed by a description of the data and empirical strategy. After that, we discuss our results, and finally, we conclude.

This section starts with a brief literature review and then describes the main features of the Peruvian educational system as well as its public policy approach to inclusive education.

Literature review

The inclusion of students with SEN in regular schools remains a subject of debate due to the mixed findings within the empirical literature. Proponents of inclusive education argue that attending regular schools is not only a fundamental human right for children with SEN (Ainscow and César, 2006 ; Rangvid, 2022 ; Ruijs and Peetsma, 2009 ) but can also yield benefits for non-SEN students, particularly in terms of their learning development. This is attributed to the additional resources allocated to inclusive education (Keslair et al., 2012 ; Ruijs, 2017 ). Besides, inclusive education may help children without SEN to develop soft skills like kindness, tolerance, and patience, which are important to living in a diverse society (Contreras et al., 2020 ; Dixon, 2005 ). On the other hand, the main concerns regarding inclusive education are related to negative peer effects. The literature on class composition states that students’ performance is influenced by their peers’ characteristics (Ammermueller and Pischke, 2009 ; Burke and Sass, 2013 ; Lavy et al., 2012 ). Since children with SEN may require more teaching attention and show disruptive behaviors (Ahmed et al., 2021 ; Contreras et al., 2020 ; Rangvid, 2019 ; Ruijs, 2017 ), they could be considered “bad” students who could interfere with the educational development of their classmates without SEN (Lavy et al., 2012 ; Lazear, 2001 ), especially for those who are at the bottom of the ability distribution (Balestra et al., 2022 ; Lavy et al., 2012 ).

The quantitative studies that examine the peer effects of inclusive education mainly use data from developed countries. Most of them have found that inclusive education has a negative or null effect on non-SEN students’ outcomes. For instance, using data from Switzerland, Balestra et al. ( 2022 ) find that placing SEN students in regular classrooms harms not only educational outcomes but also labor market outcomes for non-SEN students. Similarly, studies from the United States (Fletcher, 2010 ) and Denmark (Kristoffersen et al., 2015 ; Rangvid, 2019 ) show that exposure to SEN students decreases reading test scores of non-SEN students. Also, for the United States, Gottfried ( 2014 ) and Gottfried et al. ( 2016 ) present evidence that inclusive education worsens the non-cognitive skills of non-SEN students. Fletcher ( 2010 ), however, points out that the negative effect of inclusive education in the United States disappears for reading when their lagged scores are considered in the analysis. Likewise, studies for Canada (Friesen et al., 2010 ), England (Keslair et al., 2012 ), and the Netherlands (Ruijs, 2017 ) also find that the presence of SEN students does not affect the academic performance of their non-SEN peers; but they point out that this result may be due to additional resources received by regular schools with SEN students. Conversely, other studies have found positive externalities of SEN students on the educational achievement of their non-SEN peers. For instance, Cole et al. ( 2004 ) point out that non-SEN students in the United States perform better at reading and mathematics tests since they may benefit from the additional resources allocated to inclusive education. Likewise, Hanushek et al. ( 2002 ) find that non-SEN students attending inclusive classrooms in the United States improve their mathematics test scores. Using data from the same country, Gottfried and McGene ( 2013 ) go beyond by showing that having a sibling with SEN helps to improve the schooling achievement of those siblings without SEN.

Several meta-analyses and systematic reviews have examined the effects of inclusive education on students with and without SEN. The coincidences lie in the varied impacts of inclusive education on non-SEN students, demonstrating a nuanced and context-dependent picture. While Dell’Anna et al. ( 2021 ) hint at positive peer attitudes in inclusive settings, the academic outcomes and the experience of non-SEN students diverge, with high achievers potentially benefiting more than low achievers (Ruijs and Peetsma, 2009 ). Kart and Kart ( 2021 ) and Szumski et al. ( 2017 ) contribute to the discussion, highlighting mixed academic effects across different grade levels. The meta-analyses by Oh-Young and Filler ( 2015 ) and Krämer et al. ( 2021 ) emphasize the overall positive impact of inclusive settings for students with SEN while still acknowledging variations in outcomes. Finally, Van Mieghem et al. ( 2020 ) emphasize the pivotal role of teacher professional development in the successful implementation of inclusive education.

Finally, it is worth mentioning that the conflicting results found in the literature may be explained by the differences in the criteria used to identify a SEN student. Most of the previous studies have used an aggregated measure to encompass all SEN students without considering the types of SEN (e.g., Contreras et al., 2020 ; Rangvid, 2019 ). On the other hand, some studies have focused on one or two types of special needs; such as emotional disturbances and mental disabilities (e.g., Cole et al., 2004 ; Fletcher, 2010 ; Hanushek et al., 2002 ; Kristoffersen et al., 2015 ), or learning and behavioral disabilities (e.g., Cole et al., 2004 ; Friesen et al., 2010 ; Hanushek et al., 2002 ). The present paper addresses these limitations found in the literature by taking into account different types of SEN and also by exploring the potential heterogeneous results of inclusive education for non-SEN students.

