the columbian exchange dbq essay

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Unit 4 DBQ (The Columbian Exchange)

4 min read • november 16, 2021

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AP World Document-Based Question on The Columbian Exchange

👋 Welcome to the AP World Unit 4 DBQ (The Columbian Exchange) . These are longer questions, so you'll want to grab some paper and a pencil, or open up a blank page on your computer.

⚠️  (Unfortunately, we don't have an Answers Guide or Rubric for this question, but it can give you an idea of how a DBQ for Unit 4 might look on the exam.)

⏱ The AP World exam has a mixture of free-response questions and allotted times. For these types of questions, there will be 1 DBQ, and you will be given 60 minutes to complete it. It is suggested that you spend 15 minutes to read the documents and spend 45 minutes to draft your response .

🤔 Need a quick refresher of the unit as a whole? Check out the Unit 4 Overview .

😩 Getting stumped halfway through answering? Look through all of the available Unit 4 Resources .

Write an essay that:

Provides historical contextualization to start your essay

Has a historically defensible thesis

Uses at least 6 of the 7 documents

Supports thesis with relevant, paraphrased evidence from the documents

Takes into account the sources of at least 3 of the documents

Provides at least ONE piece of evidence beyond the documents to support your argument

Addresses complexity through a nuanced understanding of the documents, extended analysis of POV, Purpose, or Historical Situation

Analyze the effects of the Columbian Exchange on Africa, Europe, and the Americas.

Document 1 (Goldberg, Map )

Image courtesy of YouTube

Document 2 (Rees)

Source : The Columbian Exchange, March 31st, 2006, Lauren Rees.

Exchanging crops proved to be a far more intricate, involved process that could have been imagined at the time. Remarkably, the peoples of the Americas realized that crops with higher caloric values could not only feed more people, but also allowed people to work harder because they were more energized. This led to an adoption of American crops by the European peasants, that changed entire cuisines in various cultures. An important crop in Europe was potatoes, as they could be left in the ground until they were ready to be eaten, and allowed many Europeans to evade tax collections, as tax collectors did not go as far as dig up not yet harvested crops.

Animals were also a key part of the Columbian Exchange. Horses, pigs, sheep, and cattle were all European animals that flourished rapidly in the Americas. The horse was an important animal as it helped in battle...and led to faster transportation.

Document 3 (Cowley)

Source : The Great Disease Migration, Geoffrey Cowley, Newsweek, Fall, 1991.

The disaster began almost as soon as Columbus arrived, fueled mainly by smallpox and measles. Smallpox-the disease that so ravaged Tenochtitlan on the eve of Cortes’ final siege-was a particularly efficient killer. Alfred Crosby, author of “The Columbian Exchange” likens its effect on American history to “that of the Black Death on the history of the Old World”. Smallpox made its American debut in 1519, when it struck the Caribbean island of Santo Domingo, killing up to half of the indigenous population. From there, outbreaks spread across the Antilles island, onto the Mexican mainland, through the Isthmus of Panama and into South America.

Document 4 ( Illustration )

Source : Unknown

Document 5 (de las Casas)

Source : Bartolome de las Casas (A young priest who participated in the conquest of Cuba, and transcribed Columbus’ journal)

…(the Spaniards) grew more conceited every day and after awhile, refused to walk any distance…(they) rode on the backs of Indians if they were in a hurry, or were carried on hammocks by Indians running in relays, (They) thought nothing of knifing Indians by tens and twenties and cutting off slices of them to test the sharpness of their blades…

They (the Indians) suffered and died in the mines and other labors in desperate silence, knowing not a soul in the world to whom they could turn for help…

(In 1508) there were 60,000 people living on this island (Hispaniola), including the Indians; so that from 1494 to 1508, over three million people had perished from war, slavery, and the mines. Who in future generations will believe this? I myself, writing it as a knowledgeable eyewitness, can hardly believe it.

Document 6 (Whitcomb)

Source : Merrick Whitcomb, ed., “The Gold of the Indies 1559”, the University of Pennsylvania.

From New Spain are obtained gold, silver, and other things. One fifth of all profits go to the King. Great quantities of gold and silver used to be out in the open; with all of it gone, now gold and silver have to be mined.

The work is hard and the Spaniards are not willing to do the work. Natives, who have become Christians are not allowed to be forced to do the work because the Emperor freed them. So now, it is necessary to acquire negro slaves (enslaved Africans), who are brought from the coasts of Africa. Their masters are making them work too hard and giving them too little to eat, they fall sick, and the greater part of them die...

Document 7 (Atlantic Slave Trade Database, Graph )

Source: Voyages, the Atlantic Slave Trade Database

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AP World History DBQ Example

Once you have answered our  AP World History Document-Based Question , scroll down to read a sample high-scoring response. Our AP World History DBQ example will guide you through the step to a perfect answer.

