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Term Paper vs. Research Paper: What are the Differences?

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As a college student, you’re most probably familiar with a research paper. But have you heard of its lesser-known cousin, the term paper?

Not sure what the differences are or if there is a difference at all? Though most students are skeptical, there’s a significant difference between a term paper and a research paper.

This post will discuss term paper vs. research paper and help you distinguish between the two. We’ll help you understand what makes each type of these papers unique so you can be confident when handling both.

What is a term paper?

A term paper is a form of academic writing that requires extensive research and focus on a particular subject. It’s an assignment that college students are expected to complete at the end of an academic term.

A term paper typically requires extensive research and strong analytical skills. It demonstrates a student's understanding of the topics studied and allows them to form arguments based on the information collected throughout the term.

Depending on the course and professor, term papers can take many forms, including reports, essays, or reviews but must always meet high academic standards.

Does a term paper need a thesis?

No. Unlike research papers, term papers don’t always need a thesis. While some instructors may require you to include a thesis in your term paper, others may be more flexible. If you're unsure whether your assignment requires a thesis, always ask your professor before you start writing.

What is a research paper?

A research paper is an academic document that involves the systematic investigation of a specific research topic. It requires comprehensive research to collect and analyze relevant data, form a hypothesis, and draw meaningful conclusions.

[FREE] Research Paper Samples

A research paper may include primary research, such as experiments and surveys, or secondary sources, like published works and peer-reviewed journal articles. The structure and format of a research paper vary depending on the topic and the type of research undertaken.

Research papers are effective tools for establishing, discussing, and expanding upon current knowledge within the given field.

What is the difference between a research thesis and a term paper?

A research thesis is usually present in research papers and outlines the central argument or the claim the paper is trying to make, supported by evidence. A term paper may or may not have a thesis, depending on the assignment. It may also present an original argument or claim, but it will be shorter and based primarily on primary sources.

Term paper vs. research paper: 8 key differences

Let’s discuss the key components that set the two papers apart so you won’t confuse one for the other when writing.

One of the main differences between the two is in the purpose they serve.

The main purpose of a term paper is, to sum up the course material learned during the semester. It’s typically assigned at the end of a semester to evaluate what a student has known and understood throughout the semester.

On the other hand, the purpose of a research paper is to assess your understanding of a particular topic through original research. It requires you to conduct research and draw your own conclusions about the topic at hand. A research paper can be assigned as part of a larger project or as an independent assignment.

Term papers tend to be more general in nature, while research papers are more specific. Term papers require you to synthesize information from multiple sources, but they will generally not require you to conduct original research.

Research papers will require you to conduct your own original research on a specific topic. They may also require you to find and synthesize information from published research studies. Research papers are often longer and more comprehensive.

Topic selection

The topics for term papers are usually assigned by professors, while for a research paper, students choose the topics themselves. This can sometimes make it easier to write a term paper because you’re not responsible for researching and coming up with the topic. However, it also means you may have less control over the direction of your paper.

For a research paper, you can choose the topic you want to research and write about. The topic of a term paper may be broad, for instance, "the effects of social media on college students."

On the other hand, the topic of a research paper should be more specific, for instance, "the effects of social media on the mental health of college students."

Level of research

As mentioned, research papers require more in-depth research than term papers. This means you’ll have to spend more time gathering sources and evidence to support your claims in a research paper.

Since term papers are generally broad in nature, they require less research than a research paper. However, both papers require you to find and use outside sources to support your claims and arguments.

References and sources

A research paper relies heavily on primary sources and first-hand accounts of an event or phenomenon. Primary sources include interviews, surveys, or field research.

A term paper may only require secondary sources, which are second-hand accounts written about an event or phenomenon. It typically relies on information from lecture notes, texts, and class discussions.

You may also need to get more information to support your points from journal articles, dissertations, textbooks, political commentary, and biographies.

In order to write a successful research paper, you must have an in-depth understanding of the topic and be able to synthesize information from multiple sources. On the other hand, writing a term paper focuses on summarizing the materials already presented to you in class.

Paper length

Term papers are usually shorter than research papers. They often range from 1-3 pages in length, while research papers tend to be longer .

Research papers are often 5-10 pages or more, depending on the instructions of the assignment and the subject matter. This makes sense considering research papers require more effort, more in-depth research, and more content than a term paper.

Some research papers can go as long as 15 pages if the topic under investigation is broad and requires a lot of written content.

Structure and organization

A term paper typically follows one main structure with few variations. It involves an introduction containing your thesis statement , the body paragraphs which support your thesis statement, and a conclusion that summarizes your main points.

The number of body paragraphs may vary depending on the number of points you want to discuss in the paper. However, 3-4 paragraphs are usually enough.

A research paper may also follow the same structure but often has additional sections like the literature review, the methodology, data collection, data analysis, and the discussion.

Since you need to draw conclusions from different sources of information, an organization is a key factor to consider when writing a research paper.

Time of assignment

Another key factor that differentiates a term paper from a research paper is that they are written at different times during the semester.

Term papers are often assigned near the end of the semester or trimester. This is because they require students to demonstrate what they have learned throughout their coursework.

However, research papers can be assigned at any point during the semester since they focus on any particular topic or issue related to your coursework, regardless of the timing. That said, don’t be surprised when your professor assigns you a research paper towards the end of the semester.

Key takeaway

In the end, understanding the difference between a term paper and a research paper is vital to completing a successful academic paper.

While both a term paper and a research paper require research and analysis, each aims to uniquely contribute to a student's writing competency and understanding of a topic. You should always be aware of the expectations from your professor when writing both types of papers.

Even though they’re both different types of academic papers, our team of professional paper writers can help you with both. They are well aware of the requirements of these two assignments and can research, write, proofread, edit, and cite a high-quality, custom-written term paper and research paper for high school and college.

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How to Write a Term Paper From Start to Finish

The term paper, often regarded as the culmination of a semester's hard work, is a rite of passage for students in pursuit of higher education. Here's an interesting fact to kick things off: Did you know that the term paper's origins can be traced back to ancient Greece, where scholars like Plato and Aristotle utilized written works to explore and document their philosophical musings? Just as these great minds once wrote their thoughts on parchment, you, too, can embark on this intellectual voyage with confidence and skill.

How to Write a Term Paper: Short Description

In this article, we'll delve into the core purpose of this kind of assignment – to showcase your understanding of a subject, your research abilities, and your capacity to communicate complex ideas effectively. But it doesn't stop there. We'll also guide you in the art of creating a well-structured term paper format, a roadmap that will not only keep you on track but also ensure your ideas flow seamlessly and logically. Packed with valuable tips on writing, organization, and time management, this resource promises to equip you with the tools needed to excel in your academic writing.

Understanding What Is a Term Paper

A term paper, a crucial component of your college education, is often assigned towards the conclusion of a semester. It's a vehicle through which educators gauge your comprehension of the course content. Imagine it as a bridge between what you've learned in class and your ability to apply that knowledge to real-world topics.

For instance, in a history course, you might be asked to delve into the causes and consequences of a significant historical event, such as World War II. In a psychology class, your term paper might explore the effects of stress on mental health, or in an environmental science course, you could analyze the impact of climate change on a specific region.

Writing a term paper isn't just about summarizing facts. It requires a blend of organization, deep research, and the art of presenting your findings in a way that's both clear and analytical. This means structuring your arguments logically, citing relevant sources, and critically evaluating the information you've gathered.

For further guidance, we've prepared an insightful guide for you authored by our expert essay writer . It's brimming with practical tips and valuable insights to help you stand out in this academic endeavor and earn the recognition you deserve.

How to Start a Term Paper

Before you start, keep the guidelines for the term paper format firmly in mind. If you have any doubts, don't hesitate to reach out to your instructor for clarification before you begin your research and writing process. And remember, procrastination is your worst enemy in this endeavor. If you're aiming to produce an exceptional piece and secure a top grade, it's essential to plan ahead and allocate dedicated time each day to work on it. Now, let our term paper writing services provide you with some valuable tips to help you on your journey:

• Hone Your Topic : Start by cultivating a learning mindset that empowers you to effectively organize your thoughts. Discover how to research a topic in the section below.
• Hook Your Readers: Initiate a brainstorming session and unleash a barrage of creative ideas to captivate your audience right from the outset. Pose intriguing questions, share compelling anecdotes, offer persuasive statistics, and more.
• Craft a Concise Thesis Statement Example : If you find yourself struggling to encapsulate the main idea of your paper in just a sentence or two, it's time to revisit your initial topic and consider narrowing it down.
• Understand Style Requirements: Your work must adhere to specific formatting guidelines. Delve into details about the APA format and other pertinent regulations in the section provided.
• Delve Deeper with Research : Equipped with a clearer understanding of your objectives, dive into your subject matter with a discerning eye. Ensure that you draw from reputable and reliable sources.
• Begin Writing: Don't obsess over perfection from the get-go. Just start writing, and don't worry about initial imperfections. You can always revise or remove those early sentences later. The key is to initiate the term papers as soon as you've amassed sufficient information.

Ace your term paper with EssayPro 's expert help. Our academic professionals are here to guide you through every step, ensuring your term paper is well-researched, structured, and written to the highest standards.

Term Paper Topics

Selecting the right topic for your term paper is a critical step, one that can significantly impact your overall experience and the quality of your work. While instructors sometimes provide specific topics, there are instances when you have the freedom to choose your own. To guide you on how to write a term paper, consider the following factors when deciding on your dissertation topics :

• Relevance to Assignment Length: Begin by considering the required length of your paper. Whether it's a substantial 10-page paper or a more concise 5-page one, understanding the word count will help you determine the appropriate scope for your subject. This will inform whether your topic should be broad or more narrowly focused.
• Availability of Resources : Investigate the resources at your disposal. Check your school or community library for books and materials that can support your research. Additionally, explore online sources to ensure you have access to a variety of reference materials.
• Complexity and Clarity : Ensure you can effectively explain your chosen topic, regardless of how complex it may seem. If you encounter areas that are challenging to grasp fully, don't hesitate to seek guidance from experts or your professor. Clarity and understanding are key to producing a well-structured term paper.
• Avoiding Overused Concepts : Refrain from choosing overly trendy or overused topics. Mainstream subjects often fail to captivate the interest of your readers or instructors, as they can lead to repetitive content. Instead, opt for a unique angle or approach that adds depth to your paper.
• Manageability and Passion : While passion can drive your choice of topic, it's important to ensure that it is manageable within the given time frame and with the available resources. If necessary, consider scaling down a topic that remains intriguing and motivating to you, ensuring it aligns with your course objectives and personal interests.

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"Being highly trained professionals, our writers can provide term paper help by creating a paper specifically tailored to your needs.

Term Paper Outline

Before embarking on the journey of writing a term paper, it's crucial to establish a well-structured outline. Be mindful of any specific formatting requirements your teacher may have in mind, as these will guide your outline's structure. Here's a basic format to help you get started:

• Cover Page: Begin with a cover page featuring your name, course number, teacher's name, and the deadline date, centered at the top.
• Abstract: Craft a concise summary of your work that informs readers about your paper's topic, its significance, and the key points you'll explore.
• Introduction: Commence your term paper introduction with a clear and compelling statement of your chosen topic. Explain why it's relevant and outline your approach to addressing it.
• Body: This section serves as the meat of academic papers, where you present the primary findings from your research. Provide detailed information about the topic to enhance the reader's understanding. Ensure you incorporate various viewpoints on the issue and conduct a thorough analysis of your research.
• Results: Share the insights and conclusions that your research has led you to. Discuss any shifts in your perspective or understanding that have occurred during the course of your project.
• Discussion: Conclude your term paper with a comprehensive summary of the topic and your findings. You can wrap up with a thought-provoking question or encourage readers to explore the subject further through their own research.

How to Write a Term Paper with 5 Steps

Before you begin your term paper, it's crucial to understand what a term paper proposal entails. This proposal serves as your way to introduce and justify your chosen topic to your instructor, and it must gain approval before you start writing the actual paper.

In your proposal, include recent studies or research related to your topic, along with proper references. Clearly explain the topic's relevance to your course, outline your objectives, and organize your ideas effectively. This helps your instructor grasp your term paper's direction. If needed, you can also seek assistance from our expert writers and buy term paper .

Draft the Abstract

The abstract is a critical element while writing a term paper, and it plays a crucial role in piquing the reader's interest. To create a captivating abstract, consider these key points from our dissertation writing service :

• Conciseness: Keep it short and to the point, around 150-250 words. No need for lengthy explanations.
• Highlight Key Elements: Summarize the problem you're addressing, your research methods, and primary findings or conclusions. For instance, if your paper discusses the impact of social media on mental health, mention your research methods and significant findings.
• Engagement: Make your abstract engaging. Use language that draws readers in. For example, if your paper explores the effects of artificial intelligence on the job market, you might begin with a question like, 'Is AI revolutionizing our work landscape, or should we prepare for the robots to take over?'
• Clarity: Avoid excessive jargon or technical terms to ensure accessibility to a wider audience.

Craft the Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for your entire term paper and should engage readers from the outset. To craft an intriguing introduction, consider these tips:

• Hook Your Audience: Start with a captivating hook, such as a thought-provoking question or a compelling statistic. For example, if your paper explores the impact of smartphone addiction, you could begin with, 'Can you remember the last time you went a whole day without checking your phone?'
• State Your Purpose: Clearly state the purpose of your paper and its relevance. If your term paper is about renewable energy's role in combating climate change, explain why this topic is essential in today's world.
• Provide a Roadmap: Briefly outline how your paper is structured. For instance, if your paper discusses the benefits of mindfulness meditation, mention that you will explore its effects on stress reduction, emotional well-being, and cognitive performance.
• Thesis Statement: Conclude your introduction with a concise thesis statement that encapsulates the central argument or message of your paper. In the case of a term paper on the impact of online education, your thesis might be: 'Online education is revolutionizing learning by providing accessibility, flexibility, and innovative teaching methods.'

Develop the Body Sections: Brainstorming Concepts and Content

Generate ideas and compose text: body sections.

The body of your term paper is where you present your research, arguments, and analysis. To generate ideas and write engaging text in the body sections, consider these strategies from our research paper writer :

• Structure Your Ideas: Organize your paper into sections or paragraphs, each addressing a specific aspect of your topic. For example, if your term paper explores the impact of social media on interpersonal relationships, you might have sections on communication patterns, privacy concerns, and emotional well-being.
• Support with Evidence: Back up your arguments with credible evidence, such as data, research findings, or expert opinions. For instance, when discussing the effects of social media on mental health, you can include statistics on social media usage and its correlation with anxiety or depression.
• Offer Diverse Perspectives: Acknowledge and explore various viewpoints on the topic. When writing about the pros and cons of genetic engineering, present both the potential benefits, like disease prevention, and the ethical concerns associated with altering human genetics.
• Use Engaging Examples: Incorporate real-life examples to illustrate your points. If your paper discusses the consequences of climate change, share specific instances of extreme weather events or environmental degradation to make the topic relatable.
• Ask Thought-Provoking Questions: Integrate questions throughout your text to engage readers and stimulate critical thinking. In a term paper on the future of artificial intelligence, you might ask, 'How will AI impact job markets and the concept of work in the coming years?'

Formulate the Conclusion

The conclusion section should provide a satisfying wrap-up of your arguments and insights. To craft a compelling term paper example conclusion, follow these steps:

• Revisit Your Thesis: Begin by restating your thesis statement. This reinforces the central message of your paper. For example, if your thesis is about the importance of biodiversity conservation, reiterate that biodiversity is crucial for ecological balance and human well-being.
• Summarize Key Points: Briefly recap the main points you've discussed in the body of your paper. For instance, if you've been exploring the impact of globalization on local economies, summarize the effects on industries, job markets, and cultural diversity.
• Emphasize Your Main Argument: Reaffirm the significance of your thesis and the overall message of your paper. Discuss why your findings are important or relevant in a broader context. If your term paper discusses the advantages of renewable energy, underscore its potential to combat climate change and reduce our reliance on fossil fuels.
• Offer a Thoughtful Reflection: Share your own reflections or insights about the topic. How has your understanding evolved during your research? Have you uncovered any unexpected findings or implications? If your paper discusses the future of space exploration, consider what it means for humanity's quest to explore the cosmos.
• End with Impact: Conclude your term paper with a powerful closing statement. You can leave the reader with a thought-provoking question, a call to action, or a reflection on the broader implications of your topic. For instance, if your paper is about the ethics of artificial intelligence, you could finish by asking, 'As AI continues to advance, what ethical considerations will guide our choices and decisions?'

Edit and Enhance the Initial Draft

After completing your initial draft, the revision and polishing phase is essential for improving your paper. Here's how to refine your work efficiently:

• Take a Break: Step back and return to your paper with a fresh perspective.
• Structure Check: Ensure your paper flows logically and transitions smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion.
• Clarity and Conciseness: Trim excess words for clarity and precision.
• Grammar and Style: Proofread for errors and ensure consistent style.
• Citations and References: Double-check your citations and reference list.
• Peer Review: Seek feedback from peers or professors for valuable insights.
• Enhance Intro and Conclusion: Make your introduction and conclusion engaging and impactful.
• Coherence Check: Ensure your arguments support your thesis consistently.
• Read Aloud: Reading your paper aloud helps identify issues.
• Final Proofread: Perform a thorough proofread to catch any remaining errors.

Term Paper Format

When formatting your term paper, consider its length and the required citation style, which depends on your research topic. Proper referencing is crucial to avoid plagiarism in academic writing. Common citation styles include APA and MLA.

If unsure how to cite term paper for social sciences, use the APA format, including the author's name, book title, publication year, publisher, and location when citing a book.

For liberal arts and humanities, MLA is common, requiring the publication name, date, and location for referencing.

Adhering to the appropriate term paper format and citation style ensures an organized and academically sound paper. Follow your instructor's guidelines for a polished and successful paper.

Term Paper Example

To access our term paper example, simply click the button below.

The timeline of events from 1776 to 1861, that, in the end, prompted the American Civil War, describes and relates to a number of subjects modern historians acknowledge as the origins and causes of the Civil War. In fact, pre-Civil War events had both long-term and short-term influences on the War—such as the election of Abraham Lincoln as the American president in 1860 that led to the Fall of Fort Sumter in April of the same year. In that period, contentions that surrounded states’ rights progressively exploded in Congress—since they were the initial events that formed after independence. Congress focused on resolving significant issues that affected the states, which led to further issues. In that order, the US’s history from 1776 to 1861 provides a rich history, as politicians brought forth dissimilarities, dissections, and tensions between the Southern US & the people of slave states, and the Northern states that were loyal to the Union. The events that unfolded from the period of 1776 to 1861 involved a series of issues because they promoted the great sectional crisis that led to political divisions and the build-up to the Civil War that made the North and the South seem like distinctive and timeless regions that predated the crisis itself.

Final Thoughts

In closing, approach the task of writing term papers with determination and a positive outlook. Begin well in advance, maintain organization, and have faith in your capabilities. Don't hesitate to seek assistance if required, and express your individual perspective with confidence. You're more than capable of succeeding in this endeavor!

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What is the Difference between a Term Paper and a Research Paper?

What is the fastest way to write a term paper, related articles.

Term Papers Versus Research Papers: What is the Difference?

College and university students do many writing assignments involving intensive research, planning, and writing. Although many students are familiar with research papers, only a few understand a term paper and how to write one.

If you are confused about the differences or wonder whether there is any difference between the two, you are not alone. Many students cannot distinguish a research paper from a term paper and end up not performing as required.

In this brief term paper versus research paper guide, we narrow down the differences and similarities of these typical college and university assignments to clear your doubts and prepare you for the task ahead.

What is a Term Paper, and what is a Research Paper?

A term paper is an academic writing assignment involving comprehensive research with a specific focus on certain concepts, topics, or issues covered within a given course over a semester. Term papers can take many forms, including essays, reviews, projects, or reports. Term papers must demonstrate a deeper understanding of the topics and course content, mostly exploring information gathered throughout the semester.

A research paper, on the other hand, is a formal writing task that involves research into a specific subject and examination of data. It entails systematic research to explore a specific topic. Although some research papers might require data collection, analysis, and reporting, some research papers are longer essays that expound a research thesis statement. Research papers may include primary research such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, and experiments. It also involves using secondary sources such as peer-reviewed journal articles, government or institutional documents, and other secondary sources.

Related Blog Article: How to write a terrorism research paper.

Research Paper vs. Term Paper: The Differences

If you have written a term or research paper, you might conclude they are the same. However, these two pieces of assignments are not similar. Let's categorize the comparison into themes to explore the differences and similarities better.

Purpose and Scope

A research paper is a comprehensive document that reports the results of a given research process. It entails synthesizing information from primary and secondary research to answer a research question or prove a hypothesis. Research papers contribute new insights or knowledge to your field. When writing a research paper, you must conduct an in-depth investigation, critical analysis, and examination of existing literature to support claims and findings.