Institutional setting: The educational system in Peru

Primary and secondary education in Peru is compulsory and provided by the government at no cost and by the private sector with a wide tuition range. Peruvian children between 6- and 11- years old attend primary school and start secondary school by the age of 12 for a period of 5 years. The last National Population Census in 2017 reports that roughly 5.4% and 7.0% of Peruvians who are primary-school and secondary-school-aged, respectively, have at least one disability. However, according to the School Census of the same year, <1% of children attending regular schools are categorized as SEN students, which suggests that inclusive education in Peru is not well developed. Despite this low enrollment rate, the percentage of SEN students grew from 0.26% in 2007 to 0.96% in 2019.

Since primary and secondary schools in Peru must comply with a mandatory national curriculum, the same courses are taken by children who attend the same grade level across different schools. Schools may have more than one class per grade level, which are called sections , which students are assigned when they start primary school, which makes it less likely that students are sorted in a non-random fashion. Besides, every section has a specific classroom where students are instructed in most of their courses; thus, students do not need to move among different classrooms throughout the school day. At the primary school, the teacher assigned to a section is usually responsible for the majority of the courses; whereas, at the secondary school, it is often the case that there is a different teacher for each course. Another characteristic of the Peruvian education system is that it allows parents to send their children to any school, public or private, even if that school is outside their district of residence.

According to the last National Population Census in 2017, Peru has achieved almost universal coverage of education, 94.9% of the population aged 12 or over have primary education, and 74.5% aged 17 or over have secondary education. These numbers, however, mask a disability gap. Among adults aged 17 or over, 14.1% of people with at least one disability report having no education, whereas only 3.9% of people with no disabilities report the same. There is also an educational disability gap of 11.9 percentage points (p.p.) among the female population, but it decreases to 7.1 p.p. among the male population. These figures suggest that having a disability poses a larger burden for females than for males.

In this context, the Peruvian National Education Law recognized in 2003 inclusive education as the main approach to providing education to students with SEN, which should be accompanied by supplementary one-to-one attention by specialists (Congreso de la República, 2003 ). Thus, the Peruvian legal framework advocates an inclusive approach to integrating children and youth with disabilities into society. Aligned with the national inclusive policy, the state, as per the 2012 General Law of Persons with Disabilities (Law 29973), ensures access to quality inclusive education that accommodates individual needs. This entails adjustments in infrastructure, furniture, materials, curriculum, and teaching processes, all aimed at facilitating quality learning and fostering the comprehensive development of each student. It is worth noting, however, that empirical evidence indicates that many regular schools lack the necessary infrastructure, materials, and human resources to accommodate students with disabilities (Cueto et al., 2018 ; Peruvian Ombudsman, 2011 ).

The basic education system comprises three modalities: regular basic education (EBR), alternative basic education (EBA), and special basic education (EBE). EBR represents conventional formal education. EBA caters to students who lack access to EBR, emphasizing vocational and entrepreneurial skills. EBE is designated for students with SEN related to disability, talent, or giftedness. EBA and EBR schools, when admitting students with SEN, are termed inclusive schools . EBE operates in both inclusive schools and standalone EBE schools. In inclusive schools that accept students with mild disabilities and giftedness, EBE provides support and guidance through programs like Support and Advisory Services for Special Educational Needs (SAANEE). This includes personalized services and support to students, parents, teachers, and school principals through weekly visits of specialized professionals (Congreso de la República, 2006 ). Nevertheless, the evidence shows that inclusive education in Peru is far from successfully being implemented, and it is combined with an “integration approach” (Peruvian Ombudsman, 2011 ). On the other hand, dedicated EBE schools directly serve severe and multi-disabled students with needs beyond the scope of EBR or EBA schools. EBR and EBA schools are mandated to reserve at least two slots per classroom during the enrollment period for the inclusion of students with mild or moderate disabilities. However, in practice, this requirement is not systematically fulfilled (Cueto et al., 2018 ).

Data and methodology

In this study, we use three datasets that are collected by the Peruvian Ministry of Education (MINEDU). First, we utilized the Student Census Evaluation (ECE) as our primary data source, which encompasses the scores achieved by students in the national standardized tests of reading and mathematics Footnote 3 . To create our dependent variable, “learning achievement”, we transformed these scores into z -scores, standardizing them by grade level and by subject to have a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one for use in our econometric analysis. Furthermore, the ECE dataset includes additional demographic information such as gender and the primary language spoken by the students. The ECE started in 2007, with annual assessments of students in the 2nd grade of primary (2P). Subsequently, it was expanded in 2015 to encompass students in the 2nd grade of secondary (2S). In 2017, however, the ECE was not conducted. Our second dataset is the National School Census (CE) which contains information regarding school characteristics and grade composition. The CE has been yearly collected since 2004, and it covers public and private schools. We use it to measure inclusive education by identifying the presence of SEN students at the section level. These two datasets are merged at the school level through a school identifier; thus, each student is linked to section characteristics in the school he or she is attending. The last dataset is the Information System to Support the Management of the Education Institution (SG), which was implemented in 2003 but has been mandatory only since 2011. The SG contains information that is uploaded every year by teachers or school principals. This includes students’ age, mothers’ age and education, and number of siblings. The SG is merged with the other datasets by using a student identifier.