Evaluate the effects of the Columbian Exchange on the peoples and cultures of the Old World (Europe, Asia, Africa) and the New World (Americas) from the late 15th century to the 17th century.

Guided Response:

Introduction Thesis/Claim (A):  The Columbian Exchange, initiated by Christopher Columbus’s voyages in the late 15th century, fundamentally altered the lives and cultures of people in both the Old World and the New World. In the Americas, it led to significant cultural and demographic shifts due to the introduction of new crops and livestock, as well as devastating impacts from Old World diseases. Conversely, the Old World experienced a transformation in diet, agriculture, and economic structures, largely due to the influx of New World crops like maize, potatoes, and tobacco.  (1 point for a clear thesis that responds to the prompt) Contextualization (B):  Prior to the Columbian Exchange, the Old and New Worlds had evolved separately, leading to distinct agricultural practices, societal structures, and disease immunities. The exchange bridged these worlds, introducing a period of profound biological and cultural exchanges.  (1 point for providing broader historical context relevant to the prompt) Body Paragraph 1 Evidence from Documents (C):  The introduction of tobacco in the Ming Dynasty, as described in Document 1 by Charles C. Mann, showcases the rapid adoption and integration of New World crops into Old World societies. Similarly, the spread of maize in Ormuz, as noted in Document 5 by Afonso de Albuquerque, indicates the eagerness of different cultures to incorporate New World crops.  (1 point for using content from at least three documents) Analysis and Reasoning (D):  The point of view in Document 1 reflects the perspective of a Chinese physician, highlighting the medicinal value attributed to tobacco, a New World plant, in the Old World. This demonstrates the integration of American crops into Asian medicinal practices.  (1 point for explaining the document’s point of view) Body Paragraph 2 Evidence from Documents (C):  The observations of Hernán Cortés in Document 4 about the marketplaces and infrastructure of Tenochtitlan reveal the sophistication of the Aztec civilization before European contact. This contrasts with the devastation described by Bartolomé de las Casas in Document 6, which underscores the catastrophic impact of the Columbian Exchange on indigenous populations.  (1 additional point for using content from at least four documents to support an argument) Analysis and Reasoning (D):  Document 4 provides insight into Cortés’s perspective as a conqueror, marveling at the complexity of the Aztec civilization, which underscores the depth of cultural loss following the Columbian Exchange.  (1 additional point for explaining the document’s point of view) Body Paragraph 3 Evidence Beyond the Documents (C):  Beyond the documents, the introduction of Old World diseases like smallpox had a devastating effect on Native American populations, who lacked immunity to these diseases. This led to a drastic decline in their population and a weakening of their societies.  (1 point for using additional historical evidence) Conclusion Complex Understanding (D):  The Columbian Exchange was not merely a transfer of goods but a profound reshaping of cultures and societies. It brought about not only the exchange of crops and diseases but also a reconfiguration of global power dynamics, with long-lasting effects on both the Old and New Worlds.  (1 point for demonstrating a complex understanding of the historical development)

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The Columbian Exchange DBQ Sample

The Columbian Exchange gave manner to a life lived in modern twenty-four hours. Without the happening of the Columbian exchange. the resources that are so readily available would non be easy to obtain. The Columbian Exchange was the development of non-­? native workss. animate beings. and disease from Europe to the Americas and vise versa. Upon reaching in a new land. Christopher Columbus was stricken with esteem for the juicy new land. “The trees are as unlike ours as dark from twenty-four hours. as are the fruits. the herbs. the rocks. and everything…” ( Doc 1 ) . The land was reasonably new and filled with trees and verdure that was a beautiful sight to see. In add-on. the land was rather fertile as it was untasted dirt. “They said that all these lands were cultivated and that a really broad and big river passed through the centre of the vale. and could water all the. ” ( Doc 1 ) . The Native autochthonal people relied on corn or maize and chili Piper nigrums for foods.

“The nutrient they eat is maize and some chili Piper nigrums. as on the other islands. and potato yuca. merely the same as is eaten in Chub. and they eat it joint. for they do non do staff of life of it ; and they both Hunt and fish and breed many poulets [ likely Meleagris gallopavos ] such s those found on Tierra Firme. which are every bit large as peacocks” ( Doc 2 ) . As people began analyzing a new country. new thoughts and names for works species arose. Botanists became a common profession. “The term ‘weed’ in modern botanical use refers to any type of works which—because of particularly big Numberss of seeds produced per works. or particularly effectual agencies of administering those seeds. or particularly tough roots and rootstocks from which new workss can turn. or particularly tough seeds that survive the alimental canals of animate beings to be planted with their droppings—spreads quickly and outcompetes others on disturbed. bare dirt. Weedss are workss that tempt the phytologist to utilize such anthropomorphous words as “aggressive” and “opportunistic. ” ( Doc 3 ) .