On the other hand, a term paper covers the materials, concepts, and theories studied during a specific academic term, semester, or course. The core role of a term paper is to assess the student’s level of understanding of the subject matter. When writing a term paper, you synthesize information from assigned readings, lecture slides and notes, and class discussions.

Related: How to write a research thesis statement.

Writing a research paper is time-consuming and requires considerable planning and execution. You can spend several weeks or months working on a research paper. Some professors will require a research proposal at first before approving you to conduct the research and write a research paper.

Term papers are usually assigned within shorter frames. Your professor will expect the term paper within a few weeks or the entire semester. The course timeline dictates how long you will be expected to deliver the final draft. The main thing is that they are assigned when you have covered a lot of material to prove that you have a good grasp of the contents.

Originality and Contribution

Unlike a research paper that requires in-depth inquiry into new topics and testing new theories, a term paper only requires structured arguments supported by evidence. The main aim of a term paper is to demonstrate that you have comprehended the concepts and can apply them in real-life situations. A research paper, on the other hand, must be original as you can. There is an emphasis on generating new ideas, insights, and knowledge to the already existing body of knowledge. When writing a research paper, you can critique the existing theories, fill existing research gaps, and combine theories to explain different issues. Research Methodology

Research paper writing entails conducting either primary or secondary research. This way, you must design a study, collect and analyze data, and write a paper showing a well-ordered discourse. You have to conduct original research on a given research topic. A short research paper can also involve synthesizing information from published research studies or journal articles. On the other hand, a term paper relies on secondary sources such as articles, textbooks, and other scholarly or credible materials. Some professors will also direct you to conduct primary research, although you are not limited to the extensive methodology as with research papers.

Related Reading: Steps for writing a research paper.

Format and Structure

Research papers might be prose, like longer essays with headings and subheadings. They can also take the scientific paper format, including an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, research findings (results), discussion, conclusion, and recommendations (IMRAD format). A research paper is written in a formal, objective, and concise format, focusing heavily on academic phrases and words.

Term papers have an introduction, main body, and conclusion. If you must write a literature review or formal methodology section, the tone is generally conversational and less formal than in research papers.

A term paper is generally longer than a typical essay but less voluminous than a research paper. Most term papers range between 7 and 20 pages, with some professors assigning short papers ranging from 1000 to 1200 words.

Research papers are longer than term papers. Although there are shorter research papers, 7-9 pages long, most research papers are typically 10-40 pages or more. A standard research paper is 4000-6000 words long, excluding the abstract, references, and appendices pages.

Sources and references

A research paper is anchored on your primary or secondary research. You need to design and conduct primary research. The only part you are to use secondary data is when introducing the research paper topic, stating the problem, literature review, and the discussions section to expound on knowledge.

A successful research paper must prove an in-depth understanding of the topic, theories, and concepts so that you can synthesize information from various sources.

When writing a term paper, you primarily use secondary scholarly sources such as journals, articles, book chapters, dissertations, theses, biographies, commentaries, and other materials. You will learn from lecture notes, class discussion posts and responses, and other assignments. While a term paper also synthesizes information, it also summarizes findings from other scholars to help advance knowledge.

Related Readings: Steps for writing a nursing paper

Similarities between Research and Term Papers

You are not doubting, nor is it false, that a research paper and a term paper share similarities. There are certain features that you will find in either of the assignment. Here are some of the similarities between research papers and term papers.

Topic Selection

Both the research paper and term paper topic selection process are the same. In many cases, your professor or instructor will assign you a topic to explore, or they can let you choose a topic you are comfortable handling. When you can select a research topic on your own, which is more likely, go for a narrow, engaging, and manageable one. Select a topic you can spend many hours researching and writing about without changing your mind midway.

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Requirements

A research paper and a term paper prompt might be the same. You need to adhere to standard academic writing conventions. You should also frame the papers in a given format and include citations in APA, MLA, Chicago, ASA, AMA, Turabian, Oxford, Harvard, etc. You must also adhere to the submission deadlines and ensure the paper is entirely plagiarism-free.

They can mean the same thing

A term paper can be a research paper. Yes, although this might come out as confusing, it is true. Your instructor can assign you a research topic and expect that you conduct in-depth research that includes a methodological approach. For instance, you can be asked to research a given issue or problem using qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods approaches and then write a 10–12-page term paper. In this case, you must write a research paper using the IMRAD format.

As you Ruminate Everything …

Understanding the difference and similarities between a research paper and a term paper helps you differentiate what to include when assigned either assignment.

Both share some slight similarities, but they also have glaring differences. The next time you are required to write a research paper assignment, you will know what scope to cover. The same applies to term paper writing.

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We know that too much homework or assignments can bog you down. You will end up getting stressed, worried, and anxious. In such times, you can trust our professional paper-writing experts to help you write your academic papers and assignments. We have completed thousands of research papers and term papers on various subjects for our ever-growing client base. Our website writes high-quality, custom-written, and well-researched term papers or research papers for high school, college, and university students. Try us today and see what magic we can do on your papers.

Gradecrest is a professional writing service that provides original model papers. We offer personalized services along with research materials for assistance purposes only. All the materials from our website should be used with proper references. See our Terms of Use Page for proper details.

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Term papers versus research papers and how to write them, rachel r.n..

• November 30, 2023
• How to Guides

College and university students often have to do writing assignments that involve a lot of research, planning, and writing. While many students know about research papers, only a few really understand what a term paper is and how to write one.

If you’re confused about the differences or wondering if there’s any distinction between the two, you’re not alone. Many students can’t tell a research paper apart from a term paper and end up not doing as well as they could.

In this short guide about term papers versus research papers, we’ll break down the differences and similarities of these common assignments in college and university. This will help clear up any confusion and get you ready for the work ahead.

Why is it important to know the difference between a research paper and a term paper?

Well, first things first, these two papers serve different purposes and have different structures. When you compare an essay to a research paper, you’ll notice that an essay is simpler. It usually involves discussing a specific problem based on personal observations.

On the other hand, a research paper is a more serious task. It requires a thorough analysis of a topic from various perspectives, and the writer needs to study credible and relevant sources.

Now, once you grasp the essential difference between an essay and a research paper, let’s look at how to understand the distinction between a term paper and a research paper. Knowing the nature of these papers is crucial for figuring out how to organize your writing and meet your professor’s requirements.

Now that we have a solid overview, let’s explore the nuances of term papers and research papers in more detail.

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What You'll Learn

What is a Term Paper?

A term paper is an important academic writing assignment that students undertake at the end of an academic term . It involves extensive research and analysis of a particular subject, demonstrating a student’s knowledge and understanding of the course material. Term papers can take various forms, such as reports, essays, or reviews, but they all require adherence to high academic standards.

Unlike research papers, term papers may not always require a thesis statement. Instead, they focus on summarizing and synthesizing the concepts and information learned throughout the term. Term papers provide an opportunity for students to showcase their comprehension of the course material and their ability to apply critical thinking skills to analyze and discuss the topics covered.

Completing a term paper successfully requires thorough research, organization, and clear writing. It is important to gather relevant sources, cite them properly, and present the findings in a coherent manner. Term papers are typically assigned towards the end of the term, giving students enough time to delve into the subject matter and produce a well-researched and well-structured paper.

What is a Research Paper?

A research paper is an academic document that involves the systematic investigation of a specific research topic . It requires comprehensive research, data analysis, and the formation of meaningful conclusions. Research papers can include primary research through experiments, surveys, or interviews, or rely on secondary sources such as books, scholarly articles, or online databases.

Research papers are typically longer and more in-depth than term papers, and they often require a thesis statement to guide the research process. The structure and format of a research paper can vary based on the discipline and the specific requirements set by the instructor or academic institution. However, research papers generally include sections such as an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion .

When writing a research paper, it is important to choose a specific research topic that aligns with your academic interests and goals. Conducting thorough research and critically analyzing the collected data are crucial steps in the research process. The findings and conclusions drawn from the research should contribute to the existing knowledge within the field and provide valuable insights for further study

Related blog article: A Comprehensive Guide to Writing a Nursing Research Paper

Key Characteristics of a Research Paper:

• Systematic investigation of a specific research topic
• Comprehensive research and data analysis
• Inclusion of primary or secondary sources
• Potentially longer and more in-depth than term papers
• Structured with sections such as introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion
• Contribution to existing knowledge within the field

By understanding the purpose and characteristics of research papers, students can effectively conduct research, analyze data, and contribute to their chosen academic field.

Key Differences Between Term Papers and Research Papers

When it comes to academic assignments, term papers and research papers are often mentioned interchangeably. However, there are distinct differences between the two in terms of purpose , approach , topic selection , level of research , references and sources , paper length , structure and organization , and time of assignment .

A term paper aims to summarize course material and evaluate a student’s understanding of the topics studied. On the other hand, a research paper requires original research and analysis of a specific topic to contribute to existing knowledge within a field.

Approach and Topic Selection

Term papers tend to have a more general approach, focusing on summarizing the material learned throughout a semester, while research papers require a more specific and in-depth analysis of a chosen topic. Term papers are often assigned by professors, while research papers allow students to select their own topics.

Level of Research

Term papers mostly rely on secondary sources, such as textbooks and scholarly articles, to support arguments and provide evidence. In contrast, research papers require more extensive research , often relying on a combination of primary sources and secondary sources.

References and Sources

Term papers typically use a limited number of sources for referencing, while research papers require a comprehensive list of sources and citations. Research papers also commonly include a literature review section to provide a context for the research topic.

Paper Length and Structure

Term papers are generally shorter in length compared to research papers. They usually follow a traditional essay structure with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Research papers, on the other hand, can be more extensive and often include additional sections such as an abstract, literature review, methodology, results, and discussion.

Time of Assignment

Term papers are often assigned at the end of a semester, serving as a comprehensive assessment of what students have learned. Research papers, however, can be assigned at any point during an academic term, depending on the course requirements and objectives.

Understanding these key differences is crucial for students to meet the specific requirements of term papers and research papers. It allows them to approach the assignments with the appropriate level of research , structure their papers effectively, and deliver a successful academic output.

The Purpose of Term Papers

Term papers serve a specific purpose in academia, as they are designed to summarize the course material learned during a semester and evaluate a student’s knowledge and understanding of the topics studied. They are a way for students to demonstrate their comprehension of the subject matter through written analysis and arguments. Term papers play a crucial role in assessing what students have learned and serve as a culmination and reflection of the knowledge acquired throughout the term.

When writing a term paper, the primary goal is to summarize the course material accurately. This requires a thorough understanding of the topics covered, as well as the ability to condense and synthesize the information into a coherent and concise written document. Term papers allow students to showcase their ability to analyze, evaluate, and draw connections between different concepts discussed in class.

Furthermore, term papers also serve as an opportunity for students to express their own thoughts and insights on the subject matter. While summarizing the course material is essential, term papers also provide an avenue for students to critically engage with the content, offering their own perspectives, interpretations, and arguments based on their understanding of the material.

Key Components of a Term Paper

When writing a term paper, there are key components that should be included to effectively fulfill its purpose. These components include:

• A clear introduction that provides an overview of the topic and sets the context for the paper.
• A well-structured body that presents and analyzes the course material, drawing connections between different concepts.
• Evidence-based arguments that support the student’s understanding and interpretation of the material.
• Proper citation and referencing of sources used to avoid plagiarism.
• A conclusion that summarizes the main points and demonstrates the student’s mastery of the course material.

Benefits of Writing Term Papers

While writing term papers may seem like a daunting task, they offer several benefits to students. Firstly, term papers provide an opportunity for students to develop and enhance their research, analysis, and writing skills. By engaging in extensive research and synthesizing information, students strengthen their ability to critically evaluate sources and draw meaningful conclusions.

In addition, term papers also foster independent thinking and intellectual growth. They allow students to explore topics of interest in greater depth, encouraging curiosity and a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Term papers also cultivate effective communication skills, as students must articulate their ideas clearly and persuasively through written expression.

Overall, the purpose of term papers is to challenge students to engage with the course material, apply critical thinking skills, and effectively communicate their understanding. Through this process, students develop essential academic skills and gain a deeper appreciation for the subject matter.

The Purpose of Research Papers

Research papers serve a distinct purpose in academia: to conduct original research and analyze a specific topic. Through in-depth investigation and critical analysis, researchers aim to contribute to the existing body of knowledge within a given field. By delving into their chosen subject matter, researchers generate new insights, ideas, and arguments that can shape and advance their field of study.

Unlike term papers, which focus on summarizing course material , research papers require researchers to embark on their own intellectual journey. They formulate research questions, gather relevant data, and analyze findings to draw meaningful conclusions. This process often involves reviewing existing literature, designing and conducting experiments, or studying real-world phenomena. By engaging in original research, researchers contribute valuable knowledge that expands the understanding of their chosen topic and fosters academic growth.

The analysis and interpretation of research findings are essential components of a research paper. Researchers critically evaluate their data, draw connections between different pieces of information, and explore the implications of their findings. This rigorous examination allows for the development of new theories, the validation of existing hypotheses, and the exploration of alternative perspectives. Through their work, researchers contribute to the ongoing dialogue in their field and inspire future studies and discoveries.

Research papers provide a platform for researchers to share their discoveries, insights, and theories. Through the analysis and interpretation of original research findings, researchers contribute valuable knowledge to their field and advance the collective understanding of a specific topic.

Tips for Writing Term Papers and Research Papers

Writing term papers and research papers can be challenging tasks, but with the right approach and techniques, you can successfully complete these academic assignments. Here are some tips to help you write your term papers and research papers effectively:

1. Develop a clear outline:

Before you start writing your paper, it’s essential to create a well-structured outline. This will serve as a roadmap for your writing and help you organize your thoughts and arguments. Your outline should include the main sections and subheadings that you plan to cover in your paper.

2. Conduct thorough research:

Both term papers and research papers require extensive research to support your arguments and provide evidence. Make sure to gather relevant sources from reputable academic journals, books, and credible websites. Take detailed notes and keep track of your sources for proper citation.

3. Analyze and synthesize your findings:

Once you have gathered all the necessary research materials, analyze and synthesize the information. Identify key findings, arguments, and supporting evidence. Look for patterns and connections between different sources to develop a comprehensive understanding of your topic.

4. Follow proper structure and organization:

Ensure that your paper follows the appropriate structure and organization . Use clear and concise paragraphs to present your ideas and provide smooth transitions between different sections. Introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion should be well-defined and logically connected.

Remember to cite all your sources properly to avoid plagiarism and maintain academic integrity. By following these tips, you can improve your writing skills and produce high-quality term papers and research papers.

What is the difference between term papers and research papers?

Term papers focus on summarizing course material and evaluating a student’s understanding, while research papers require original research and analysis of a specific topic.

What is a term paper?

A term paper is an assignment completed by college students at the  end of an academic term . It involves extensive research and focuses on a particular subject.

What is a research paper?

A research paper is an  academic document  that involves the  systematic investigation  of a specific research topic. It requires comprehensive research, data analysis, and the formation of meaningful conclusions.

What are the key differences between term papers and research papers?

Term papers are more general in approach and summarize course material, while research papers require more specific research and analysis. Term papers are often assigned at the end of a semester, while research papers can be assigned at any point. Term papers typically use secondary sources, while research papers require original research and often rely on primary sources. Additionally, the structure and organization of term papers and research papers can differ.

What is the purpose of a term paper?

The purpose of a term paper is to summarize the course material learned during the semester and evaluate a student’s knowledge and understanding of the topics studied.

What is the purpose of a research paper?

The purpose of a research paper is to conduct original research and analyze a specific topic. Research papers aim to contribute to the existing knowledge within a given field by conducting thorough research, analyzing data, and drawing meaningful conclusions.

What are some tips for writing term papers and research papers?

Some tips for  writing term papers  and research papers include developing an outline, conducting in-depth research, gathering and analyzing relevant sources, developing a thesis statement (if required), ensuring proper structure and organization, and citing all sources properly to avoid plagiarism.

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Term Paper vs Research Paper: How Do They Compare

by  Antony W

November 14, 2022

It’s easy to confuse term and research paper for the same thing because they have a number of elements that easily overlap. However, there are features that set them apart. In this term paper versus research paper guide, we look at the similarities and differences so you never confuse the two assignments for the same thing ever again.

What is a Research Paper?

We can define a research paper as an academic piece of assignment that requires a student to investigate subject methodically and theoretically and present their findings on the topic. Notably, research papers focus on analyzing issues (or problems) within a specific course.

In other words, when your professor asks you to write a research paper, they expect you to study a specific problem. More often than not, the problem under investigation is one that either has had questionable results in the past or hasn’t had an extensive coverage in the already existing studies.

What is a Term Paper?

A term paper, on the other hand, is an assignment issued to test student’s knowledge on a given subject or themes after a given duration of studies.

The type of assignment you write in the case of a term paper will vary depending on your instructor’s preference. They may ask you to write an essay, complete a test, or do some school work linked to the theme you’ve explored in a classroom setting.

You will write a term paper near the end of a class, and what you score for the assignment will count in that specific subject’s final grades.

Term Paper vs Research Paper: What Are The Key Differences?

Many elements easily overlap between a term paper and a research paper, but that doesn’t mean they’re 100% similar to one another. You need to learn the differences so that you never confuse between these two types of assignments.

The table below indicates the apparent differences between a term paper and a research paper.

These differences may not be clear at a first glance, so it often helps to do a lookup when in doubt.

Let’s take this even further by explaining these similarities and differences in more details so that you have more insights on the same.

Term Paper Vs Research Paper: Similarities

Topic Selection

The criterion for topic selection is the same for term and research paper. Your instructor can either assign you a topic to work on or ask you to choose one yourself, with the option to identify your own topic being the most common option.

If your instructor has given you the freedom to choose a topic yourself, make sure the subject you pick relates to the discussion had and study material issued in class.

Requirements

Both term and research paper need to adhere to academic formatting and referencing style. You’ll find these requirements clearly indicated in the assignments’ instructions. If your instructor doesn’t give you a formatting and referencing style to use, stick to MLA or APA.

A Term Paper Can Be a Research Assignment

We understand that this can bring a lot of confusion, but it’s important to note that a term paper can also be a research assignment. If your instructor has asked you to investigate a topic based on existing evidence by using a methodological approach in a 10-page term paper, they’re most likely asking you to write a research assignment.

Term Paper vs Research Paper: Understanding the Differences

Structural Differences

One clear difference between term paper and a research paper is the components that go into the assignment.

A research paper should have an introduction, literature review, methodology, results (or findings), discussion (or analysis), conclusion, and reflection (optional).

You won’t have a question to explore in a term paper and it doesn’t include a hypothesis either. The assignment doesn’t require appendices, but your instructor may ask you to include an annotated bibliography in the term paper.

Differences in Goals

The goal of a research paper assignment is to solve a specific problem. Often, you’ll have to study existing literature to find gaps or contradictions and then suggest solutions based on your findings. 

A term paper, on the other hand, seeks to test your knowledge on a topic. The emphasis is on testing your understanding of a given subject or theme discussed in classroom.

Differences in Length

A term paper can be longer than a typical essay, but it won’t be as voluminous as a research paper. In fact, term papers hardly ever go beyond 20 pages, and the shortest ones that Help for Assessment writers have worked on are as short as 1,000 words.

A research paper is longer than a term paper, with the number of pages ranging between 10 and 40 give or take, if not more at least.

Term papers tend to be shorter because, in part, they’re a bridge between essays and research works, and mostly because they don’t presuppose serious data collection and detailed analysis.

Differences in Deadlines and Grades

The word term, in respect to academic assignments, refers to a finite period within which a task should be complete. Therefore, in essence, a term paper is an assessment given at the very end of a course, and it often determines a student’s final grades.

A research paper may or may not influence your final grade depending on the instructions given – or your professor’s preference.

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

How to Research a Term Paper

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The term paper researching process

So, you wrote a great college admissions essay and were accepted at the university or college of your dreams. Now, you've been assigned your first term paper, and you don't know where to start!

The research process is an exploratory quest, a hunt for information that can be both exciting and rewarding. The word itself is derived from the French rechercher, which literally means "to investigate thoroughly." So, when embarking on writing a term paper or research paper, think of yourself as a detective. You will not only search for information but also delve into the whys and wherefores behind the subject material, seeking to provide elucidation through your term paper.

Select a topic for your term paper

Let's start at the beginning. The first step in the essay writing process is to decide on a worthy topic, choosing one that is interesting to you. Make a list of keywords—these are important words or phrases that encapsulate the essence of your topic. Good keywords will specifically describe your topic, but consider using closely related words, as well.  Use these keywords when searching print or electronic sources that you can use in your term paper.

Research your term paper topic

General-purpose reference books, such as encyclopedias and fact books, provide comprehensive summaries and suggestions for sub-topics, as well as related terminology. Although these books are not generally considered suitable sources to cite in a term paper, the bibliographies they contain can be very helpful. This initial reading may help you to narrow your interest, stimulate additional questions, and focus your research. We recommend the following general resources, as they are more global in scope:   The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World , CQ Researcher , the Political Handbook of the World, the Index to International Public Opinion, and World Opinion Update . These publications deal with particular topics, give summaries of various governments, or take other specialized approaches, which are generally considered acceptable sources to cite in a term paper.