For our analysis, we focus on students attending 2P in the period dating from 2011 to 2016 (excluding 2014) Footnote 4 and students attending 2S from 2015 to 2019 (excluding 2017). Footnote 5 For both grades, 2P and 2S, we account for potential grade advancement and delay. Footnote 6 Therefore, in the case of 2P where students are usually 7 years old, we include children aged between 6 and 8 years, and for 2S where students are usually 13 years old, we include children aged between 12 and 14 years. The final number of observations for 2P comprises 55,637 students who took the reading test and 55,614 students who took the mathematics test. And, for 2S, we have 47,491 students who took the reading test and 47,484 students who took the mathematics test.

To evaluate the influence of inclusive education on non-SEN students’ learning achievement, we use the CE where the school principal reports the number of SEN students placed in each grade level every year and per type of SEN. Footnote 7 This report is based on medical certificates, psycho-pedagogical certificates, and parents’ affidavits. Thus, we can identify the presence of SEN students per section to measure inclusive education. Footnote 8 Besides, we disaggregate the presence of SEN students per type. Specifically, we distinguish, for each section, the presence of students with mobility, vision, hearing, and intellectual or learning disabilities, as well as those with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). In the case of intellectual or learning disabilities, the CE includes those students with Down syndrome, brain injury, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The other SEN types considered in the CE include students with speech impairment, deaf-blindness, and hospitalized. Although gifted students are identified as SEN students in the CE, we exclude them in our measure of SEN.

There are three main challenges to estimating peer effects, as stated by Manski ( 1993 ), that could hinder proper identification of the influence of SEN students on the learning achievement of their non-SEN peers. First, students in the same cohort could face similar environmental factors or have similar unobserved characteristics that may influence their academic outcomes rather than having classmates with SEN. To disentangle the environment from peer effects, we follow the literature by using a large number of observations and fixed effects (Balestra et al., 2022 ; Burke and Sass, 2013 ).

Second, there is a potential reflection problem as classmates may influence each other and determine their outcomes simultaneously. Since we focus on SEN characteristics related to physical disabilities, health issues, and injuries determined by specialists, it is less likely that the SEN status of students was determined by the learning achievement of their non-SEN peers.

The third problem is related to self-selection. In the Peruvian school system, parents may choose to send their children to any school regardless of their district of residence; thus, specific school characteristics may attract certain types of students. To address this problem, we restrict the analysis to schools with similar characteristics. We select schools located in urban areas providing mixed-sex education that operate on the main school campus only during the morning shift and with 10–30 students per section. In the case of primary education, we select full-grade schools. Footnote 9 Besides, to address a potential sorting problem that could make it difficult to identify whether the learning outcome is due to the presence of SEN students or one’s ability, we select schools with one section per grade level. In this way, we avoid the possibility for school administrators to group students into sections based on their characteristics or for parents to choose a section without SEN students. Finally, more than 90% of non-SEN students take the standardized national tests, which suggests that school principals do not select high-performance students to take these tests.

To test the validity of our identification strategy, we perform two balancing checks for 2P and 2S, presented in Tables 1 and 2 , respectively. To perform these balancing checks, we use only students who took both reading and mathematics standardized tests, rather than separating them by subject as we do for the econometric analyses. Panels A, B, and C show that the presence of at least one SEN student does not determine the gender, language, or age of non-SEN students, respectively. We observe that coefficients are statistically not significant, and their size is smaller in comparison to those from the main analysis, except for reading test scores in 2S. In addition, panel D shows that individual characteristics do not determine the presence of at least one SEN student in the classroom. These results provide evidence against the likelihood of selection into classrooms.

To examine the impact of inclusive education on standardized test performance of non-SEN students, we estimate the following linear model:

Equation ( 1 ) is estimated separately for each grade level (2P or 2S) and subject (reading or mathematics) using a linear regression. \({{{\rm {EDC}}}}_{{i{\rm {s}}t}}\) is the learning achievement of student \(i\) in section \({s}\) at year \(t\) , measured by the z -score of the standardized test. \({{{\rm {SEN}}}}_{{{\rm {s}}}t}\) is a dichotomous variable capturing the presence of at least one SEN student in section \({s}\) at year \(t\) ; thus, \({\alpha }_{1}\) is our parameter of interest. In other specifications below, \({{{\rm {SEN}}}}_{{{s}t}}\) will be differentiated by type of SEN. \({{{\rm {STD}}}}_{{i{s}t}}\) is a vector of student-level control variables that include age in years and indicators for gender (1 = women) and spoken language (1 = indigenous). The vector \({{{\rm {SEC}}}}_{{st}}\) controls for section-level variables without student \(i\) . It includes mean age, proportion of male students, proportion of indigenous speakers, and number of students. The vector \({{{\rm {SCH}}}}_{t}\) includes number of students at the school level. \({{{\rm {HH}}}}_{{it}}\) includes the following household characteristics: mother’s age, mother’s education, and the number of siblings. We also include school-fixed effects \(\left({\gamma }_{{s}}\right)\) Footnote 10 and year-fixed effects \(\left({\gamma }_{t}\right)\) . Finally, \({\varepsilon }_{{i{s}t}}\) is an unobserved error term, and we cluster standard errors at the section level as this is the common environment shared by students (Balestra et al., 2022 ).

To assess potential heterogeneous influences, we follow recent literature Footnote 11 and estimate Eq. ( 1 ) using split samples by the characteristic of interest (Feigenberg et al., 2023 ). In particular, we evaluate the gender of the student \(i\) . For section characteristics, we evaluate the number of students. Finally, we assess the varying estimates based on the mother’s age and the mother’s education. In the case of characteristics that are represented by continuous or categorical variables, we convert them into dichotomous variables. For the number of students, we split the sample between sections that have 20 or fewer students and sections with 21 or more students. In the case of the mother’s age, we use the mean age to split the sample above and below the mean. The mean age is 41.5 for those mothers with children who attend 2P and 44.8 for those with children who attend 2S. Finally, for mothers’ education, we split the sample between those with and without tertiary education.

The descriptive statistics for our final cross-section subpopulations are presented in Table 3 . All descriptive and econometric analyses were conducted using Stata 18. In this case, we combine observations that include students who took both reading and mathematics standardized tests, as the characteristics of the separated subpopulations are similar to each other. According to Table 3 , students with SEN generally have lower reading and mathematics scores compared to their peers without SEN across both primary and secondary grades. This trend is more pronounced in 2S compared to 2P. We also observe in Table 3 that the proportions of women and indigenous language speakers are relatively consistent across SEN and non-SEN cohorts. Approximately 48% of the students are female, and the average age is 6.9 in 2P and 12.9 in 2S. However, it is interesting to note that the mean proportion of indigenous language speakers is higher in 2S (~22%) compared to 2P (~12%), indicating a potential demographic shift as students progress through the education system. A similar trend for indigenous language speakers is observed at the section level. Moreover, figures in Table 3 show that the mean age in a section is ~7.2 in 2P and 13.3 in 2S, the sample is balanced between male and female students at the section level, and there are around 20 students per section. Regarding household characteristics, the average age of mothers is 41.5 for those with children in 2P and 44.8 for those with children in 2S, around 6 out of 10 students have mothers with primary or secondary education, and the majority of students have more than two siblings. Finally, students enrolled in primary education typically attend larger schools, characterized by a pupil population exceeding 120, in contrast to those in secondary education, where schools typically accommodate fewer than 100 students.

Empirical results

Regression results from Eq. ( 1 ) are shown in Table 4 . Footnote 12 For column (1), we use ECE and CE datasets, which do not include students’ age or household characteristics. For columns (2) through (6), we add the SG dataset to incorporate students’ age and household characteristics. Columns (1) through (4) include the proportion of repeaters and the presence of at least one specialized teacher when students were 3 years old, and they were not attending school; thus, the presence of an SEN student should not influence the proportion of repeaters or presence of a specialized teacher. Columns (5) and (6) do not include those variables, and the results remain similar to those obtained in the previous columns. In addition, as a robustness check, we try different subpopulations based on students’ age (columns (2) through (4)) and schools with variation in SEN students (column (6)). For all the specifications, our results consistently show that the presence of at least one SEN student as a measure of inclusive education does not have a significant influence on the learning achievement of students who attend 2P or 2S. Our findings align with similar results from other countries such as Canada (Friesen et al., 2010 ), England (Keslair et al., 2012 ), and the Netherlands (Ruijs, 2017 ), indicating that inclusive education does not have a significant impact on the academic achievement of non-SEN students.

Nevertheless, we notice in Table 4 that, after including students’ age and household characteristics, the negative relationship between inclusive education and learning achievement (column 1) turned into a positive relationship (columns 2 through 6). Even in the case of students who attend 2S, the magnitude of the positive relationship between inclusive education and mathematics scores increased when student’s age and household characteristics were included in the regression. This suggests that the attributes of a student’s household, along with individual traits correlated with them, such as motivation, self-discipline, and parental support, may exert a positive influence on their learning environment. This influence could potentially counterbalance any adverse effects of inclusive education. An alternative explanation lies in the interaction effects between inclusive education and these supplementary factors. For instance, older students or those from more privileged households could potentially derive greater benefits from inclusive education due to their increased adaptability to the classroom environment. We further explore these issues in the Heterogeneity analysis section.