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New types of harvests emerged from the genteelness of seeds. Many points and goods were exchanged during the Columbian Exchange. South America exported Cassava. lunatic. chocolate tree to Africa. while they received sugar and rice from Asia. Asia besides exported goods to North Africa. every bit good as North America. North America was dining with production of hard currency harvests such as Maize. murphies. baccy. beans. squash. Piper nigrums. chocolate tree. which they sold to continents of Europe and Africa. Not merely were goods purchased but besides disease became a widespread epidemic. North Americans spread pox. while Africa spread Malaria and Yellow Fever. Yellow fever shortly spread to South America. North America. and even Europe ( Doc 4 ) . Disease wiped out 1000000s of people during the Columbian exchange. One of the mariners who traveled to the New World was Hernando Cortes. He brought cowss. and horses every bit good as other supplies to colonise in the new district ( Doc 5 ) . Prior to the reaching of settlements to the Americas. Autochthonal folks were undisturbed and flourished. After the conquistadors arrived the population of native peoples decreased a great trade.

“Although bookmans debate the exact Numberss. in Alvin Josephy’s estimation. the Indian population fell from between 15 and 20 million when the white adult male foremost came at a fraction of that 150 old ages subsequently. Undoubtedly the Indians perished in great Numberss. Yet although European captivity of Indians and the Spanish forced labour system extracted a heavy toll in lives. the huge bulk of Indian casualties occurred non as a consequence of difficult work or consider devastation but because of contagious diseases that the Europeans transmitted to the Indians” ( Doc 6 ) . The spread of infective disease was the perpetrator for the deceases of the autochthonal folks. The Native Americans contracted rubeolas and variola that ulterior became known as TB. Because the Indians were non exposed to certain pathogens. they did non construct unsusceptibility to peculiar nutriments doing them to parish in considerable sums. The epidemic was an advantage for the Spaniards because the ensuing epidemic killed about half the Aztecs.

Soon Mexico’s population plummeted to about 1. 6 million from an initial population of 20 million ( Doc 8 ) . Furthermore. trade was the cardinal beginning of income for most “mother states” . “Geographically. the Eastern and Western Hemispheres were joined after millenary of practical isolation from one another. Economically. the bullion trade associating Latin America. Europe. and Asia ; the slave trade linking Africa. Europe. and the Americas ; and the fur trade fall ining North America. Western Europe. and Russia well stimulated the growing of the modern planetary economic system. Politically. the modern-day worldwide international system was born in the extension of intra-­? European struggle into the Western Hemisphere. the constitution of European settlements in the Americas. and the attach toing invasion of Europeans into the political personal businesss of Native Americans. and the Native Americans’ influence on the political and military personal businesss of European provinces. Ecologically. the monolithic transcontinental exchange of workss. animate beings. micro-organisms. and natural resources initiated by the Spanish and Lusitanian ocean trips modified the planetary ecological system forever” ( Doc 7 ) .

Because of the addition in trade. people relied on cheap forced labour to maintain up with the demands. Slaves became a imperative portion in the economic system. As the slaves come down to Fida from the inland state. they are put into a booth or prison… . near the beach. and when the Europeans are to have them. they are brought out onto an extended field. where the ship’s sawboness examine every portion of everyone of them. to the smallest member. work forces and adult females being blunt naked…Such are allowed good. and sound are set on one side…marked on the chest with a red-­?hot Fe. forming the grade of the French. English or Dutch companies… . The branded slaves after this are returned to their former booths where they await cargo. sometimes 10–15 days… . ” ( Doc 9 ) .

Work force. adult females. and kids were auctioned off and even became more valuable than cowss. Cattle were a beginning of protein for the peoples of America. There were many species that proved popular in the New World. Ranching economic systems became familiar. and early America was an agriculturally based part ( Doc 10 ) . Without the Columbian Exchange. there would non hold been alterations in engineering and the manner of life. Because of the Columbian Exchange people in the modern universe would non hold the necessities that are readily available. The domestication of cowss and animate beings would non hold been possible. and the ecosystem would merely non be the same.

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A Chronicle of Current Events

For human rights & freedom of expression in the ussr, the podrabinek case, dec 1977 to feb 1978 (48.7).

<<No 48 : 14 March 1978>>

On 1 December 1977, the brothers Alexander and Kirill PODRABINEK (CCE 47) and their father Pinkhos Abramovich PODRABINEK were summoned for a chat by Yu.S. Belov, chief of a department at the Moscow City and Regional KGB. Alexander refused to appear.

“On behalf of the Committee for State Security ” (Belov told Kirill and his father Pinkhos Podrabinek)

“I suggest that you and your families leave the Soviet Union and go abroad via Israel within 20 days. There is enough material against you, Kirill Pinkhosovich, to institute criminal proceedings. You, Pinkhos Abramovich, are also known to us for your anti-social activities. An act of humanity is being offered to you both. I advise you to make use of it.”