The next step is to either narrow your topic (so you can deal with the amount of information) or to broaden it so you have enough to write about. You might have to pick a particular sub-topic and make that your area of interest, or combine certain aspects of a topic to create a narrower one. Decide the direction you want the research for your term paper to take. What are the most interesting aspects of the topic, and what do you want to learn? Be careful not to be too general. This term paper researching process will keep you from getting lost or sidetracked when searching for information.

Find suitable sources for your term paper

At this point, decide on the most likely sources of information—books, journal articles, newspapers, online databases, CD-ROM databases, interviews, etc. Dig around in the library and locate sources for your term paper. Use your library's computer access system to find books on your subject. Some topics may be so current that few, if any, books are available. If this is the case, research scholarly journals for up-to-date information and analyses. You should consult journals even for non-contemporary topics, since scholars may have unearthed new information or produced new analyses. You may also find valuable information published in the reports of a government agency, in hearings or reports of a government committee, or in the transcripts of the proceedings of a government body. The United Nations and a number of other international organizations also publish proceedings and reports.

Don't forget that when you locate the sources you want to use for your term paper, you should be trying to find answers to the questions you posed previously. Also, don't forget to make use of the reference librarian, who can help you to locate and use sources efficiently.

Get organized early! Keep track of your sources

It is very helpful to make notes about your sources on index cards or in an Excel spreadsheet . Such notes should include bibliographic information, page numbers for quotations, and source locations. This way, you can easily find the source of an idea, quote, reference, etc. Number these cards so you can link them to your term paper notes: this will make the references section of your report a snap to complete.

Remember—thoroughly peruse all the information you have gathered, making copious notes as you go. This preliminary research should answer basic factual questions, as well as interpretive ones, and should help you to refocus. Give yourself a reasonable amount of time to absorb all the information you've read.

Writing a research or term paper

In our follow-up article about writing a research paper , we explain the next steps in the term paper writing process. The article discusses your thesis statement, body of your paper, and your reference page. If you would like to learn more about essay writing, check out Scribendi's article   12 Ways to Quickly Improve Your Academic Essay Writing Skills .

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How To Write a Term Paper: A Guide That Works

30 June, 2020

16 minutes read

Author:  Mathieu Johnson

Once you’ve started your university career, you are going to be asked to present a term paper. What’s the difference between a term paper and a research paper? How can you write a good term? What’s the best way to structure it? Where can you find some tips to make the writing process faster? In this article, we’ll discuss a few tips to help you prepare a term paper quickly and professionally.

What Is a Term Paper… And What Is The First Step?

A term paper is a critical and analytical report on the topic or subject that you covered within the course of studies. It usually consists of two separate but equally important aspects: your own thoughts about the topic and a demonstration of your understanding of the existing literature. The main goal of this assignment is to summarize the material you learned and showcase your understanding of the topic. This aspect makes the term paper a universal instrument for assessing a student’s proficiency. It also explains why term papers cost so many points of your course grade.

We usually associate a term paper with a research paper , but although the concepts are quite similar, a research paper requires a more academic approach and a deeper investigation into the literature of your field of study.

To write an outstanding college term paper, you must understand that your professor has requested it in order to test your analytical thinking skills. You must collect relevant data, analyze it, and then make a summary or solve a particular problem. Such skills are highly relevant to the business world, so this type of the task is as practical as it is educational.

So, let’s start the preparation!

Before you begin writing

Unfortunately, there is no magical recipe that allows you to get everything done fast. You will need to choose the best way forward in whatever situation you find yourself, but here are some tips to help you prepare for the assignment.

To begin with, take the research stage seriously . Sometimes, when students are really interested in a topic, they only want to present their personal ideas about the problem. Unfortunately, if you’re not completely familiar with all the data from the various sources, you will need to reinvent the bicycle.

Term paper writing was never an easy ride. Well, not for our expert writers. Place an order with our term paper writing service and secure yourself an “A!”

In the initial stages of your research, investigate everything you can find on the topic . This may sound like a tall order, but you’ll find that it doesn’t actually entail that much reading. At this point you are only compiling the research, so you will be skimming through numerous prospects rather than reading them completely. Bear in mind that your aim is to get acquainted with the various aspects of your problem. The term paper summarizes the knowledge you gained within a course and requires to familiarize yourself with the research that other people have already made on your topic.

Thinking that your opinions are completely original and unique is quite egocentric, and it can get you into trouble. So, “your” thoughts about the problem are usually just somebody else’s statements that you have rephrased (or even a well-established academic concept!). Remember that your professor will be familiar with all the literature surrounding the issue: if you merely rewrite someone else’s thoughts and present them as your own (even if you don’t realize doing it), be prepared for criticism!

Applying a Structure To Your Term Paper

Once you have read all the leading authors and their approaches to your problem, it’s time to create a structure for your work. This is not yet an outline; you just need to decide what to write about. Sketch out the topic for the theoretical portion of your work and think about practical aspects and how you can approach the research in the best possible way.

At this point, you really need to call or email your supervisor . Your professor will have seen hundreds of term papers like yours (i.e., they have not yet been written, but a definite idea exists!) and will be prepared to give you feedback and advice. He or she will tell you what literature you have omitted, offer suggestions about what you should read, and give you feedback about your paper. It may well be that your approach has already occurred to somebody else, in which case there is no need to repeat it.

Choosing a Topic: Easy as Riding a Bike?

When you choose your topic, make sure you choose something that you are interested in . That’s our advice if you want a painless term paper. If you prefer to investigate a field that you’ve never really explored before, you can challenge yourself to do that, too. That might be sophisticated, but why not?

If you decide to investigate a topic or a problem that you are pretty familiar with, your writing will be more fluid. You will focus your attention on a specific aspect of the chosen field and expand your knowledge within that scope. On the contrary, choosing an unfamiliar subject matter can wash out your expertise.

Be prepared to change the topic if you find out that your research isn’t going anywhere. It might occur that you presuppose that your topic has a potential but somewhere at the stage of initial research, you find that it just won’t work. It’s always a good idea to consider two or three topics when you kick off the term paper writing – even if they are just different ways of examining the same problem. By doing this, you will be able to choose the best version, which may not be the one you started with at all!

Related Post: 100 Persuasive essay topics

Formulating a Thesis statement

Writing a proper thesis statement can also be challenging. To begin with, write down a couple of prominent ideas or concepts, then try to make rough drafts of them to see how they’ll work in the structural framework. You will probably find that one idea fits your style, interests, and knowledge base: you can choose that one as your thesis statement.

Remember that the thesis statement is the skeleton, the central concept of your paper. It is the elemental attribute of almost any academic paper – from master’s thesis to a simple five paragraph essay. If you do a thorough job on it, you will find that writing (and defending!) your argument is much easier.

Be aware that all of these stages are parts of a procedure – one leads to another. When writing a term paper, you should collect the material and wrap it up at the same time.

Planning – The Key To Success

Some people claim that they can write a term paper without any planning. In our opinion, this is impossible. If you don’t have a postgraduate degree and you aren’t a certified genius, you need to prepare an outline for your project. It may come as a surprise, but even people who claim otherwise actually prepare outlines – in their heads. But if you don’t have that much experience, use a pencil and your notebook to ensure that you don’t forget anything.

Don’t procrastinate on your College or University papers anymore. Get professional help with our essay writer !

That’s when we get to preparing your first draft . There’s only one thing to add here: do as many drafts as you need in order to achieve your goal. Understand that your aim is to create an excellent term paper and keep working at it until you are satisfied.

Term Paper Outline: Write Everything In The Proper Section!

In the Introduction , state the topic that you are going to investigate and the context of your work. This is the critical ‘selling’ moment of your work. In a nutshell, your introduction combined with a conclusion should give a sneak peek into what the whole paper is about. If your introduction is well-prepared, it will be quite complacent about the body of your project. The introduction must include an abstract that presents your thesis statement . You should explain your motivation (why should the reader be concerned about this problem?) , your methods (what scientific tools did you use?) , and the results (what you achieved) .

The Literature Review totally corresponds to its name – it is here to review the literature you compiled. Your professor will double check it to make sure that you understand the context of your argument. One more thing to add is: collect all the information you can! Ideally, you should read or at least glance through every book and author that you can find on the topic. Think of your task as a fascinating journey: if you approach it like that, reading hundreds of pages won’t seem like that much of a challenge.

In the Discussion , you must present the interpretations of the problem. Be honest, explain what you pieces of data you don’t agree with and what ideas and concepts you support. This section connects the dots between theory and practice when writing a term paper. Wherever possible, provide several interpretations of the subject matter, then choose the one(s) that are most relevant to the case you are presenting.

In the Body , focus on those arguments that prove your thesis statement. This section must be absolutely logical. If you have chosen a more complicated topic, use heading and sub-headings to improve the appearance of this section. While writing the body, keep your target audience (your professors) in mind. In other words, don’t just record the obvious causes/effects/solutions but also showcase your own findings – what you have discovered and how that proves your thesis statement. Demonstrate that you are familiar with the details and you will stun your readers with the prolific mastery of the topic.

Now, the Conclusion   is her to summarize both the content and the purpose of the paper. The most challenging part is not to make it too dry. Reiterate your thesis statement and briefly show how your results justified your proposition. At the very end, you can suggest a call to action or pose a rhetorical question or statement that leaves your reader wanting more.

What to do next?

When you have finished, reread your work a couple of times. You will almost certainly find a few faults, whether they are contextual, factual, syntactical, grammatical, or even simple spelling mistakes. A very useful tip is to wait for two or three days after writing your final draft to proofread it afterward. Your brain will have time to process the information, and you’ll be able to look at it with a fresh view.

When proofreading, take care to polish the structural problems. The skeleton (the logic and the thesis statement) should make sense. If they don’t, try to approach the problem from another perspective. The changes may take some time, but bear in mind that your objective is to produce professional work. Be patient!

After that, print the term paper. The human eye processes information differently on the paper than on a computer screen; that’s why you need to print it and take one final look for any possible mistakes. Even if you don’t see any serious defects, pay attention to formatting, punctuation, and synonyms. It’s an academic text, so make it shine!

Term Paper Sample

Be sure to check the sample of a term paper, completed by our writers. Use it as an example to perfect your own writing. Link:  Term Paper Sample: Consumer Buying Behavior .

The Do’s and Don’ts of Term Paper Writing

There you have the most important tips to help you succeed in writing a term paper. Now it’s up to you to stop reading and start writing!

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What Is the Difference between Research Paper and Term Paper?

Attending a college, you are sure to write a number of essays and other types of papers. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between the types of the papers. This differentiation is required when one is asked to write a specific type of the paper (either a research paper or a term paper), but it appears a problem for him/her. Why do students need to know the particular type of the paper before writing it? The reason is obvious: each paper type has a specific structure and the purpose. Everything’s clear with an essay, which is defined as a paper devoted to a particular problem and written in accordance with a specific structure: the introduction, the main body, and the conclusion. When speaking about a term paper and a research paper, understanding the differences is important in order to understand what should be written in a paper to meet the instructions. Trying to get the main distinguishing features between a research paper and a term paper, it is important to identify the basic common aspects. Both these types of the papers are aimed at showing students’ knowledge and understanding of a particular problem under analysis. The differences are presented below.

Research Paper

“Research is what I’m doing when I don’t know what I’m doing” Wernher von Braun

Here is a list of the points, which make a research paper different from other paper types

• A research paper is devoted to a problem within a specific course. Research papers are usually written to study some specific problem, which has not been covered effectively, which has some little research, or which results are doubtful. A research paper has a specific structure despite the subject. The title page, the table of contents, the introduction / background, the literature review, the methodology, the results, the discussion and the conclusions / recommendations. Each of these sections has specific guidelines for writing. No matter which problem is under research , the structure is the same.
• This type of paper writing requires some time for conducting a research and writing it. There are a lot of different types of research, interview, observation, questionnaire, survey, experiment, etc. Depending on the hypothesis and the purpose of the study, the research may take from a day to even the years.
• A research paper is usually a lengthy piece of writing. Usually research papers start from 10 pages and may be even 100 pages and more. One can rarely meet a research paper less than 10 pages as in this case it is impossible to explain the major points, to discuss the results and to prove the hypothesis.
• A research paper can cover the material studied during different years and laid out in various courses. Writing a research paper on a particular problem may require turning to the particular problems discussed in the past. The materials learned in the past may help in explaining some processes, discussing the background information and analyzing the literature on the issue.
• A term paper, being a part of a course, is usually completed after a specific period of studying. The course is usually divided into terms and themes. Having come to an end of a term, students are usually asked to take a test or to complete another task, which will show how well students have learnt the course material during the discussed time period. The grades for this task usually have a special value in the overall student’s grade.
• A term paper is aimed at checking students’ knowledge after some themes studied. Having completed a specific theme, students may also be asked to take a test, to write an essay, or to complete some task devoted to this particular theme.
• A term paper can be of any nature and structure. Opposing to a research paper with a specific structure, a term paper may be written in a form of an essay, it can have a questions-answers structure, it can be an article, a review, an annotated bibliography, a test, and even a research paper.
• A term paper can be of any length. It can be one page and 20 pages, no matter which topic is used and what type of the task is requested. Overall, each professor should select what kind of task fits better the specific topic which has been studied.
• A term paper involves the material studied during the course. Usually, a term paper covers the theme or the themes studied during the particular time period. The main purpose of such task is to show how well students have understood the material.

To the word, a task in a term paper can be to write a research paper, while it is impossible to have a task in a research paper to write a term paper. These two types of writing are different despite the fact that each student’s task is aimed at checking their knowledge. Educational process is very complicated and requires constant motivation and encouragement from the side of the professors. Students do want to receive new knowledge, but they need to know that this new knowledge is needed in the future. Moreover, some students may need the appreciation of their skills or some additional punishment, which may stimulate them for working harder.

Being aware of the differences between the term papers and the research papers, one may become a better student, improve his/her grades and enlarge the scope of knowledge and skills. Overall, the difference is usually explained by the teacher, but being in the process of studying new information one may miss these points and become frustrated. A term paper and a dissertation have different focus and display various experience of students. Only being aware of the purpose and the structure of the particular task one is sure to complete it successfully. Each student want to receive the highest grades and this article may be in use for those, who strive for higher grades and better knowledge.

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Difference Between a Term Paper and a Research Paper

As a college student, you are largely conversant with writing a research paper. It is a prerequisite requirement most instructors enforce on their students. But what about its less-known relative, the term paper?

A common cause of concern most scholars experience is differentiating the two. An outside look might give an impression of two closely related terms aimed at using research to produce findings.

However, these two assignments are largely unrelated to the pre-writing, writing, and presentation phases. Still skeptical about which to write following your instructors’ details?

This post explores intricacies that relate to and differentiate these two terms. Learn the basic guideline for writing each paper while presenting a high-quality, cohesive, and coherent document for grading.

• 1 What Is a Term Paper?
• 2.1 Argumentative
• 2.2 Definition
• 2.3 Analytical
• 2.4 Compare and contrast
• 3 Term Paper Outline
• 4 What Is a Research Paper?
• 5.1 Argumentative
• 5.2 Analytical
• 5.3 Comparative
• 5.4 Descriptive
• 6 Research Paper Outline
• 7 Bottom Line

What Is a Term Paper?

It is a typical task assigned at the initial stages of the semester. Students write their findings about a topic throughout their course materials and present a finished document.

The essence of these assignments is testing the student’s comprehension of course content. Moreover, it assesses the student’s writing skills, critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving related to the course content.

Moreover, depending on the instructor’s instructions, it can come in different forms. For example, your instructor might decide whether it’s peer-reviewed, a report, or an essay.

Types of Term Papers

Term papers come in different forms. Moreover, there isn’t a specific format for writing a term paper. It all depends on the instructor’s information. Some term papers vary in word count, formatting guidelines, citation style, topic, or length. Here is an overview of some common term papers by EssayWriter :

Argumentative

This assignment tests the student’s ability to formulate an argument on a specific topic while backed with evidence derived from research and critical thinking. The main intent of these tasks is to convince your readers of your viewpoint while stating a clear thesis statement supported with relevant information.

The writer offers a detailed and comprehensive explanation of a specific concept, terminology, or idea. The essence of this paper is exploring and clarifying the meaning, impact, and significance of the chosen related field of study.

These analytical tasks refer to assignments that involve thorough examination, evaluation, and interpretation of a specific topic or subject matter. The essence of this analysis is breaking down topics into individualized parts while drawing meaningful conclusions based on the analysis.

Compare and contrast

A compare and contrast term paper analyzes the close relationship between two subject matters, ideas, concepts, or texts. The writer engages their audience in exploring relationships between subjects under comparison to come to meaningful conclusions. The end goal is to draw a connection between the stated variables.

Term Paper Outline

An outline forms the backbone of your academic assignment. Here is a simple guide to writing a stellar outline to keep your assignment complete and coherent:

• Cover page – State your name, institution, field, course name, unit number, instructor’s name, and date.
• Abstract – Provide a synopsis of what readers should expect from your term paper. Keep it short and interesting.
• Introduction – Clearly state your thesis statement while explaining how you plan to cover it.
• Body – Divide your research into different parts with careful analysis of each aspect with diverse standpoints.
• Results – Reveal your findings from in-depth research to back your main arguments within the paper.
• Discussion – Summarize the entirety of your paper while restating your thesis statement

What Is a Research Paper?

It is a comprehensive and formal academic assignment that showcases results from original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific subject related to a study field. It is a scholarly work that contributes to knowledge in a particular field.

Through in-depth research, writers can present new insights that add valuable information to the existing database under study.

Moreover, it assesses the scholar’s writing skills and ability to use research to execute a coherent, format, and naturally flowing task.

Breakdown of Different Types

Fields of study determine the nature of the research paper. Here is a look at some common types used in colleges:

The research presents an argument while backing their standpoints with research. The argument must be unique, original, and don’t exist in the current database. The main essence is convincing your audience with evidence, counterarguments, and presentation of evidence.

A writer analyzes a subject or topic by breaking it into components while examining the existing relationship. The main ideology behind this assignment is assessing the ‘how’ and ‘why.’

Comparative

A writer compares two subjects, concepts, ideas, or terminologies. The goal is to establish the key similarities and differences while drawing logical conclusions from the analysis.

Descriptive

These assignments provide a detailed description of a specific experimental study researched by a specific author. The research analyses the process, including the research methods, design, data analysis, and methodology.

Research Paper Outline

Different research manuscripts call for different outlines. Here is a look at the most basic template:

• Title page – Contains important user details such as name, institution, course name, course unit, teacher’s name, and date.
• Abstract- It is a summary of the entire research paper’s work. It gives an overview for readers.
• Introduction – Contains attention-grabbing information and thesis statement to entice readers to continue reading.
• Literature review – Offers an overview of existing research about the topic while handling theories, concepts, and findings from previous research.
• Methodology – Contains the entire research design and approach. The writer reveals their data collection methods and analysis techniques.
• Findings – The writer presents results based on their research methodology. It contains categorized sections that answer the research questions.
• Discussion – Contains in-depth analysis and interpretation based on the research findings. Moreover, it compares results with current knowledge and discusses its relevance in the course material.
• Conclusion – Offers a summarized version of the research findings while restating the thesis statement.
• References – Lists all sources included that resulted in the finds.

Bottom Line

Despite close relations, these assignments are two distinct terminologies in the academic scene. Each bears significant importance in adding new information to existing knowledge.

College writing can be easy. Follow our professional tips and guides and secure your grade!

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Differences between term papers and research papers

While you might think they are the same, the term paper and the research paper are really two different things. The two share similar features. They may even be related. But there are differences to consider.

Generally speaking, one writes a term paper to indicate that he or she has learned or acquired the knowledge of a particular subject. The term paper is given at the end of the term and counts as a significant percentage of the final exam. A term paper typically runs between 3,000 and 5,000 words. Term papers allow for a critical examination of current topics and usually allow for the writer’s opinion. The term paper contains arguments and/or persuasions that must be supported with facts taken from a variety of reliable sources, such as academic papers, scholarly magazines or textbooks.

On the other hand, a research paper is typically an academic study carried out with regards to answering theoretical questions. The student is required to interpret the information given and turn it into a significant, noteworthy paper. A research paper can consist of up to 5,000 words. It is up to your instructor to indicate the length of the research paper…

In each instance, topics are chosen by the instructor and/or the student. In each instance, research and reference materials are required. In each instance, it is helpful to develop an outline before attempting to write the final drafts. In fact, the term paper and the research paper share a lot of the same qualities.

The real difference between a term paper and a research paper is that a research paper can be assigned at any time, whereas, a term paper is typically assigned at the end of the term...

Writing term papers or research papers may seem like a waste of good time; yet, both are designed to help you better communicate your knowledge and understanding of a specific topic. Both are designed to help you understand the methodologies involved in note-taking, referencing and research.