The main results, however, may mask different outcomes by type of SEN. Table 5 shows the results from Eq. ( 1 ) using the presence of at least one student with a certain type of SEN as a measure of inclusive education. Results Footnote 13 in Table 5 are estimated by gradually adding control variables in each column. Columns (1) and (6) do not include any control variable. Columns (2) and (7) add student controls. Cohort controls are added in columns (3) and (8), and school controls are added in columns (5) and (9). Finally, family controls are added in columns (5) and (10). As we can see in Table 5 , adding variables does not substantially change the estimates. We also notice that the sign of the relationship between inclusive education and learning achievement varies by type of SEN, and only vision disability (panel A) and mobility disability (panel B) have a significant positive relationship with the standardized test scores of students who attend 2P and 2S, respectively. As we can observe in Table 5 , even when we use the Romano-Wolf multiple hypothesis correction, the significance of our findings remains similar across different specifications (cf. Clarke, 2021 , Clarke et al., 2020 ). These findings confirm our main results that inclusive education would not harm the learning performance of non-SEN students, regardless of the type of SEN presented by their peers.

Results in Table 5 show that the impact of attending an inclusive classroom with at least one SEN student with a vision disability increases the reading and mathematics scores of students who attend 2P by 0.135 (adjusted p -value < 0.05) (column 5) and by 0.154 (adjusted p -value < 0.05) (column 10) of a standard deviation, respectively. In the case of students who attend 2S, the impact of the presence of at least one student with mobility disability increases the performance on reading and mathematics tests by 0.099 (adjusted p -value < 0.01) (column 5) and by 0.100 (adjusted p -value < 0.05) (column 10) of a standard deviation, respectively. Similar to our results, Ruijs ( 2017 ) found that the presence of students with vision disabilities as well as physical and intellectual disabilities in the third level of pre-vocational secondary education in the Netherlands increases standardized test scores of non-SEN students. Moreover, previous studies pointed out that non-SEN students show more positive attitudes toward their peers with physical disabilities (de Boer et al., 2012 ), which may explain the positive influence of SEN students with vision and mobility disabilities that we have found on the learning achievement on non-SEN students.

Heterogeneity analysis

We further undertake several analyses to understand the differences in the impact of inclusive education. Footnote 14 Clogg’s z -test is implemented for testing the statistical significance of the difference between the coefficients estimated separately by splitting Eq. ( 1 ) (Clogg et al., 1995 ).

Estimates of inclusive education by gender of non-SEN students are presented in Table 6 . The results show that the influence of inclusive education on learning achievement is not statistically significant for men or women, and there is no statistical difference between them.

To explore the influence of inclusive education by usage of adequate resources, we analyze the influence of the total number of students at the section level. We find that inclusive education is associated with higher scores in reading and mathematics for non-SEN students who attend classrooms with 10–20 students and with lower scores for those who attend classrooms with 21–30 students, regardless the student attends 2P or 2S. This result may reflect that small groups foster a closer interaction between students and teacher which in turn may allow the teacher to develop better teaching strategies since they know each student better. The result of inclusive education by section size, however, is statistically different only for the reading score obtained by non-SEN students who attend 2S. This result underscores the complexity of inclusive education’s effects and the importance of context-specific considerations. Authorities should pay special attention to the number of students assigned to an inclusive classroom.

To analyze the household’s characteristics, we use the mother’s age and education. In the case of reading and mathematics in 2P, it seems that older mothers help to improve the scores of non-SEN students who attend an inclusive classroom; but there is not a clear pattern in the case of 2S. The differences in the test scores by mother’s age, however, are not statistically significant in any case, 2P or 2S. We have to take this result with caution as it is possible that other family characteristics rather than the mother’s age act as a moderator that could influence the effect of inclusive education on children’s outcomes in school (Leigh and Gong, 2010 ; López Turley, 2003 ).

We also present in Table 6 the estimates of inclusive education on test scores of non-SEN students by mother’s education. We observe that the difference in inclusive education’s influence on test scores in reading and mathematics is not statistically different regardless mother’s education. Although the difference is small and not significant, we observe that among non-SEN students in 2P and 2S with well-educated mothers (i.e., tertiary education), inclusive education is associated with lower scores in reading and mathematics. This finding may suggest that well-educated mothers may dedicate fewer hours to helping their children as they are more likely to work outside the home in comparison to less-educated mothers.

The current study focused on the learning achievement of non-SEN students in Peru who attend an inclusive classroom. We use three rich administrative datasets that allow us to measure inclusive education by the presence of at least one SEN student in the classroom, which is the appropriate setting as students spend their school day mostly within the classroom. Thus, we are able to capture the influence of inclusive education on the test scores of non-SEN students on national standardized tests in reading and mathematics.