Alexander (b. 1953) and Kirill Podrabinek (b. 1952)

The same evening Alexander Podrabinek was arrested on the street and taken to the KGB. Belov presented him, too, with an ultimatum: all three must leave the country, otherwise criminal proceedings would be instituted against both brothers.

Belov let it be understood that the absence of an invitation and difficulties with money would not be obstacles. Belov stressed that they could only leave all together.

HOSTAGE-TAKING

Many painful disputes have sprung up around the moral problems arising from KGB’s ultimatums and blackmail. The Chronicle cannot present the arguments but at least it can accurately convey the stance of participants in such events by reproducing all their statements in sufficient detail.

On 6 December 1977, there was a press conference at Andrei Sakharov ’s flat. Pinkhos PODRABINEK read out a “Statement for the Belgrade Conference [note 1] and the Press”:

“A distinctive feature of this case is the KGB’s use of the hostage system. Not one of us can determine his own fate independently, and a decision about the fate of three people has been placed by the KGB on Alexander Podrabinek alone, in whose departure the authorities are most of all interested. “We categorically refuse to accept such conditions and insist on our right to make our choices independently…”

Then Alexander PODRABINEK read out his “Reply” to the KGB’s proposal:

“I would like to draw the attention of the world public to my brother’s painful position and to the dirty tactics of the KGB — tactics of intimidation and terror. The whole world condemns the hijacking of aeroplanes and the taking of passengers as hostages, yet the KGB is using the very same method with regard to my brother, a method commonly used by terrorists. In the situation that has arisen the most painful thing for me is my brother’s fate. “At the KGB they insistently advised me to take advantage of this ‘humane act of the Soviet government’, as they expressed it. I regard this proposal as unconcealed blackmail by the KGB. “They have given me four days to reflect. On 5 December I have to give my reply. A reply that means a great deal to me. “This is my reply.

“I do not wish to go to prison. I value even the semblance of freedom which I possess now. I know that I would be able to live freely in the West and at last receive a real education. I know that there I would not have four agents at my heels, threatening to beat me up or push me under a train.

“Over there, I know, they will not put me in a concentration camp or a psychiatric hospital for attempting to defend people who are denied their rights and oppressed. Over there, I know, one breathes easily. While here one does so with difficulty, and they stop your mouth and stifle you if you speak too loudly. I know that our country is unhappy and doomed to suffering.

“And that is why I am staying.

“I do not want to go to prison, but neither do I fear a camp. I value my own freedom as I value my brother’s, but I am not bargaining for it. I will not give in to any blackmail.

“A clear conscience is dearer to me than material well-being. I was born in Russia. This is my country, and I must remain here, however hard it may be and however easy in the West. As far as I am able, I will go on defending those whose rights are being so brazenly trampled on in our country.

“That is my reply. I am staying.”

After this Alexander Podrabinek added that he would agree to leave the country only if Kirill were to ask him to do so.

On 7 December 1977, Kirill PODRABINEK made a statement:

KGB Blackmail

1. The KGB is using the hostage-taking method. They are basically blackmailing my brother Alexander, while I am the hostage. 2. The very formulation of the question: ‘leave or we will put you in prison’, is contrary to the law. If a man has committed a crime he must be prosecuted. However, in this case the KGB does not want to stage a new political trial but prefers to dispatch us abroad. The KGB has employed a well-calculated device — to exploit the insolubility of a situation with a hostage. All this blackmail is patently a consequence of the public stand taken by our family … “If any one of the three of us is arrested and any charge whatsoever brought against him, it can only be viewed as an act of revenge by the KGB and not as a requirement of justice.”

On 12 December 1977, Kirill Podrabinek informed Belov that he had decided to leave. Belov replied that Kirill could hand in his emigration documents, and on the same day Kirill did so. On 14 December Kirill Podrabinek made an addition to his previous statement:

“On 12 December, I telephoned investigator Belov at the KGB. Permission to go abroad has been granted; there was no mention of my only being able to leave only with my brother. Does this mean that the KGB has given up its hostage-taking and will really allow me to leave? In the very near future this will become clear … In view of all the circumstances, and fearing for my life” (see CCE 47) “I have taken the decision to leave.” *

KIRILL PODRABINEK (b. 1952)

On 27 December 1977, the police in Elektrostal (Moscow Region) brought charges against Kirill Podrabinek under Article 215 (RSFSR Criminal Code: “Illegal possession of arms, ammunition” etc). Kirill refused to sign the record of this charge. Investigator Radygin obtained his written undertaking not to leave town but said he would not need Kirill before the middle of January and, if need be, he could go to Moscow.

When Kirill Podrabinek came out of the Elektrostal police station he was met at the door by KGB Investigator Belov, who had arrived from Moscow. The condition of Kirill’s departure remained unchanged, Belov said, and gave him three days in which to persuade his brother to agree to leave.