One final note: As you endeavor to write each of these papers respectively, acknowledge and incorporate what you have learned from previous writing assignments. And, always utilize your writing as an opportunity to communicate in interesting and creative ways. Make an argument. State your case. And be sure to back up what you say with sound, reliable evidence. The best writers will give one-hundred percent, regardless of what the assignment entails.

We are proud of our team consisting of professional academic freelance writers, dissertation and thesis writing experts and top notch editors and proofreaders. Our editorial team works day and night to create easy-to-follow and helpful college guides and manuals.

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Home » Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Term paper is a type of academic writing assignment that is typically assigned to students at the end of a semester or term. It is usually a research-based paper that is meant to demonstrate the student’s understanding of a particular topic, as well as their ability to analyze and synthesize information from various sources.

Term papers are usually longer than other types of academic writing assignments and can range anywhere from 5 to 20 pages or more, depending on the level of study and the specific requirements of the assignment. They often require extensive research and the use of a variety of sources, including books, articles, and other academic publications.

Term Paper Format

The format of a term paper may vary depending on the specific requirements of your professor or institution. However, a typical term paper usually consists of the following sections:

• Title page: This should include the title of your paper, your name, the course name and number, your instructor’s name, and the date.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should provide an overview of your topic, the research question or hypothesis, your methodology, and your main findings or conclusions.
• Introduction : This section should introduce your topic and provide background information on the subject. You should also state your research question or hypothesis and explain the importance of your research.
• Literature review : This section should review the existing literature on your topic. You should summarize the key findings and arguments made by other scholars and identify any gaps in the literature that your research aims to address.
• Methodology: This section should describe the methods you used to collect and analyze your data. You should explain your research design, sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
• Results : This section should present your findings. You can use tables, graphs, and charts to illustrate your data.
• Discussion : This section should interpret your findings and explain what they mean in relation to your research question or hypothesis. You should also discuss any limitations of your study and suggest areas for future research.
• Conclusion : This section should summarize your main findings and conclusions. You should also restate the importance of your research and its implications for the field.
• References : This section should list all the sources you cited in your paper using a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
• Appendices : This section should include any additional materials that are relevant to your study but not essential to your main argument (e.g., survey questions, interview transcripts).

Structure of Term Paper

Here’s an example structure for a term paper:

I. Introduction

A. Background information on the topic

B. Thesis statement

II. Literature Review

A. Overview of current literature on the topic

B. Discussion of key themes and findings from literature

C. Identification of gaps in current literature

III. Methodology

A. Description of research design

B. Discussion of data collection methods

C. Explanation of data analysis techniques

IV. Results

A. Presentation of findings

B. Analysis and interpretation of results

C. Comparison of results with previous studies

V. Discussion

A. Summary of key findings

B. Explanation of how results address the research questions

C. Implications of results for the field

VI. Conclusion

A. Recap of key points

B. Significance of findings

C. Future directions for research

VII. References

A. List of sources cited in the paper

How to Write Term Paper

Here are some steps to help you write a term paper:

• Choose a topic: Choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to your course. If your professor has assigned a topic, make sure you understand it and clarify any doubts before you start.
• Research : Conduct research on your topic by gathering information from various sources such as books, academic journals, and online resources. Take notes and organize your information systematically.
• Create an outline : Create an outline of your term paper by arranging your ideas and information in a logical sequence. Your outline should include an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• Write a thesis statement: Write a clear and concise thesis statement that states the main idea of your paper. Your thesis statement should be included in your introduction.
• Write the introduction: The introduction should grab the reader’s attention, provide background information on your topic, and introduce your thesis statement.
• Write the body : The body of your paper should provide supporting evidence for your thesis statement. Use your research to provide details and examples to support your argument. Make sure to organize your ideas logically and use transition words to connect paragraphs.
• Write the conclusion : The conclusion should summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion.
• Edit and proofread: Edit and proofread your term paper carefully to ensure that it is free of errors and flows smoothly. Check for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.
• Format and cite your sources: Follow the formatting guidelines provided by your professor and cite your sources properly using the appropriate citation style.
• Submit your paper : Submit your paper on time and according to the instructions provided by your professor.

Term Paper Example

Here’s an example of a term paper:

Title : The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity

As the world becomes more digitally interconnected, cybersecurity threats are increasing in frequency and sophistication. Traditional security measures are no longer enough to protect against these threats. This paper explores the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in cybersecurity, including how AI can be used to detect and respond to threats in real-time, the challenges of implementing AI in cybersecurity, and the potential ethical implications of AI-powered security systems. The paper concludes with recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their cybersecurity strategies.

Introduction :

The increasing number of cybersecurity threats in recent years has led to a growing interest in the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) to improve cybersecurity. AI has the ability to analyze vast amounts of data and identify patterns and anomalies that may indicate a security breach. Additionally, AI can automate responses to threats, allowing for faster and more effective mitigation of security incidents. However, there are also challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for large amounts of high-quality data, the potential for AI systems to make mistakes, and the ethical considerations surrounding the use of AI in security.

Literature Review:

This section of the paper reviews existing research on the use of AI in cybersecurity. It begins by discussing the types of AI techniques used in cybersecurity, including machine learning, natural language processing, and neural networks. The literature review then explores the advantages of using AI in cybersecurity, such as its ability to detect previously unknown threats and its potential to reduce the workload of security analysts. However, the review also highlights some of the challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for high-quality training data and the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks.

Methodology :

To better understand the challenges and opportunities associated with using AI in cybersecurity, this paper conducted a survey of cybersecurity professionals working in a variety of industries. The survey included questions about the types of AI techniques used in their organizations, the challenges they faced when implementing AI in cybersecurity, and their perceptions of the ethical implications of using AI in security.

The results of the survey showed that while many organizations are interested in using AI in cybersecurity, they face several challenges when implementing these systems. These challenges include the need for high-quality training data, the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks, and the difficulty of integrating AI with existing security systems. Additionally, many respondents expressed concerns about the ethical implications of using AI in security, such as the potential for AI to be biased or to make decisions that are harmful to individuals or society as a whole.

Discussion :

Based on the results of the survey and the existing literature, this paper discusses the potential benefits and risks of using AI in cybersecurity. It also provides recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their security strategies, such as the need to prioritize data quality and to ensure that AI systems are transparent and accountable.

Conclusion :

While there are challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, the potential benefits of using these systems are significant. AI can help organizations detect and respond to threats more quickly and effectively, reducing the risk of security breaches. However, it is important for organizations to be aware of the potential ethical implications of using AI in security and to take steps to ensure that these systems are transparent and accountable.

References:

• Alkhaldi, S., Al-Daraiseh, A., & Lutfiyya, H. (2019). A Survey on Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Cyber Security. Journal of Information Security, 10(03), 191-207.
• Gartner. (2019). Gartner Top 10 Strategic Technology Trends for 2020. Retrieved from https://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/gartner-top-10-strategic-technology-trends-for-2020/
• Kshetri, N. (2018). Blockchain’s roles in meeting key supply chain management objectives. International Journal of Information Management, 39, 80-89.
• Lipton, Z. C. (2018). The mythos of model interpretability. arXiv preprint arXiv:1606.03490.
• Schneier, B. (2019). Click Here to Kill Everybody: Security and Survival in a Hyper-Connected World. WW Norton & Company.
• Wahab, M. A., Rahman, M. S., & Islam, M. R. (2020). A Survey on AI Techniques in Cybersecurity. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 11(2), 22-27.

When to Write Term Paper

A term paper is usually a lengthy research paper that is assigned to students at the end of a term or semester. There are several situations when writing a term paper may be required, including:

• As a course requirement: In most cases, a term paper is required as part of the coursework for a particular course. It may be assigned by the instructor as a way of assessing the student’s understanding of the course material.
• To explore a specific topic : A term paper can be an excellent opportunity for students to explore a specific topic of interest in-depth. It allows them to conduct extensive research on the topic and develop their understanding of it.
• To develop critical thinking skills : Writing a term paper requires students to engage in critical thinking and analysis. It helps them to develop their ability to evaluate and interpret information, as well as to present their ideas in a clear and coherent manner.
• To prepare for future academic or professional pursuits: Writing a term paper can be an excellent way for students to prepare for future academic or professional pursuits. It can help them to develop the research and writing skills necessary for success in higher education or in a professional career.

Purpose of Term Paper

The main purposes of a term paper are:

• Demonstrate mastery of a subject: A term paper provides an opportunity for students to showcase their knowledge and understanding of a particular subject. It requires students to research and analyze the topic, and then present their findings in a clear and organized manner.
• Develop critical thinking skills: Writing a term paper requires students to think critically about their subject matter, analyzing various sources and viewpoints, and evaluating evidence to support their arguments.
• Improve writing skills : Writing a term paper helps students improve their writing skills, including organization, clarity, and coherence. It also requires them to follow specific formatting and citation guidelines, which can be valuable skills for future academic and professional endeavors.
• Contribute to academic discourse : A well-written term paper can contribute to academic discourse by presenting new insights, ideas, and arguments that add to the existing body of knowledge on a particular topic.
• Prepare for future research : Writing a term paper can help prepare students for future research, by teaching them how to conduct a literature review, evaluate sources, and formulate research questions and hypotheses. It can also help them develop research skills that they can apply in future academic or professional endeavors.

Advantages of Term Paper

There are several advantages of writing a term paper, including:

• In-depth exploration: Writing a term paper allows you to delve deeper into a specific topic, allowing you to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.
• Improved writing skills: Writing a term paper involves extensive research, critical thinking, and the organization of ideas into a cohesive written document. As a result, writing a term paper can improve your writing skills significantly.
• Demonstration of knowledge: A well-written term paper demonstrates your knowledge and understanding of the subject matter, which can be beneficial for academic or professional purposes.
• Development of research skills : Writing a term paper requires conducting thorough research, analyzing data, and synthesizing information from various sources. This process can help you develop essential research skills that can be applied in many other areas.
• Enhancement of critical thinking : Writing a term paper encourages you to think critically, evaluate information, and develop well-supported arguments. These skills can be useful in many areas of life, including personal and professional decision-making.
• Preparation for further academic work : Writing a term paper is excellent preparation for more extensive academic projects, such as a thesis or dissertation.

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• A Research Guide
• Writing Guide
• Assignment Writing

How to Write a Term Paper

• Purpose of a term paper
• How to start a term paper
• Structure and outline

Step-by-step writing guide

Standard term paper format.

• Term paper examples
• Writing tips

What is the purpose of a term paper?

How to start a term paper correctly.

• Choose your topic by focusing on what inspires you unless you are already given a topic.
• Take time to research and analyze your subject.
• Start with a term paper outline (see our templates in the next sections).
• Come up with a strong thesis statement before writing anything for body paragraphs.
• Provide topic sentences and practical examples.
• Provide a strong lesson in the conclusion if it suits the subject you write about.
• Edit and proofread available information for trustworthiness.

Term paper structure and outline

• Introduction. This is where you talk about the subject and a problem you are researching. It helps to introduce your thesis statement and explain the objectives that have been set.
• Body Paragraphs. As a rule, in writing college term papers, one must write down several subheadings and headings to divide ideas and arguments into several (at least four) paragraphs. As done below, each body paragraph should contain one idea and a strong topic sentence.
• Heading 1: History of the argument and background.
• Heading 2: Extent of the problem that you write about.
• Heading 3: Effects of the problem and possible causes.
• Heading 4: Possible solutions and outcomes.
• Conclusion. The final part should represent a strong summary and a response to your thesis statement.

Step 1: Data collection

Step 2: explaining research relevance, step 3: introducing your subject, step 4: literature review preparation, step 5: offering results and conclusions, step 6: structural term paper evaluation, step 7: check your citations and references.

Helpful term paper examples

• Term paper examples that earned an A grade from the University of Delaware
• Sample term paper offered by the Justus-Liebig Universitat Giessen
• Purdue Owl Lab Citation Formats Database
• Simon Fraser University Sample Term Paper

Term paper writing tips

• Choose a topic that inspires you if you have an opportunity. If you have been given an already existing prompt to write, research your subject online and ask about the use of course materials. It will help you to narrow things down and already have source materials for referencing purposes.
• If you can choose a subject to write a final paper for your course, think about something you can support with statistical data and some practical evidence.
• Most importantly, keep your term paper relevant to the main objectives of your study course.
• Keep your tone reflective and natural as you write.
• Double-check your grading rubric regarding limitations and obligatory requirements that must be met.
• Always proofread your term paper aloud!
• If you have an opportunity, consider editing your term paper with the help of a friend or a fellow college student.

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Term Paper vs Research Paper vs an Essay: Differences & Tips

a Term Paper, a Research Paper, and an Essay

Depending on the academic level in which a student is in, they will be tasked with writing different types of academic writings to demonstrate their proficiency as learners.

Academic writings come in the form of term papers, research papers, and essays. As a learner, you will be tasked with writing exercises. You should be aware of their differences so that you can deliver what is required.

Difference between a Term Paper, a Research Paper, and an Essay

Now, what is the difference between the three major forms of academic writing? Well, first of all, a term paper can be regarded as written work or academic composition.

It is meant to indicate a student’s progress during school term/semester.

What this means is that a term paper covers the entire course, making it a comparatively large project.

Students are required to write term papers throughout the semester. The reason is to ensure that they cover all the concepts presented during the term.

In addition to ensuring that they are not overwhelmed by too much work at the end of the semester. 

A research paper is an academic piece of work written by students concerning a particular topic. It is not like a term paper that may cover more things since it covers a term’s work.

The instructor provides a particular topic in which students are required to apply their research and writing skills. They come up with a complete paper in response to the topic.

Essays can be regarded as interpretive or analytic literary compositions. Alongside they are written by students to test their knowledge of simple concepts. Essays are shorter than research papers and term papers because they are meant to interpret or analyze particular topics.

In simple, a research paper is an academic writing that tests a student’s ability to apply knowledge learned in class or a course. A term paper on the contrary is a written assignment to test a learner’s knowledge of a specific topic or chapter. On the other hand, an essay is an interpretive or analytic literary composition where a student makes an argument about a topic.

Comprehensive definitions of the three

1. term paper.

A term paper can be regarded as written work or academic composition that is meant to indicate a student’s progress during school term/semester.

A term paper covers the entire course, making it a comparatively large project. Students are required to write term papers throughout the semester.

This is to ensure that they cover all the concepts presented during the term. Besides ensure that they are not overwhelmed by too much work at the end of the semester. 

For example, let us imagine that you are studying environmental science in college. You have started the semester or term by defining the key concepts.

Finally, you are gradually getting into more details as the semester goes on.

To ensure that you understand the concepts of environmental science and give the instructor an opportunity to determine your progress as a learner, they will give you a term paper to complete by the end of the semester.

You should note that it should be completed by the end of the semester. Not at the end of the semester like other papers. Term papers are a continuous writing process that students should do throughout the semester.

In most cases, instructors will notify their students at the beginning of the semester that they are required to complete a term paper by the end of the semester.

This allows students to start the writing process early enough to avoid being overwhelmed at the end of the semester.

2. Research paper

A research paper, can be defined as an academic piece of work written by students concerning a particular topic.

It is not like a term paper that may cover more things since it covers for a term’s work.

The instructor provides a particular topic in which students are required to apply their research and writing skills to come up with a complete paper in response to the topic.

In a research paper, students will also conduct research into specific questions that have been posted by hypotheses and/or scientific theories.

When instructors give students research papers as assignments, it means that they are trying to gauge the research capabilities of their students concerning a specific topic within a particular discipline.

Research papers help students become better scholars and field researchers later in life.

Research papers are usually completed at the end of the semester and they are comparatively shorter in length compared to term papers – at least in most cases.

As we have noted, term papers are meant to show a student’s academic process during the term/semester.

However, research papers are meant to tackle specific research issues or topics that have been derived from the course.

What this means is that as the course continues, the research questions or topics will arise. As such giving students an opportunity to tackle them through their research papers.

Therefore, research papers are usually given to students towards the end or at the middle of the semester to give students enough time to come up with their papers.

Research papers take a different structure of writing. Check out our comprehensive guide on how to write a research paper and learn more.

But in brief, there is an introduction, background, literature review, methodology, findings and discussions, and finally a conclusion. This is the major defining characteristic of research papers.

3. An Essay

On the other hand, the essay is an interpretive or an analytic literary composition written to test students’ knowledge of simple concepts.

Essays are shorter than research papers and term papers because they are meant to interpret or analyze particular topics.

Essays can be written by students in high school. This is because the steps of writing an essay are pretty simple.

They can also be written by college-level students. However, it is rare for post-graduate students to write essays.

Essays take a simpler structure or format compared to research papers and term papers. Essays have an introduction, body, and a conclusion.

It should be noted that there are times when research papers are longer than term papers depending on the academic requirements and the content presented in the papers.

At the same time, depending on the academic scheduling of the institution, students can be required to start writing their papers at any point during the term/semester.

As such, be keen with the instructions provided by your professors or teachers when writing essays, term papers, or research papers.

Similarities between a Term Paper and a Research Paper

The first similarity is that both term papers and research papers are longer pieces of academic writings that are written by college-level students concerning a particular subject matter.

What this means is that they are formal academic works that gauge the student’s understanding of the course concepts. These concepts go into the writing as subtopics in a research paper , which makes the difference.

The second similarity between a term paper and a research paper is that they both take the same writing or academic format. The basic format is the introduction, the background, literature review, methodology, findings and discussions, and finally conclusion.

However, it can have a table of contents, abstracts, acronyms, acknowledgments, and so on. Though there might be a slight difference, both papers must have both in-text citations and a reference page at the end of the paper.

Similarities between a Term Paper and an Essay

There are some similarities between a term paper and an essay. The first similarity is that both analyze or interpret particular course concepts.

While an essay is a literary composition that takes a narrow scope in terms of the content to be covered, a term paper will also take the form of literary composition. In addition, it covers a wider scope of concepts within the course. However, both are literary compositions.

The second similarity between a term paper and an essay is that they allow students to be more autonomous when it comes to what they are discussing.

Students are given an opportunity to write their perceptions concerning the course concepts because they are used to gauge the proficiency of the student in terms of how much they have understood the course.

That being said, hope that this article has been worth your time. All the best!

When not handling complex essays and academic writing tasks, Josh is busy advising students on how to pass assignments. In spare time, he loves playing football or walking with his dog around the park.

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How to write a term paper: comprehensive guide for students.

Many students think that for any form of writing, ‘things just fall into place.’ However, to come up with a good term paper, more is happening behind the scenes.

Considering its length and relevance, you can be sure that the activities behind the scenes are rigorous. This guide will empower you to know how to write a term paper fast and painstakingly.

What is a Term Paper?

It refers to a significant assignment written in college over an academic term at the end of a school semester. Therefore, a term paper can act as a yardstick for the student’s performance during the whole period. It evaluates whether the student understood the course in its entirety or not.

A student will be required to conduct a lot of research to develop a top-grade, well-organized, and analyzed term paper. The ability to do this will show that the student has acquired knowledge in his study.

Nevertheless, most students confuse a term paper for a research paper.

Difference Between Term Paper and Research Paper

The two share similar features and can even seem related, but there are apparent differences. Whereas a term paper comes at the end of a term, you can write a research paper at any time of your semester.

You write a research paper to answer particular theoretical questions. However, the term paper offers a critical examination of current topics, and students are allowed to give their opinions. Another significant difference is that a term paper has between 3,000 to 5,000 words, while a research paper can go up to 5,000 words.

However, both of them involve a great deal of research and writing.

How To Write a Term Paper Outline

A term paper outline is necessary for your research, as well as the writing process. It forms the whole skeleton upon which to found your term paper. The internet is awash with a plethora of college term paper format examples.

However, different institutions will recommend a specific term paper format. Thus, you will have to be up to speed with your college or university’s format for a term paper. Irrespective of all these differences, a term paper will have the following parts:

• An introduction,
• And a conclusion.

A well-structured college term paper outline guarantees an excellent paper at the end. You should be in a position to harmonize all the parts of a term paper into one melody that communicates an unmistakable thought of ideas.

Term Paper Structure

The following layout should help you come up with a high-quality term paper this semester:

The Cover page consists of the student’s name, date, course number, and other details concerning the term paper. This text should be at the center. Acknowledgment: Who inspired you towards writing your term paper? You can mention any specific help accorded to you by the people you choose to say here. The Abstract: It summarizes the term paper, which is usually less than one page long. It defines what your article is all about straightforwardly and concisely. The Introduction: It brings the topic of discussion into perspective through the background info. You will also show the significance of the term paper topic and how it will help to solve a particular problem at hand. The body: You will provide an in-depth analysis of the topic citing relevant facts and sources. It should help the reader have a firm grasp of the problem and why it needs his/her attention. The body comprises of the literature review and research methodology. The results and findings: What were you able to get from your research? Are the findings in tandem with the hypothesis that you set out at the beginning? Is there something that needs urgent attention from the results you obtained? Discussion: Sum up the results and findings of the problem that you set out to research. The conclusion can be a restatement of the thesis statement or an appeal for further research on the topic.