Inclusive strategies in regular classrooms are undeniably crucial, but without appropriate adaptations and a comprehensive understanding by all involved, inclusive education can pose considerable challenges for the entire educational community, including non-SEN students (Edwards et al., 2019 ; Nilsen, 2020 ). While some studies for developed countries show that the learning achievement of non-SEN students is improved by attending inclusive classrooms and others point to negative effects, there is limited evidence regarding the impact of inclusive education for developing countries. From this perspective, our study contributes to the literature by examining the case of inclusive education in Peru and its consequences on non-SEN students. To the best of our knowledge, this topic has not been previously analyzed in the Peruvian context. Further, we explore the influence of inclusive education by type of SEN and undertake a heterogeneity analysis.

Overall, this study has found that the inclusion of SEN students in regular classrooms, on average, yields no substantial implications for their non-SEN counterparts. Our results have shown consistency among the different model specifications estimated using several subpopulations with different age ranges as well as an additional sub-population restricted to schools with variation in the presence of SEN students. Nevertheless, it is worth noticing that there is a negative relationship between inclusive education and learning achievement of non-SEN students that turns into a positive relationship when the mother’s characteristics are included in the analysis. This may present an opportunity for school authorities to involve parents in the learning process of their kids to enhance inclusive education programs, as the literature suggests that the way inclusive education is implemented may lead to positive results on the academic performance of non-SEN students (Szumski et al., 2017 ).

We also found that the implications of inclusive education are contingent upon the specific type of SEN. In particular, non-SEN students benefit from attending classrooms with at least one student with a vision disability in 2P and a mobility disability in 2S. This finding underscores differential effects between lower and later grades, a phenomenon previously noted in the literature (Kart and Kart, 2021 ). Also, this result should draw attention from policymakers interested in inclusive education as schools may be more suitable to assist this type of SEN students, whereas the potential lack of resources to support other types of SEN might detrimentally affect SEN and non-SEN students (Edwards et al., 2019 ). In addition, we find that the influence of inclusive education is heterogeneous. We find that the small size of the classroom (20 or fewer students) helps to improve learning achievement in reading for non-SEN students who attend an inclusive classroom in 2S. Similar to previous literature (e.g., Szumski et al., 2017 ), this finding points to the need for educational policymakers to increase the budget for inclusive education, targeting to hire more and adequate resources. Finally, the mother’s characteristics are not relevant to explain differences in the estimates of inclusive education on academic achievement of non-SEN students.

Despite the contributions made by this study, some potential limitations could be addressed by future research. First, due to a lack of data, we are not able to incorporate a measure that reflects the diverse intensity of a disability (Oh-Young and Filler, 2015 ) that could be associated with different costs (Nicoriciu and Elliot, 2023 ). Second, the datasets employed in this analysis are unavailable for certain years, precluding our use of data from ECE before 2011. Additionally, the variable indicating the language spoken in 2S was not present in the same dataset (CE) for the years 2018 and 2019. Finally, despite our efforts to mitigate concerns related to omitted variable bias, we concede the possibility of residual biases. Specifically, we omitted socioeconomic status from our analysis due to substantial rates of missing data.

Data availability

The datasets used in this study are available from the Peruvian Ministry of Education repository upon request.

In the literature, there are three main approaches: (i) segregation, (ii) integration, and (iii) inclusive (see e.g., Dixon, 2005 ; Kiuppis, 2014 ; Madhesh, 2023 ).

It is worth noting that results from countries like Peru are not directly comparable to those previously presented by Contreras et al. ( 2020 ). Indeed, academic performance in Peru is poorer relative to Chile, as reported by the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) and it does not receive monetary incentives to enroll children with SEN. Furthermore, Chile displays a particular institutional framework worldwide since state-subsidized private schools (voucher schools) have around 50% of total enrollment (CEM, 2019 ). Thus, insights from the Peruvian case are valuable for other comparable countries.

Although the ECE evaluates other subjects, only mathematics and reading were evaluated in every ECE. Students attending 2nd grade of primary were evaluated from 2007 to 2016 on mathematics and reading. In the case of students attending 2nd grade of secondary, they were evaluated on mathematics and reading from 2015 to 2019 (except 2017), social sciences in 2016 and 2018, and science and technology in 2018 and 2019.

Unfortunately, information for SG was not available before 2011, and the MINEDU did not provide information for 2014.

The ECE was not conducted in 2017.

Advancement and delay in 2P (2S) are determined based on the chronological age of the students as of March 31. If a student is one year younger than the standard age of 7 (13), it would be considered advancement. Conversely, if a student is one year older than the standard age, that is, age of 8 (14), it would be considered within a delay.

Since we only include schools with one section per grade, the number of SEN students reported by grade is used to account for the presence of SEN students at the section level.

A cohort refers to the students within the same section for each grade level and year.

Full-grade refers to primary schools where teachers do not teach more than one grade in the same classroom.

Since we work with schools that have only one section, school-fixed effects can also be understood as section-fixed effects.