From that day onwards, KGB employees began trailing Kirill Podrabinek . (His brother Alexander had been under a similar “escort” since 10 October 1977, see below). The same day 22 Muscovites issued a statement:

“Wishing to force Alexander Podrabinek to leave the country, the KGB is openly blackmailing him with his brother’s fate. A method of hostage-taking used thus far only by irresponsible criminal-terrorists is in the present case being adopted as a weapon by the official representatives of a powerful State. This blackmail clearly demonstrates the value of the charges brought against Kirill Podrabinek. “We call upon our fellow countrymen and world public opinion to protest against the use of hostage-taking, unprecedented in the practice of civilized states. We call upon our fellow countrymen and world public opinion to follow attentively the fate of the Podrabinek family.”

On 28 December Kirill Podrabinek made a statement:

State Terrorism

“… The KGB has resorted to hostage-taking. My brother Alexander has made a statement for the press saying that he does not wish to leave, but he will leave if I so demand. “Under no circumstances will I make this demand of Alexander. In the first place, that would mean becoming a blind instrument of blackmail in the hands of the KGB, exploiting a situation created by them for my own sake. In the second place, it is impossible for me to even ask, let alone demand such a thing. “However, I have resolved to pursue my chosen line of action and try to obtain permission to leave.”

On the evening of 29 December 1977, Kirill Podrabinek was arrested.

On the day of his arrest, he declared a hunger strike. After a few days he was transferred from Elektrostal to Moscow, to the MVD’s detention centre on Matrosskaya Tishina Street.

The first response to Kirill’s arrest was “The Christmas ‘Feat’ of the KGB”, a short article by Victor Nekipelov [note 2]:

“… The arrest of Kirill Podrabinek is an act of deliberate, demonstrative revenge. The authorities know full well that they are thereby dealing the severest blow to both Alexander Podrabinek – Take that for not accepting our offer! – and to his father — While you didn’t steer your sons to a compromise!”

On 1 January 1978, Yevgeny Nikolayev (see “In the Psychiatric Hospitals”, CCE 48.12 ) sent a letter to the RSFSR Procurator’s Office, protesting against the arrest of Kirill Podrabinek.

On 4 January 1978, Alexander and Pinkhos Podrabinek asked Belov for a meeting with Kirill.

Belov refused but promised to pass Kirill a note from them, “if there are no objections on the part of the investigator”. In the note Alexander and his father asked Kirill: “Do you agree to leave if there is no need to ask Alexander to do the same?”

On the same day, at 11.30 pm, Belov came to Elektrostal to see Pinkhos Podrabinek . He informed him that the investigator “had not allowed” the note to be passed to Kirill. If Alexander handed in his application to emigrate within three days, however, all three could leave the USSR. Otherwise, Alexander  would also be arrested. Belov suggested that P.A. Podrabinek go at once to Moscow and persuade Alexander to change his mind: he even gave Pinkhos Abramovich a lift back to Moscow in his car.

On 5 January 1978, Alexander Podrabinek appealed in an open letter to Amnesty International, calling on the organisation to speak out in Kirill’s defence.

On 9 January Alexander Podrabinek telephoned Belov at the KGB. When Belov asked if he intended to leave, Alexander replied that he could only decide this matter together with his brother.

On 15 January 1978, the Christian Committee for the Defence of Believers’ Rights in the USSR called upon “world public opinion” to speak out in defence of Kirill Podrabinek and condemn the policy of hostage-taking.

At the beginning of February 1978, the Podrabineks were summoned to Elektrostal for interrogation in connection with Kirill’s case.

Pinkhos Podrabinek replied to questions about Kirill but refused to sign a record of the interrogation. Alexander declined to answer questions, stating that the case was inspired by the KGB and was being conducted with violations of norms laid down in the Code of Criminal Procedure.

ALEXANDER PODRABINEK (b. 1953)

From 10 October 1977, Alexander Podrabinek was under constant KGB surveillance. Round the clock he was pursued by two cars carrying seven or eight employees of the security services.

Whenever he was inside a building the cars stood in front of the doorway. Whenever he walked along the street or travelled in public transport there were always several agents at his side. They threatened Alexander’s acquaintances and took photographs of them. Sometimes they interfered more actively with the life of their charge: on Sunday 18 December the escort prohibited Alexander from going skiing with friends in the Orekhovo-Borisovo district [Moscow Region]. Podrabinek wrote about this incident to [KGB chairman] Andropov:

“… Since 10 October of this year I have been under the continuous and unconcealed observation of our glorious Chekists. Defending the State’s security, I understand, it is essential for the KGB to search my home, call me as a witness in the case of Yury Orlov, suggest that I leave the USSR, blackmail me, make an attempt on my brother’s life, and do much else to ensure that I do not, accidentally, undermine the foundations of the Soviet political and social system. All this I understand. “I am not even particularly annoyed when one of the eight officers who perpetually watch over me swears he will break my legs or push me under a train. I understand the full difficulty of this highly complex, responsible and dangerous work and do not get angry with these heroic young people who, performing their civic duty, freeze on cold December nights outside the entrance to my house or squeeze after me onto a city bus in the rush-hour. I am enraptured by their daring, their persistence and their indifference to the cold … “Citizen Andropov! On behalf of myself and six of my friends I beg you: Provide your employees with skis and toboggans and, please, teach them how to use them, if they do not know. Then I shall be able to enjoy my on Sundays and the KGB will be able to work normally and not violate the Soviet Constitution. This can only enhance the reputation of our valiant organs and promote their physical development.”