And there you have your professional and standard term paper outline example. Ensure that you adequately provide information for every section. Do not leave any room for doubt or speculation on the part of the reader.

How to Write a Term Paper Proposal

Before you embark on the actual term paper writing, you will have to hand in a term paper proposal. Your instructor will have to give you the green light before you proceed. Therefore, it’s not a light matter.

Below are guidelines on how to do a term paper proposal:

State the significance of the term paper topic in a clear and precise manner Outline the list of objectives that you aim to achieve Show recent research made on the subject and reference them properly Have a smooth flow of ideas

You can be sure that any slight mistake in this term paper proposal can lead to its disqualification. Furthermore, you should conduct comprehensive research before writing your term paper proposal. Do not settle for a title that will not have sufficient facts as you progress on to write.

Institutions will have their in-house guidelines on how to format a term paper proposal. If you don’t have one yet, you can use the following format:

• A clear and coherent title
• Objectives you aim to achieve at the end of your research
• The relevance and importance of your topic.

Are you worried about where you will find a title for your upcoming term paper? Here are relevant sources that you can explore for a potential topic or research problem:

• Recent News,
• TV documentaries,
• Social events,
• Global conventions,
• Blog articles, and

You will be amazed at how much information you will find from these sources. Alternatively, you can use the help of expert writers for hire. There’s always a way out regardless of the complexity of the project.

Professional Term Paper Guidelines

Although there are many term paper samples available online, it is crucial to understand the standard operating procedures. This way, you will not be tossed back and forth with the numerous ‘expert’ examples that you will encounter:

• Follow the right format: The most common formats are the MLA and APA format. The use of either format depends on the type of subject. Proper citation will save you from plagiarism accusations.
• Do not be afraid of long research hours: For your term paper to stand out, you must be ready to pay the price – in-depth research. It will help you have a firm standing on your topic and all the relevant information at hand.
• Do not use fluff words: Only include constructive and relevant information. Unnecessary blubbering is an attention killer and may make your paper a top candidate for the trash bin.
• Proofread your work: Due to the long and sleepless nights spent on a term paper, most students will forego the proofreading part. However, sidelining this crucial stage may leave your document marred with many spelling and grammatical mistakes.

You can find cheap and professional writing help with a term paper today. Your top-notch paper is just a click away.

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Home » The Daily Bugle » Research Paper vs. Term Paper: What Are the Differences and Similarities?

Research Paper vs. Term Paper: What Are the Differences and Similarities?

Posted by Betty Bugle | Jan 28, 2022 | The Daily Bugle | 0

The variety of academic assignments is quite astonishing, isn’t it? Yet, some teachers use the types interchangeably. There are theses called dissertations and vice versa, case studies being a part of essays, and meta-analysis considered a part of SLRs by default. And what about term and research papers? What should one know before starting to prepare one?

If you don’t like to get into details, you can buy a paper just like many other students buy essay online from professionals. Yet, if you would like to figure out how one is different from another, we suggest that you go through the points listed below. 

Similarities

Topic selection.

The rules of topic selection are the same for both papers. You are either assigned a topic or can choose it yourself. Of course, it should be related to the matters discussed during lectures and in study materials. However, it is not a must to get approval before starting writing something in contrast to the cases with final papers, theses, or dissertations.

Basic Requirements

As with any academic assignment, both are expected to be properly formatted and have one referencing style. If one is not indicated in instructions, you can stick to MLA or APA – the most common ones. The other rules are as follows:

• bibliography section is a must;
• plagiarizing or using a lot of direct quotes is a don’t;
• the general flow “Introduction, Body, Conclusion” is applicable to both assignments.

Term Paper Can Be a Research One

That’s the last similarity that can bring a lot of confusion. So, are term papers a more general type of assignment? At some institutions, they can be. Even in an occasional Essay Hub review , one can see these terms used interchangeably. If the assignment is to investigate a topic based on evidence, using a methodological approach, and produce a term paper reaching at least 10 pages, then it’s a research paper as well. Do clarify it with your teacher to avoid ambiguities.

Differences

The structural differences are the main ones that help distinguish between the two. Research papers should be split into the following chapters.

• Introduction
• Literature Review
• Methodology
• Results/Findings
• Discussion/Analysis
• Reflection (optional)

Usually, term papers don’t have questions or hypotheses to explore or test. There are also no appendices, but an annotated bibliography can be requested by some teachers. 

An addressed problem like a literature gap or a contradiction in it is a sign of a good research paper. The latter won’t get a pass if it simply summarizes knowledge, but a term one is all about summarizing what students processed during a course.

Term papers can be voluminous in comparison to some essays, but not as long as research ones. The latter can start from 10 pages (considering one page contains 275 words) and have up to 40, if not more. 

Meanwhile, term papers rarely reach even 20 pages and can be as long as 1000 words too. Basically, they are the bridge between essays and research: they don’t presuppose serious data collection and analysis yet, but they are not about creative writing anymore as well.

Deadline & Grade

As it is clear from the name, a term paper is related to the assessment at the end of a course. It is given at the end of a semester and always determines the final grade. Although research papers can also influence your grade, it differs based on the assignment criteria. 

For example, a 10-page research paper won’t influence your grade a lot. It’s not the reason to underestimate this task, though. The skills acquired during its completion may be of great help for you in the next years at college or university. In addition, it never hurts to earn some extra points to be on the safe side.

Style of Writing

Both types of tasks require analysis, but it’s much simpler to meet the criteria for a term one. It allows the author to include their personal opinion if it’s supported with some evidence. Yet, in research, it’s all about the evidence and problem-solving steps, while a personal opinion is acceptable only in such sections as Reflection. 

Primary Data

Unless a term paper presupposes conducting research as exemplified in the similarities, it shouldn’t have primary data (interviews, questionnaires, experiments, photos taken by the author, etc.). First of all, gathering such data is a time-consuming process. Second, you simply won’t be able to squeeze all the details into a 3-4-page term paper.

To inexperienced students, term and research papers can seem like almost identical tasks. However, as you can see, the approaches are quite different. Whenever you are given an academic assignment, ask for all possible guidelines and marking criteria. They are the first documents that should guide your writing process. And if you’re not provided with any, consider the points above to complete the assignment correctly.

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The Difference between Term and Research Papers

Term paper and research papers have a lot in common, but they have some significant differences. First and for most, term papers are more personalized, while research assignments do not have to point to the student's personal achievements. It is rather general. Term paper is a collection of student's skills towards a particular academic Research paper highlights student's knowledge gained during the course marginally: an instructor can only guess the effectiveness of teaching methods and tools used within that class. The reason why term paper format is a bit more complex is that it provides a more detailed picture of what student actually knows. It shows the path for further education. For instance, student has to add up an appendix. This part only seems complicated, but, in fact, you just have to include some tables and graphs (if any) used as the basis for your research. Written Assignments Evaluation Criteria Term papers always go in the end of a semester. Students can face the challenge of writing a research at any time. It means that a student can be asked to accomplish multiple research papers during the semester. However, the process of grading these two tasks looks pretty much similar. The evaluation process is based on the:

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Difference Between Research Paper and Term Paper

Term paper and Research paper are two different things. The two share similar features and they may even be related, but exhibit differences to consider.

The research paper is an academic style of writing that requires the student to answer a significant, methodical, and theoretical level of questioning. Similarly, term paper requires the student to interpret what he or she gathered from the subject matter to display a clear understanding in the form of a paper. It can be of various lengths, which can be up to five thousand words.

A research paper is devoted to a problem within a specific course. Research papers are written to study some specific problems which have not been covered efficaciously or sometimes when results are doubtful. Research paper usually has elements of research.

A research paper has a specific structure despite the subject; the title page, the table of contents, the introduction/background information, the literature review, the methodology, the results, the discussion, and the conclusions/recommendations. Each of these sections has specific guidelines for writing. No matter the problem question under research, the structure usually remains the same. This type of paper writing usually requires time for conducting research and writing it.

There are many types of research which differ in properties according to the mode of information gathering technique, examples; interview, observation, questionnaire, survey, and experiment. Depending on the hypothesis and the purpose of the study, the research may take time ranging from a day to years depending on the volume and difficulty of problem question.

A research paper is usually a lengthy piece of writing. Usually, research papers are a minimum of ten pages and may be up to hundred pages and more. One can rarely meet a research paper less than ten pages; it is almost impossible in its case to explain the major points, discuss results and prove the hypothesis in a low number of pages.

A research paper can cover materials studied over previous years which are laid out in various courses in forms of books, journals, previous research papers, and published articles. Writing a research paper on a particular problem may require turning to the particular problem discussed in the past. The materials learned from the past may help in explaining some processes, discussing the background information, and analyzing the literature on the problem question. Look for examples of research paper to get practical idea to write your own.

A term paper , on the other hand, is aimed at checking students’ knowledge after some themes studied. Having completed a specific theme, students may also be asked write an essay, take a test, or complete some task devoted to this particular theme study. Students are required to write term papers to demonstrate that they have gained the required knowledge and skills in a certain subject matter.

A term paper is usually assigned to students near the end of a class as a tool to count toward the subject’s final grade; in fact, in some instances, it will be the only assigned means to grade. Although the length may vary greatly, it is common for them to be from three to five thousand words.

A term paper can come in the form of a critical essay that covers a current or popular topic. When structured like this, the student must include their point of view on the subject while also demonstrating an accurate and clear understanding of the topic. The paper should also contain some arguments that are both compelling and accompanied by evidence or facts for support

Generally speaking, one writes a term paper to indicate that he or she has learned or acquired the knowledge of a particular subject. The term paper is usually given at the end of the term and counts as an important percentage of the final exam. A term paper generally runs between 3,000 and 5,000 words.

A term paper permits for a vital examination of current topics and usually allows the writer’s opinion. Term paper contains arguments and persuasions that must be supported with facts taken from various reliable sources, such as scholarly magazines, academic papers, and textbooks.

A term paper, being part of a course, is usually completed after a specific period of studying. The course is usually divided into terms and themes. Having come to an end of a term, students are usually asked to take a test or complete another task, which will show how well students have learned the course material during the discussed period. The grades for this task usually have a special value in the overall student’s grade.

A term paper can be of any nature and structure. Opposing to a research paper with a specific structure. A term paper may be written in the form of an essay or other forms of writing; it can have a questions-answers structure; it can be an article, a review, an annotated bibliography, a test, and even a research paper.

A term paper can be of any length. It can be one-paged, unlike the typical research paper which cannot be adequately expressed on a page and could also be twenty paged, no matter what the topic is and what type of the task is requested. Overall, each professor should select what kind of task fit better the specific topic which has been studied. Usually, a term paper covers the theme or the themes studied during a particular period, the main purpose of such task is to show how well students have understood the materials and lessons taught during that period.

A task in a term paper can be in the form of a research paper, while it is impossible to have a task in a research paper to write a term paper. These two types of writing are different even though each student’s task is aimed at checking their knowledge. Educational process can be complicated and usually require constant motivation and encouragement from the professors. Therefore it is advised that tutors should try not to impose his/her opinion on students when writing term papers, this helps term paper serve its purpose better, which is to determine students’ knowledge on the topic. Some students may need the appreciation of their skills or some additional punishment, which may stimulate them to work harder.

The Main Characteristics of a Research Paper

This kind of academic writing involves exploration of the topic idea which aims to answer a particular theoretical question. A typical document consists of 5,000 words but is often a bit longer. The student is asked to interpret information provided on a chosen topic and analyze it thoroughly. It can be assigned anytime, yet most instructors give this task at the beginning of the semester to allow students to have enough time to gather data and compose their works. This kind of paper often involves primary data collection and its further interpretation.

The Key Features of a Term Paper

A student writes this paper to demonstrate his or her knowledge of a particular subject studied. The length of the work usually varies from 3,000 to 5,000 words. A chosen topic should be carefully examined, and the writer should provide his or her personal opinion towards the issue under study.

This assignment is usually given at the end of the semester and significantly influences the final grade. The term paper should be based on credible sources, such as scholarly articles, academic works, lab reports, and textbooks.

The Differences between These Assignments

Despite both assignments share some qualities. In each instance, students can pick a topic that arouses their interest. They use the same type of resources and the structures of the documents could be quite similar. The real difference between these pieces of academic writing, is that a research paper is assigned at any time and doesn’t generally count toward the final grade . Another aspect that writing instructors pay their attention to is the fact that a research paper often contains a hypothesis while a term paper supports a thesis statement. Besides, the research paper usually has a long list of references. The term paper assignment, however, is shorter and does not usually contain appendixes.

Another significant difference between a research paper and a term paper is that the research paper is used to make the student engage in problem-solving activities while term paper is simply meant to test the student’s knowledge, not necessarily solve the problem.

This table summarizes the difference between research paper and term paper;

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The InfoGraphic seems to suggest that it ‘Takes Moths… to complete’. This is new to me.

very nice description for undertanding thank you

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Paper Trails: Comparing Research and Term Papers

As technology has continued to advance, research and term papers have become increasingly reliant on digital paper trails. This article will compare and contrast the use of traditional ‘paper’ versus digital methods in academic writing – focusing primarily on two key components: authorship and organization. It will explore the potential risks associated with transitioning from physical paper-based records to a fully digitized system, as well as investigate how these practices can be adapted for educational purposes. Finally, it will examine some of the innovative tools which are available today to simplify the management of this type of project.

I. Introduction: Exploring the Different Types of Paper Trails

Ii. research papers – a brief overview, iii. term papers – definition and purpose, iv. comparing research and term papers: major differences, v. identifying similarities between research and term papers, vi. effective strategies for creating a quality paper trail, vii. conclusion: the benefits of understanding paper trails.

Papers, papers everywhere! Papers form the basis of record keeping and communication in many disciplines. When it comes to school work, two main types of paper trail come into play: research papers and term papers.

• Research Paper : A research paper is an in-depth document meant to explore a particular topic or problem more deeply than other forms of academic writing. It takes significantly longer to write one, as its content must be backed up with reliable sources from various angles.

A student’s goal when creating a research paper should be to present their own thoughts on the subject at hand while also providing evidence from outside sources that backs them up. Researching for this type of assignment often requires digging deep into scholarly journals or interviewing experts who are experienced in the subject matter.

• Term Paper : Term papers differ from research assignments because they require students analyze existing theories rather than develop their own arguments based off external information. Though time consuming, it can help improve analytical skills by breaking down complex concepts into simple terms.

Research papers are a common academic task assigned by universities and colleges around the world. They require an in-depth understanding of the topic at hand as well as sound evidence to support any findings or theories suggested. It is important to distinguish between research papers and term papers, although both involve intensive research.

• Research Papers:

Research papers aim to present a thoroughly investigated issue that applies various techniques including data collection, evaluation of sources, analysis of results etcetera. In most cases they will be lengthy works which explore the subject matter from multiple angles with greater attention paid to accuracy than immediacy.

• Term Papers:

On the other hand, term papers generally provide summaries on previously established facts about a particular subject rather than researching new information for it. Here one must rely mostly on already existing literature and reference materials while also being concise enough so that all necessary aspects can fit into one document without overwhelming readers with superfluous details.

What is a Term Paper?

A term paper, also known as an academic paper, is a formal document submitted to university or college professors at the end of a semester. It usually contains research findings and can be based on any relevant topic within its course area. It’s expected that students present their own work instead of simply summarizing other people’s ideas; hence it requires critical thinking and synthesis of information from various sources to form an argument.

Purpose of Term Papers

Term papers have two primary goals:

• To assess student’s understanding about what they have learned in class.
• To provide students with the opportunity for independent research and thought process development regarding certain topics.

. This type of assignment allows instructors to evaluate whether learners are able to apply knowledge effectively by researching various issues related to their courses. Moreover, through this task they get acquainted with different writing styles such as APA or MLA formats which will help them throughout higher education level. It should be noted that there are differences between term papers vs research papers, since while both require original content supported by evidence-based facts; the latter demands more analysis than mere description or opinion statements (for example).

Understanding Research and Term Papers When it comes to academic writing, research papers and term papers are two commonly assigned tasks. Although there are many similarities between these two pieces of work, they also have some noteworthy differences which should be taken into consideration when deciding on the best approach for completing either assignment.

Research papers require a more in-depth analysis than term papers. In order to write a successful research paper, students need to read beyond the information provided in course textbooks or lectures; investigating resources outside their educational environment is often necessary. Additionally, researching material requires strong synthesis skills so that sources can be effectively integrated with each other within an argumentative context.

In contrast, term papers generally focus less on exploring new ideas and theories; instead emphasizing summarizing existing knowledge from texts such as books or articles related to the subject matter at hand. The objective here is usually not finding original conclusions but rather consolidating data already found by scholars before them. Consequently although careful selection of literature remains essential during this process its scope will likely remain narrower compared with what’s needed for research paper composition .

Research Paper vs Term Paper Both research papers and term papers have similar aims, that of conveying information to the reader. However, there are several differences between them as well. Generally speaking, a research paper is more detailed in its content and requires a higher level of expertise than a term paper does. This section will explore these similarities and distinctions further.

At their core, both types of assignments focus on the acquisition or delivery of knowledge based upon an examination into one’s chosen field. The primary difference lies in how they approach this goal; specifically with regard to formatting style and content depth. A research paper usually adheres to formal academic writing conventions while taking advantage of numerous outside sources for data collection such as scholarly journals or books written by experts within the subject area being studied.

• It typically presents original hypotheses alongside supporting evidence.
• In-text citations are often used when referencing any external materials.

On the other hand, a term paper can be considered less rigorous due to shorter lengths which limit what topics can realistically be explored during its time frame – usually only those already known about from prior studies rather than anything novel enough for comprehensive investigation.

• A much smaller number (or even no) references are expected.

As opposed to merely summarizing existing findings like reports do though it should still include some form of critical analysis over various facets depending on individual instructor requirements.

Creating a quality paper trail can be daunting, especially for longer projects like research papers and term papers. Here are some strategies to help you create an effective paper trail:

• Start Early: Getting started on your project early will give you enough time to put together a solid paper trail. This way, if something goes wrong or changes unexpectedly along the way, you’ll have plenty of time to adjust.
• Keep It Organized: Organization is key when it comes to creating an effective paper trail. Keep all related documents in one place (ideally digital), label everything appropriately so that others can follow your train of thought easily, and make sure each document is up-to-date with current information.

Having an understanding of paper trails provides various benefits to a researcher. Firstly, it allows researchers to identify and pursue potentially significant sources of information that may not be immediately apparent during the research process. This is especially important for graduate students who are researching complex topics or attempting to uncover details in archived documents.

Research Paper vs Term Paper : In terms of preparation, there can be some crossover between these two assignments. However, research papers tend to focus more on synthesizing existing knowledge with new evidence whereas term papers rely more heavily on examining published material without further investigation into original findings.

English: This article has provided a comprehensive overview of the differences between research and term papers. It is clear that both types of papers have their own unique purpose, format, and structure. Research papers offer an in-depth exploration into specific topics while term papers are focused more on summarizing material already presented within a course or class. Ultimately, it is up to the student to determine which type of paper best suits their needs as they continue with academic pursuits. With this knowledge in hand, we can all be better prepared for future writing assignments and ensure successful outcomes!

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What the data says about abortion in the u.s..

Pew Research Center has conducted many surveys about abortion over the years, providing a lens into Americans’ views on whether the procedure should be legal, among a host of other questions.

In a  Center survey  conducted nearly a year after the Supreme Court’s June 2022 decision that  ended the constitutional right to abortion , 62% of U.S. adults said the practice should be legal in all or most cases, while 36% said it should be illegal in all or most cases. Another survey conducted a few months before the decision showed that relatively few Americans take an absolutist view on the issue .

Find answers to common questions about abortion in America, based on data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Guttmacher Institute, which have tracked these patterns for several decades:

How many abortions are there in the U.S. each year?

How has the number of abortions in the u.s. changed over time, what is the abortion rate among women in the u.s. how has it changed over time, what are the most common types of abortion, how many abortion providers are there in the u.s., and how has that number changed, what percentage of abortions are for women who live in a different state from the abortion provider, what are the demographics of women who have had abortions, when during pregnancy do most abortions occur, how often are there medical complications from abortion.

This compilation of data on abortion in the United States draws mainly from two sources: the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Guttmacher Institute, both of which have regularly compiled national abortion data for approximately half a century, and which collect their data in different ways.

The CDC data that is highlighted in this post comes from the agency’s “abortion surveillance” reports, which have been published annually since 1974 (and which have included data from 1969). Its figures from 1973 through 1996 include data from all 50 states, the District of Columbia and New York City – 52 “reporting areas” in all. Since 1997, the CDC’s totals have lacked data from some states (most notably California) for the years that those states did not report data to the agency. The four reporting areas that did not submit data to the CDC in 2021 – California, Maryland, New Hampshire and New Jersey – accounted for approximately 25% of all legal induced abortions in the U.S. in 2020, according to Guttmacher’s data. Most states, though,  do  have data in the reports, and the figures for the vast majority of them came from each state’s central health agency, while for some states, the figures came from hospitals and other medical facilities.