Feigenberg et al. ( 2023 ) state that using a split-sample approach is equivalent to a fully interacted model but avoids losing statistical power. Likewise, they state that, unlike a model with only one interaction, the split-sample approach reduces bias due to omitted variables.

Results, including all control variables, are presented in the Supplementary Information. Tables S1 and S2 for reading and mathematics in 2P, respectively. Tables S3 and S4 for reading and mathematics in 2S, respectively.

Results, including all control variables, are presented in Supplementary Information Table S5 .

Results, including all control variables, are presented in Supplementary Information from Table S6 to Table S10 .

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Acknowledgements

This paper was supported by the Peruvian Economic and Social Research Consortium (grant No. A1-PB03, CIES 2022). The authors express their gratitude to the participants of the XXXIV Annual Research Seminar 2023 hosted by the Economic and Social Research Consortium (CIES), as well as to two anonymous referees for their invaluable feedback, which contributed to the improvement of this manuscript. Special thanks to Juan Castañeda and Jonatan Amaya for their outstanding research assistance in earlier versions of this study. All remaining errors are our own.

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Salas García, V.B., Rentería, J.M. Students with special educational needs in regular classrooms and their peer effects on learning achievement. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 521 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03002-8

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Hobbies/interests: Supporting nephews in sporting events, working out, crafting

ECU GOES WITH YOU 

How will you take ECU with you after graduation? I am so thankful for the people that were in my cohort. There are relationships that were formed with some of them that I will take with me.

Tyanha Cannon’s passion for working with children led her to pursue her bachelor’s degree in special education through East Carolina University’s Partnership Teach program. As she prepares to walk across the stage on Friday, she will complete the final step in fulfilling her childhood dream of becoming a teacher.

Prior to ECU, Cannon received an associate degree through Tidewater Community College and began working part time in a prekindergarten program at her church, where she found one of her mentors, the director of the program.

“She taught me to see the kids and to meet the kids where they are,” she said. “She helped me see the passion again for teaching.”

Cannon found another mentor in Dr. Kristin Burnette, College of Education assistant professor. In 2023, when Cannon needed to have surgery, she worked with Burnette to ensure all her assignments were completed early so she wouldn’t get behind. However, Burnette made sure Cannon was taking care of herself.

“The grace, support and love that she poured out during that very difficult time for me meant a lot to me,” she said.

Tyanha Cannon found a network of support at ECU that she will take with her as she cultivates her own classroom environment.

Cannon also credits the Partnership Teach program and her advisor Karli Ruscoe for supporting her as she pursued her degree while working full time as a teacher assistant. While she wasn’t on campus for class every day, the bonds formed with members of her cohort and attending ECU football games deepened her connection to Pirate Nation.

One of the things Cannon is most proud of is that she has taken and passed all five Praxis exams and will be licensed to teach special education, adapted and general curriculum, and regular elementary education.

In addition to her certifications, Cannon will graduate summa cum laude. When asked what advice she could give current and future students, she encouraged them to build time for schoolwork in their schedule.

“Your instructor may not be available last minute to answer questions you have,” she said. “Setting aside time every day rather than waiting until the day it’s due will be helpful and you won’t be as stressed.”

Starting this fall, Cannon will take the lessons and support she experienced at ECU with her as she begins the next phase of her career in her own special education classroom in Pitt County.

FALL 2024 GRADUATE PROFILES

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N.J. school district cuts 27 teachers and employees due to ‘economic issues’

• Updated: Apr. 26, 2024, 2:16 p.m. |
• Published: Apr. 26, 2024, 2:06 p.m.
• Jackie Roman | NJ Advance Media for NJ.com

The Asbury Park school board cut 27 teachers, aides and other jobs “due to economic issues” in a vote Wednesday night following recommendations from the district’s acting superintendent.

The layoffs will take effect July 1, according to an agenda listing the eliminated positions on the Asbury Park School District website. Several staff members, former employees, parents and community members spoke out against the cuts during the school board meeting and urged local officials to lobby state representatives for more state aid to restore the positions.

The cut positions include: two elementary teachers; two reading specialists; three special education teachers; two teacher’s aides; and one social worker.

MORE: N.J. school funding winners and losers: See how your district fared under new plan

Four positions were also abolished: the central registrar and communications coordinator; the director of human resources; the director of special services; and one cosmetology teaching job.

The list of cut positions came from recommendations by Asbury Park Acting Superintendent Mark Gerbino. He has been serving in the post since Feb. 22, when Superintendent RaShawn M. Adams was placed on paid leave by the school board for unspecified reasons.

Gerbino declined to comment on the staff reductions.

It’s the first time “in many years” there have been cuts to both unionized school staff and supervisors in the district, said Asbury Park Education Association President John Napolitani.

“I’m not going to say the cuts he made were non-essential because they were not non-essential. I lost a social worker. I lost a literacy coach. I lost reading specialists. These are all positions that help the students — they’re there on a daily basis,” Napolitani said.