From January 1978, the constant “escort” was replaced from time to time by ‘ordinary’ shadowing.

The security services are trying by any means to prevent Alexander Podrabinek from continuing his activities on the Working Commission (to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry for Political Purposes). In particular, they are hampering him from meeting, in the flats of his Moscow friends, people who have been subjected to “psychiatric persecution” and their relatives. Podrabinek and his friend Dmitry Leontyev , in whose flat he was living, were fined for violating the city residence regulations. Podrabinek was forbidden to continue residing at the flat.

Alexander Podrabinek was warned that he was liable to be charged with “parasitism”. In February 1978, having given his shadow the slip, he managed to get a job as a medical orderly (he is a qualified paramedic).

The pre-trial investigation of Kirill Podrabinek ’s case was completed in February 1978.

=======================

[1] Representatives of all 35 member-States of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) assembed in the Yugoslav capital Belgrade to discuss the implementation of the 1975 Helsinki Accords five years on.

[2] Victor Nekipelov

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Social media firms urged to do more to fight Moscow meddling

WASHINGTON — Lawmakers demanded answers Wednesday from leading social media companies about why they haven’t done more to combat Russian interference on their sites, and said congressional action might be needed in response to what one Democrat called “the start of cyberwarfare” against American democracy.

Representatives from Facebook, Twitter and Goggle struggled at times to defend themselves against complaints they didn’t act quickly or thoroughly enough as it became evident that Russians used the sites to try and influence the 2016 U.S. election.

The top Democrat on the Senate Intelligence Committee said his questions about the interference were “blown off” by the companies until this summer.

“Russia’s actions are further exposing the dark underbelly of the ecosystem you have created,” said Virginia Sen. Mark Warner as Congress held a second day of hearings on the issue.

The House Intelligence Committee planned an afternoon hearing as part of the Capitol Hill investigation into Russian meddling in the election and whether it was linked to Donald Trump’s campaign.

The companies faced questioning Tuesday from the Senate Judiciary Committee.

The message was clear from a Democrat on both those Senate committees: Do more or Congress will.

“I must say I don’t think you get it,” said California Sen. Dianne Feinstein. “What we’re talking about is a cataclysmic change. What we’re talking about is the start of cyberwarfare … We are not going to go away, gentlemen.”

The companies disclosed new details this week about the election interference. Facebook said Russia-linked ads reached as many as 126 million people. Twitter said it uncovered and shut down 2,752 accounts linked to a Russian agency, nearly 14 times as many as it handed over to congressional committees three weeks ago.

Sen. Richard Burr, chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee, warned against jumping to conclusions that the Russian interference on social media platforms was designed to help one candidate or another.

“This is an incredibly complex story,” said Burr, R-N.C. He added: “We do better when you do better.”

Facebook has turned over more than 3,000 ads it found on the site that are linked to Russia’s Internet Research Agency. They have not yet been released, but Burr revealed some details in an attempt to rebut reports that they were targeted to contested states such as Michigan and Wisconsin close to the November 2016 election.

Burr said more ads were targeted toward Maryland, a solidly Democratic state. Many ads were also targeted to New York, which Democrat Hillary Clinton won, and Missouri, carried by Republican Trump. Most of the geographically targeted ads ran in 2015, before the primaries were decided, he said.

Burr showed photos of events in Texas that were organized by one of the Russian pages called “Heart of Texas.” He noted that some who attended the events said they noticed that no one from the organizing group was there.

Warner pressed Facebook’s general counsel, Colin Stretch, on whether the company had cross-referenced accounts taken down during the French election this year to see if they corresponded to any of the Russia-linked accounts that operated in the U.S.

Warner said he found it “disappointing” when Stretch could not answer whether they had.

He also asked Stretch why Facebook delayed taking down an account that purported to be linked to the Tennessee Republican party.

“That was an absolute miss,” Stretch said.

Facebook said Monday that the Russia-linked accounts generated 80,000 posts on 120 pages between January 2015 and August 2017. Possible views reached the millions after people liked the posts and shared them. Those are separate from the 3,000 ads the committee turned over to the committees.

Twitter said its Russia-linked accounts put out 1.4 million election-related tweets from September through Nov. 15 last year — nearly half of them automated. The company also found nine Russian accounts that bought ads, most of which came from the state-backed news service RT, previously known as Russia Today.