Discussion of CDC abortion data involving women’s state of residence, marital status, race, ethnicity, age, abortion history and the number of previous live births excludes the low share of abortions where that information was not supplied. Read the methodology for the CDC’s latest abortion surveillance report , which includes data from 2021, for more details. Previous reports can be found at  stacks.cdc.gov  by entering “abortion surveillance” into the search box.

For the numbers of deaths caused by induced abortions in 1963 and 1965, this analysis looks at reports by the then-U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, a precursor to the Department of Health and Human Services. In computing those figures, we excluded abortions listed in the report under the categories “spontaneous or unspecified” or as “other.” (“Spontaneous abortion” is another way of referring to miscarriages.)

Guttmacher data in this post comes from national surveys of abortion providers that Guttmacher has conducted 19 times since 1973. Guttmacher compiles its figures after contacting every known provider of abortions – clinics, hospitals and physicians’ offices – in the country. It uses questionnaires and health department data, and it provides estimates for abortion providers that don’t respond to its inquiries. (In 2020, the last year for which it has released data on the number of abortions in the U.S., it used estimates for 12% of abortions.) For most of the 2000s, Guttmacher has conducted these national surveys every three years, each time getting abortion data for the prior two years. For each interim year, Guttmacher has calculated estimates based on trends from its own figures and from other data.

The latest full summary of Guttmacher data came in the institute’s report titled “Abortion Incidence and Service Availability in the United States, 2020.” It includes figures for 2020 and 2019 and estimates for 2018. The report includes a methods section.

In addition, this post uses data from StatPearls, an online health care resource, on complications from abortion.

An exact answer is hard to come by. The CDC and the Guttmacher Institute have each tried to measure this for around half a century, but they use different methods and publish different figures.

The last year for which the CDC reported a yearly national total for abortions is 2021. It found there were 625,978 abortions in the District of Columbia and the 46 states with available data that year, up from 597,355 in those states and D.C. in 2020. The corresponding figure for 2019 was 607,720.

The last year for which Guttmacher reported a yearly national total was 2020. It said there were 930,160 abortions that year in all 50 states and the District of Columbia, compared with 916,460 in 2019.

• How the CDC gets its data: It compiles figures that are voluntarily reported by states’ central health agencies, including separate figures for New York City and the District of Columbia. Its latest totals do not include figures from California, Maryland, New Hampshire or New Jersey, which did not report data to the CDC. ( Read the methodology from the latest CDC report .)
• How Guttmacher gets its data: It compiles its figures after contacting every known abortion provider – clinics, hospitals and physicians’ offices – in the country. It uses questionnaires and health department data, then provides estimates for abortion providers that don’t respond. Guttmacher’s figures are higher than the CDC’s in part because they include data (and in some instances, estimates) from all 50 states. ( Read the institute’s latest full report and methodology .)

While the Guttmacher Institute supports abortion rights, its empirical data on abortions in the U.S. has been widely cited by  groups  and  publications  across the political spectrum, including by a  number of those  that  disagree with its positions .

These estimates from Guttmacher and the CDC are results of multiyear efforts to collect data on abortion across the U.S. Last year, Guttmacher also began publishing less precise estimates every few months , based on a much smaller sample of providers.

The figures reported by these organizations include only legal induced abortions conducted by clinics, hospitals or physicians’ offices, or those that make use of abortion pills dispensed from certified facilities such as clinics or physicians’ offices. They do not account for the use of abortion pills that were obtained  outside of clinical settings .

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The annual number of U.S. abortions rose for years after Roe v. Wade legalized the procedure in 1973, reaching its highest levels around the late 1980s and early 1990s, according to both the CDC and Guttmacher. Since then, abortions have generally decreased at what a CDC analysis called  “a slow yet steady pace.”

Guttmacher says the number of abortions occurring in the U.S. in 2020 was 40% lower than it was in 1991. According to the CDC, the number was 36% lower in 2021 than in 1991, looking just at the District of Columbia and the 46 states that reported both of those years.

(The corresponding line graph shows the long-term trend in the number of legal abortions reported by both organizations. To allow for consistent comparisons over time, the CDC figures in the chart have been adjusted to ensure that the same states are counted from one year to the next. Using that approach, the CDC figure for 2021 is 622,108 legal abortions.)

There have been occasional breaks in this long-term pattern of decline – during the middle of the first decade of the 2000s, and then again in the late 2010s. The CDC reported modest 1% and 2% increases in abortions in 2018 and 2019, and then, after a 2% decrease in 2020, a 5% increase in 2021. Guttmacher reported an 8% increase over the three-year period from 2017 to 2020.

As noted above, these figures do not include abortions that use pills obtained outside of clinical settings.

Guttmacher says that in 2020 there were 14.4 abortions in the U.S. per 1,000 women ages 15 to 44. Its data shows that the rate of abortions among women has generally been declining in the U.S. since 1981, when it reported there were 29.3 abortions per 1,000 women in that age range.

The CDC says that in 2021, there were 11.6 abortions in the U.S. per 1,000 women ages 15 to 44. (That figure excludes data from California, the District of Columbia, Maryland, New Hampshire and New Jersey.) Like Guttmacher’s data, the CDC’s figures also suggest a general decline in the abortion rate over time. In 1980, when the CDC reported on all 50 states and D.C., it said there were 25 abortions per 1,000 women ages 15 to 44.

That said, both Guttmacher and the CDC say there were slight increases in the rate of abortions during the late 2010s and early 2020s. Guttmacher says the abortion rate per 1,000 women ages 15 to 44 rose from 13.5 in 2017 to 14.4 in 2020. The CDC says it rose from 11.2 per 1,000 in 2017 to 11.4 in 2019, before falling back to 11.1 in 2020 and then rising again to 11.6 in 2021. (The CDC’s figures for those years exclude data from California, D.C., Maryland, New Hampshire and New Jersey.)

The CDC broadly divides abortions into two categories: surgical abortions and medication abortions, which involve pills. Since the Food and Drug Administration first approved abortion pills in 2000, their use has increased over time as a share of abortions nationally, according to both the CDC and Guttmacher.

The majority of abortions in the U.S. now involve pills, according to both the CDC and Guttmacher. The CDC says 56% of U.S. abortions in 2021 involved pills, up from 53% in 2020 and 44% in 2019. Its figures for 2021 include the District of Columbia and 44 states that provided this data; its figures for 2020 include D.C. and 44 states (though not all of the same states as in 2021), and its figures for 2019 include D.C. and 45 states.

Guttmacher, which measures this every three years, says 53% of U.S. abortions involved pills in 2020, up from 39% in 2017.

Two pills commonly used together for medication abortions are mifepristone, which, taken first, blocks hormones that support a pregnancy, and misoprostol, which then causes the uterus to empty. According to the FDA, medication abortions are safe  until 10 weeks into pregnancy.

Surgical abortions conducted  during the first trimester  of pregnancy typically use a suction process, while the relatively few surgical abortions that occur  during the second trimester  of a pregnancy typically use a process called dilation and evacuation, according to the UCLA School of Medicine.

In 2020, there were 1,603 facilities in the U.S. that provided abortions,  according to Guttmacher . This included 807 clinics, 530 hospitals and 266 physicians’ offices.

While clinics make up half of the facilities that provide abortions, they are the sites where the vast majority (96%) of abortions are administered, either through procedures or the distribution of pills, according to Guttmacher’s 2020 data. (This includes 54% of abortions that are administered at specialized abortion clinics and 43% at nonspecialized clinics.) Hospitals made up 33% of the facilities that provided abortions in 2020 but accounted for only 3% of abortions that year, while just 1% of abortions were conducted by physicians’ offices.

Looking just at clinics – that is, the total number of specialized abortion clinics and nonspecialized clinics in the U.S. – Guttmacher found the total virtually unchanged between 2017 (808 clinics) and 2020 (807 clinics). However, there were regional differences. In the Midwest, the number of clinics that provide abortions increased by 11% during those years, and in the West by 6%. The number of clinics  decreased  during those years by 9% in the Northeast and 3% in the South.

The total number of abortion providers has declined dramatically since the 1980s. In 1982, according to Guttmacher, there were 2,908 facilities providing abortions in the U.S., including 789 clinics, 1,405 hospitals and 714 physicians’ offices.

The CDC does not track the number of abortion providers.

In the District of Columbia and the 46 states that provided abortion and residency information to the CDC in 2021, 10.9% of all abortions were performed on women known to live outside the state where the abortion occurred – slightly higher than the percentage in 2020 (9.7%). That year, D.C. and 46 states (though not the same ones as in 2021) reported abortion and residency data. (The total number of abortions used in these calculations included figures for women with both known and unknown residential status.)

The share of reported abortions performed on women outside their state of residence was much higher before the 1973 Roe decision that stopped states from banning abortion. In 1972, 41% of all abortions in D.C. and the 20 states that provided this information to the CDC that year were performed on women outside their state of residence. In 1973, the corresponding figure was 21% in the District of Columbia and the 41 states that provided this information, and in 1974 it was 11% in D.C. and the 43 states that provided data.

In the District of Columbia and the 46 states that reported age data to  the CDC in 2021, the majority of women who had abortions (57%) were in their 20s, while about three-in-ten (31%) were in their 30s. Teens ages 13 to 19 accounted for 8% of those who had abortions, while women ages 40 to 44 accounted for about 4%.

The vast majority of women who had abortions in 2021 were unmarried (87%), while married women accounted for 13%, according to  the CDC , which had data on this from 37 states.

In the District of Columbia, New York City (but not the rest of New York) and the 31 states that reported racial and ethnic data on abortion to  the CDC , 42% of all women who had abortions in 2021 were non-Hispanic Black, while 30% were non-Hispanic White, 22% were Hispanic and 6% were of other races.

Looking at abortion rates among those ages 15 to 44, there were 28.6 abortions per 1,000 non-Hispanic Black women in 2021; 12.3 abortions per 1,000 Hispanic women; 6.4 abortions per 1,000 non-Hispanic White women; and 9.2 abortions per 1,000 women of other races, the  CDC reported  from those same 31 states, D.C. and New York City.

For 57% of U.S. women who had induced abortions in 2021, it was the first time they had ever had one,  according to the CDC.  For nearly a quarter (24%), it was their second abortion. For 11% of women who had an abortion that year, it was their third, and for 8% it was their fourth or more. These CDC figures include data from 41 states and New York City, but not the rest of New York.

Nearly four-in-ten women who had abortions in 2021 (39%) had no previous live births at the time they had an abortion,  according to the CDC . Almost a quarter (24%) of women who had abortions in 2021 had one previous live birth, 20% had two previous live births, 10% had three, and 7% had four or more previous live births. These CDC figures include data from 41 states and New York City, but not the rest of New York.

The vast majority of abortions occur during the first trimester of a pregnancy. In 2021, 93% of abortions occurred during the first trimester – that is, at or before 13 weeks of gestation,  according to the CDC . An additional 6% occurred between 14 and 20 weeks of pregnancy, and about 1% were performed at 21 weeks or more of gestation. These CDC figures include data from 40 states and New York City, but not the rest of New York.

About 2% of all abortions in the U.S. involve some type of complication for the woman , according to an article in StatPearls, an online health care resource. “Most complications are considered minor such as pain, bleeding, infection and post-anesthesia complications,” according to the article.

The CDC calculates  case-fatality rates for women from induced abortions – that is, how many women die from abortion-related complications, for every 100,000 legal abortions that occur in the U.S .  The rate was lowest during the most recent period examined by the agency (2013 to 2020), when there were 0.45 deaths to women per 100,000 legal induced abortions. The case-fatality rate reported by the CDC was highest during the first period examined by the agency (1973 to 1977), when it was 2.09 deaths to women per 100,000 legal induced abortions. During the five-year periods in between, the figure ranged from 0.52 (from 1993 to 1997) to 0.78 (from 1978 to 1982).

The CDC calculates death rates by five-year and seven-year periods because of year-to-year fluctuation in the numbers and due to the relatively low number of women who die from legal induced abortions.

In 2020, the last year for which the CDC has information , six women in the U.S. died due to complications from induced abortions. Four women died in this way in 2019, two in 2018, and three in 2017. (These deaths all followed legal abortions.) Since 1990, the annual number of deaths among women due to legal induced abortion has ranged from two to 12.

The annual number of reported deaths from induced abortions (legal and illegal) tended to be higher in the 1980s, when it ranged from nine to 16, and from 1972 to 1979, when it ranged from 13 to 63. One driver of the decline was the drop in deaths from illegal abortions. There were 39 deaths from illegal abortions in 1972, the last full year before Roe v. Wade. The total fell to 19 in 1973 and to single digits or zero every year after that. (The number of deaths from legal abortions has also declined since then, though with some slight variation over time.)

The number of deaths from induced abortions was considerably higher in the 1960s than afterward. For instance, there were 119 deaths from induced abortions in  1963  and 99 in  1965 , according to reports by the then-U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, a precursor to the Department of Health and Human Services. The CDC is a division of Health and Human Services.

Note: This is an update of a post originally published May 27, 2022, and first updated June 24, 2022.

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Key facts about the abortion debate in America

Public opinion on abortion, three-in-ten or more democrats and republicans don’t agree with their party on abortion, partisanship a bigger factor than geography in views of abortion access locally, do state laws on abortion reflect public opinion, most popular.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

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What the Data Says About Pandemic School Closures, Four Years Later

The more time students spent in remote instruction, the further they fell behind. And, experts say, extended closures did little to stop the spread of Covid.

By Sarah Mervosh ,  Claire Cain Miller and Francesca Paris

Four years ago this month, schools nationwide began to shut down, igniting one of the most polarizing and partisan debates of the pandemic.

Some schools, often in Republican-led states and rural areas, reopened by fall 2020. Others, typically in large cities and states led by Democrats, would not fully reopen for another year.

A variety of data — about children’s academic outcomes and about the spread of Covid-19 — has accumulated in the time since. Today, there is broad acknowledgment among many public health and education experts that extended school closures did not significantly stop the spread of Covid, while the academic harms for children have been large and long-lasting.

While poverty and other factors also played a role, remote learning was a key driver of academic declines during the pandemic, research shows — a finding that held true across income levels.

Source: Fahle, Kane, Patterson, Reardon, Staiger and Stuart, “ School District and Community Factors Associated With Learning Loss During the COVID-19 Pandemic .” Score changes are measured from 2019 to 2022. In-person means a district offered traditional in-person learning, even if not all students were in-person.

“There’s fairly good consensus that, in general, as a society, we probably kept kids out of school longer than we should have,” said Dr. Sean O’Leary, a pediatric infectious disease specialist who helped write guidance for the American Academy of Pediatrics, which recommended in June 2020 that schools reopen with safety measures in place.

There were no easy decisions at the time. Officials had to weigh the risks of an emerging virus against the academic and mental health consequences of closing schools. And even schools that reopened quickly, by the fall of 2020, have seen lasting effects.

But as experts plan for the next public health emergency, whatever it may be, a growing body of research shows that pandemic school closures came at a steep cost to students.

The longer schools were closed, the more students fell behind.

At the state level, more time spent in remote or hybrid instruction in the 2020-21 school year was associated with larger drops in test scores, according to a New York Times analysis of school closure data and results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress , an authoritative exam administered to a national sample of fourth- and eighth-grade students.

At the school district level, that finding also holds, according to an analysis of test scores from third through eighth grade in thousands of U.S. districts, led by researchers at Stanford and Harvard. In districts where students spent most of the 2020-21 school year learning remotely, they fell more than half a grade behind in math on average, while in districts that spent most of the year in person they lost just over a third of a grade.

( A separate study of nearly 10,000 schools found similar results.)

Such losses can be hard to overcome, without significant interventions. The most recent test scores, from spring 2023, show that students, overall, are not caught up from their pandemic losses , with larger gaps remaining among students that lost the most ground to begin with. Students in districts that were remote or hybrid the longest — at least 90 percent of the 2020-21 school year — still had almost double the ground to make up compared with students in districts that allowed students back for most of the year.

Some time in person was better than no time.

As districts shifted toward in-person learning as the year went on, students that were offered a hybrid schedule (a few hours or days a week in person, with the rest online) did better, on average, than those in places where school was fully remote, but worse than those in places that had school fully in person.

Students in hybrid or remote learning, 2020-21

80% of students

Some schools return online, as Covid-19 cases surge. Vaccinations start for high-priority groups.

Teachers are eligible for the Covid vaccine in more than half of states.

Most districts end the year in-person or hybrid.

Source: Burbio audit of more than 1,200 school districts representing 47 percent of U.S. K-12 enrollment. Note: Learning mode was defined based on the most in-person option available to students.

Income and family background also made a big difference.

A second factor associated with academic declines during the pandemic was a community’s poverty level. Comparing districts with similar remote learning policies, poorer districts had steeper losses.

But in-person learning still mattered: Looking at districts with similar poverty levels, remote learning was associated with greater declines.

A community’s poverty rate and the length of school closures had a “roughly equal” effect on student outcomes, said Sean F. Reardon, a professor of poverty and inequality in education at Stanford, who led a district-level analysis with Thomas J. Kane, an economist at Harvard.

Score changes are measured from 2019 to 2022. Poorest and richest are the top and bottom 20% of districts by percent of students on free/reduced lunch. Mostly in-person and mostly remote are districts that offered traditional in-person learning for more than 90 percent or less than 10 percent of the 2020-21 year.

But the combination — poverty and remote learning — was particularly harmful. For each week spent remote, students in poor districts experienced steeper losses in math than peers in richer districts.

That is notable, because poor districts were also more likely to stay remote for longer .

Some of the country’s largest poor districts are in Democratic-leaning cities that took a more cautious approach to the virus. Poor areas, and Black and Hispanic communities , also suffered higher Covid death rates, making many families and teachers in those districts hesitant to return.

“We wanted to survive,” said Sarah Carpenter, the executive director of Memphis Lift, a parent advocacy group in Memphis, where schools were closed until spring 2021 .

“But I also think, man, looking back, I wish our kids could have gone back to school much quicker,” she added, citing the academic effects.

Other things were also associated with worse student outcomes, including increased anxiety and depression among adults in children’s lives, and the overall restriction of social activity in a community, according to the Stanford and Harvard research .

Even short closures had long-term consequences for children.

While being in school was on average better for academic outcomes, it wasn’t a guarantee. Some districts that opened early, like those in Cherokee County, Ga., a suburb of Atlanta, and Hanover County, Va., lost significant learning and remain behind.

At the same time, many schools are seeing more anxiety and behavioral outbursts among students. And chronic absenteeism from school has surged across demographic groups .

These are signs, experts say, that even short-term closures, and the pandemic more broadly, had lasting effects on the culture of education.

“There was almost, in the Covid era, a sense of, ‘We give up, we’re just trying to keep body and soul together,’ and I think that was corrosive to the higher expectations of schools,” said Margaret Spellings, an education secretary under President George W. Bush who is now chief executive of the Bipartisan Policy Center.

Closing schools did not appear to significantly slow Covid’s spread.

Perhaps the biggest question that hung over school reopenings: Was it safe?

That was largely unknown in the spring of 2020, when schools first shut down. But several experts said that had changed by the fall of 2020, when there were initial signs that children were less likely to become seriously ill, and growing evidence from Europe and parts of the United States that opening schools, with safety measures, did not lead to significantly more transmission.

“Infectious disease leaders have generally agreed that school closures were not an important strategy in stemming the spread of Covid,” said Dr. Jeanne Noble, who directed the Covid response at the U.C.S.F. Parnassus emergency department.

Politically, though, there remains some disagreement about when, exactly, it was safe to reopen school.

Republican governors who pushed to open schools sooner have claimed credit for their approach, while Democrats and teachers’ unions have emphasized their commitment to safety and their investment in helping students recover.

“I do believe it was the right decision,” said Jerry T. Jordan, president of the Philadelphia Federation of Teachers, which resisted returning to school in person over concerns about the availability of vaccines and poor ventilation in school buildings. Philadelphia schools waited to partially reopen until the spring of 2021 , a decision Mr. Jordan believes saved lives.

“It doesn’t matter what is going on in the building and how much people are learning if people are getting the virus and running the potential of dying,” he said.

Pandemic school closures offer lessons for the future.

Though the next health crisis may have different particulars, with different risk calculations, the consequences of closing schools are now well established, experts say.

In the future, infectious disease experts said, they hoped decisions would be guided more by epidemiological data as it emerged, taking into account the trade-offs.

“Could we have used data to better guide our decision making? Yes,” said Dr. Uzma N. Hasan, division chief of pediatric infectious diseases at RWJBarnabas Health in Livingston, N.J. “Fear should not guide our decision making.”