In a letter sent Wednesday to the school board, Asbury Park School District Human Resources Director LaShawn D. Gibson alleged the staff reductions were “retaliatory in nature, focusing on employees who were either hired by Dr. RaShawn Adams and/or were perceived as supportive of his mission and vision as superintendent.”

Gibson said employees were called to a meeting Monday with Gerbino and the district’s assistant business administrator. There were no representatives from human resources or the Asbury Park Administrator and Supervisor Association present at the meeting, Gibson said.

“The employees were not given advance notice about the purpose of the meeting. These employees were informed that they would be non-renewed for budgetary reasons or, in some cases, reduced in force. Each person was asked to sign the same sign in sheet as each employee prior had signed. These acts violated the employees’ privacy and Weingarten Rights to representation,” Gibson alleged.

The acting superintendent declined to comment on Gibson’s allegations.

Napolitani, the teachers’ union president, said he did not believe the staff reductions were retaliatory.

“The cuts for the first time were fairly done across the board,” Napolitano said. “I lost people too. The acting superintendent started here as a teacher and he cut people who are friends of his. It’s unfortunate, but he’s got a job to do.”

Asbury Park is one of several local Monmouth County school districts slated to lose millions in state aid under Gov. Phil Murphy’s proposed 2025 budget.

The Asbury Park school district is slated to receive more than $16.5 million in state aid during the next school year, under Murphy’s plan. That is more than $4 million less than the previous year, or about a 20% cut. The district has the sixth largest dollar loss in funding among the state’s more than 600 school districts, according to an NJ Advance Media analysis of the funding numbers.

The state budget proposed last month would fully enact New Jersey’s new school aid formula for the first time, with a record $11.6 billion in direct aid earmarked for public school districts.

The new formula, which the state first began rolling out about 15 years ago, includes a new way of calculating how much money each of the state’s nearly 600 school districts should get from the state budget. The complex formula considers the size of the district, how many low-income and special education students it enrolls and numerous other factors. Some districts will see major increases in state funding under the plan, while others can expect far less.

Under Murphy’s proposal, 422 districts would see an increase in state aid during the 2025 fiscal year. Another 137 school districts would see cuts, and 15 districts would see no changes.

School districts in New Jersey’s 11th Legislative District, which covers much of Monmouth County, are set to lose more than $16 million in state aid in the coming fiscal year, according to lawmakers.

Napolitani said he’s working closely with the acting Asbury Park superintendent and state Senate Education Committee Chair Vin Gopal, D-Monmouth, to lobby for a change in the funding formula.

The staff cuts follow a tumultuous few months in Asbury Park schools. Adams, who was appointed superintendent in the fall 2021, was placed on paid leave Feb. 22 without explanation.

The school board’s decision was welcomed by members of the Asbury Park Education Association, the district’s teachers’ union. Adams had faced criticism from the teachers’ union. His recommendation to eliminate 28 district employees and withhold salary increases in April 2022 was condemned by union officials.

Adams is also facing a pair of lawsuits — filed by a former school security manager and a current administrator — accusing him of giving preferential treatment to younger employees.

Adams previously declined to comment on the lawsuits and his administrative leave.

Stories by Jackie Roman

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NJ Advance Media data reporter Katie Kausch contributed to this report.

Jackie Roman may be reached at [email protected] .

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Metallurgicheskii Zavod Electrostal AO (Russia)

In 1993 "Elektrostal" was transformed into an open joint stock company. The factory occupies a leading position among the manufacturers of high quality steel. The plant is a producer of high-temperature nickel alloys in a wide variety. It has a unique set of metallurgical equipment: open induction and arc furnaces, furnace steel processing unit, vacuum induction, vacuum- arc furnaces and others. The factory has implemented and certified quality management system ISO 9000, received international certificates for all products. Elektrostal today is a major supplier in Russia starting blanks for the production of blades, discs and rolls for gas turbine engines. Among them are companies in the aerospace industry, defense plants, and energy complex, automotive, mechanical engineering and instrument-making plants.

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Private equity is getting into the special-education business. It's not all going smoothly.

• BI just published an investigation into special-education-focused schools owned by PE firms.
• Cost-cutting to maximize profits has some saying that quality has suffered.
• It's an important story you should read.

My colleague Meghan Morris just published an investigation into what happened to a chain of special-education-focused private schools when a private-equity firm took over .

As you might guess, it wasn't all good.

It's an important story because, unlike an investment in, say, a button factory or a call center, this company has a lot of power over some of our most vulnerable young people.

Meghan found that cost-cutting and other practices led some parents to believe their kids were getting a lesser education. For its part, the school chain said it'd made investments in staff and facilities under PE ownership. Private-equity firms have been buying into hospitals and healthcare in recent years. There's some research suggesting this has led to worse patient outcomes. And in March, the Federal Trade Commission announced it was investigating PE's potential detrimental effect on healthcare.

Meghan's story is something every parent — and every taxpayer — should know about. Go read it here .

Watch: Why childcare has become so unaffordable

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