Google said it found evidence of “limited” misuse of its services by the Russian group, as well as some YouTube channels that were likely backed by Russian agents.

During Tuesday’s hearing, none of the companies would commit to fully supporting legislation proposed by Warner and Sen. Amy Klobuchar, D-Minn., that would bring political ad rules from TV, radio and print to the internet.

Klobuchar dismissed pledges from the companies this week to be more transparent about political ads, calling that an unenforceable “patchwork” of self-policing. The companies have put new measures in place for election ads, though they have done less to address the issue ads that were found after 2016.

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Moscow Muled

Why do moscow mules come in copper mugs.

Oct 18, 2019

Have you ever wondered why the Moscow Mule cocktail is served in a copper mug? In this post, we answer that question in detail. As it turns out, the answer is partly based on historical events and partly based on the extra "kick" that copper brings to this classic cocktail. Let's dive in!

Introduction

A remarkable cocktail is something you notice from across the room, easily identified by the signature drinking vessel it's served in. Few are more distinct than the burnished copper mug of a Moscow Mule. 

Great cocktails aren't just alcohol and mixers––they should be something more, a full sensory experience from beginning to end. It starts as you observe the precise convergence of ingredients in a golden ratio that blossoms into flavors and aromas of citrus and spicy ginger. It is then delivered into an ice-filled copper mug and garnished with fresh mint and a slice of lime.  Finally, it is presented before you, shiny and cold, compelling you to taste.

The copper mule mug not only tells the story of the drink it contains, but also is essentially functional to the full experience. You might already know that the cone-shaped bowl of a long-stemmed Martini glass was designed so that olives would stand perfectly upright, and the elegantly curvaceous welled Margarita glass was designed to add ample salt, sugar and garnishes.

But why are Moscow Mules served in copper mugs?

Inquiring minds want to know, so this article will sum up the science and history of why traditional Moscow Mules come in copper mugs, and other legit benefits of serving cocktails in pure copper mugs. This includes:

A Brief History of the Moscow Mule

The science of using copper mugs.

• How Copper Mugs Amplify the Taste & Aroma of your Moscow Mule
• The Enhanced Experience of Drinking from a Pure Copper Mug

The origin of this timeless cocktail is the tale of the American Dream. One fateful day in 1941 , three struggling entrepreneurs had a serendipitous meeting at the Cock 'N Bull bar on the Sunset Strip in Hollywood: A bar owner passionate about his unpopular home-brewed ginger beer, a businessman who took a big chance and purchased Smirnoff vodka, and a Russian immigrant with a cache of copper mugs she couldn't seem to sell. That day, the unlikely trio wisely decided to join forces in a bold venture that would not only save their individual businesses, but also create an iconic American cocktail.

Essentially, the Moscow Mule is the most successful marketing campaign in cocktail history. At a time when most Americans had never even heard of vodka, this cocktail introduced them to the traditional Russian alcohol, and established Smirnoff as a necessity in both bars and homes alike.

Thanks to celebrity endorsement, the Moscow Mule soon took the Hollywood cocktail scene by storm, and quickly became the most beloved mixed drink of the 1950's.

It's popularity understandably waned during the Cold War, and it was briefly re-branded as the Smirnoff Mule to distance itself from communism. However, the recent cocktail renaissance of the 21st century has seen the Moscow Mule come kicking back, as evidenced by lists like Esquire's Top 10 Cocktails of 2019 , and Business Insider's 8th Best-selling Cocktail in the World, 2018 .

But the answer to why Moscow Mules are served in copper mugs goes much further than a conveniently clever alliance between co-founders desperate for a big break. The story of the Moscow Mule is both the struggle of the immigrant searching for success, and the flashy lifestyle of the rich and famous.

It boasts a simple recipe , yet a complex flavor profile, encapsulated in a shiny copper mug. And as delicious and refreshing as the Moscow Mule may be, it's the copper mug that makes the cocktail so extraordinary.  Like the drink itself, the pure copper mule mug is a balance of form and functionality.

The most scientific benefit of the copper mug is its ability to regulate temperature. When a drink is served in a copper mug, it gets cold fast––and stays that way.

Copper is a renowned thermal conductor that will keep your beverage frosty in any weather, and is one of the reasons the traditional Moscow Mule has become synonymous with summer. Add a little ice, and the copper chills drinks instantly, and sustains a refreshingly icy rim with every sip.

Because copper is such an excellent conductor, it can keep your cold beverages colder for longer. The downfall of many ill-fated cocktails on a hot summer day is melting ice. Copper mugs stay brisk, and don't disrupt the recipe's ratio, so the simple yet distinct flavors of the Moscow Mule remain strong till the last drop.

Another important feature of the solid copper Moscow Mule mug is the handle. Much like the stem of a wine glass, the copper mug handle keeps the nearly 100 degree body temperature of your hand from impacting the status of your deliciously frosty cocktail.