Source: Fahle, Kane, Patterson, Reardon, Staiger and Stuart, “ School District and Community Factors Associated With Learning Loss During the Covid-19 Pandemic. ”

The study used estimates of learning loss from the Stanford Education Data Archive . For closure lengths, the study averaged district-level estimates of time spent in remote and hybrid learning compiled by the Covid-19 School Data Hub (C.S.D.H.) and American Enterprise Institute (A.E.I.) . The A.E.I. data defines remote status by whether there was an in-person or hybrid option, even if some students chose to remain virtual. In the C.S.D.H. data set, districts are defined as remote if “all or most” students were virtual.

An earlier version of this article misstated a job description of Dr. Jeanne Noble. She directed the Covid response at the U.C.S.F. Parnassus emergency department. She did not direct the Covid response for the University of California, San Francisco health system.

How we handle corrections

Sarah Mervosh covers education for The Times, focusing on K-12 schools. More about Sarah Mervosh

Claire Cain Miller writes about gender, families and the future of work for The Upshot. She joined The Times in 2008 and was part of a team that won a Pulitzer Prize in 2018 for public service for reporting on workplace sexual harassment issues. More about Claire Cain Miller

Francesca Paris is a Times reporter working with data and graphics for The Upshot. More about Francesca Paris

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 26.3.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Designing and Implementation of a Digitalized Intersectoral Discharge Management System and Its Effect on Readmissions: Mixed Methods Approach

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

• Christoph Strumann 1 , PhD   ; 
• Lisa Pfau 1 , MD   ; 
• Laila Wahle 2 , MBA   ; 
• Raphael Schreiber 1 , MD   ; 
• Jost Steinhäuser 1 , Prof Dr Med, MD  

1 Institute of Family Medicine, University Medical Centre Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany

2 Lacanja GmbH Health Innovation Port, Hamburg, Germany

Corresponding Author:

Christoph Strumann, PhD

Institute of Family Medicine

University Medical Centre Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Lübeck

Ratzeburger Allee 160

Lübeck, 23538

Phone: 49 451 3101 8005

Email: [email protected]

Background: Digital transformation offers new opportunities to improve the exchange of information between different health care providers, including inpatient, outpatient and care facilities. As information is especially at risk of being lost when a patient is discharged from a hospital, digital transformation offers great opportunities to improve intersectoral discharge management. However, most strategies for improvement have focused on structures within the hospital.

Objective: This study aims to evaluate the implementation of a digitalized discharge management system, the project “Optimizing instersectoral discharge management” (SEKMA, derived from the German Sektorübergreifende Optimierung des Entlassmanagements), and its impact on the readmission rate.

Methods: A mixed methods design was used to evaluate the implementation of a digitalized discharge management system and its impact on the readmission rate. After the implementation, the congruence between the planned (logic model) and the actual intervention was evaluated using a fidelity analysis. Finally, bivariate and multivariate analyses were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation on the readmission rate. For this purpose, a difference-in-difference approach was adopted based on routine data of hospital admissions between April 2019 and August 2019 and between April 2022 and August 2022. The department of vascular surgery served as the intervention group, in which the optimized discharge management was implemented in April 2022. The departments of internal medicine and cardiology formed the control group.

Results: Overall, 26 interviews were conducted, and we explored 21 determinants, which can be categorized into 3 groups: “optimization potential,” “barriers,” and “enablers.” On the basis of these results, 19 strategies were developed to address the determinants, including a lack of networking among health care providers, digital information transmission, and user-unfriendliness. On the basis of these strategies, which were prioritized by 11 hospital physicians, a logic model was formulated. Of the 19 strategies, 7 (37%; eg, electronic discharge letter, providing mobile devices to the hospital’s social service, and generating individual medication plans in the format of the national medication plan) have been implemented in SEKMA. A survey on the fidelity of the application of the implemented strategies showed that 3 of these strategies were not yet widely applied. No significant effect of SEKMA on readmissions was observed in the routine data of 14,854 hospital admissions ( P =.20).

Conclusions: This study demonstrates the potential of optimizing intersectoral collaboration for patient care. Although a significant effect of SEKMA on readmissions has not yet been observed, creating a digital ecosystem that connects different health care providers seems to be a promising approach to ensure secure and fast networking of the sectors. The described intersectoral optimization of discharge management provides a structured template for the implementation of a similar local digital care networking infrastructure in other care regions in Germany and other countries with a similarly fragmented health care system.

Introduction

Digital patient process systems offer several advantages over analog systems. On the one hand, this can lead to more systematic, targeted use of resources, and on the other hand, easier communication and transmission of data can enable better coordination of the various cooperating partners [ 1 ]. Patient records are becoming increasingly digitalized, with some countries being prototypes in this area, such as Latvia, Denmark, and Spain [ 2 ].

In Germany, there have been several governmental attempts to shape different elements of health care digitalization. A recent example is the Hospital Future Act (Krankenhauszukunftsgesetz) from 2020. It was designed to support digitalization in hospitals by promoting the technical equipment of hospitals through state-funded investments. The investments are expected to improve process organization, documentation, and communication (internal, sectoral, and intersectoral) [ 3 ]. The results suggest that the Hospital Future Act, together with the COVID-19 pandemic, led to an increase in the digital maturity of hospitals and, thus, reduced the digitalization backlog [ 4 ]. Another approach to promote health care digitalization is the introduction of an electronic health record (EHR) within a secure telematics infrastructure. The EHR should not only simplify rapid communication within and across different health care institutions but also enable further eHealth applications, for example, electronic prescriptions [ 5 ]. However, the introduction of EHRs as well as other reforms promoting health care digitalization have been accompanied with strong resistance underpinned by arguments of data protection and security as well as by technical problems. Especially in the outpatient sector, the latter has resulted in a perceived disproportionate administrative effort without adequate financial compensation for the care providers such as private practices [ 6 ]. As a result, Germany lags behind other industrialized countries in the digitalization of the health care system [ 7 , 8 ].

An EHR could make treatment pathways more transparent and improve communication between different health care providers, including inpatient, outpatient and care facilities [ 9 ]. The exchange of information is particularly susceptible if a patient is discharged from hospital. With regard to the strongly pronounced sectoral separation in Germany [ 10 , 11 ], information loss is particularly high between inpatient and outpatient care. Moreover, owing to the accelerated tendency toward shortening the length of stay of patients in the inpatient sector as a result of the introduction of the diagnosis-related group–based reimbursement system [ 12 ], hospitals no longer provide care and treatment until full recovery [ 13 ]. Instead, parts of the treatment and recovery process are moved to the posthospital setting [ 14 ]. Similar developments have been observed after introducing the diagnosis-related group–based reimbursement system in other countries, for example, the United States [ 15 - 17 ]. Shortened length of stay and ineffectively designed transitions are associated with adverse events, higher risks of readmission, and higher costs [ 18 - 21 ]. Up to 1 (18%) in 5 patients are readmitted to the hospital within 30 days of discharge [ 22 , 23 ]. Individualized discharge management can reduce the number of readmissions of older patients with a health problem [ 24 ], leading to potential cost savings for the health care system [ 25 ]. To date, many strategies to improve discharge management have focused on structures within the hospital. However, to ensure a holistic and continuous treatment, the cooperation between different health care providers from the inpatient and outpatient sectors as well as care facilities should also be considered.

As there is still no EHR accessible to all caregivers in Germany, experience with digitalized health information systems has been gathered only in model projects, which are intended to provide insights into possible barriers and enablers for a successful implementation [ 5 , 26 - 30 ].

This study aims to explore the determinants of a digitalized discharge management system, to implement such a system within 1 area, and to evaluate its impact on the readmission rate.

The evaluation was done within the project “Optimizing intersectoral discharge management” (SEKMA, derived from the German Sektorübergreifende Optimierung des Entlassmanagements).

Study Design

A mixed methods design was chosen to evaluate SEKMA. Owing to the complexity of the intervention, the evaluation was based on the framework of developing tailored interventions [ 31 ]. This approach allows a detailed description and analysis of the components of the intervention that contributed to its effectiveness or ineffectiveness. For this purpose, this framework distinguishes between a development and an application phase. In the first step, barriers and enabling factors for a successful implementation of a digitalized discharge management system such as SEKMA were explored using qualitative research methods, that is, interviews. Second, strategies were developed for addressing these determinants. Third, these strategies were prioritized using a (quantitative) questionnaire, and a logic model was formulated to describe the logical linkages among the resources and activities needed to achieve the results. After the implementation (application phase), the congruence between the planned intervention (logic model) and the implemented intervention was evaluated. In this step, the fidelity of the use of the different strategies in the routine was examined [ 32 ]. Finally, the effectiveness of the implementation on the readmission rate (outcome) was evaluated based on routine data of hospital admissions.

The digitalized discharge management system was implemented at a medium-sized hospital (approximately 350 beds) in the northern German federal state Schleswig-Holstein in the Metropolitan area of Hamburg, the second-largest city in Germany. Before the intervention, the internal and external exchange of information was typically performed by phone, fax, and email. As the network between the various caregivers was rather weak, communication occurred only on request, tying up resources and causing delays in the transfer of information.

SEKMA aimed to develop and implement a digitalized, intersectoral discharge management system that considers the patient’s entire treatment pathway, from hospital admission to possible admission to a care facility, and the follow-up treatment by general practitioners (GPs). All information relevant to ongoing (postinpatient) treatment and care should be available quickly and easily to all care providers involved. This includes providers from the inpatient and outpatient sectors as well as care facilities. For this purpose, an ecosystem of hospital and postinpatient care facilities has been implemented within a digital infrastructure based on a standardized and harmonized IT system for data exchange [ 33 ]. The workflow of the digitalized, intersectoral discharge management can be described as follows:

• The hospital coordinates and organizes follow-up care in a timely manner based on the patient’s agreement with the hospital’s discharge management.
• A discharge plan for medication, follow-up care, and rehabilitation is created and all professionals in the hospital are involved. This includes admission staff, medical service, nursing service, social service, and the patient information system.
• In cooperation with the nursing staff and social service, the patient is informed and advised about care options and structures that correspond to their illness. The contents are prepared digitally.
• The patient is discharged from the hospital and transitions to outpatient, rehabilitative, or nursing care. All documents necessary for discharge and further treatment are available digitally and can be transmitted directly to the relevant sectors.
• If a patient contacts a primary care physician for outpatient follow-up treatment, the patient’s digital discharge documentation is already in the system of the private practice.
• In case of a query or deterioration of health status, the primary care physician can contact the hospital and previously treating physicians directly.
• If there is a readmission, the hospital can digitally access documentation on posttreatment care and procedures, as well as the medical history, at any time and continue treatment directly. The same applies to nursing and rehabilitation facilities.

The information transfer across the distinct health care provider is organized via KIM (Kommunikation im Medizinwesen) embedded in the telematics infrastructure. All organizations involved in the project have a KIM connection. Using KIM, participants can transmit documents in a secure and encrypted manner [ 34 ]. Overall, all communication processes have been digitalized compared with before the intervention. Since April 2022, optimized discharge management has been implemented in the department of vascular surgery.

Individual Interviews

Enabling factors and barriers leading toward successful digital discharge management were identified through individual interviews with physicians, medical assistants, social workers and nurses at the hospital, GPs, and staff from nursing homes and care services. This was performed using the COREQ (Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research) guidelines for qualitative studies ( Multimedia Appendix 1 provides details of the COREQ guidelines [ 35 ]). Originally, a combination of interviews and focus groups was planned. Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, focus groups had to be abandoned.

The hospital, along with collaborating partners such as physician networks and nursing homes, conducted participant recruitment for interviews through face-to-face interactions, telephone calls, and emails. Previously developed partially standardized interview guidelines were used and pilot tested ( Multimedia Appendix 2 ). The interviews were conducted by telephone by a medical student (LP) between April 30, 2020, and October 9, 2020, at the workplace of the interviewees. A theoretical saturation effect in the statements made during the interviews resulted in the final number of interviewees.

The individual interviews were conducted in a protected setting and subsequently pseudonymized, thus providing the opportunity to explore the personal opinions of the interviewees beyond any possible social group pressures. The interviews were recorded using a digital dictaphone and were transcribed orthographically. The material was subsequently analyzed using structured content analysis according to Mayring [ 36 ]. The development of the categories was initially based on the questions (deductive) listed in the partially standardized interview guideline ( Multimedia Appendix 2 ). In addition, categories were extracted from the text (inductive). Five persons were involved in the development of the category scheme (LP: medical student [female researcher], JS: GP and experienced health service researcher including qualitative research [male researcher], CS: health economist with some experience in qualitative research [male researcher], a legal project advisor [female researcher], and a physiotherapist [female researcher]; all of them except LP were employed at the Institute of Family Medicine at the University of Lübeck at the time of the analysis). After individual coding, a coding scheme was discussed in a consensus meeting. The final coding scheme was applied to the interview material.

Development and Evaluation of Strategies

On the basis of the described processes for treating the patients, the optimization potential, and the determinants from the evaluated individual interviews as well as the workshop with clinicians and physicians in private practice, strategies for the implementation of optimized discharge management were developed. These strategies were developed in such a way that they addressed the determinants identified and were, thus, conducive to a successful implementation.

During a project meeting on February 3, 2022, employees of the Institute of Family Medicine at the University of Lübeck and the chief and senior physicians of the involved hospital discussed these results. Subsequently, the hospital’s chief or senior physicians were invited to evaluate each identified strategy according to its relevance and feasibility using a 6-point Likert scale (very high, rather high, high, rather low, low, and very low) to avoid the central tendency bias.

The resulting list of the ranked strategies formed the logic model. This model was finally compared with the list of strategies implemented in the project.

Routine Data Analysis

The focus of the evaluation of the optimized discharge management was the reduction of (unnecessary) readmissions. With the help of the evaluation of the routine admission data of the involved hospital, the effect of optimized discharge management on rehospitalization was analyzed.

Routine Data and Study Design

The hospital extracted routine data from its internal patient information system. The extracted data were provided by the hospital in an anonymized form. For each inpatient case, the data consisted of information on the date of admission and discharge, the reason for admission and discharge, diagnoses and conducted medical procedures, demographic information of the patients, and the department or departments where the patients had been treated.

Within the framework of a longitudinal study design, a pre- and postcomparison was performed. The intervention group was the department of vascular surgery, in which the optimized discharge management was implemented since April 2022. A case was assigned to the intervention group if the patient was admitted to or discharged from the department of vascular surgery. The outbreak of COVID-19 during the sample period might have affected the readmissions of the entire hospital. To minimize the risk of bias owing to the pandemic on the intervention effect, in addition to the pre-post comparison of the department of vascular surgery, a control group comparison was applied to enrich the empirical strategy. To ensure that the patients in the intervention group were as similar as possible to those in the control group, the departments of internal medicine (medical clinic) and cardiology formed the control group.

Statistical Analysis

The effect of the implementation was estimated using the difference-in-difference (DiD) approach. The sample covers the period from 2019 to August 2022. To counteract the possible COVID-19 pandemic bias, patients admitted between January 2020 and March 2022 were not considered in the analysis. To avoid any seasonal influences on the results, we restricted the preintervention period such that it covered exactly the period after the implementation, that is, from April to August. Therefore, the baseline period (T 0 ) consisted of April 1, 2019, to August 31, 2019, whereas the intervention period (T 1 ) started from April 1, 2022.

In addition to the bivariate analysis, a multivariate logistic regression model was applied. By including control variables, differences between patients from the intervention and control group were minimized. In the first step, risk factors for rehospitalization were determined by estimating separate bivariate logistic regression models. The identified risk factors served as control variables in the multivariate DiD regression analysis. A P value <.05 was considered statistically significant. Statistical analyses were performed with Stata (version 15; StataCorp LLC).

Ethical Considerations

The study was approved by the ethics committee of the University of Lübeck before recruitment commenced on December 11, 2019 (approval number 19-387). This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

All participants provided verbal and written informed consent for their participation in the interviews and surveys. The participants were informed that they could withdraw their consent at any time. No identifiable information was recorded to ensure the confidentiality of the participants. No compensation was paid for participation.

For the analysis of routine hospital data, only anonymized data were transferred to the evaluating institution. Owing to the anonymization of the data, no additional informed consent was required to perform the routine data analysis in accordance with German law, ethical standards, and the Declaration of Helsinki. No data requiring informed consent will be presented in the routine data analysis. The ethics committee of the University of Lübeck waived the requirement for informed consent owing to the retrospective nature of this study.

A total of 26 interviews were conducted. These consisted of 14 employees of the hospital (3 doctors, 4 nurses, 4 social workers, and 3 administrative staff), 9 employees from nursing homes or mobile nursing services, and 3 GPs. The average age of the participants was 42.4 (SD 8.9; range 25-65) years, and the proportion of female participants was 54% (14/26). The average interview duration was 33 minutes and 11 seconds. An overview of the characteristics of the interview participants is provided in Table S1 in Multimedia Appendix 3 .

A total of 21 determinants were explored with various subcategories for the introduction of successful digitalized discharge management. These could be divided into 3 categories: “optimization potential,” “barriers,” and “enablers.” The aspects mentioned for optimizing the discharge process covered all areas from admission to follow-up and included inter- and intrasectoral transmission of information ( Textbox 1 ).

Category and subcategories

• Preliminary discharge letter before discharge
• Final discharge letter at the time of discharge
• Digital transmission (mail, chat, and video call)
• Platform for information exchange
• Standardized information
• Increased readiness to communicate
• Information exchange at admission
• Consent to discharge management
• Awareness of the existence of discharge management in the hospital
• Timely completion of the discharge process
• Continuous preparation for (unplanned) discharge
• Improvement of patient communication
• Faster approvals by health insurances
• Discharge in the morning of the working day
• Material transfer, issuing of prescriptions and incapacity certificate
• Nursing services accompany discharge from hospital
• Increase in the availability of patient transport
• Visits to general practitioner after discharge
• More aftercare places
• Training on discharge
• Digital checklist
• Standardized processes
• Clarified responsibilities
• Knowledge of the performance and processes at other facilities
• Evaluation of criticism or review
• Supervision
• Ethics committee

In the German health care system, the discharge letter is at the center of information transmission between the inpatient and outpatient sectors. Participants saw a need for improvement in the early, or at least timely, delivery of this letter. In the best case, information would already be transmitted during the hospital stay to the follow-up service providers such as private practices or care facilities:

To have all the information and data, everything before the patient arrives here. That would be the absolute dream. [...] You can just admit the person better[...] if you just have preliminary information. [P03]

Digital transmission of data was also perceived as beneficial; the participants could imagine using conventional media such as email or video calls as well as via a platform provided specifically for this purpose:

If you could even find some other common platform where information can be exchanged. [P01]

Furthermore, the potential for optimization was seen in the standardization of the information. The information to be communicated should be transmitted through a central entity, and at the same time, selected contacts who can be reached on demand and who can provide information about the patients would be beneficial:

Yes, standard, standard, standard. So, that you try to agree on what information I need and then it has to appear—in a structured form, so in principle already like my patient information. [P10]

Some participants also noted that, in principle, a greater willingness to communicate between the individual players would improve the transmission of information.

Participants noted that for a seamless discharge, information about the patient should already be available at the time of admission to the hospital:

Discharge or discharge planning and a good discharge process starts at admission. [...] The important thing is not to think about discharge on the day of discharge, but already on admission. [P25]

Improved patient communication was also considered important by interviewees:

And that is certainly a wish that I would have that the patients in the hospital are also informed about what they actually have, what has happened and what the next steps are. [P01]

An optimal discharge should ideally take place in the morning on a working day, and the handing over of medication and required materials should be regulated. This is considered to be the case by nursing homes and outpatient care services as well as by hospital staff:

From 9 or 10 a.m onwards, the number of patients in the emergency room increases and drops again from 8 p.m onwards. And during this peak time, there are few beds available in the hospital. Afterwards, however, when we are closed, the hospital finally loses cases and at night we have more free capacity again. And that is a mismatch between demand and capacity which can be improved. [P20]

Textbox 2 shows the barriers and enabling factors for intersectoral collaboration in the context of optimizing discharge management. In addition to the technical aspects and subjective reasons, there were concerns about data protection and fear that a change in the discharge process would require more time:

Time pressure is always an issue, both in the hospital and in outpatient care. We just often don’t have the time for some processes that we would all consider useful. [P01]

• Data transmission security
• Legal uncertainties
• Leaving known structures and processes
• Lack of electronic data processing experience
• Higher time consumption
• Lack of personnel
• Limitation of one’s own competence
• Unclear communication processes
• No perceived benefit
• Low appreciation for discharge management
• No priority of discharge management
• No consequences for noncompliance
• User-unfriendly system
• Electronic data processing errors
• Interface problems
• Outdated technical equipment
• Lack of education or communication
• Lack of networking among health care providers
• Clear responsibilities, instructions, contact persons, or responsibilities
• Surveillance
• Introduction or training of new processes
• No overload and enough time
• Regular exchange for networking
• Time saving
• Workload reduction
• Improved exchange of information
• Feedback loops
• Priority in the management
• Communicating the advantages
• Involvement of employees

In contrast, a possible reduction in workload owing to digitalized processes was seen as conducive:

Digitalization must not be an end in itself, in my opinion, but it must really mean an advantage for the processes, increase safety, increase communication, but it must not be a question of just because it is digital, that it is better in every case and is then associated with the fact that medical or nursing working time is lost or additionally created. [P23]

For the changeover to be successful, the communication of the advantages associated with optimized discharge management was emphasized above all as part of change management.