How Copper Mugs Amplify the Taste and Aroma of Your Moscow Mule

If you want to know what a Moscow Mule tastes like, purists would insist the only way to experience it is in a 100% copper mug. Aside from being a great American tradition, copper mugs offer some unique enhancements to both the flavor and aroma of the Moscow Mule (or almost any finely-crafted cocktail).

Although subjective, most discerning drinkers would agree that copper mugs imbue cocktails with a superior taste. Experts explain that the copper oxidizes the vodka upon contact, thus enhancing the flavor profile and potency of the aromatics.

The intense cold of the copper also creates more stability in the bubbles of the ginger beer carbonation, and balances the tangy citrus of the lime with the earthy spice of the ginger.

For the skeptics out there, the theory of superior taste is easily verifiable. Simply make or order two Moscow Mules––one served in a plastic cup, and one served in a copper mug. Take a moment to inhale deeply, enjoy a big sip, and let your senses be the judge.

The epiphany should take a matter of moments, and you soon realize why a Moscow Mule is best served in a copper mug, and why any other cup or glass is vastly inferior. The difference can be so vivid, you might even consider drinking all your favorite beverages from copper mugs, even hot tea and coffee!

The Enhanced Experience of Drinking From a Pure Copper Mug

Throwing back shots with reckless disregard is a great way to get hammered, but a terrible way to enjoy something delicious. People order cocktails for the full package––observing its creation, revelling in its presentation, and slowly savoring its captivating story and unique taste.

Not only is a cocktail a well-balanced combination of spirits and mixers, it's also about the aesthetic and function of the vessel it's served in. A cocktail should be an object of inspired beauty, presented thoughtfully in a suitable glass or mug and garnished appropriately. It should take time, because it's made by hand.

Although the copper mug has become the symbol of Moscow Mules, it can also pair exquisitely with many other cocktails. Many people seem drawn to the shine and nostalgia of the metal, and Mixologists seem impressed by the scientific properties of the copper mug. Other drinks prominently featured in copper mugs include Dark 'n Stormy, Mescal, Gin & Tonic, and Cuba Libre.

No matter how frosted a beer glass gets, nothing can keep a mixed drink colder than a copper mug. The sensation when one's lips touch the ice-cold rim with every sip is part of the unique experience.

The flavors are heightened, the aromas amplified, and the balance of vodka, lime juice and ginger beer is never watered-down by melting ice. Provided your Moscow Mule is served in a pure copper mug, the last sip should be just as robust and enjoyable as the first.

The benefits of drinking from copper mugs aren't a newfound discovery. In fact, copper has been the preferred metal for drinking vessels for thousands of years.

Gurus in India have been using copper mugs for hundreds of years, and copper goblets called Escra have been found in ancient Irish ruins. Even American settles in 1645 drank exclusively from a massive tankard made of pure copper, known today as the Virginia Tankard .

The Moscow Mule is a classic drink served in a magnificent copper mug because it tells a compelling story, and enhances your consumption experience. It is an unforgettable drink because it's served in a mug that is both more beautiful than and functionally superior to glass.

Three Reasons Moscow Mules Come in Copper Mugs

The reason your Moscow Mule is served in a copper mug is not a fluke. It is not because it's the latest trendy hipster craze. It's not just a marketing ploy (although it definitely started out as one), nor is it a conspiracy by the lobbyists for Big Copper.

Moscow Mules come in copper mugs for three reasons: taste, temperature, and presentation.

The unique experience of drinking a Moscow Mule is a balanced combination of these three elements. It's also the reason this drink is not only the most recognizable, but also consistently one of the most popular drinks in global cocktail culture history.

Taste: The natural properties of the copper oxidize the alcohol, resulting in powerful aromatics and superior flavors. The bubbles of the ginger beer stay fizzy, and perfectly counter the acidity of the fresh lime juice. It's spicy yet refreshing. Simply put, it's delicious!

Temperature: Copper is an ideal thermal conductor, instantly chilling your beverage upon creation, and maintaining a consistently arctic temperature. This prevents the ice from quickly melting and dulling the cocktail ratio, while keeping the rim refreshingly frosty with every sip. The handle also keeps your hot little fingers from fluctuating the temperature with every touch.

Presentation: A glinting copper mug looks authentic and catches the eye. It is vintage, yet modern, and tells a story of creativity, charm and resilience. It is instantly recognizable, and makes for a fine looking beverage. Yes please!

The Bottom Line

The copper mug is iconic, a great American tradition of nearly 80 years, and is the only proper way to drink a Moscow Mule. Cheers!

Did You Enjoy This Article?

Thank you for reading! If you enjoyed this article, you might also like the following articles:  How to Clean and Care for Copper Mugs: The Definitive Guide and  Why You Should Only Use Moscow Mule Copper Mugs With Stainless Steel Lining

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