On the basis of the surveyed processes, the optimization potential, and the determinants from the evaluated individual interviews as well as the workshop with clinicians and physicians in private practice, 19 strategies for the implementation of optimized discharge management were developed. To rank these strategies, chief physicians of the hospital were invited to rate their relevance and feasibility.

A total of 11 physicians participated in the survey to evaluate the strategies ( Table 1 ). The strategies of always sending the discharge letter to the GP, equipping the hospital’s social service with mobile devices (eg, laptops and tablets), generating individual medication plans in the format of the national medication plan, and exclusively using the federal medication plan received the highest ratings. In contrast, the introduction of a chat function used exclusively by physicians for direct exchange between hospital and office-based physicians received the lowest rating.

a Mean over participants (6=very high, 5=rather high, 4=high, 3=rather low, 2=low, and 1=very low).

b GP: general practitioner.

c Not part of the intervention but planned for the future by the hospital.

On the basis of these ratings, the hospital staff discussed which of these strategies were already being implemented or planned for implementation in the near future. Of the 19 strategies, 6 (31%) were assessed as already implemented, 7 (37%) were assessed as planned, and 6 (31%) were assessed as not feasible to implement in the project. The 7 strategies rated highest in the development of the logic model (planned implementation) have been implemented or will be implemented in the near future as part of SEKMA.

To summarize, by April 2022, at the department of vascular surgery, (1) discharge letters were continuously updated digitally, (2) they were always sent, (3) they were sent electronically to the GP (via the infrastructure of KIM), (4) the hospital social service was equipped with mobile devices, (5) individual medication plans were in the format of the national medication plan, (6) the discharge management consent process at admission was standardized, and (7) a hotline for direct communication between hospital physicians and primary care physicians was implemented. The information transfer via the discharge letter was oriented by the standard of medical information objects (MIOs) eArztbrief. The development of this standard was initiated in 2022 by the National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Physicians and the German Hospital Association. It defines a standard for the electronic hospital discharge letter within the EHR ensuring the transition of relevant information from inpatient to subsequent care in a structured and secure manner [ 37 ]. The MIO eArztbrief was not yet ready during the project; however, the current status of the MIO was incorporated into the letter as much as possible.

Fidelity Analysis

After the implementation of the optimized discharge management into the routine in the department of vascular surgery as well as at the external partners in April 2022, the stakeholders participating in the project were asked in a fidelity analysis in September 2022 to what extent the identified strategies were implemented in practice. The survey showed that many of these strategies were not yet widely applied.

A total of 14 individuals responded to the survey (Table S2 in Multimedia Appendix 2 ). Of the 14 individuals, 11 (79%) were employed at the hospital and 1 (7%) each at an outpatient nursing service, nursing home, and private practice. Employees from social services and medical assistants did not participate in this survey. Of those surveyed, >30% (4/13) stated that they were satisfied with the implementation of the change in discharge management.

There are differences in the fidelity of use among the strategies implemented (Table S3 in Multimedia Appendix 3 ). Although sending or receiving an electronic discharge letter was always or sometimes used in their routine by only a quarter of respondents, approximately 85% (11/13) of the respondents indicated that medication plans from the hospital were always in the format of the federal medication plan at discharge.

Readmissions

In total, 12,407 patients were admitted to the hospital as inpatients during the study period (from April 2019 to August 2019 and from April 2022 to August 2022), corresponding to 14,854 cases treated. The internal medicine department (medical clinic) treated most of the cases (4175/14,854, 28.11%). Cases treated in the interventional group (vascular surgery) accounted for 5.11% (759/14,854) of all inpatient cases. Overall, 8.73% (994/11,386) of the patients were readmitted after 30 days. In terms of treated cases, the readmission rate was 9.07% (1222/13,477). The rates increased to 17.1% (1542/9016) for patients and 18.85% (1975/10,478) for cases when considering a longer time horizon for the readmission (90 days). Readmission rates were generally higher in the intervention group (80/705, 11.3%) at 30 days and 28.8% (161/560 at 90 days) than in the hospital as a whole and the control group. Table S4 in Multimedia Appendix 3 provides the number of admitted patients and cases treated as well as the readmissions after 30, 60, and 90 days for the total hospital cases and the departments involved.

Risk Factors

Risk factors for readmission were identified to take the differences between patients from different departments into account for the evaluation of the project’s implementation effect.

Older patients, as well as cases with a length of stay of >6 days, had a significantly higher risk of readmission. Similarly, discharge time influenced the readmission risk: patients discharged during the night (9 PM to 5 AM) had a higher risk of readmission. Similarly, there were significant differences in readmissions between cases with different ICD-10 ( International Statistical Classification of Diseases , Tenth Revision ) chapters of principal and secondary diagnoses (Table S5 in Multimedia Appendix 3 ).

Intervention Effect

Table 2 shows the implementation effects on the readmission rate after 30, 60, and 90 days (DiD) of the bivariate analysis. In the intervention group, the 30-day readmission rate increased by 2.33 percentage points from 10.4% (45/431) to 12.8% (35/274) after SEKMA was implemented. For the 60- and 90-day readmission rate, the increase was even higher (60 days: 2.25 and 90 days: 3.94). These increases have been smaller in the control group. Therefore, a reduction effect of the intervention on the readmission rate (ie, a negative DiD estimate) cannot be observed. Concentrating the analysis on patients aged ≥65 years revealed similar results (Table S6 in Multimedia Appendix 3 ). As a robustness check, the preintervention period was extended to include admissions between 2011 and 2019. These results confirm the previous findings.

a Only admissions between April 2019 and August 2019 and between April 2022 and August 2022 were considered.

b DiD: difference-in-difference, Δ: Difference between the readmission rates of the intervention and the control group at T 0 and T 1 , respectively.

c Intervention period (T 1 ): from April 1, 2022.

d N/A: not applicable.

e Baseline period (T 0 ): April 1, 2019, to August 31, 2019.

The results of the multivariate logistic regression model ( Table 3 ) confirm the results of the bivariate analysis that there were higher readmission rates in the intervention group and that there was no significant effect of the optimized discharge management on readmissions in the available data. This result was also confirmed for patients aged >65 years (Table S7 in Multimedia Appendix 3 ). Furthermore, the insignificance of the effect of the implementation of SEKMA on readmission rates was also confirmed in a pre-post comparison estimated by a multivariate logistic regression based on vascular surgery cases only (Table S8 in Multimedia Appendix 3 ). Finally, the estimated effects remained very similar if the preintervention period began in 2011 and ended at the end of 2019.

b In addition to the variables listed here, the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision chapters of the principal and secondary diagnoses were also included as control variables.

d DiD: difference-in-difference.

This study aims to explore the barriers and enablers of a digitalized discharge management system, to implement such a system using a logic model developed from these determinants, and to evaluate its impact on the readmission rate.

Determinants and Implementation Strategies

The importance of the transmission of information for improved discharge management is also highlighted in the high rating of the strategies regarding the discharge letter, that is, developing an electronic discharge letter, continuously entering information into the letter, and always sending it to the GP. The discharge letter is the standard communication tool between inpatient and ambulatory care and found to be a source for deficits in information transfer [ 38 ]. In particular, delay and incompleteness of medication-related information endanger patients’ safety [ 39 , 40 ], leading to an increased risk of hospital readmission [ 41 ]. As shown for a sample of 20 Dutch hospitals, discharge letters vary in quality depending on patient and admission characteristics [ 42 ]. A standardized discharge letter can reduce transcription time and improve medical communication between physicians [ 43 ]. In addition, GPs prefer that discharge letters be written in a clear, concise, and understandable manner [ 44 ]. An electronic discharge letter generated from a computer-based document not only avoids transcription errors and lacks standardization but also ensures timely delivery [ 45 ]. In Germany, the discharge letter played a central role in approaches to creating a standard for intersectoral information exchange. For example, the VHitG (derived from the German “Verband der Hersteller von IT-Lösungen im Gesundheitswesen”) initiative “Intersectoral Communication” developed an implementation to facilitate the exchange of discharge letters between sectors, which is integrated into the existing IT system [ 46 ]. Another example is the recent approach by the National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Physicians and the German Hospital Association to create a standard for the electronic hospital discharge letter within the EHR [ 37 ].

To improve the standardization of the transmitted medication information, the use of the format of the nationwide medication plan was considered an important strategy in this study. In Germany, several projects have shown that physicians, pharmacists, and patients realize the benefits and accept the nationwide medication plan [ 47 - 49 ]. It can serve for the health care providers as a promising tool to improve the interdisciplinary and multiprofessional collaboration, especially as a digital solution that can realize its full potential [ 50 ]. Similar results have been reported in other countries [ 51 , 52 ]. In this study, participants suggested transferring medication-related information electronically and always in the format of the national medication plan. In the participating hospital, this strategy has been implemented during the project. For older patients in particular, shared medication records have the potential to reduce hospital readmissions [ 51 ].

Concerns about technical and temporal integrability were identified as an important barrier to the implementation of optimized discharge management. This includes an expected higher time consumption for the introduction of digitalized processes, a general fear of contact (owing to leaving known structures and a lack of electronic data processing experience), and further technical aspects (as a user-unfriendly system, electronic data processing errors, and interface problems). Similar barriers were identified in related eHealth projects [ 53 - 57 ]. Although the digitalization of processes was expected, in general, to be associated with time advantages, many of those involved associate the introduction with additional work effort. To overcome these concerns, successful implementation requires streamlining, simplifying, and redesigning the existing health care practices as a first step [ 58 ]. The strategy of introducing a physician-only hotline and a chat function for direct communication between the hospital and GPs could be seen as a simplification of communication instead of relying solely on the legally required discharge letter.

Effect on Readmissions

A possible explanation for the low level of fidelity as well as the insignificant effect of SEKMA on readmissions could be the relatively short application period of half a year (from April 2022 to September 2022). Complex implementations such as those elaborated in SEKMA may require a longer time before they are applied in daily routines. Another reason for the insignificant effect on readmissions could be the rather good baseline level of the outcome in national comparison. Although other studies in Germany showed readmission rates, for example, of 18.1% (30 days) to 35.4% (90 days) for older patients (aged >65 years) [ 22 ], these rates were substantially lower for the patients in this study, that is, 11.8% (30 days) to 23.6% (90 days).

Limitations

Our study had several limitations. First, the restrictions that existed owing to the COVID-19 pandemic might have affected the effectiveness of the implementation. All stakeholders involved in SEKMA faced a high workload owing to the pandemic as well as the requirements and measures resulting from the pandemic. However, the study results show that even under the special circumstances of the pandemic, it was possible to develop and implement an intersectoral optimization of discharge management. The infrastructure for the intersectoral care of patients created by the project has great potential to increase the quality of care, even if this could not yet be demonstrated with regard to readmissions. Future research should analyze the routine hospital data over the next 5 years.

Although the study included all relevant health care providers and considered the entire patient care pathway, the number of respondents from some professions may be rather small. For example, only 3 GPs were interviewed. However, the theoretical saturation effect in the statements made during the interviews suggests that this number is sufficient to identify the optimization potential as well as determinants.

Conclusions

Creating a digital ecosystem that connects different health care providers seems to be a promising approach to ensure secure and fast networking of the sectors and to promote rapid information exchange between the sectors. The described intersectoral optimization of discharge management provides a structured template for the implementation of a similar local digital care networking infrastructure in other care regions in Germany and other countries with a similarly fragmented health care system.

Acknowledgments

This study was financially supported by the Ministry of Justice and Health (Ministerium für Justiz und Gesundheit), Schleswig-Holstein. This study was conducted independently.

Data Availability

The data sets generated during and analyzed during this study are not publicly available due to the votum of the Ethics Committee of the University of Lübeck.

Authors' Contributions

CS contributed to conceptualization, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, and validation; prepared the original draft; and reviewed and edited the manuscript. LP participated in methodology, conducted and analyzed the interviews, and reviewed and edited the draft. LW participated in conceptualizing the digital discharge system and reviewed and edited the draft. RS was involved in conceptualization and reviewing and editing the draft. JS contributed to conceptualization, investigation, methodology, and validation and reviewed and edited the draft. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

LW was a hospital manager with a focus on digitalization at the hospital under study during the time of the project, Sektorübergreifende Optimierung des Entlassmanagements (SEKMA). LW is the founder of the company Lacanja GmbH Health Innovation Port, Hamburg, Germany, and is a member of several committees, including the expert group of the Gematik IOP (Interop) Council. All other authors declare no other conflicts of interest.

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Abbreviations

Edited by T Leung; submitted 09.03.23; peer-reviewed by P Nohl-Deryk, S Meister; comments to author 21.04.23; revised version received 13.06.23; accepted 31.01.24; published 26.03.24.

©Christoph Strumann, Lisa Pfau, Laila Wahle, Raphael Schreiber, Jost Steinhäuser. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 26.03.2024.

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• Published: 11 March 2024

Climate-induced tree-mortality pulses are obscured by broad-scale and long-term greening

• Yuchao Yan 1 ,
• Shilong Piao   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8057-2292 1 , 2 ,
• William M. Hammond   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2904-810X 3 ,
• Anping Chen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2085-3863 4 ,
• Songbai Hong 1 ,
• Seth M. Munson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2736-6374 5 ,
• Ranga B. Myneni 6 &
• Craig D. Allen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8777-5989 7  

Nature Ecology & Evolution ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Climate-change ecology
• Climate-change impacts

Vegetation greening has been suggested to be a dominant trend over recent decades, but severe pulses of tree mortality in forests after droughts and heatwaves have also been extensively reported. These observations raise the question of to what extent the observed severe pulses of tree mortality induced by climate could affect overall vegetation greenness across spatial grains and temporal extents. To address this issue, here we analyse three satellite-based datasets of detrended growing-season normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI GS ) with spatial resolutions ranging from 30 m to 8 km for 1,303 field-documented sites experiencing severe drought- or heat-induced tree-mortality events around the globe. We find that severe tree-mortality events have distinctive but localized imprints on vegetation greenness over annual timescales, which are obscured by broad-scale and long-term greening. Specifically, although anomalies in NDVI GS (ΔNDVI) are negative during tree-mortality years, this reduction diminishes at coarser spatial resolutions (that is, 250 m and 8 km). Notably, tree-mortality-induced reductions in NDVI GS (|ΔNDVI|) at 30-m resolution are negatively related to native plant species richness and forest height, whereas topographic heterogeneity is the major factor affecting ΔNDVI differences across various spatial grain sizes. Over time periods of a decade or longer, greening consistently dominates all spatial resolutions. The findings underscore the fundamental importance of spatio-temporal scales for cohesively understanding the effects of climate change on forest productivity and tree mortality under both gradual and abrupt changes.

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Data availability

The tree-mortality sites can be found at https://www.iufro.org/science/task-forces/tree-mortality-patterns ( https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.24847698 ) (ref. 79 ). The Google Earth sub-metre high-resolution satellite images can be found at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23243915 (ref. 80 ). The climate, vegetation and soil data can be found at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.24847788 (ref. 81 ). The combined grids of 270 m and about 8 km can be found at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.24850734 (ref. 82 ). The Landsat NDVI (EVI), MODIS NDVI (EVI), DEM (including elevation, slope and aspect) and TerraClimate database (including precipitation and PDSI product) were calculated on GEE, which is available at https://code.earthengine.google.com/ . The GIMMS NDVI data can be obtained from https://poles.tpdc.ac.cn/en/data/9775f2b4-7370-4e5e-a537-3482c9a83d88/ . The land cover data were downloaded from http://maps.elie.ucl.ac.be/CCI/viewer/ . The world continental boundaries were obtained from https://hub.arcgis.com/datasets/esri::world-continents/about . The sub-metre high-resolution satellite images were downloaded from Google Earth, which is available at https://earth.google.com/ . The SPEI data are available from https://digital.csic.es/handle/10261/202305 . The precipitation data can be retrieved from https://data.ceda.ac.uk/badc/cru/data/cru_ts . The available water-storage capacity, soil clay and soil sand data were downloaded from https://daac.ornl.gov/SOILS/guides/HWSD.html . The canopy height can be obtained from https://webmap.ornl.gov/ogc/dataset.jsp?dg_id=10023_1 . The global maximum rooting depth was derived from https://wci.earth2observe.eu/thredds/catalog/usc/root-depth/catalog.html . The tree density was derived from https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/yale_fes_data/1/ . The native plant species richness was downloaded from https://anthroecology.org/ .

Code availability

Java, MATLAB, Python and R codes for the analysis of these data can be obtained from https://github.com/YCY-github-YCY/Tree .

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Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant no. 41988101 to S.P.). A.C. was supported by a US Department of Energy grant (grant no. DE-SC0022074). We thank D. Zhu, W. Lang, Y. Yan and Y. Deng for their useful suggestions for this paper, and H. Zhuang and M. Li for their help with the experiments. Any use of trade, product or firm names in this paper is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the US government.

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S.P. designed the research. Y.Y. performed analysis and drafted the figures. Y.Y., S.P., S.H. and A.C. wrote the first draft of the manuscript. W.M.H. collected the tree-mortality sites. C.D.A., W.M.H., S.M.M., R.B.M. and H.X. revised the manuscript. All authors contributed to the interpretation of the results and to the text.

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Yan, Y., Piao, S., Hammond, W.M. et al. Climate-induced tree-mortality pulses are obscured by broad-scale and long-term greening. Nat Ecol Evol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-024-02372-1

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Green Chemistry

Sustainable lignin-derived hierarchical mesoporous carbon synthesized from renewable nano calcium carbonate hard template method and its utilization in zinc ion hybrid supercapacitor.

The research of zinc-ion hybrid supercapacitors has been gaining much attention due to the combination of their high energy and power density. However, the cost of preparation and poor rate performance of porous carbon cathode materials are two major issues limiting their large-scale utilization. In this study, we used nano calcium carbonate as the hard template agent and economical lignin as the carbon source to synthesize lignin-derived porous carbon with a high specific surface area and high mesopore ratios. Through a double decomposition reaction, calcium chloride produced by acid pickling is synthesized with sodium carbonate to create nano calcium carbonate, thus enabling the regeneration of nano calcium carbonate. More importantly, carbon dioxide resulting from the pyrolysis of calcium carbonate will cause an internal activation effect on carbon materials, thus causing the formation of micropores and expanding the pore size of some micropores and small mesopores. Through this strategy, the specific surface area of lignin-derived porous carbon is up to 860.5 m 2 g −1 , and the mesopore volume accounts for more than 90% of the total pore volume. The zinc-ion hybrid supercapacitor with lignin-derived porous carbon as the cathode displays an impressive capacity retention rate of 64% when the current density is increased from 0.1 to 20 A g −1 . This work provides a green and sustainable route for the development of low-cost, high-rate performance porous carbon materials.

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J. Zhu, T. Huang, M. Lu, X. Qiu and W. Zhang, Green Chem. , 2024, Accepted Manuscript , DOI: 10.1039/D4GC00323C

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Spatial difference-in-differences analysis of smart city pilot policy and industrial pollution reduction: the mediating role of S&T fiscal expenditure

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• Acheng Zhang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9311-9160 1 &
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Smart city has become one of the most important tool to achieve digital transformation and intelligent development. However, the impacts of smart city pilots (SCP) on different industrial pollution have yet to be tested, and the mechanisms of SCP affect industrial pollution could be richer. In this paper, we construct a spatial difference-in-difference model for 2004–2019 by mapping SCP policy to Chinese city data to systematically quantify the impact and its potential mechanisms of digital transformation on industrial pollution. Our results show that the SCP policy achieves industrial pollution reduction targets, on average, wastewater and SO2 emissions decreased by 6.4% and 6.5%, respectively. Cities with SCP policy have more industrial pollution compared to cities without SCP policy, implying a beggar-thy-neighbor effect of SCP policy. Furthermore, significant regional disparities come to light; SCP policy in the Pearl River Delta exceeds other regions such as the Yangtze River Delta and Jing-Jin-Ji city cluster in terms of realizing the impact of industrial pollution reduction. Importantly, mechanism analysis indicated that the SCP reduced industrial pollution was partially mediated by government S&T fiscal expenditure.

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This work was supported by the fund project of the National Natural Science Foundation of China [No.71974203], and the Ministry of Education of Humanities and Social Science project [No. 22YJC630140].

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Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by A.Z. and Y.W. The first draft of the manuscript was written by A.Z., and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Zhang, A., Wen, Y. Spatial difference-in-differences analysis of smart city pilot policy and industrial pollution reduction: the mediating role of S&T fiscal expenditure. Environ Sci Pollut Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32611-8

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Received : 08 February 2023

Accepted : 19 February 2024

Published : 25 March 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32611-8

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